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CONCORDIA JOURNAL
Volume 30
October 2004
Number 4
CONTENTS
EDITORIALS
Editorís Note ............................................................................... 286
Theological Observers ................................................................. 288
ARTICLES
The Redactional Interpretation of Discontinuity
in Prophetic Text: Isaiah 23 as a Test Case
Reed Lessing ........................................................................ 294
The Centrality of Isaiah 6 (-8) within Isaiah 2-12
Andrew H. Bartelt ................................................................... 316
Look to the Holy One of Israel, All You Nations:
The Oracles about the Nations Still Speak Today
Paul R. Raabe ...................................................................... 336
Babylon in the Book of Isaiah
Deomar Roos ........................................................................ 350
HOMILETICAL HELPS .................................................................. 376
BOOK REVIEWS ............................................................................... 403
BOOKS RECEIVED ........................................................................... 414
INDEX .............................................................................................. 417
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
285
Editorials
Editorís Note
The Book of Isaiah is one of the more well-known books of the Old
Testament largely because of its prophecies regarding the virgin birth of
Jesus Christ, His messianic role as the Savior of humankind and His passion, including His resurrection from the dead. Martin Luther observed
that Isaiah has more lucid and numerous prophecies of the coming of the
kingdom of Christ than any other prophet (LW 35:276).
This Old Testament book has also been a favorite of advocates of the
various types of higher criticism who treat it as a writing subject to literary analysis just like any other human document, thereby denying its
divine authorship and verbal inspiration.
Isaiah addresses the important issue of the sins of humankind, individually and collectively. The prophet speaks very clearly about Godís divine judgment upon people, especially as nations, and about Godís mercy
toward those who are penitent. The general theme of this issue of Concordia
Journal is the calling of Isaiah as it relates specifically to the nations of his
day. Dr. Barteltís article discusses the calling of Isaiah while the other
articles address Godís dealings with foreign nations. When Yahweh called
a prophet in the Old Testament, it was not only to speak to His people, but
also to the nations. This is classically stated in Jeremiahís call: ìSee, today,
I appoint you over nations and kingdoms to uproot and tear down, to destroy and overthrow, to build and to plantî (Is. 1:10). Yahwehís message of
Law and Gospel is a message for Israel and for the nations. These two
messages are certainly relevant for our world today since it is beset by
international terrorism, atrocities that are shocking to Western sentiment
and basic human values, a war taking place in Iraq, genocide in Sudan,
and the ongoing threat of nuclear proliferation in Third World countries.
In the first article, ìThe Redactional Interpretation of Discontinuity in
Prophetic Texts: Isaiah 23 as a Test Case,î Dr. Reed Lessing examines
Isaiahís Tyre Oracle in chapter 23 in order to demonstrate the inner workings of redaction criticism so as to evaluate how it interprets discontinuity
in prophetic texts. He reviews the approach of various form and redactional scholars and their insistence on dissecting the Tyre Oracle into numerous pieces. After examining their flawed approach Dr. Lessing argues
that chapter 23 was originally a single unit and therefore consistent with
the nature of ancient Near Eastern literature and of prophetic texts in the
Old Testament.
In the second article, ìThe Centrality of Isaiah 6 (-8) within Isaiah 212,î Dr. Andrew H. Bartelt addresses the question of the placement and
message of Isaiah 6 (Isaiahís call) in terms of the compositional structure
of the Book of Isaiah and as the foundation for the theological themes of
286
the book. He examines chapter 6 in the larger context of chapters 2-12 and
the interrelatedness of the two poems that occur in chapters 5 and 9-10.
Important themes in these chapters are the judgment of God upon His
chosen people for their sin and on Assyria for her arrogance and pride, and
especially on Godís word of forgiveness and the restoration of a repentant
and faithful remnant.
In the third article, ìLook to the Holy One of Israel, All You Nations:
The Oracles about the Nations Still Speak Today,î Dr. Paul R. Raabe focuses on chapters 13-23, which he terms ìoracles about the nationsî as a
more accurate description than the traditional ìoracles against the nations.î In these chapters Isaiah proclaims the international authority of
the God of Israel. Not only do these chapters contain a message of judgment against those nations that oppress the people of Israel, but they also
call attention to the goal of God to draw all nations to His presence in Zion.
In the fourth article, ìBabylon in the Book of Isaiah,î Dr. Deomar Roos
focuses on the texts in Isaiah that are linked to Babylon terminologically
and thematically. Babylon is a foreign nation with powerless gods which
comes under judgment of the true God. Babylon is also important for the
role it played in the restoration of Israel. References to Babylon occur
throughout the book of Isaiah in ways that definitely support the unity of
the book of Isaiah.
Given the ongoing relevance of the book of Isaiah, a renewed interest
in the book on the part of contemporary scholars, and the important themes
of Godís judgment on sin, especially the sins of nations, and the promised
redemption through the incarnate Son of God who is the ìlamb that was
led to the slaughterî for us, we hope that these articles will assist our
readers in reaching a better understanding and a deeper appreciation for
this important book of the Old Testament.
Quentin F. Wesselschmidt
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
287
Theological Observer
What Really Happened at Sinai?
In catechesis and proclamation throughout the church, one often hears
something like this: ìThe covenants Yahweh made with Abraham (Gen.
15:9-21) and David (2 Sam. 7:11-16) were unconditionalóno strings attached!
On the other hand, the covenant made with Israel at Sinai (Ex. 19:5-6) was
conditional.î The discussion continues: ìAnd since Israel became the people
of God at Sinai, her charter as a nation was based upon a conditional covenant. If they obeyed, then their status would remain.î The logic concludes with something like: ìUnable to keep the Sinaitic covenant, the
North was exiled in 721 B.C. and the South in 586 B.C.î Then, sounding
like a good Lutheran, the lesson ends with: ìThis is why we need the new
covenant in Christ.î
The second Hebrew word of Exodus 19:5-6 is proof positiveóas these
same adherents sayóthat Sinai is conditional. The word is the Hebrew
particle ~a
~ai translated ìif.î And ìif there is an if,î then the relationship is
based on Israelís ability to obey and keep Yahwehís covenant. Only if they
do so, ìthen out of all the nations you will be my treasured possessionî (Ex.
19:5). This line of thinking means that Israel became the people of God at
Sinai and remained in this status of ìtreasured possessionî only as long as
they responded with obedience. In this way what happened at Mt. Sinaió
along with its additional features of ìTen Commandments,î ìsmoke and
fire,î ìlightning and thunderîóis understood as the classic Old Testament
focus on works, not graceóLaw, not Gospel. Thatís why we need Jesus.
However, a closer reading of the Exodus narrative indicates that a
relationship between Yahweh and Israel was already in place before Sinai,
as witnessed by the recurring reference to ìmy peopleî (e.g., Ex. 3:7, 10;
5:11). The people in Egypt are the inheritors of the promises given to their
ancestors (Ex. 3:15-17; 6:4, 8), made not only with Abra[ha]m but also with
his descendant(s) (Gen. 17:7). The ìmy covenantî of Exodus 19:5 is a reference to the only covenant mentioned earlier in the Exodus narrative (Ex.
2:24; 6:4-5). This means that the Sinai covenant is under the umbrella of
the ancestral covenant.
Therefore, instead of being a distinctly separate covenant that was
conditional and law-based, a far less comprehensive creative act occurred
at Sinai and this within an already existing covenant, the one made with
Abra[ha]m. That is to say, Sinai was a closer specification of what was
The “Theological Observer” serves as a forum for comment on, assessment
of, and reactions to developments and events in the church at large, as well
as in the world of theology generally. Since areas of expertise, interest, and
perceptions often vary, the views presented in this section will not always
reflect the opinion of the editorial committee.
288
already entailed in Yahwehís unconditional promises made to the patriarchs in the book of Genesis. This understanding is made clear by Moses
in Exodus 32:13, where he appeals to the Abrahamic covenant in the wake
of the breaking of the Sinai covenant (see also Lev. 26:42-45; Deut. 4:31;
9:27).
Since the covenant at Sinai reiterates the grace-based covenant with
the patriarchs and does not establish Israelís relationship with Yahweh,
then its focus is upon the nationís calling as Yahwehís missionary to the
world. At Sinai the people of Israel are distinctly marked and empowered
to be an evangelistic nation. Put another way, Sinai is a matter not of the
peopleís status but of their vocation. The flow of thought in Exodus 19:5-6
therefore runs like this: ìListen to my voice and do what I command, and
in so doing you shall show yourselves to be my people. And as for my part,
I will be your God and perform the oath sworn to your ancestors. The
nations will see this relationship, and by faith some will become part of my
chosen people.î These ideas reiterate the missional strategy already stated
to Abram in Genesis 12:1-3. Moreover, the clause in Exodus 19:6 ìYou will
be for me a kingdom of priests,î is understood, then, as Yahwehís
(re)commissioning of Israel to be the ìgo betweenî between Himself and
the nations. This idea is already hinted at in Exodus 4:22: ìThen say to
Pharaoh, ëThis is what Yahweh says: Israel is my firstborn son.íî Since
Israel is the firstborn son, that implicitly means there are more children
on the wayóthese family members are the nations that will be blessed
through Abraham and his seed (cf. Gal. 3:16).
And so at Sinai, Israelís status and vocation are repeated and renewed;
they are not constituted. In confirming the call to Abram in Genesis 12:13, at Sinai Israel is once again called to be the channel through which the
grace of Yahweh would come to all the nations. Paul closely ties himself
with what God did at Sinai when he indicates that he, too, has a priestly
calling to show forth to all the nations the steadfast love of the one true
God. He states in Romans 15:15-16: ìI have written you quite boldly on
some points, as if to remind you of them again, because of the grace God
gave me to be a minister of Christ Jesus to the Gentiles with the priestly
duty of proclaiming the gospel of God, so that the Gentiles might become
an offering acceptable to God, sanctified by the Holy Spiritî (cf. also 1 Pet.
2:9; Rev. 1:6; 5:10).
Even though the Israelites will deny their vocation as restated in the
Sinaitic covenant and be miserable missionaries, the ancestral covenant
persists and Yahwehís promises continue even in the midst of the nationís
lack of evangelistic zeal. Their status remains the same (cf. Hos. 11:8-9)
ìmy people.î And so the Sinaitic covenant was not the covenant that constituted Israel as the people of Yahweh. Rather, the charter was with
Abra[ha]m and in this way grace and mission (even in the Old Testament!)
remain grace and mission.
Reed Lessing
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
289
Resolution 8-01A and Dispute Resolutionó Quo Vadimus?
The intent of this brief essay is ambitious: to alert readers to perceived abuses and potential problems in a highly complex and bureaucratized dispute resolution process, to provide an historical excursus on how
the process can be/has been mishandled (noting also the ramifications of
its mishandling), to caution against a spurious criterion for resolving disputes, and to call for a return to proper criteria for resolving issues and
controversies of doctrine and practice. Ultimately, we must deal with the
question of where such a process is likely to lead the synod.
Having read the revised procedures for ecclesiastical supervision and
dispute resolution laid out in eye-blearing detail in Res. 8-01A (2004 convention), the undersigned first urges all pastors and concerned laymen to
pay their homage to ecclesiastical bureaucracy by devoting an idle hour or
two to reading pages 307-323 in Today’s Business* (the resolution) and/or
pages 25-43 of the Convention Workbook (the report of the Blue Ribbon
Task Force on Ecclesiastical Supervision and Dispute Resolution). Written in a style that only a lawyer could love, both documents defy any attempts at summarizing. Bedtime reading of either document is strongly
discouraged.
Many will, like the writer, conclude that such a cumbersome process
becomes necessary when we cannot or will not confront issues of doctrine
and practice squarely on the basis of Godís Word and the Confessions.
That sentence had originally continued, ìand/or when there is a lack of
basic trust on the part of those involved in a dispute.î However, an observant friend pointed out that the Scriptures do not urge us to trust our
brothers (cf. Jer. 9:4)óadmonish and love, to be sure, an intimate pairing
in Biblical perspective (1 Cor. 4:14; 1 Thess. 2:11), but not trust; ì...test
everythingî (1 Thess. 5:21). While that may somewhat overstate the case,
in matters of faith and in the Scriptures, ìtrust meî is an expression effectively reserved for the Lord (Ps. 40:3-4; John 14:1 et al.). In place of trust
organizational polity must rely on finely honed legalistic procedures.
Does the Process Always Work?
That even such careful scripting of procedure does not, however, necessarily lead to the resolution of a disagreementóor to the truth of a
matteróbecame evident in the dispute resolution process regarding the
Yankee Stadium prayer service (complainant: W. Schulz; respondent: D.
Benke). The Dispute Resolution Panel (DRP) followed the letter, if not the
spirit, of the bylaw in the Handbook; but in ignoring (rejecting?) a response from the Commission on Theology and Church Relations (CTCR) to
their own question on a critical matter of substance in the case (the very
rationale for their decision), the panel rendered their decision meaningless (cf. Concordia Journal, 29 [October 2003]: 370-373).** The written
290
decision of the panel also made a point of discounting the complainantís
ìvery thoroughî (their words) Scriptural argument; and so, both the dispute and its ancillary issues remained unresolved from a Scriptural perspective and have festered like a carbuncle on the countenance of the
synod.
What was the CTCRís response to the question of the DRP during
their deliberations in the spring of 2003? The fellowship report commended
in Res. 3-07A of 2001 does not address participation in inter-faith services
(such as took place at Yankee Stadium). That is, a fellowship report deals
with matters of fellowship (cf. Concordia Journal, 29 [October 2003]: 356;
Concordia Theological Quarterly, 67 [January 2003]: 79-85). Yet, in belated
echo of the DRP decision, both Res. 3-07A and the report were again publicly cited and quoted at the 2004 synodical convention as the basis for
permitting Dr. Benke to participate in the inter-faith prayer service at
Yankee Stadium (Today’s Business, Issue 3, 233-234*)óas if saying it yet
again would make it so. Mistaken misuse of a church document is one
matter; continued misuse after the mistake has been pointed out is quite
another.
Even if a convention is not an ideal forum for dealing with such a
contentious issue, in the absence of a balanced presentation, there was no
opportunity for resolution. Under these circumstances, trust is indeed difficult. When a commission of the church, not to mention Scripture, can be
safely ignored, the process for resolving disputes becomes an object of
cynicism. When the substance of a mishandled dispute resolution process
continues to reverberate at a synodical convention, the ramifications are
even more serious. And if the process can be mis-handled in a high-profile
case, what is the prospect that less visible procedures for resolving disputes will be consistently handled with integrity?
Shall We Try Again?
And what of these revised and new Bylaws adopted (683-528) in Res. 801A (Today’s Business, Issue 4B, 307-323, 388*)? To put the best construction on their adoption, one might assume that many delegates were not
aware of the ramifications of their actionóand understandably so, given
the length and convoluted style of the document and the inherent complexity of the processes, which require flow charts to navigate (Convention
Workbook 2004, 42-43 or Today’s Business, 159-164*). As another Dave is
wont to write, ìI am not making this up.î Once again, every member of
synod is urged to read these pages carefully. Be assured that the pain will
be rewarded by a deeper understanding of the ways of bureaucracy.
Many serious concerns have already been expressed about the new
and revised polityóa private approach to public issues; a decided bias in
favor of judgments, appointments, and decisions by church officials; an
emphasis on reconciling disputants rather than on determining the truth
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
291
of a matter; and limiting of certain actions to ìmembers of synod,î that is,
only to clergy and congregations. (How many lay delegatesóofficial representatives of their circuits at the conventionóthought of themselves as
ìmembers of synodî?) Also notable in the new Bylaws is a separate process
formulated specifically for serious disputes involving synodical and district
officials. That may be understandable, given the stakes, yet such separate
processes give at least the appearance of special treatment in a synod
which has historically and constitutionally avoided any suggestion of ecclesiastical government. Ultimately, however, all of the processes detailed in
the Bylaws are so cumbersome that no serious, intelligent person is likely
to initiate a formal proceeding. Why begin something that may never conclude or may serve only to alienate oneís ìecclesiastical supervisorî? By
such means, a veneer of corporate peace can be maintained. In effect, the
synod, as an organization, appears to be without a realistic, workable approach to reconcile disputants, much less to arrive at the truth of the
matter in dispute. For even if the truth of the matter is determined in the
process, the decision has ìno precedential value.î
ìCollective Understandingî or the Scriptures and Confessions?
Finally, apropos of the issue of resolving disputes, a perilous expression has surfaced in synodical circles: ìthe collective understanding (or
will) of synod.î This expression was used seven times, mostly in reference
to Res. 3-07A of the 2001 convention, as a criterion for the DRP decision in
the above case. (What is its genesis?) The phrase was used repeatedly in a
similar context at the convention (cf. Today’s Business, 231, 232, 233, 234*).
That the phrase has been consistently mis-applied to the case in question
serves only to cause further confusion. As a criterion for settling controversy or for establishing doctrine and practice, the phrase lacks precision,
to say the least. (Can, for example, a 620-580 vote reflect ìthe collective
understanding of synodî on a matter of doctrine?) If Res. 3-07A (2001) and
the Report it commended represented the ìcollective understanding of
synod,î their continuing (mis)application to practice has confused and
troubled the church and the resolutionís stated purpose of fostering unity
has manifestly failed.
If we intend to prevent confusion and to assure clear standards for
settling disputes of doctrine and practice, there is nothing to gain by further clouding the picture with ecclesiastical neologisms. The standards for
doctrine and practice in synod are the Scriptures and the Confessions.
When current issues require clarification or exposition of same, the synod
may adopt ìdoctrinal resolutionsî or ìdoctrinal statements,î which are distinct from each other, are carefully limited and defined, and require grounding in the Scriptures and Confessions, for only in the former do ìwe have
something more sure [than even the voice heard at the Transfiguration],
the prophetic word, to which you will do well to pay attention as to a lamp
292
shining in a dark place,Öknowing this first of all, that no prophecy of
Scripture comes from someoneís own interpretation. For no prophecy was
ever produced by the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were
carried along by the Holy Spiritî (2 Pet. 1:19-21; cf. also 2 Pet. 2:1).
Quo vadimus, Missouri?
David O. Berger
*For those who did not attend the convention, Today’s Business is available in PDF
documents at the Synodís Web site. Pages 231-234 are from Monday (July 12); Res. 8-01A
is in Tuesday (July 13) ì View B.î Go to: http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?
NavID=4430.
**The revised process, which mandates heeding the opinions of the CTCR as well as
those of the CCM, might be seen as a minor improvement in the letter of the law. (Would
it have moved the DRP in the Schulz-Benke case to confront the Scriptural issues?) That
same mandate, however, raises the question of the importance of these opinions relative
to the Scriptures and the Confessions. It also suggests that those trained to reconcile
disputants may (be assumed to?) lack the requisite theological acumen to sit on cases
involving matters of doctrine.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
293
Articles
The Redactional Interpretation
of Discontinuity in Prophetic Texts:
Isaiah 23 as a Test Case
Reed Lessing
By means of Isaiah 23 (Isaiahís Tyre Oracle), this study will demonstrate
the inner workings of redaction criticism in order to evaluate how it
interprets discontinuity in prophetic texts. Discontinuity is understood as
changes in grammar, syntax, perspective, theological outlook, genre and/
or motif. In addressing this central issue of prophetic interpretation, Roland
Meynet writes:
What strikes the reader in an almost physical way, luring or
repulsing him, is the existence of discontinuities within the texts;
these discontinuities are incomparably greater than those found
in western writings.1
Several examples of the discontinuities in Isaiahís Tyre Oracle are as
follows:
rc afm
1. The chapter opens with ìMassa concerning Tyreî (rc
afm), but the
first mention of a location is in verse 2 (hereafter, v. and vv., singular and plural, respectively) with ìinhabitants of the islandî and
ìSidon.î Tyre is not mentioned until v. 5. Then the subject changes
in v. 12 back to Sidon, only to conclude with Tyre as the focus in vv.
15-18.
2. The verses concerning Tyre are written mostly in prosaic form
(vv. 5, 8-9, 11b-12a, 15, 17-18). On the other hand, the passages
mentioning Sidon are in a more rhythmical, poetic form (vv. 1-4, 67, 10, 12b-14) and are characterized by a qinah rhythm.
3. Tarshish is a general description of the ships in vv. 1 and 14, whereas
in vv. 6 and 10 Tarshish describes a specific location.
1
Rhetorical Analysis: An Introduction to Biblical Rhetoric (Sheffield: Sheffield
Academic Press, 1998), 11. Even Luther could write: ìThey [the prophets] have an unusual
way of talking, like people, who instead of proceeding in an orderly manner, ramble off
from one thing to the next, so that you cannot make head or tail of them or see what they
are getting atî (Luthers Werke [Weimar, 1914], 19:350), (my translation).
Dr. Reed Lessing is Assistant Professor of Exegetical Theology at Concordia
Seminary in St. Louis, MO.
294
4. The chapter views Tyre from two different perspectives. Verses 114 speak of Tyreís fall as a past event, whereas vv. 15-18 announce
the cityís future restoration.
5. The use of plural imperatives in vv. 1, 2, 6, 14 is different from the
use of singular imperatives in vv. 4, 10, 12, 16.
6. The chapter shifts from poetry in vv. 1-14 to prose in vv. 15-18
(with the exception of v. 16),2 thus breaking sharply into two pieces.
The redactional tendency is to read these and other discontinuities in
Isaiah 23 as seams that demonstrate different strata, which in turn
necessitate different historical references within the chapter. Redactional
scholars Otto Kaiser, Hans Wildberger, and Marvin Sweeney intepret
discontinuities in Isaiahís Tyre Oracle as indications of different editorial
hands.3 They therefore argue for at least two (so Sweeney), and perhaps as
many as five (so Wildberger), different redactions. A brief overview of the
redactional understanding of discontinuity in prophetic texts will provide a
necessary prelude to this redactional investigation of Isaiahís Tyre Oracle.
2
BHS sets up vv. 1-14 and 16 as poetry and vv. 15, 17-18 as prose. The distinction
between the sections is supported by the frequency of the prose particles. It is recognized
that the direct object marker ta
ta, the relative pronoun rva and the definite article written
with h occur infrequently in texts generally considered to be poetic. For discussions, see
D. N. Freedman, ìProse Particles in the Poetry of the Primary History,î in Biblical and
Related Studies Presented to Samuel Iwry, ed. A. Kort and S. Morschauser (Winona
Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1985), 49-62; Anderson and Forbes, ìProse Particle Counts of the
Hebrew Bible,î in The Word of the Lord Shall Go Forth: Essays in Honor of David Noel
Freedman in Celebration of His Sixtieth Birthday, eds. C. Meyers and M. OíConnor
(Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1983), 165-183. Paul Raabe, Obadiah, AB (New York:
Doubleday, 1995), writes: ìIn standard prose the particle frequency is fifteen percent or
more, whereas in poetry the frequency is five percent or less. That is to say, for a text
generally recognized to be poetic on other grounds (e.g., the dominance of parallelism
and terse lines), if it has one hundred words, then ‘et, ‘aser and words having the definite
article written with the h will comprise five or fewer of the words. For practical purposes,
a ëwordí can be identified as the ink marks written between the white spacesî (6). Of the
132 words in Isaiah 23:1-14 (including the superscription), only seven are prose particles
(5%), well within the range of poetry. Of the eleven words in v. 16, one is a prose particle
(9%). For vv. 15, 17-18, of the fifty words, six are prose particles (12%), which makes this
section nearer to prose. The differences between the two sections confirm that the
chapter consists of a poetic composition with a prose conclusion.
3
Otto Kaiser, Isaiah 13-39: A Commentary OTL (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1974); =
Der Prophet Jesaja—Kapitel 13-39 (Gˆttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1973); Hans
Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27: A Continental Commentary, trans. Thomas H. Trapp
(Minneapolis: Fortress, 1997); = Jesaja 13-27. BKAT 2. Teilband (Neukirchener Verlag
des Erziehungsvereins GmbH: Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1978); Marvin Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39:
With an Introduction to Prophetic Literature. FOTL, 16 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996).
The most recent English commentaries on Isaiahóone by Brevard Childs (Isaiah OTL:
Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 2001) and the other by Joseph Blenkinsopp (Isaiah
1-39, AB: New York: Doubleday, 2000)óalso interpret the discontinuities in Isaiah 23 as
referring to different redactional seams. Accordingly, both understand the final stratum
of the chapter as replacing eighth-century Assyria with sixth-century Babylon.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
295
Redaction Criticism and Discontinuity
Redaction criticism is an interpretive enterprise that is driven by textual
discontinuity.4 At the root of its hermeneutic is the presupposition that
uniformity and consistency are the signs of an original unity.
Redaction critics detect discontinuity in a number of ways. One major
phenomenon occurring in Isaiah 23 is that of ìrepetitive resumptionî
(Wiederaufnahme),5 since repetition is normally understood to be a signal
of expansion. Further signs of discontinuity include modifications and
compensatory bridge formulations (e.g., aWhh ~wyb
~wybñ ìin that dayî). Odil Steck
writes:
Divergences in literary signals, in compositional lines, in the
materially metahistorical arrangement, and in the determination
of meaning strengthen the impression that different diachronic
layers were laid over one another in the given flow of the text.6
Because of discontinuity in prophetic texts, redaction critics frequently
speak of the ìinterpretationî (Auslegung)7 of the prophetic tradition. Michael
Fishbane uses the concept of ìexplication.î8 Whatever term is used, there
is a consensus among redaction critics that by means of discontinuity
prophetic texts demonstrate a process of continual realization and
actualization.
However, as much as redaction criticism has moved the discussion
toward a more holistic reading of prophetic texts, the methodology still
relies heavily upon the earlier results of form criticism. Sweeney writes:
The extent to which the two methods can be separated is debatable.
Each is necessarily dependent on the other, and the two methods
together investigate different aspects of the same essential question.
Sweeney writes: ìRedaction criticism is the study of the editorial formation of biblical
literature. In general, the identification of prior material is based on the detection of
inconsistencies in the literary form, thematic concerns, or conceptual outlook of the
prophetic bookî (Isaiah 1-39, 13), (my emphasis).
5
See, e.g., C. Kuhl, ìDie ëWiederaufnahmeíóein literarkritisches Prinzip?î ZAW 64
(1952): 1-11.
6
Old Testament Exegesis: A Guide to the Methodology, trans. James D. Nogalski.
SBL Resources for Biblical Study 33 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995), 80.
7
See, e.g., Herman Barth, Die Jesaja-Worte in der Josiazeit, WMANT 48 (NeukirchenVlyun: Neukirchener Verlag, 1977), 308.
8
Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985),
166-170. He writes: ìThe whole phenomenon of inner-biblical exegesis requires the latterday historian to appreciate the fact that the texts and traditions, the received traditum of
ancient Israel, were not simply copied, studied, transmitted, or recited. They were also,
and by these means, subject to redaction, elucidation, reformulation, and outright
transformation. Accordingly, our received traditions are complex blends of traditum and
traditio in dynamic interaction, dynamic interpenetration, dynamic interdependenceî
(542-543).
4
296
Whereas form criticism tends to focus on the oral or preliterary
forms and settings of a text, redaction criticism focuses on its literary
forms and settings. Because prophetic books are literary by nature,
form criticism requires redaction criticism to identify the prophetic
forms that constitute the object of its research. But redaction
criticism also requires form criticism to identify earlier material,
and thereby to provide the basis for understanding the later literary
formulation. Together, form criticism and redaction criticism
address the overall formation of prophetic books.9
Based upon this overview, redaction critics view Isaiahís Tyre Oracle
with the expectation that the original composition had only one theme,
one emphasis, one historical perspective and relevance, and one style.
Because of its many discontinuities, it follows that Isaiah 23 developed
with additions and interpolations over the course of several centuries. The
assumption is that form critics correctly identified the various strata, and
that any coherence they now have is due to the final redactor. It is these
more specific redactional understandings of Isaiahís Tyre Oracle that this
study is now prepared to investigate.
Redactional Views of Isaiah 23
Otto Kaiser
Kaiser believes that initially the poem concerned only Sidon and her
destruction. Verses 2, 4, and 12 refer to the conquest and destruction of
Sidon by Artaxerxes III Ochus in 343 B.C. Later, vv. 1a, 5, and 15-18 reapplied
the poem to Tyre. He writes:
The fact that an attempt was later made to relate the whole poem
to Tyre suggests that it originally referred solely to the fall of Sidon,
but was later reinterpreted following the impression made by the
catastrophe that came upon Tyre. This disaster can be identified
only with the conquest of the island fortress by Alexander the Great
in the summer of the year 332.10
More specific examples of Kaiserís redactional reading of Isaiahís Tyre
Oracle are as follows. First, he believes v. 5 came into being in two stages.
The evidence of the double interpolation is evidenced ìÖfrom the phrase
ëthe report about Tyreí tagged on at the end.î11 He suggests the following
possible historical situation:
9
ìForm Criticism,î in To Each Its Own Meaning: An Introduction to Biblical Criticisms
and Their Application, ed. Steven McKenzie and Stephen Hayes (Louisville: John Knox,
1999), 58-89, 77.
10
Isaiah 13-39, 160.
11
Ibid.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
297
The first glossator clearly had in mind the connection between the
conquest of Sidon by Artaxerxes III at the beginning of the year
343 and his victorious attack upon Egypt in the autumn of the
same year. This brought an end to the independence of Egypt,
which had been regained by the revolt of Amyrtaios in 404 and
which since then had been repeatedly defended against all Persian
attempts to reconquer the country.12
The second glossator adds the phrase ìthe report about Tyreî and thereby
connects the whole song with the conquest of Tyre by Alexander the Great.
Second, in v. 8, Kaiser believes the reference to Tyre is unexpected
after the exclusive concern with Sidon in vv. 1-4. This led him to emend to
ìSidon.î13 Since he believes the chapter should be assigned a late date, he
acknowledges that Tyre would not have been described as a ìbestower of
crownsî in the late post-exilic era. Therefore, he holds that the hiphil hryj[Mh
(ìto crownî) in this verse is intransitive, following the Vulgate (quondam
coronata), and translates ìwho wears crowns.î14 Therefore, Kaiser dates
the verse to the mid-fourth century.
A third example of Kaiserís interpretation of discontinuity is that he
interprets vv. 12-13 by reading ~ytk
~ytkóìCyprusîófor the MTís ~ydfk
~ydfkó
ìChaldeans.î He also reconstructs the original to read hlpml hmv dymfh
~ytk-#ra !h
!hóìBehold, the land of Cyprus, he destroyed her, he made her
into a ruin.î 15 Accordingly, v. 12 says there will be no rest for the survivors
of Sidon in Cyprus, so the revision of v. 13 now depicts the land of Cyprus
as destroyed. This reference to the destruction of Cyprus then creates
historical problems for Kaiser, since Cyprus was not destroyed at the time
he dates the verse. He explains the discrepancy as poetic exaggeration: ìÖ
the poet is of the opinionófar exaggerating the actual situationóthat
Yahweh had also destroyed the cities of this island.î 16
Kaiser believes the song of Sidon was reinterpreted to be a song of
Tyre immediately after Alexanderís conquest of Tyre. This is done by means
of ìÖthe typical formula of introduction for later additions, ëin that dayí
Ö î17 In order to mock the fallen city, the redactor added a street song that
might have been heard in the city (v. 16). At the same time, v. 15 was
Ibid., 166.
Ibid., 160, 162.
14
For this intransitive meaning of the hiphil in the case of a denominative verb,
Kaiser (Ibid., 160, footnote i) cites J. Lindblom, ìDer Ausspruch ¸ber Tyrus in Jes. 23,î
ASTR 4 (1965): 56-73, 66.
15
Kaiser states his rationale as follows: ìÖthere was first added the gloss ëthis is the
people which (asher) established an anchorage for ships (or sailors: lesiyyim) with its
look-out towers (?), cities (ëaraw) and dwelling towers.í The mis-reading of ‘sr as ‘assur led
to the deletion of the Kittim, the alteration of the original hismid into kasdim and the
conjectural ‘araw into ‘oreru. When Babylon came to be incorporated into the Seleucid
kingdom, identified with Assyria, lo’ haya was then interpolatedî (Ibid., 161).
16
Ibid., 167-168.
17
Ibid.
12
13
298
expanded and ìmay be the work of the same glossator who is responsible
for the various clumsy interpolations in 23:1b-14.î18
Finally, in contrast to vv. 15-16, the eschatological redactor of vv. 17-18
added a vaticinium ex eventu sometime after 274, when Tyre was restored
by Ptolemy II Philadelphos. Kaiser writes:
If we are correct in supposing that the redactor was working later
than 274 BC, then he provides valuable evidence of the intensified
eschatological expectations to be found in Judaism during the third
century.19
A summary of Kaiserís compositional history of Isaiah 23 is as follows:
Content
Taunt over Sidon
Stratum 1
Verses
Time
1b-4, 6-9, 10-14 [Read After the destruction
ìKittimî in 13]
of Sidon in 343 B.C.
Stratum 2
Content
Verses
Transformed to Taunt 1a = superscription
over Tyre
5 = interpolation
8 = alteration of
ìSidonî to ìTyreî
15 = (a shortened
version)
16 = taunt of Tyre
Time
After Alexanderís
conquest of Tyre in
332 B.C.
Stratum 3
Content
Verses
Time
Eschatological prophecy 17-18 = eschatological After autonomy of
added
prophecy (v. 17 =
Tyre restored by
vaticinium ex eventu) Ptolemy II
Philadelphos in
274 B.C.
Ibid.
Ibid., 171.
18
19
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
299
Content
Explanatory glosses
Stratum 4
Verses
Time
15 is expanded. It
A later glossator after
transforms the taunt stratum 3
upon the prostitute
[=original version of
v. 15] to a description
of the newly
developed activity of
Tyre in foreign trade.
Thereby it harmonizes
vv. 15-16 with 17-18.
Glosses addedó
3 ìharvest of the Nileî
and ìit becameî
10 ìlike the Nileî
12 ìand he saidî and
ìvirginî (several
glosses)
13 several glosses
Hans Wildberger
Much like Kaiser, Wildberger believes that not only are vv. 15-16 and
vv. 17-18 later additions to the text, ìbut even 1-14 did not come into existence
all at the same time.î 20 For example, he believes vv. 5 and 13 are later
additions since v. 5 fits outside the meter of the other verses and v. 13 is a
gloss that is poorly preserved. However, unlike Kaiser, Wildberger believes
that with the exception of v. 12, vv. 1-14 describe a past event that occurred
before the exile. Regarding this first stratum he writes:
Thus this message cannot have come into existence all that long
after the time of Isaiah, i.e., in the late Assyrian era. Apparently, it
recounts the events connected with the downfall of the Tyrian
domination in the region surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. Most
likely, this would have happened during the reign of Esarhaddon.21
Further examples of Wildbergerís redactional readings of Isaiahís Tyre
Oracle are as follows. First, he believes rc afm
afmóìThe Oracle of Tyreîó is
not original with what follows, but rather a late addition, a sign of
redactional activity.22
Isaiah 13-27, 412.
Ibid., 417.
22
Ibid., 412.
20
21
300
Second, grammatically, tyIB;m
tyIB;mióìfrom a houseîóin v. 1 does not fit. A
substantive with a suffix is expected that would refer to vyvrt twyna óìthe
ships of Tarshish.î When the same refrain is used at the end of the poem
(v. 14), instead of tybm it reads !kz[m
!kz[móìyour fortress,î which he reads here
as well.23
Third, like Kaiser, Wildberger treats v. 5 as a later addition.24 He
writes: ìVerse 5 makes no sense within this context; it has to be a gloss.î 25
This is indicated by the way lyx
lyxóìbe in laborîóis used in v. 4, which is
different from its use in v. 5: lyx
lyxóìone shudders in fearîó as well as by the
depiction of the relationship between Phoenicia and Egypt in v. 3, which
does not match v. 5. According to v. 3, Phoenicia profits from Egypt; but
according to v. 5, Egypt profits from Phoenicia. He tentatively agrees with
Kaiser:
If Kaiser is correct, then one might agree with him that the second
glossator, who added rc [mvk (just as the news about Tyre), would
have been thinking about Alexanderís defeat of Tyre, which would
have been the last obstacle in the way of still another world power
that was being hindered by Tyre as it made its way to Egypt.26
A fourth example of how Wildberger interprets prophetic discontinuity
is his interpretation of v. 13. Like Kaiser, he understands that the entire
verse is a gloss to ìKittimî in v. 12. Hence, he adjusts ~yfdk
~yfdkó ì C h a l d e a î ó
to read ~ytk
~ytkóìCyprus.î Next, he believes hyh al ~[h hz
hzóìthis is the people;;
~ytk, Wildberger understands yc
it is no moreîóis a gloss.27 Since he read ~ytk
to be ìships,î functioning as an Egyptian loanword. Consequently, v. 12
exhorts Sidon to travel to the Kittim, while v. 13 indicates that the Kittim
do not exist anymore. Thus, v. 13 shows how the trip would be pointless.
Therefore, this is a late gloss explaining that Babylon, not Assyria, is
understood.
Finally, Wildberger believes vv. 15-18 are not part of the original;
whereas vv. 1-14 look into the past, both the expansions (vv. 15-16; 17-18)
look to the future. He writes: ìVerses 15ff. betray their nature as a later
addition with the introduction: ëand on that day it will happen.íî 28 Verse 15
was originally nothing more than a short introduction to the song about
the prostitute in v. 16. At the time of the final redaction, after vv. 17-18
were added, the redactor added ìthat Tyre will remain forgotten for seventy
Ibid., 405-406.
Ibid., 411-412. He goes on to write: ìVerse 5 is to be eliminated altogether; in his
[Kaiserís] view, this verse does not come up to the high standards that are appropriate in
poetry and it interrupts the flow of the text in a way that cannot have been original.î
25
Ibid., 426.
26
Ibid., 427.
27
Ibid., 410.
28
Ibid.
23
24
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
301
years. In the days of another king, (but) after seventy years.î Therefore,
the original version read: ìAnd on that day it will happen, then it will
happen for Tyre, just as it says.Öî29
A summary of Wildbergerís compositional history of Isaiah 23 is as
follows:
Content
Sarcastic lament
over Phoenicia
Content
Makes sarcasm of
lament harsher
Content
New twist to
prostitute image;
a future for Tyre
Stratum 1
Verses
1b-4, 6-12, 14
Stratum 2
Verses
Original version of v. 15
serving as introduction
to v. 16:
- uses image of
prostitute who is
forgotten and no
one desires her.
- This perspective
recasts vv. 1-14 into
the form of an
announcement of
disaster.
- This makes vv. 1-14
a future event.
Time
ca. 670, after
Esarhaddon attacked
Phoenicia
Time
Possibly when
Nebuchadnezzar
besieged Tyre in the
sixth century
Stratum 3
Verses
Time
17-18óafter 70 years
Added shortly after the
Tyre will resume its
exile, late sixth century
commercial enterprise to fifth century (cf. Neh.
and bring profits to
12:44-47)
Jerusalem.
29
Ibid., 433. See also Uwe Becker, Jesaja—von der Botschaft zum Buch (Gˆttingen:
Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1997). He takes vv. 15-18 as an example of
Fortschreibungstexte (Midrash-like developmental texts), as opposed to independent
compositions. Becker compares this understanding of the text to the growth rings of a
tree, where a process of sequential additions has progressively enlarged a small inner
stem so that a new framework encompasses the whole. Wildberger writes: ìThis
interpretation means that the material which begins with the phrase rc txkvnw (that
Tyre will be forgotten) and continues through the section hnv ~y[bv (seventy years) in v.
15 has to be a still later additionî (Ibid.).
302
Content
Seventy years
Content
Final additions
Stratum 4
Verses
15 is expanded.
5, 13
Stratum 5
Verses
Time
This insertion was
placed into the text
after vv. 17-18 were
added on.
Time
Verse 5 developed in two
stagesóafter 343 B.C.
and 332 B.C. Verse 13
possibly after 346 B.C.
Marvin Sweeney
In contrast to the redactional readings of Kaiser and Wildberger,
Sweeney approaches Isaiah 23 in a more holistic manner. He writes:
The final form of the pronouncement concerning Tyre in 23:1-18 is
set in the 5th century edition of the book of Isaiah, where it functions
as one of the pronouncements concerning the nations that
demonstrate YHWHís sovereignty over the earth. Nevertheless,
there is evidence that the present form of this text was composed
in the late 7th century as part of the Josianic redaction of First
Isaiah and that it is based on an earlier Isaianic call to lament in
vv. 1b-14 that dates to the capitulation of Phoenicia to Sennacherib
in 701.30
Unlike Kaiser and Wildberger, Sweeney proposes only two strata for
the chapter.
There is a clear distinction between the call for a communal
complaint in vv. 1b-14 and the announcement of future events vv.
15-18 that suggests successive stages in the composition of this
passage. Whereas vv. 1b-14 focus generally on Phoenicia, Sidon,
and Tyre, vv. 15-18 focus exclusively on Tyre. Likewise, vv. 1b-14
presuppose a major disaster against Phoenicia, whereas vv. 15-18
anticipate the restoration of Tyre after seventy years of neglect.
Furthermore, the future orientation of vv. 15-18 is somewhat
incongruous in relation to the retrospective view of vv. 1b-14.31
30
31
Isaiah 1-39, 306-307.
Ibid., 307.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
303
Consequently, he believes that vv. 1b-14 and vv. 15-18 ìstem from different
settings and that they were written for different purposes, although it
seems clear that vv. 15-18 were written in relation to vv. 1b-14.î 32
Addressing vv. 1b-14, Sweeney believes three factors suggest that
Phoeniciaís capitulation to Sennacherib in 701 provides the best setting
for these verses. First, the passage ìÖspeaks only generally of humiliation,
downfall, and the lack of protection.î 33 Second, v. 12b supports the idea
that the Assyrian presence in 701 forced the Phoenician king Luli to flee
from Tyre and seek safety in Kition in Cyprus. Third, v. 13 presupposes
Sennacheribís campaign against the Chaldean prince Merodach-baladan in
703.
More specifically, in v. 13 Sweeney counters Kaiser and Wildberger
with the argument that the antecedent of hz
hzóìthisîócannot refer to
rwva
rwvaóìAssyriaîóbut rather to ~ydfk #ra
#raóìthe land of Chaldea.î He believes the verse refers to the destruction unleashed against Chaldea by
Sennacheribís invasion force of 703. He translates v. 13: ìBehold the land
of the Chaldeans, this people is not, Assyria turned it into a desert.î34
Sweeney writes:
Various campaigns were conducted by the Assyrians against the
Chaldeans in the late 8th century, but this verse appears to
presuppose Sennacheribís campaign against the Chaldean prince
Merodach-baladan in 703. This campaign preceded Sennacheribís
assault against Phoenicia and the western alliance that revolted
against him in 705. It was designed to put down the eastern alliance,
centered around Merodach-baladan, so that Sennacherib could
secure his throne. Once the Chaldeans were defeated, Sennacherib
turned his attention to the west (cf. Brinkman, 22-26). Isa 23:13
presents the Chaldean defeat as an example of prelude.35
While Sweeney holds different positions from those of Kaiser and
Wildberger regarding vv. 1-14, in vv. 15-18 he agrees with them to the
degree that these verses presuppose a different setting, when Tyre was
able to become prosperous again. Sweeney believes the seventy years
ìlasted until the collapse of Assyrian authority after the death of
Assurbanipal in 627.î36 Seventy years after 701 B.C. brings the text to the
year 631, the eighth year of the reign of Josiah, which 2 Chronicles 34:3
indicates is the year that he began to seek YHWH. Hence,
Insofar as Josiah intended a general restoration with Judah,
Ibid.
Ibid.
34
Ibid., 308.
35
Ibid.
36
Ibid.
32
33
304
including trade relations with Tyre like those enjoyed by David
and Solomon, it appears that the Josianic period provides the likely
historical setting for vv. 15-18. In this case, vv. 15-18 would present
the downfall of Tyre as a temporary condition that would be rectified
when YHWH restored Judah in the reign of King Josiah.37
A summary of Sweeneyís compositional history of Isaiah 23 is as follows:
Content
Call for lament
addressed to
Phoenicia
Content
Seventy-year
punishment, and the
restoration of Tyre
1b-14
Stratum 1
Verses
Stratum 2
Verses
1a, 15-18
Time
Sennacheribís invasion
of Phoenicia in 701 B.C.
Time
Josianic redaction
in 631 B.C.
Evaluations
Moshe Greenbergís description of the redactional critical criteria for
the interpretation of Ezekiel may function as a means to summarize how
Kaiser, Wildberger, and, to a much lesser extent, Sweeney read Isaiah
23:38
1. Assume that oracles were at first terse; so all eighteen verses cannot be one oracle.
2. Assume that the original oracle can have only one closure; so if
v. 14 is a closure, vv. 15-18 must be later.
3. Assume that an original oracle was uniform in content and style
(einfache Formen); therefore vv. 5, 13, and 15-18 are later.
4. Assume that the original oracle kept strict consequentiality, with
no detours in thought progression; so vv. 5 and 13 are later.
5. Assume that doublets are signs of redaction because prophets are
not allowed to repeat or quote themselves. It follows that Isaiahís
doublets are all later glosses: v. 3óìthe seed of Shihorîóìthe harvest of the Nileî; v. 4aóìthe seaîóìthe fortress of the seaî; v. 5 ó
ìthe reportîó ìthe report about Tyreî; and v. 1 1 ó ì h e î ó ì Yahweh.î
Ibid., 309-310.
ìWhat Are Valid Criteria for Determining Inauthentic Matter in Ezekiel?î in Ezekiel
and His Book, ed. J. Lust (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1986), 123-135.
37
38
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
305
However, the findings of studies in Hebrew and other ancient Near
Eastern languages make these principles very dubious. Greenberg goes
on to document how Egyptologists, who once wrote off discontinuity in
Egyptian texts as later additions, now view these texts more holistically.
In Egyptian texts, there is a liking for the mixing of styles, a technique
that culminates in the Story of Sinuhe, where the narration is interspersed
with three poems. Greenberg concludes:
We have no reason to suspect the plain evidence that the prophets
composed from the first in various styles and forms, because they
were learned in them and rhetorically skilled.Ö We cannot gauge
a priori what value an ancient author placed on consistencyó
especially if by being inconsistent he could best make his point.39
More specific (though not exhaustive) observations will now be made
by means of textual emendation (interacting with Kaiser and Wildberger)
and Isaiah 23ís major break between v. 14 and v. 15 (interacting mostly
with Sweeney).
Because of their belief in ìpure formsî and their perception that the
original text was corrupt, Kaiser and Wildberger make several textual
emendations. For example, in v. 1 Kaiser adds !kz[m
!kz[móìyour fortressîó from
v. 14. Wildberger does as well, believing that !kz[m was lost and was later
erroneously replaced by tybm
tybmóìfrom a house.î Both assume that the repetition of v. 1 and v. 14 must be identical.
However, refrains are not necessarily identical in all respects. Often
variation is used either for stylistic reasons or for rhetorical purposes.
One might argue that the original had tybm !kz[m and that the first word
was accidentally omitted as the scribeís eye skipped from mem to mem.
This would be a case of haplography, specifically homoioarcton. But 1QIsaa and the Vorlage of the LXX agree with the MT. Therefore, it is more
probable that the original of v. 1 lacked the noun. By missing this point,
both Kaiser and Wildberger also miss the thrust of v. 14. The verse is more
than simply a repetition of v. 1; rather, it accents a main thrust of the
chapter,40 since the poet brings the lament to a dramatic climax by reserving
!kz[m for v. 14.
39
ìWhat Are Valid Criteria for Determining Inauthentic Matter in Ezekiel?î (135).
Greenberg notes that the same set of affairs has marked the study of the legal taxonomy
of Mesopotamian law collections. Here, too, scholarship that once eschewed discontinuity
has come to recognize its brilliance.
40
To understand why !kz[m is intentionally left out of v. 1 but inserted in v. 14, we
must note: (1) Tyre is described as a ~yh zw[m in v. 4; (2) in v. 11 hynz[m dmvl is part of
Yahwehís plan against Canaan. Therefore, the omission of this central idea in v. 1 serves
to focus on the main element in Tyreís economyóin v. 14, the harbor (representing
everything good about the culture), which will soon be under Assyrian control. The
rhetorical effect is that what is unknown in v. 1 bccomes increasingly clear until the
ìpunch lineî of v. 14ónamely, Tyreís greatest asset is now impotent and useless.
306
A second example of how Kaiser and Wildberger allow discontinuity to
drive their textual emendations is in v. 2. Kaiserís translation postulates
that only the words !wdyc
!wdycÖ ya ybvy
ybvyóìthe inhabitants of the island of Sidonîó
are original, while the remaining words were later additions. He also reads
wmdn
wmdnóìThey were destroyedîófor wmd
wmdóìbe silentîóas well as yrxs with the
LXX, Vulgate, and the Targums. Due to the sense and meter Kaiser also
reads ~ybr ~ym hykalm ~y ~yrb[
~yrb[óìthose traveling in the sea; her messengers
on many waters.î
In general, Wildberger follows Kaiser. BHS proposes a plural participle
~yrb[
~yrb[, which Wildberger follows. He believes that since the word was
probably divided incorrectly, producing the singular rb[
rb[, a supposed original
plural yrxs might have been altered to match the singular. On the basis of
%walm to read ~ybr ~ymb hykalm—
the LXX and Targums, Wildberger emendsÖ%walm
óìher messengers on many waters.î
However, these changes are unnecessary. First, when Kaiser emends
wmdn for wmd
wmd, he does so without the support of any of the ancient versions.
To be sure, it is difficult to distinguish between ~md and hmd
hmd. Brown, Driver,
hmd II, ìto cease, destroyîó~md
~md
Briggs lists four roots: hmd I, ìto be likeîóhmd
I, ìto be silentîóand ~md II, ìto wail.î41 The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon
of the Old Testament has three entries for ~md
~md: ~md I, ìto be silent,î ~md II,
ìto wail,î ~md III, ìto perish.î42 Since the translators of the LXX did not
work with a vocalized text, here they translated ti,ni o[moioi gego,asin, meaning that they analyzed the word as hmd I, ìbe like, resemble.î The translators probably mis-parsed wmd as a perfect of hmd rather than an imperative
of hmd
hmd, as it is vocalized here. The meanings of ~md I and III, overlap so the
sense ìto be silentî can merge into the sense ìto be silenced, perishî; therefore there is no need to emend the text.
To emend rxs to yrxs is also unnecessary, since the former may be
understood in a collective sense, much as rb[ is in the next colon. These
two participles are then the subjects of the plural verb $walm
$walm.
A third example is Kaiserís deletion of rway rycq
rycqóìthe harvest of the
Nileîóin v. 3. He believes it is an interpretive gloss because it does not fit
the meter.43 This gloss, according to Kaiser, was added in the chapterís
41
Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1906, 1951: 197-199. Yet BDB notes that the second of
these, hmd II, is normally assigned to hmd I (Ibid., 199).
42
Ed. L. Koehler and W. Baumgartner (Brill: Leiden, 2001), 1:101-102. Contra HALAT
(which lists Is. 23:3; Ps. 4:5; 31:18; and Lam. 2:10 as the only occurrences of hmd II), there
is no clear evidence that hmd means ìto wailî in Biblical Hebrew. Some translate hmd here
as ìwailî; see, e.g., H. J. Dijk, Ezekiel’s Prophecy on Tyre: A New Approach (Rome: Pontifical
Biblical Institute, 1968), who comments on Isaiah 23:2. He states that the word hmd occurs
in Ugaritic and Akkadian as ìcry, wailî (32). See also F. Delitzsch, Prolegomena eines
neuen hebraisch-aramaischen Wörterbuch zum Alten Testament (Leipzig: J. C. Heinriches,
1886), 64, n. 2, who suggests a parallel to Akkadian damamu, ìmourn.î Mitchell Dahood
provides a thorough analysis of the Ugaritic (ìTextual Problems in Isaiah,î CBQ [1960]:
400-409).
43
See David N. Freedman, ìAnother Look at Biblical Hebrew Poetry,î in Directions in
Biblical Poetry, JSOT up 40, ed. E.R. Follis (Sheffield: Jost Press, 1987), 11-28. Inconsistency
in meter need not indicate that earlier poetic sources have been merged imperfectly.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
307
final composition. Wildberger deletes rway since it is missing in the LXX.
Like Kaiser, he also believes a redactor glossed the obscure ìShihorî with
the more readily known Nile. Additionally, since there is no corresponding
word for yhtw
yhtwóìand she wasîóin the LXX, Wildberger does not read it as
original.
However, there is no need to delete rway rycq or yhtw
yhtw. The relationship
between the phrases rxv [rz
[rzóìthe seed of Shihorîóand rway rycq is appositional, a major syntactical characteristic of vv. 1-14. Additionally, the presence of yhtw is a continuation of the $walm
$walm, stating that the merchants of
Sidon fill Tyre with goods because Tyre has become a merchant to the
nations.
Fourth, Kaiser deletes all of v. 5 as a later gloss. He believes the verse
came into being in two stages. This evidence of double interpolation is
derived ìÖfrom the phrase ëthe report about Tyreí tagged on at the end.î44
In a similar way, Wildberger questions the entire verse due to its difficult
construction and its prosaic quality. He agrees with Kaiser that the verse
developed in two stages.45 The first stage was in connection with the
conquest of Sidon by Artaxerxes III in 343. The second stage was connected
with Alexanderís conquest of Tyre.
According to v. 3, Phoenicia profits from Egypt; but according to v. 5,
Egypt profits from Phoenicia. Kaiser and Wildbergerís reasoning is that
the original author cannot use a word in different ways within the course
of a few verses, nor can he take different perspectives. Yet a gloss by definition is supposed to clarify, not obscure. It cannot be both obscure and a
gloss.
Yet the MT of v. 5 makes good historical sense if the oracle is understood to have been delivered at the end of the eighth century B.C. The
information of Tyreís devastation will be especially painful for Egypt, for
not only did the Egyptians rely upon Tyre to purchase and distribute their
grain and other products, but Tyre also served as a bastion for Egypt against
invaders from the East. Now both her protection and market will be removed.
Fifth, in v. 8 the MT has rc
rcóìTyreîóbut Kaiser reads instead ìSidon,î
since he believes the first layer of the poem was about Sidon. Hence, he
reads !wdyc
!wdycóìSidonîóand believes rc reflects a later attempt to relate the
whole poem to Tyre. He also deletes rva (the relative pronoun) for metrical reasons. In so doing, he wrongly assumes that there was a rigid meter
at work.
However, all the ancient versions read Tyre. Moreover, Tyre is explicitly
mentioned in vv. 1a, 5, 8, 15, and 17. Kaiser gets around this by (1) treating
Neither does it require that scholars alter a poetic text in order to achieve a consistency
of meter that supposedly was in the text when it was first compsed but has now been lost.
44
Isaiah 13-39, 165.
45
He writes: ìKaiser is possibly right in thinking that the gloss developed in two
stagesî (Isaiah 13-27, 426).
308
v. 1a as an editorial heading and not part of the original, (2) eliminating v.
5 as a gloss, and (3) treating vv. 15-18 as a later addition. Therefore, he
emends to Sidon in v. 8 in order to bring it into harmony with the mention
of Sidon in vv. 2, 4, and 12.
The way Kaiser interprets v. 8 demonstrates that his text-critical work
is driven by his redaction-critical work. His redaction criticism locates the
original stratum (= vv. 1b-4, 6-14), and in light of this he does his text
criticism.
This emendation in v. 8 also gets close to the heart of Kaiserís
reconstruction of the chapter. That is to say, the appearance of Tyre in
some verses and Sidon in others leads him to suppose that the chapter is a
combination of a Sidon speech and a Tyre speech. Indeed, Tyre and Sidon
are two different cities. Yet in Isaiah 23 they both describe one and the
same object of concernóthe land of Phoenicia, which may be referred to
by its own name or, via synecdoche, by one or the other of its two prominent
cities, Tyre and Sidon.46 Moreover, such a division of the text is uncalledfor once it is realized that at the end of the eighth century Sidon and Tyre
were part of a single kingdom.
Sixth, in v. 10 Kaiser emends the text, deleting both yrb[
yrb[ó ì t r av e l î ó
and rayk
raykóìlike the Nile.î He reads yrb[
yrb[óìtillîówith 1QIsa-a and the LXX,
believing there was a confusion between the resh and daleth.
Likewise, on the basis of IQIsa-a and LXX, Wildberger reconstructs
the verse as follows: dw[ xzm !ya vyvrt twyna yk %cra ydb[
ydb[óìtill your land, O
ships of Tarshish; there is no harbor againîóchanging the first and fourth
words. This yields the meaning that the citizens of Tarshish are commanded
to forget their trade with the mercantile enterprise of Sidon and work
their land.
If the only occurrence of rb[
rb[ó ì t r avelîówere in v. 10, then Kaiser and
Wildbergerís case would be stronger. However, the word is used in vv. 2, 6,
and 12 with a clear meaning of ìtravel across.î Its presence with this
meaning fits in v. 10 as well. The verse would then read as follows: ìTravel
across47 your land like the Nile,48 O daughter of Tarshish. There is no
longer a restraint.î
Seventh, both Kaiser and Wildberger emend v. 13 (reading ìKittimî for
the MT ~ydfk
~ydfk) because of their redactional-critical work and historical interpretations, which they previously established. There is no manuscript
support for this emendation. A better approach is to read ~ydfk with the
46
F. W. Dobbs-Allsopp writes: ìIt has been frequently noted that city laments, while
focusing on one city, also have a larger geographical area in their purviewî (Weep, O
Daughter of Zion: A Study of the City-Lament Genre in the Hebrew Bible [Rome: Editrice
Pontificio Instituto Biblico, 1993], 116). Therefore, although the chapter refers to Sidon,
daughter of Sidon, Tyre, daughter of Tarshish and Canaan, the main target is still the
island of Tyre. See also, e.g., Isaiah 17:3, where the oracle against Damascus expands to
include Ephraim and Aram.
47
With regard to yrb[ the MT has the support of 4QIsa-c, the Vulgate and the Syriac.
48
rayk is supported by 1QIsa-a, 4QIsa-c, the Vulgate, Syria, and the Targums.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
309
MT and then ask how a reference to the destroyed land of the Chaldeans
might fit this chapter into eighth-century Near Eastern history.49
Sweeney counters with the argument that the antecedent of hz refers
not to rwva
rwva, but rather to ~ydfk #ra
#ra. Therefore, he believes the verse refers
to the destruction unleashed against Chaldea by Sennacheribís invasion
force of 703 and translates v. 13: ìBehold the land of the Chaldeans, this
people is not, Assyria turned it into a desert.î50 Adding weight to this
translation, we note that the destruction of Babylon is a major theme of
chapters 13-23. That it is mentioned in this verse should not be a surprise.
Finally, the meaning of ~yyc used here is in a covenant-curse sense, meaning
ìbeasts of the desert.î It thus reflects the treaty curse that wild beasts
would inhabit a rebellious city following its destruction.51
It is true that v. 13 seems to break the flow of the prophetís argument
and that v. 12 transitions to v. 14 more easily without the ìbulkyî v. 13.
However, repetition, appositional phrases and ìasidesî may be a
characteristic style of the chapter.52
Repetitions that create a certain amount of discontinuity may be
indications that the text was composed to be performed orally. Susan Niditch
states:
We reject the romantic notion of an oral period in the history of
Israel followed by the time of literacy in which Israelite literature
becomes written and bookish. The oral and the literate interact
throughout Israelís literary history, as is true also of the ancient
Near Eastern cultures of Mesopotamia and EgyptÖ. Given this
assessment of Israelite aesthetics and the importance placed on
the ongoing oral-literate continuum, source-critical theories become
suspect, as do other theories about the composition of the Hebrew
Bible that are grounded in modern-style notions about Israelitesí
use of reading and writing.53
49
Chaldeaís history in the eighth century is critical to the proper historical understanding of Isaiah 23, due in large part to this verse. For a detailed analysis of the
Babylonian struggle for independence and how it relates to Isaiahís Tyre oracle, see The
Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 3, Part 2, 2nd ed., John Boardman, et al. (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1991, 26-38) and Jacob Katzenstein, The History of Tyre, 2nd
ed. (Jerusalem: Goldbergís Press, 1997).
50
Isaiah 1-39, 308.
51
See Delbert Hillers, Treaty-Curses and the Old Testament Prophets (Rome: Pontifical
Biblical Institute, 1964), 40-66.
52
lylyh
The following are instances of repetition: (1) ìwailî (lylyh
lylyh): vv. 1, 6, and 14; (2) ìthe
vyvrt twyna
ddv
ships of Tarshishî (vyvrt
twyna): vv. 1, 14; (3) ìdevastatedî (ddv
ddv): vv. 1, 14; (4) ìthe inhabitants
ya ybvy
rxs
rb[
of the islandî (ya
ybvy): vv. 2, 6; (5) ìbuyî (rxs
rxs): vv. 2, 3, 8, and 18; (6) ìtravelî (rb[
rb[): vv. 2,
zw[m
z l[
#[y
6, 10, 12; (7) ìfortressî (zw[m
zw[m): vv. 4, 11, and 14; (8) ìexaltî (z
l[): vv. 7, 12; (9) ìplanî (#[y
#[y):
#ra ydbkn
vv. 8, 9; (10) ìhonored ones of earthî (#ra
ydbkn): vv. 8, 9. In fact, repetition is a major
characteristic of Isaiah; e.g., 1:16-17 eight imperatives, 2:12-16 ten exalted things, 10:2832 thirteen place-names, 24:7-12 fourteen asyndetic clauses, 33:15-16 thirteen attributive
clauses, etc.
53
Oral Word and Written Word: Ancient Israelite Literature (Louisville: Westminster/
John Knox Press, 1996), 134.
310
Niditch confirms that, especially for the classical prophets, oral
performances were written down.54
Therefore, Isaiah may have composed chapter 23 in writing in order to
deliver it orally, either through reading or memorization. Versed in an
oral tradition, he could have written eighteen oral-sounding verses and
then delivered them to his audience.55
Indeed, in several sections of the Old Testament, texts are represented
as written first, then presented orally.56 Prophetic texts were written on
scrolls as the basis of orality; i.e., they were for the ears, not for the silent
perusal of the eyes. If these texts were read aloud or recited from memory
before an audience, then the retention of the oral feature of discontinuity
was a practical necessity.
To summarize, textual emendations are to be a last resort when no
other approach makes sense of the text and when there is good probability
that some mechanical mistake happened (e.g., metathesis or haplography).
The general rule of textual criticism is to avoid emendation and to work
with existing manuscripts and existing variants. In this respect, there are
many copies of Isaiah from Qumran that are generally proto-Masoretic.
Also the Vorlage of LXX Isaiah was basically proto-Masoretic.57 A few
differences between the MT and Qumran exist, yet textual-critical evidence
tends to support the MT.58 Adele Berlin writes: ìBefore a scholar corrects a
54
Ibid., 117. Ehud Ben Zvi writes: ìIt is reasonable to assume that an authoritative
written text becomes the starting point for the oral performances of the literati and for
the aurality of an audienceî (ìIntroduction: Writings, Speeches, and the Prophetic Booksó
Setting an Agendaî in Writings and Speech in Israelite and Ancient Near Eastern Prophecy,
ed. Ehud Ben Zvi and Michael Floyd [Atlanta: Scholars Press, 2000], 1-30, 16-17).
55
Lawrence Boadt discusses this use of discontinuities in ìThe Poetry of Prophetic
Persuasion,î CBQ 59 (1997): 1-21.
56
The belief that written texts were composed to be read aloud is also followed by
Yehoshua Gitay, ìDeutero-Isaiah: Oral or Written?î JBL 99 (1980): 190-194; W. S. Vorster,
ìReadings, Readers and the Succession Narrative: An Essay on Reception,î ZAW 98
(1986): 345-369; Edgar Conrad, ìHeard But Not Seen: The Representation of ëBooksí in
the Old Testament,î JSOT (1992): 45-59. Cf. also Reed Lessing, ìOrality in the Prophets,î
Concordia Journal 31 (2003): 154-167.
57
See Arie Van der Kooij, The Septuagint of Isaiah XXIII as Version and Vision.
VTSup. LXXI (Leiden: Brill, 1998).
58
Cf. BarthÈlemy, Critique textuelle de l’Ancien Testament, Isaïe, JÈrÈmie,
Lamentations, vol. 2, OBO 50 (Fribourg: …ditions universitaires: Gˆttingen: Vandenhoeck
& Ruprecht, 1986). Out of eight hundred emendations that BarthÈlemy examines, only
seventy-eight are found to be probable, and most of these do not materially affect the
sense. This work vindicates much of the MT, including the book of Isaiah. See also
AdeleBerlin, Zephaniah: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB
(New York: Doubleday, 1994), 22-30 for a discussion on the primacy of using the MT. She
writes: ìIn a reversal of the past trend, todayís scholars see greater merit in finding an
explanation for the words that are present than in substituting others of similar spelling.
This does not mean that emendation is forsworn, but only that it is used as a last resort,
when all other attempts to explain the text have failedî (Ibid., 24). She goes on to write:
ìThe fact that they [the ancient versions] make better sense does not mean that they
were reading from a more accurate text. It may only mean that their solution to a prob-
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
311
grammatical inconsistency he must first consider its relevance to the poetic
function.î59
This evaluation of how redaction critics understand discontinuity now
turns to how Sweeney interprets the break between vv. 14 and 15 in Isaiah
23. To be sure, in contrast to Kaiser and Wildberger, he offers a much
more holistic reading of Isaiahís Tyre Oracle because he treats vv. 1b-14
and vv. 1a, 15-18, respectively, as complete units. But even here he separates vv. 1b-14 from vv. 1a, 15-18.
For Sweeney, three factors suggest that Phoeniciaís capitulation to
Sennacherib in 701 provides the best setting for vv. 1b-14. First, ddv means
that Tyre experienced only humiliation and lack of protection. Second,
v. 12b supports the idea that the Assyrian presence in 701 forced the
Phoenician king Luli to flee from Tyre and seek safety in Kition on Cyprus.
Third, v. 13 presupposes Sennacheribís campaign against the Chaldean
prince Merodach-baladan in 703. In putting forth these arguments, Sweeney
differs from Kaiser and Wildberger.
Yet Sweeney believes vv. 1a, 15-18 presuppose a different setting, when
Tyre was able to become prosperous again. The seventy years lasted until
the death of Assurbanipal in 627. Seventy years after 701 refers to the
year 631, when Josiah began to seek Yahweh. Since Josiah intended the
restoration of Judah, including trade relations with Tyre like those enjoyed
by David and Solomon, it appears that the Josianic period provides the
likely historical setting for vv. 15-18. However, this interpretation is
problematic in that there is no known evidence of any Josianic trade with
Tyre.
It is better to understand that Isaiah 23 is looking at a complex event.60
The prophet depicts the future of Tyre with two episodes, vv. 1-14 and
vv. 15-18. Isaiah uses this episodic style of writing/speaking to connect the
two phases of Tyreís future: Tyreís devastation (vv. 1-14), and its
insignificance for seventy years (vv. 15-16) plus its restoration (vv. 17-18).
The ìseventy yearsîócontra Sweeneyóis more a literary device than an
indication of a specific time.61
lem obscures the fact that they, too, had a problematic textî (Ibid., 28). Hence, the mandate
is to interpret the text as it is. To do anything else is to build interpretations upon air. For
a review of the issues discussed by Berlin, see Moshe Goshen-Gottstein, ìThe Textual
Criticism of the Old Testament: Rise, Decline, Rebirth,î JBL 102 [1983]: 365-399.
59
The Dynamics of Biblical Parallelism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
1985), 63.
60
Most scholars believe that Isaiahís Tyre Oracle is a prophetic lament. But it is best
understood as a predictive, satirical city-lament, thus connecting vv. 1-14 and vv. 15-18 as
both pointing to the future. Observations on Ezekielís oracle against Tyre (27:1-11, 26-36)
lead to the conclusion that the genre of a city-lament requires treating the downfall as a
past event, which in terms of history is still in the future (cf. Reed Lessing, ìSatire in
Isaiahís Tyre Oracle,î JSOT 28:1 [2003]: 89-112).
61
Katzenstein writes: ìSeventy years as a period of destruction for a city or region
was a way of saying that no one now alive would see its transformationî (The History of
Tyre, 293).
312
Finally, a rigid distinction between poetry and prose is not a valid
criterion for separating vv. 15-18 from vv. 1-14.62 In failing to note the episodic
character of vv. 1-14 and vv. 15-18, Sweeney splits the sections rather than
considering that, as a poet, Isaiah arranged his material episodicallyóthat
is, one event with two episodes.
Conclusions
Since the end of the nineteenth century, prophetic scholarship has
understood discontinuity in prophetic texts by reading into these
discontinuities the traces of successive outside interventions, additions
and corrections. A large part of this exegetical effort has been spentóand
is still being spentóin the detection of this plurality. Following this
hermeneutic, the judgments of Otto Kaiser, Hans Wildberger, and Marvin
Sweeney place a false value upon how an ancient author looked at
consistencyóespecially if by being inconsistent he could best make his
point. That is to say, in prophetic literature the lines of literary, linguistic,
and even theological development are not straight.63 Rearrangement of
materials to fit historical systems makes understanding them ostensibly
easier, but it may not correspond with the ancient Near Eastern
understanding of texts. Rather, it is precisely the nature of prophetic
discourse to make sudden shifts on all levels of language, including style
and imagery, and to juxtapose multiple, divergent, and even dissonant
perspectives in much the same way as in the use of poetic parallelism.64
Hence, it is an anachronism to impose on a prophetic text like Isaiah 23
62
James Kugel writes on the perceived differences between poetry and prose: ìIf one
puts aside the notions of biblical poetry and prose and tries to look afresh at different
parts of the Bible to see what it is about them that distinguishes one from another, it will
soon be apparent that there are not two modes of utterance, but many different elements
which elevate style and provide for formality and strictness of organizationî (The Idea of
Biblical Poetry [New Haven: University of Yale Press, 1980], 85). To use the categories of
poetry and prose is to describe sections of the skyline as consisting either of ìbuildingî or
ìno building,î this being an oversimplification of the writings. Boadt writes: ìHebrew
itself has no one word that stands for ëpoetryí as such over against ëprose.í There are
words for many kinds of poems and songs, but these names do not always help identify
the poetic vis-‡-vis prose. Rarely do commentators give much attention to the intricate
nuances and effects that occur due to the combination and juxtaposition of poetry and
prose. Nor do they heed the possible rhetorical effects that such a combination may offerî
(ìThe Poetry of Prophetic Persuasion,î 4). Consequently, to assign 23:15-18 to a later date
because of its ìproseî is to miss the point made by Kugel and Boadt.
63
For example, after presenting his analysis of several passages from Micah, Freedman
writes: ìOur investigation has shown that the passage cannot be analyzed or parsed
according to the common rules of Hebrew syntax and grammar. At the same time, the
more carefully we examine the components the more connections and structural patterns
emerge. Our sense of its incoherence may be a reflection of our ignorance, or failure to
recognize more intricate patterns and arrangements, which differ from standard usage
but have a subtle system of their ownî (ìDiscourse on Prophetic Discourse,î 158).
64
See, e.g., Boadt, ìReflections on the Study of Hebrew Poetry Today,î Concordia
Journal 24 (1998): 156-163.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
313
the criteria applied to writings intended to be scientific or didactic, especially
if the text was composed to be performed orally.
The positing of different textual layers by Kaiser, Wildberger, and
Sweeney is an enterprise fraught with perils, obstacles, and difficulties;
any results, however appealing, are still partly if not largely informed
guesswork. The question of what type of contradictions are acceptable must
be answered against the background of Isaiah 23ís own peculiarities of
rhetorical style and not based a priori on stylistic conceptions of the western
world.
Francis Andersen believes that to insist that Biblical authors were
always logical, and to use logic to interpret their writings, leads to grotesque
results.65 It is also in the domain of literary composition that the high
claim for Biblical authorsóìthey were masters of Hebrew composition and
never made grammatical mistakesîóis not easy to square with their texts.
Andersen states:
There are so many places in the Hebrew Bible where modern
readers have judged the text corrupt, and the matching attempts
to heal the text have been so diverse, arbitrary, and unconvincing,
that one wonders if the fault lies in us modern readers, not in
ancient authors or scribes. Imposing our standards of correctness
in either grammar or literary form, we might have obliterated
precious evidence of deviant linguistic usage or of deliberate literary
artifice. We should recognize that genuine utterances of living
speakers rarely attain to the required standards of textbook
grammar.66
Put another way, redaction critics operate from an unfounded
assumption that Biblical authors exhibit a superhuman level of
sophistication and rigidity matched only by an equally extreme
incompetence on the part of redactors. This argumentónamely, that
redaction is identified by discontinuities because redactors do not skillfully
use or edit their sourcesóhas been an implicit assumption in both form
and redaction analysis and is a dubious criterion by which to analyze Isaiah
23. All textual evidence for the chapter, beginning with the earliest extant
manuscripts, includes all eighteen verses essentially as they appear in
BHS.
While form and redactional scholars insist on dissecting Isaiah 23 into
65
Francis Andersen, ìLinguistic Coherence in Prophetic Discourse,î in Fortunate the
Eyes That See: Essays in Honor of David Noel Freedman in Celebration Of His Seventieth Birthday, ed. A. B. Beck, A. H. Bartelt, and P. R. Raabe (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1995), 136-151, 146. Even redaction critic Odil Steck writes: ìHow can we know in advance whether the same elements disturbed the ancients and whether these elements
appeared as irreconcilable to them as they do to us with our historically oriented genetic
questions?î (The Prophetic Books and Their Theological Witness, 32).
66
Ibid.
314
numerous pieces, the results of this study suggest that we are faced with a
text that was originally one unit. Indeed, viewing Isaiahís Tyre Oracle as a
whole is more faithful to both the nature of ancient Near Eastern literature as well as the nature of rhetoric in prophetic texts of the Old Testament.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
315
The Centrality of Isaiah 6 (-8)
Within Isaiah 2-12
Andrew H. Bartelt
The placement and message of Isaiah 6, both within the compositional
structure of the Book of Isaiah and as foundational for many of the rich
theological themes that permeate the book, continues to remain the subject of significant discussion and debate. For example, if Isaiah 6 is, in fact,
the inaugural call of the prophet, why does it appear in chapter 6 and not
in chapter 1 as with the other two major prophetic books, Jeremiah and
Ezekiel? Or is Isaiah 6 more chronologically positioned, following an initial period of proclamation during the reign of Uzziah that forms the backdrop for chapters 1-5? How then, does this chapter relate to the narrative
that follows in chapters 7-8? To what extent does the experience of Isaiah
form a theological framework not only for his personal formation but also
for his proclamation of Godís Word to Godís people in his day and time?
This essay will summarize my own work in dealing with these questions,
and in so doing offer a modest contribution to that of many other contemporary scholars engaged in the current resurgence in Isaiah studies, including the important work of my faculty colleagues within this issue of
the Concordia Journal.
I. Isaiah 6 within the Structure of Isaiah 2-12
Regarding the role of chapter 6 within the compositional structure of
the first major literary unit of the whole book, my thesis is quite simple
and straightforward: Isaiah 6 introduces the central section of a tripartite
structure within chapters 2-12. The three major sections are 2:1- 5:30; 6:1
-8:18; 8:19-12:6. Further, these pieces form a deliberately structured unity
that can be demonstrated to form an A-B-A chiasm, with the heart of the
central unit focused on the sign of Immanuel in chapter 7. Chapter 6 plays
a strategic role as the introduction to the central section.
This analysis assumes, indeed it supports, the assertion that chapter 1
forms an overview or prologue to the entire book, and that the subheading
at 2:1 marks the first main section that extends through chapter 12. My
purpose here is not to provide the full and detailed argumentation for this
proposal,1 but two majar examples of the significance of structural features will provide a foundation for this thesis.
1
See A. H. Bartelt, The Book Around Immanuel: Style and Structure in Isaiah 2-12,
Biblical and Judaic Studies, vol. 4 (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1996).
Dr. Andrew H. Bartelt is Professor of Exegetical Theology at Concordia
Seminary in St. Louis, MO, where he also serves as Vice President for Academic Affairs and Executive Assistant to the President.
316
A. The Two Interrelated Poems of 5:8-25 and 9:7-10:42
The first rather striking feature is the inter-relationship of the poetic
units in chapter 5:8-25 and 9:7 (= 9:8 English) - 10:4. It has long been
recognized that this first poem seems organized around a series of ìwoesî
(six of them, in 5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22), and that the second poem is structured by four refrains at 9:11b(12b), 16b(17b), 20b(21b), 10:4. It is further
observed that a seventh woe would form a helpful conclusion to a series of
six, and that at least one more occurrence of the refrain found in the
second poem appears at the end of the first poem, in 5:25.
Traditional analysis of the current state of the text of this section of
Isaiah often suggests that these two poems were carelessly damaged in
the redactional process by the later insertion of the so-called Isaiah memorial or ìDenkschriftî (also known as the ìBook of Immanuelî) beginning
with chapter 6 and extending at least through 8:18, if not through 9:6.3
More recent scholarship driven by holistic approaches has moved beyond
assumptions about careless redactional work and proposed more purposeful explanations of the final form of the text, even suggesting a deliberate
structural plan around the intervening material.4 Building upon those studies, my thesis suggests not simply careful redactional work but rather an
original compositional plan that did more than just reconstruct two preexistent poems around another block of material. Instead, I believe the evidence shows a carefully crafted plan to the entire piece that maintains
2
See A. H. Bartelt, ìIsaiah 5 and 9: In- or Inter-dependence?î in Fortunate the Eyes
that See, Essays in Honor of David Noel Freedman in Celebration of His Seventieth
Birthday, edited by Astrid B. Beck, Andrew H. Bartelt, Paul R. Raabe, and Chris A.
Franke (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995).
3
Two issues concerning the so-called Denkschrift are worth noting here. The first is
whether this unit was ever an independent literary piece with its own prehistory, an
hypothesis that has been seriously challenged in recent scholarship. See, for example,
Stuart A. Irvine, Isaiah, Ahaz, and the Syro-Ephraimite Crisis (Atlanta: Scholars Press,
1990) and ìThe Isaianic Denkschrift: Rethinking an Old Hypothesis,î in ZAW 104/2 (1992):
216-231, and H. G. Reventlow. ìDas Ende der sogenannten ëDenkschriftí Jesajas,î in
Biblische Notizen 38 (1987): 62-67. The second is the question of the boundaries of this
unit, which remains quite dependent on how one divides between larger literary sections. Our hypothesis considers a break at 8:18, but the narrative and the aftermath of
the Syro-Ephraimite War certainly plays out through the rest of chapter 8 and quite
likely through 9:6 (English v. 7). The larger argumentation in my The Book Around
Immanuel (note 1) provides a structural analysis that includes the connections between
5:1-7, 8-25, 26-30, on one side of 6:1-18:18 and 8:19-23a and 8:23b-9:6 on the other.
4
See, for example, B. Anderson, ìGod with UsóIn Judgment and in Mercy: The
Editorial Structure of Isaiah 5-10(11)î in Canon, Theology, and Old Testament Interpretation: Essays in Honor of Brevard S. Childs, edited by G. Tucker, D. Petersen, and R.
Wilson (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988), W. Brown, ìThe So-Called Refrain in Isaiah 5:25-30
and 9:7 - 10:4,î in CBQ 52 (1990): 432-443, C. LíHeureux ìThe Redactional History of
Isaiah 5.1 - 10.4î in In the Shelter of Elyon: Essays on Ancient Palestinian Life and
Literature in Honor of G.W. Ahlströ m, edited by W. Boyd Barrick and John R. Spencer,
JSOT Suppl. 31 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1984), and G. Sheppard, ìThe Anti-Assyrian
Redaction and the Canonical Context of Isaiah 1-39î in JBL 104 (1985), 193-216.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
317
both the independence of two distinct poems and at the same time, their
interdependency. This tension and interplay between in- and interdependence is directly related to the message not only of the parts but also of the
whole, which clearly and intentionally includes the intervening material.
1. Each Poem as an Independent Unit
Foundational to this argument is the integrity of the structure of each
poem as an independent unit. Again as but one major example of more
detailed argumentation, we shall examine the list of ìwoesî that clearly
provides both structure and the main motif within the poem in 5:8-25.
Isaiah 5 begins with the well-known ìSong of the Vineyard,î a poem
that indicts the leadership of Judah by means of a parable about a muchloved and well-maintained vineyard. Instead of the anticipated good grapes,
this vineyard yielded wild grapes. The conclusion (v. 7) refers to the ìhouse
of Israelî and ìthe man of Jerusalem.î The first is likely ìIsrael in the
broad sense,î including both the Northern and Southern Kingdoms. The
vya
second term (vya
vyai, singular) is probably not to be understood merely as a
collective term for all the people (as in most translations) but rather with
reference to the king himself. This is supported also by the wordplay on
ìmy belovedî at the beginning of the poem, which is the Hebrew root of
the name David. It is not simply the current king but the entire house of
David that stands under indictment and judgment. But this ìbelovedî of
God is still under the eternal election and care of God, and the line of
David remains seminal for the fulfillment of Yahwehís salvation history.
A new section begins with 5:8, now moving the focus from the man/
king to the men/leaders of the people who have lost sight of their role
within the kingdom of God and instead have turned in on themselves for
personal gain. We pass by a host of issues of detailed exegesis, but the
outline of the series of woes is important for our discussion here.
The first woe addresses social sins, specifically the exploitation by landowners of the poor. (At least one detail is worth noting as an example of
how Isaiah can turn an image: the wealthy buy up all the land so that they
all end up living alone [v. 8c]. Surplus of land has led to a lack of neighbors.
Quest for personal wealth has destroyed community relationships.)
The second woe (v. 11) addresses the misuse of alcoholic beverages
within a party lifestyle of personal pleasure, a problem well documented
both before and after the historical moment of Isaiahís prophecies! Next (v.
18) come those who question the plan and wisdom of God, essentially seeking to prove that human reason knows better.
The fourth woe (v. 20) is a uniquely crafted verse that heightens the
complete inversion of order, using three chiastic pairs to hammer home
the point: evil/good//good/evil, darkness/light//light/darkness, bitter/sweet/
/sweet/bitter. This is the heart of the problem. The hearer/reader has been
moved from what might have been wise if unsanctified investment strate318
gies to overindulgence to the elevation of human wisdom over Godís, and
now Godís order has been turned upside down. Everything is backwards.
Whether an original hearer would have been attuned to the way the
structure of such poetic rhetoric would have served the message is a matter of some speculation, but one must at least assume that intentional
structuring actually served a rhetorical purpose. If oratory utilized this
form of ìoutlining,î hearers would certainly be accustomed to tracking the
argument, in this case by counting the number of woes. And if a series of
seven was indeed such a rhetorical device, then the fourth would already
be understood as the fulcrum or key pivot point, the heart of the matter.
If so, then one could begin to expect what would follow, even as the
hearer anticipated the development of the argument, but perhaps with a
twist. The fifth woe (v. 21) comes quickley after the fourth, and the content
matches the third: reiterating a concern for those who think they know
better than God. Woe #6 (v. 22) picks up the pace even more. Woe is coming faster and more furiously. Isaiah has reached an almost staccato pace
of jabs and body punches, ìhastening onî (v. 19) to carry out the work of
God. And a clear pattern has emerged:
Woe #1 (v. 8): socio/economic abuse
Woe #2 (v. 11): alcohol overindulgence
Woe #3 (v. 18): human wisdom over Godís
Woe #4 (v. 20): threefold inversion of reality
Woe #5 (v. 21): human wisdom over Godís
Woe #6 (v. 22): alcohol overindulgence
Woe #7: ?? (socio/economic abuse)
But just then, when the seventh woe would be anticipated, the series
is suspended. Almost as a rhetorical teaser, verse 23 does deal with socio/
economic abuses. This would round out the thematic sevenfold chiasm
and form an appropriate conclusion to the series. But like the series itself,
the work of God is not finished. There is more to come, and the hearers
are challenged to stay tuned, properly attuned to the works, the ways, and
the will of God in carrying out His judgment and salvation according to His
plan. The independent structure of this first poem has forced us to consider something more.
So we turn our attention to the second poem, in chapter 9:7(8)-10:4.
Before doing so, however, we should at least ask how the hearer or reader
would have understood the thought progression from the end of chapter 5
into chapter 9. Chapter 5 concludes (vv. 26-30), with a short but ominous
section asserting that Yahweh will ìwhistleî qrv
qrv) for a nation (unidentified
but presumably Assyria) to come like a devouring lion, leaving only ìdarkrc; $v,x
ness-distressî (rc;
$v,x) in the land. Chapter 6 then introduces the narrative that contextualizes the message of these chapters to the historical
circumstances of Isaiahís own ministry. It begins at the crisis point ìin the
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319
year that King Uzziah diedî but anticipates and extends to the greater
crisis of the Syro-Ephraimite War in chapter 7, mismanaged through the
faithlessness of King Ahaz. We will flesh this out a bit later on, but, assuming we are dealing with a compositional whole, the hearer/reader would
have heard this historical narrative, including the call to faith in 7:1-9 and
the sign of Immanuel in 7:10-8:18. Then comes a most disheartening and
pessimistic denouement in the transitional section at the end of chapter 8,
hkIvex]w; h
rIcI, 8:22, recalling the
describing a time of ìdistress and darknessî (h
hr
verse just before 6:1ff.), as Isaiah moves on past 8:18 with even more words
for doom and gloom. But then comes the promise of 9:1-6(7) and the hope
of Godís enduring commitment to the ìthrone of David and his kingdomî
(9:6[7]), to be accomplished through the ìzeal of Yahweh Sebaíoth.î
In 9:7(8), the second poem begins. As already noted, this section appears to be an independent poem structured according to stanzas with a
common refrain.5 Again, detailed exegesis cannot detain us, but it is important to note that this is a ìwordî (the only other use of rbIDI as ìmessageî
in Isaiah 2-12 since the heading and opening oracle in 2:1-4) from ìAdonayî
against Jacob/Israel, Ephraim/Samaria, i.e, the Northern Kingdom. This
seems directly connected to the concerns of Syro-Ephraimite threat faced
by Ahaz in chapter 7. Although the real threat was the rise of the Assyrian
Empire, the immediate concern was the alliance of the Northern Kingdom
with Syria, and their invasion of Judah to force Ahaz into their political
alliance, even under threat of disposing Ahaz for their Aramean puppet
Ben-Tabíal (7:6).6 Chapter 9:20(21) highlights the internecine schism:
ìManasseh [versus?] Ephraim, Ephraim [versus?] Manasseh; together they
[are] against Judah.î Instead of the kingdom of God, the people of God had
become just another kingdom ìlike the nations.î But at stake was not just
the earthly survival of the house and lineage of David in particular but
indeed the very unity and mission of the whole people of God to be the
mediators and messengers of Godís salvation. What was to have been ìall
Israelî living by grace through faith in the promises of God had become a
matter of the independence of North and of South, of Samaria and of Jerusalem, of King Pekah and of King Ahaz, now not only divided but even at war
with one another. At issue was their interdependence on one another within
the kingdom of God.
2. The Interdependence of the Two Poems
Our hypothesis suggests that the compositional structure serves the
5
For further study on the function of refrains within poetic structures, see Paul R.
Raabe, Psalm Structures: A Study of Psalms with Refrains (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1990).
6
The name seems to be a pejorative play on tab-íel (God is good) into tab-íal (ìno
goodí). The fact that this is an Aramaic form suggests not only that Aram was the major
player but also that Pekah was building on his previous connections in Transjordan with
the ìGileaditesî (2 Kings 15:25).
320
meaning of the text, and a closer look at some intriguing connections would
confirm some deliberate connections. The second poem is clearly built
around four uses of the two-line refrain, using the theme of ìanger not
wOPa; b
vI-aOl
hyIWjn> wOd
yI dwO[
returnedî (wOPa;
bv
-aOl) and ìhand still stretched outî (h
wOdy
dwO[). Again
assuming a linear reading of the text, this refrain would have been introduced previously in chapter 5:25c,7 where it seems to form a conclusion,
almost as an epilogue, to the first poem (5:8-25). As noted at the outset,
most commentaries have simply assumed that 5:25 is a misplaced or even
displaced fragment of the second poem, but it might better be understood
as intentionally anticipating this second poem and forming a structural
link. In fact, a key element of each poem appears in the other. Could it be
that the listener/reader, upon hearing the refrain in chapter 9, now recognized an element that seemed to be an addition to the first poem but is
now understood to be integral to the second? Would this cause him to
consider the interdependence also of the message? And might he even
then be looking for the missing link, that seventh ìwoeî that was left unspoken?
The fourth stanza provides just what we were set up to be looking for.
The final woe begins the final stanza (or is it?), and, appropriately, the
focus of this judgment deals with the theme of socio/economic sins, expanding beyond the terse and partially pulled punch of 5:23. Here an entire stanza of the poem calls to account those who distort justice, neglect
the rights of the needy, and despoil and plunder8 the widows and orphans.
The poem concludes with one more refrain, and the message moves on to
a different focus, now pronouncing ìwoeî upon Assyria. But that moves
beyond the boundary of this second, complementary poem, and commentators agree that 10:5 begins a new major section (see below).
The hypothesis under review here suggests a deliberate design in connecting this second poem with the first. As a possible example of further
but quite subtle interplay between the two poems, I would call attention to
the unusual grammatical construction found in the first poem at 5:19a,
vIyxii
yI rhem;y
where two jussive verbs are juxtaposed asyndetically: Whfe[]m; h
hv
yxiiy
rhem;y> =
ìlet him hasten, let him hurry his work.î The sentence might better be
rendered as hendiadys, producing the English redundancy, ìlet him quickly
hurry his work.î The use of two verbal roots rhm and vWx in a somewhat
peculiar expression might have stood out in and of themselves, but interest is drawn back to them in the last stanza of the second poem. As already
noticed, 10:2b deals with concern for the ìwidows and orphans,î but addresses them in an order reversed from the more common
ìorphan...widows.î9 If such devices were used rhetorically to call attention
rIhI and Wd
yI jYEw: in the first line of verse 25.
We note in passing the use of @a; h
hr
Wdy
Might the use of the words llv and zzb recall the name of Isaiahís second son,
zB; v
xI llIvI rhem
vx
rhem;?
9
The pair occurs twenty-six times in Hebrew Scriptures, twenty-one times in the
order, ìorphan...widow,î which is used in Isaiah 1:17, 1:23, 9:16.
7
8
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
321
to a verse, it is interesting to note that that this section of the second
poem is also the one most directly linked to the first. This concern for the
widow and orphan employs the vocabulary also of llv and zzb
zzb, suggested in
footnote 8. Pulling these four words together from 5:19 and 10:2 provides
xI l
lIvI rhem
rhem;, mentioned in 8:3.10 If
an echo of the name of Isaiahís son zBI v
vx
ll
this is true, then we find a link not only between the two poems, but
between both of them and the intervening material.
Finally, and perhaps much more convincingly, it is striking to compare
the length of each of these two poems. I have argued extensively in various contexts11 that the question of length is a key element in understanding poetic structure, and often serves as a control on schemes that somewhat arbitrarily link sections by vocabulary or theme, especially within
chiastic structures. Some regularity of length, whether at the level of line
or stanza or even larger composition is an important feature of poetry
generally, where counting of stresses or syllables often forms a metrical
grid. Hebrew poetry also displays a powerful sense of balance and symmetry, both on the smallest level of verse structures as well as in even the
largest units of literature.12
How one measures length is a matter of further discussion, but for our
purposes, we have simply counted the syllables13 for each of these two
poems, taken as independent units. The length of the poetic unit from
Isaiah 5:8-25 is 496 syllables. The length of the poetic unit from Isaiah
9:7(8)ñ10:4 is 496 syllables. As measured by syllable counts, these two poems, each with its own unique and well-crafted structure, yet each with a
clear connection to the other, are exactly the same length. Surely this
suggests a deliberate connection, and that each poem was composed with
the other in mind.
This relationship that includes both independence and interdependence
serves the message of the larger unit. That the combined theme of the two
poems focuses on the interrelationship of the sins and schism of both Israel and Judah under the impending judgment of their God served as a
striking reminder not only that the fate of both North and South were
linked, but also that the faith and the future of both the king and the
people in Judah were bound to the God of all Israel, whose promise to the
See below regarding an embedded reference to Isaiahís first son, Sheíar-yashub.
E.g., A. H. Bartelt ìThe Problem of Hebrew Poetry: Where Do We Draw the Line?î
Biblical Hebrew Poetry Section, Annual Meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature, San
Francisco, November, 1992.
12
See, e.g., the argument of D. N. Freedman, The Unity of the Hebrew Bible (Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991) and ìThe Symmetry of the Hebrew Bible,î
Studia Theologica: Scandinavian Journal of Theology 46/2 (1992): 83-108. I would also
call attention to the work of Paul R. Raabe, op cit (note 5).
13
Scholars have developed different methods of counting. My method is that as
described in F. I. Anderson and D. N. Freedman, Hosea, Anchor Bible 24 (Garden City:
Doubleday, 1980). The more detailed information in The Book Around Immanuel includes stress and word counts as well.
10
11
322
Davidic line was threatened by the civil warfare of the Syro-Ephraimite
conflict. At the end of this entire section, the hand of Yahweh was still
outstretched, as His people pondered whether the announcement of a final ìwoeî had, in fact, come. Thus the content of these two interrelated
poems forms a fitting commentary on the theological crisis reported in the
intervening chapters.
B. The Larger Circle Around Isaiah 6-8
Moving out from the observation that chapters 5 and 9:7(8)-10:4 are
composed as complementary units that surround the central core of Isaiah
6-8,14 I would now test this hypothesis within the larger unit from Isaiah 212. Here we will be able again to review only selected data and with even
less detail, but the argument will seek to demonstrate a unified compositional plan and structure to the whole unit around the ìDenkschriftî or
Book of Immanuel. As a first clue, I would pick up one piece of unfinished
business from our discussion of the interdependence of the two poems,
mainly the use of the refrain from chapter 9:7(8)-10:4 in chapter 5:25c.
One must be cautious about finding things that simply are not there, but
we have noted in passing (footnote 7) that 5:25a contains the same vocabulary as the refrain. In fact, this line introduces the theme which underlies
I !Ke-l[
lI[I Ad
yI jYew: AM[;B. h
wIhy>-@a; h
rIx
the ominous refrain: wy
wyl
!Ke-l[; (ìtherefore the
Ady
hw
hr
anger of YHWH burns against his people, and his hand is stretched out
against themî). Thus there appears a double use of the vocabulary of the
refrain in 5:25a and c. Added to the four full refrains in the second poem,
there would then be six occurrences of this theme through 10:4, the first
of which was introductory and incomplete. If that is correct, then the hearer
might well be anticipating at least one more reference to this motif.
Extending our analysis very quickly to the end of the entire section,
we find in chapter 12 that the problem of Yahwehís anger is addressed
once more within a doxological response of thanks and praise. Verse 1b
yI yBi TIp.n;
aI yK
yI is odd, but this
asserts, ^P.a; bvo
bvoy
p.n;a
yKi. The use of the jussive bvo
bvoy
might well be an assertion of prayer and praise, ìmay his anger return!î
followed by expressions of trust cited directly from Exodus 15. If the form
is waw-consecutive (restoring a lost waw, as suggested by the footnote in
the BHS apparatus), then the statement is based on completed action,
ìyour anger has returned, and you comforted me.î15 In either case, this
would form a seventh reference to the theme of the refrain, matching the
We have noted the similarity in theme and in the actual vocabulary of ìdarkness
and distressî between 5:26-30 and 8:19-23a as another connection between the end of
chapter 5 and the end of chapter 8. We have not discussed the possible connection
between 5:1-7 (the Song of the Vineyard, with a connection to the ìBelovedî/Davidic
king) and 8:23b-9:6, which concludes with the promise to the Davidic line. These two
sections are also the same length: 240 syllables each.
15
~xn
Note that here the theme of Yahwehís ìcomfortî (~xn
~xn) is introduced, which is a
major motif in 40:1ff. (yMi[;
Wmx]n;).
yMi[; Wmx]n; Wmx]n;
14
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
323
first as incomplete, but at the end as an echo and conclusion.16
It may seem a stretch to extend the number of refrains to chapter 12,
but enough other structural connections appear amongst the individual
units of Isaiah 2-12 to suggest that we are on to something. We have already noted how chapter 12 brings the entire section to joyful conclusion,
based on the returning of Godís anger. What is structurally significant in
chapter 12 is the relationship between the praise rendered individually
and that of the corporate people. The chapter consists of two poems, with
singular (2ms) verbs in 12:1-3 (72 syllables), and plural (2mp) forms in 12:46 (72 syllables). The two poems are introduced by exactly the same expression in verse 1 and verse 4, first in the singular and then in the plural, and
both speaking of the ìDay of Yahwehî by means of the phrase aWhh; ~AYB
~AYB; (ìin
that dayî). In verse 6 the addressee changes again, here to the second
feminine singular, as the whole people (Zion) now are exhorted to rejoice,
lae
rIf.yI vAdq. %Ber>qiB. lAd
gI-yK
laer
lAdg
-yK)I (ìbecause great in your [2sf] midst is the Holy
One of Israelî).
The presence of the holy God in the midst of His people is one of the
major themes of the whole of chapters 2-12, with both ìLawî and Gospelî
implications. On the one hand, the fundamental problem of a sinful nation
(introduced in 1:4) is that a holy God cannot dwell in the midst of a most
unholy people. Yet God can actually make this possible through His gift of
forgiveness (introduced in 1:18, also through the refining fire described in
1:25-27). The presence of God means both judgment and salvation.
In fact, this is the very theme with which the ìwordî of chapter 2
begins, as Isaiah starts at the ìendî of his eschatological vision. Here the
mountain of the temple of God, that is, the place where Godís presence is
manifest in the midst of His people, is exalted above every other mountain
rhn
and hill. The nations ìflowî (rhn
rhn, uphill?) to this real presence of the only
real God, at the same time that the word of Yahweh goes forth from Zion.
In chapter 12, it is the people of God themselves who ìtell what He has
doneî among the nations (12:5), a theme that is also picked up at the very
conclusion of the book where the survivors throughout the world, ìdeclare
His glory among the nationsî (66:19).
Further, the larger unit of chapters 2-4 is structured around the theme
of the ìDay of Yahweh.î In 2:1-4 and 4:2-6, this great eschatological moment is one of salvation and rejoicing, and these smaller sections form
ìbookendsî around the more developed theme in 2:5 - 4:1. In chapter 2, the
ìDay of Yahwehî signals judgment against all who are high and lifted up
(2:12). In chapter 3 the judgment turns upon Jerusalem and Judah (3:1),
first against the men (3:1-15) and then against the women (3:16-4:1). Seven
times the ìDay of Yahwehî is noted (six uses of the expression aWhh; ~AYB
~AYB; in
16
Another echo of the motif appears in 14:24-27, which has other connections to the
theme of judgment against the Assyrians, especially in Isaiah 10:5-12:6. Indeed the hand
is ìstretched out against all the nationsî in 14:26, and ìwho can cause it to return?î (Hiphil
of bWv
bWv) in 14:27.
324
bIc. h
2:11, 17, 20; 3:7, 18; 4:1 and one variant as the tAa
tAab
hw
wIhyl; ~Ay in 2:12); all
are focused on Godís judgment.
In 4:2, the seventh use of aWhh; ~AYB
~AYB; appears, but now it introduces the
salvation motif of 4:2-6, matching the theme with which the entire sequence began, 2:2-4. While the hearer may have thought that seven uses
ended in judgment, it is the purifying and cleansing work of Yahweh that
is the final word, so that ìthose who are left in Zion will be holyî (4:3). In
the end, Yahweh will reestablish His holy presence in the midst of a holy
people, just as cloud and fire signaled His presence in the wilderness (4:5).
These themes return in the larger unit from 10:5 - 12:6, where the
ìDay of Yahwehî becomes predominantly one of salvation for Godís people.
Assyria now falls under the judgment of God for her arrogance in being
high and mighty, as the message of judgment by Assyria (7:18-25) moves to
one of judgment upon Assyria (10:5-19) to that of salvation from Assyria
(10:20ff.). We have noted how chapter 12 uses the introduction aWhh; ~AYB
~AYB; in
verse 1 and verse 4. In fact, expressions for the ìDayî appear seven times
aWhh; ~AYB
from 10:5 - 12:6, all of them as a day of deliverance (aWhh;
~AYB; in 10:20, 27;
11: 10, 11; and 12:1, 4; and dxIa, ~AyB
~AyB. in 10:17).17
We have also noted how the name of Isaiahís second son Maher-ShalalHash-Baz may be reflected in wordplay within the two poems that form
the immediate circle around the central core, in 5:19 and 10:2. In the
larger circle that extends into chapter 10, an echo of the name of Isaiahís
first son, Sheíar-Yashub, clearly appears in 10:21-22, where it is translated
by the message it declares, ìa remnant will returnî (much as the name of
Immanuel is translated for the message it proclaims in 8:10).
But perhaps most convincing in our argument for a structural unity
and plan within the larger sections before and after the central core, indeed to Isaiah 2-12 as a whole, is, again, the rather mechanical measure of
length. We have been describing what seem to be two concentric circles
around Isaiah 6-8. The first is anchored around the two complementary
poems and links the whole of chapter 5 with 8:19-10:4.18 The second links
chapters 2-4 with 10:5-12:6. The length of the corresponding sections is
close but not exact:
chap. 5: 887 syllables // chaps. 8:19-10:4: 872 syllables
chaps. 2-4: 1464 syllables // chaps. 10:5-12:6: 1480 syllables
But if we combine the entire block of material from 2:1-5:30 with that of
8:19-12:6, a striking correspondence emerges:
17
The phrase appears five other times in Isaiah 2-12, four in close connection in 7:18,
20, 21, 23 and one in 5:30. We noted the groupings of seven in chaps. 2-4, but there are a
total of nine occurrences. Added to the seven in 10:5-12:6, there is a total of twenty-one
occurrences of the motif in chaps. 2-12, focused especially in chaps. 2-4 and 10:5-12:6.
18
See footnote 14. The larger scheme is developed in The Book Around Immanuel,
especially pages 136-139.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
325
chaps. 2 - 5: 2351 syllables // chaps. 10:5-12:6: 2352 syllables
There is but one syllable difference between these two large blocks of
material. To be sure, such ìexegesis by calculatorî may well appear mechanical and even contrived, but if our theory is correct concerning balance and symmetry based on length of lines, of poems, and of other subunits, and even of larger blocks of material, and if our counting procedures
are even approximately accurate and applied consistently, one cannot help
but observe a remarkable structural symmetry working in the background
and forming a framework for the message of Isaiah 2-12. A complex yet
simple A-B-A chiasm appears around Isaiah 6:1-8:18.
II. The Centrality of Isaiah 6 (-8)
The argument so far has sought to demonstrate the compositional
plan of Isaiah 2-12 around the ìBook of Immanuel.î If the hypothesis of a
large A-B-A chiasm is correct, then Isaiah 6 begins the key central section
and relates to what follows in chapters 7-8 even as these chapters form the
core of the overall message of Isaiah 2-12. Whether read in a linear fashion from the beginning to end, or understood in a chiastic structure to be
read around this central section, whether from the outside in or from the
inside out, the message of the whole is structured around the center. We
shall now turn to a few observations concerning this central section, as
Isaiah 6 introduces the ìBook of Immanuel.î Here we shall take a more
thematic approach, based on the major motifs that are introduced in chapter 6 and form the threads that are woven into the argumentation of chapters 7-8. We will then conclude with some thoughts about the overall message of this first major unit of the larger ìvisionî of Isaiah.
A.The Message of Chapter 6
1. Godís Prophet Speaks within the Particulars of Time and Space
It was ìthe year of the death of the king Uzziahî (6:1), ca. 742 B.C.
Whether the eighth century B.C. was, indeed, the ìgreatest of all centuriesî19 might be debated, but the historical circumstances are of crucial
significance in Old Testament history. In general terms, the first half was
a time of relative stability in the ancient near east with some territorial
expansion on the part of both Israel and Judah. With peace came prosperity, and with prosperity came moral and spiritual decline. This seems to be
the obvious background to much of Isaiahís invective especially in chapters 3 and 5. With the second half of the century, however, everything
changed abruptly with the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire under TiglathPileser III. Suddenly the world was completely destabilized, threatened,
19
326
Philip J. King, ìThe Eighth, the Greatest of Centuries?î in JBL 108/1 (1989): 3-15.
and overcome with a war of terror. Within the next quarter of a century,
the Northern Kingdom would fall and the Southern Kingdom would all but
fall, rescued only by the divine intervention against Sennacherib in 701,
which is likely what is referenced in Isa 1:9. But no actual date or clear
historical reference has appeared in the book after the general heading in
1:1, which dates the vision to include the reign of Uzziah. Chapter 6 now
identifies this moment in time and in place when the person and the presence of the king was a crucial question.
2. God Is King of the ìKingdom of Godî
ìThe king is dead. Long live the king!î Uzziah had ruled for fifty-two
years, a long and prosperous reign. His son Jotham was likely already in
place as co-regent. But precisely at the moment of Uzziahís death, Isaiah
saw ìthe Lordî (Adonay) ìhigh and lifted up,î sitting on the heavenly throne.
The adjectives echo the description of human haughtiness in 2:15 and 10:33
but now properly ascribed to King Yahweh, who ìalone will be exalted in
that dayî (2:11, 17).20 In spite of the death of the king, the true king was
quite alive and well, sitting upon the heavenly throne.
3. God Is Not Simply ìLord;î He Will Dwell in the Midst of His
People
But God is not simply sovereign. He is more than an awesome God,
King of Kings, and Lord of Lords, though He is. His intent is not simply to
command obedience, but to make His presence known on earth, to establish a connection between God and man, between Creator and creation,
between heaven and earth, between the kingdom triumphant and militant, between time and eternity. And the place in space and time where
God had promised to be present on earth was in the holy temple, where
the people of God are gathered around the presence of God. Here, in the
context of worship, God comes to earth in His special presence. His royal
robes were filling the temple. The flowing folds and hems of His robe, the
vestments of the shepherd-king office, symbolized that connection. Even
as Isaiah was brought into the heavenly worship, the king made His presence known on earth.
4. Godís Presence in Holiness and Glory Defines and Determines
the Life of His People.
a. Worship is central to the identity, indeed it is the very heart and
life of Godís people, focused on the temple,21 but extending into all
20
rI (ìhigh and lifted upî) is predicated of the
As an aside, the word pair aFInw> ~
~r
suffering servant in 52:13.
21
Note how the tabernacle, too, was central to the life and identity of the people of
God.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
327
the world. Here our worship, too, joins as one with the angels and
archangels and all the company of heaven. Together we say the
very words that celebrate Godís sacramental presence at the heart
of our worship, celebrating the God who is thrice holy, most holy,
and whose glory fills all the earth (6:3):
AdAbK. #r<
a
k
b
wIhy> vAd
q
q
q
Ih
I-l
I aOlm. tAa
Ic. h
I vAd
I vAd
I
#r<a
-lk
tAab
hw
vAdq
vAdq
vAdq
God came to His temple in holy pomp and circumstance. The choir
literally shook the doors, and the house was filled with smoke
(ìincense owns a deity nighî). This was the cloud of Yahwehís glory,
which would not only fill the temple but indeed the whole earth.
b. Godís purpose is to fill the earth with His glory. The otherwise
alm
stative verb (alm
alm, ìto be fullî) is here better understood as transiaOlm. parsed not simply as the noun ìfulnessî but as the infinitive (aOlm.
tive construct acting as the verbal noun, ìfillingî). In fact, the use
of the Qal participle in verse 1 is clearly transitive, taking the
lkIyheh;-ta, ~yailem
direct object ìthe templeî (l
~yailem.). This is consistent with
the use of alm in other theophanic texts describing the entering
hwhy dAbK
and ìfillingî of the holy place by the glory of God (hwhy
dAbK.), as
Exodus 40: 34 and 1 Kings 8:10. This transitive sense in Isaiah 6:3
ale
MIyI
aleM
makes sense also in light of the use of the Niphal in verse 4 (ale
yI),
as the passive of the (transitive!) Qal. The glory was manifest in
the temple, but it would go out from there to fill all the earth.
In the First Testament, Godís glory was not necessarily limited to the temple, but it was localized there. Godís glory protected
Godís people in the exodus, led them on their way, and was present
in the tabernacle (Ex. 40), then the temple (1 Kings 8).22 The entrance psalms (e.g., Ps. 24) proclaim (like an introit) that the ìking
of gloryî would come in to His temple.
But the purpose, the mission of Godís plan, was to ìfill the
earthî with the glory of God, to bridge the great divide between
the holy God and a fallen creation, and to bring the kingdom of
God near to those who cannot live without His salvation and life.
God would do that through His means of grace, through His presence in, with, and under those certain realities of His created order. His people would be a kingdom of priests (Ex. 19:6). But to do
so, the people of God, especially those closest to the temple: king,
priest, and prophet must understand not only the power of God
but also the presence of God, the true king in all His ìglory.î
22
But it could never be taken for granted, as Ezekiel demonstrates when he saw the
glory leave the temple and abandon the city (Ezek. 10).
328
c.
Godís presence is also defined by His holiness, His unique ìotherness.î The dictum that ìGodís glory is His holiness revealed, but
Godís holiness is His glory concealedî serves well to articulate the
paradox of the deus revelatus (God revealed and manifest in His
glory) and the deus absconditus, the hidden and untouchable nature of Godís holiness, that reminds us of the distance between the
holy God and us poor miserable sinners.
5. The Appropriate Response Can Only Be Humility before God,
Who Hears Our Cry and Gives Absolution
Isaiah recognized the holy God, the ìHoly One of Israel,î as the king of
the kingdom that had come near. And he rightly confessed that ìterror of
conscienceî of a sinner in the presence of the holy God, here using the
ywOa not ywOh
stronger term of ìwoeî (ywOa
ywOh).23 The expression ytiymed>nI-yk
ytiymed>nI-ykimay well be
24
a wordplay on at least two of the three roots of hmd, ìto be destroyedî
and ìto be silent, dumb.î ìDumbstruckî may represent the double entendre:
Isaiah is suggesting double trouble: struck dumb by impending destruction.
He then confessed both individual and corporate sin and guilt, as a
man unclean of lips, living in the midst of a people unclean of lips. He was
not alone; this critical situation involved more (but not less!) than individual sin and personal salvation; we are connected to a people, corporately responsible for the sin of all and collectively rejoicing in our forgiveness.
To such confession, God responded by bespeaking absolution through
the touch of a mediating messenger. That very part of the prophetís anatomy
that would be used to speak Godís holy name and efficacious word was
purified and sanctified for service. ìBehold, this has touched upon your
^n,wO[]
^t.a
JIx;) is atoned.î The chiastic
lips. Removed is your iniquity (^n,wO[]
^n,wO[]); your sin (^t.a
^t.aJ
structure reinforces the complete forgiveness of the iniquity/sin word pair:
verb-subject/subject verb, with the alternation of the perfect and imperfect verbs adding to the effect.
6. Forgiveness Leads to Commission and Mission
We have all likely heard, and some of us have even preached, the
mission sermon that beginsóand endsówith verse 8. Isaiah responded
with all the enthusiasm of a child raising a hand to volunteer. But the
mission was a difficult one. So, too, are the verses that follow. But they are
crucial to an understanding of Isaiahís mission. ìHe who has ears to hear,
23
ywOh is used more generally, usually with ominous overtones (1:4, 5:8ff.), but it can
also be understood positively as in 55:1. Its main sense is to get attention, like an alert.
24
See Paul R. Raabe, ìDeliberate Ambiguity in the Psalterî in JBL 110/2 (1991), 213227.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
329
let him hearî might seem to assume at least some ears that can hear, eyes
that can see, hearts that are humbled for healing, but human senses on
their own cannot hear unless they are opened by the power of God.25 Again,
it is not the task at hand to provide detailed exegesis, but a few observations will be helpful.
For example, the chiastic structure of verse 10 utilizes a series of three
terms in the order ìheart, ears, eyesî in verse 10a but reverses that order
(ìeyes, ears, heartî) in verse 10b. Further, in 10a, the imperative verb
!mev.h
(!mev.h
!mev.h;) precedes the first term (ìmake fat the heart of this peopleî), but the
next two clauses have inverted word order (ìand their ears make heavy,
and their eyes plaster shutî). In the following colon (10b) ìears and eyesî
are again paired, each introduced by the prefixed preposition b (ìwith their
eyes, with their earsî) and in chiastic order, ìlest they see with their eyes,
and with their ears they hearî). The sixth clause, dealing with the heart,
matches the first but inverts the word order. The effect is that the final
Al a
pIrIw> b
vIwI) stands alone, outside the tightly worked verse strucclause (Al
ap
bv
ture, as a concluding monocolon. Whether bvIwI is best rendered ìturn,î
usually in the sense of ìrepentî is not clear. The syntax would suggest the
use of bWv as hendiadys, as it is in verse 13a. This would render it adverbially, ìlest they again be healed.î
What God is addressing through His prophet was the false security
that was no doubt fostered by the prosperity of the past years and that had
led to false trust in the ways of the world, in trying to be a kingdom ìlike
the nations.î26 In either case, this was hardly Isaiahís last word. In fact, it
was his first word! But it is a word against the arrogance of taking Godís
grace for granted, already addressed in chapters 2-5, as we have already
discussed. To the assumption that Godís people might come to their senses,
only to expect one more round of healing and hope, Isaiah would need to
declare the full weight of Godís judgment until the entire land would lie
hbIWz[
forsaken and desolate (h
Wz[] and hmImIv., v. 12). And even the family tree,
presumably of the house of David, would be cut down (v. 13).27
7. There Is Hope in Godís Promise
In spite of what must have seemed a nearly impossible mission, bring25
Note Jesusí reference to Isaiah 6: 9-10 regarding his teaching in parables, Matt.
12:13-14; Mark 4:11; Luke 8:10.
26
This was the fundamental concern at the inception of the monarchy, 1 Sam. 8:5, 20.
Yahweh makes it clear that the problem is not the concept of a king, but the identity of
the king, 1 Sam. 8:7.
27
Verse 13 is rife with text-critical and interpretive problems. The word hbICem
Cem; regularly means sacred stone, as a cult object of worship, not a stump of a felled tree. Yet the
kIw> h
lIae
KI (ìlike an oak and like a terebinthî) uses tree imagery as a symbol of
simile !ALa;
!ALa;k
hl
aeK
what is high and mighty (cf. 2:13, 10:33). A possible word play is that the tree (whether
arrogance in general, Assyria in particular, or, most likely here, the false confidence in
the human dynasty of the family tree of David) has become itself an object of worship,
rather than the true king Yahweh.
330
ing a word first of judgment even against Godís own people and leaders
who ought to have known better and who would neither hear nor comprehend, Isaiah was commissioned and commanded to preach Godís Word
with power and with confidence. And Godís plan would prevail. As His
word would not return empty (55:11), there was a holy seed that would
grow out of the stump of the family tree (6:13b).28 In Isaiahís day, and
within the dominant message of judgment in chapter 6, this small flicker
of hope must have seemed all but hopeless. But the prophet already understood the humility of faith, the posture of confession, and the forgiveness granted by Godís grace in absolution. Now it was time for people and
king to learn the same truth. And under the true king, whose glory would
fill all the earth, this seed from the rootstock of Jesse would keep the
house and lineage of David alive until the final son David would come as
king.
B. Chapter 6 As Introduction to Isaiah 7-8
It remains to sketch out how these major motifs of chapter 6 connect
to the message of chapters 7-8, and then to the larger context of Isaiah 212. A full exegesis of Isaiah 7-8 cannot be provided here, but it is the underlying thesis of this essay that the sign of Immanuel, articulated not
only in the well-known text of Isaiah 7:14 but also in 8:8 and 8:10, lies at
the heart of this central section, which itself lies at the core of Isaiah 2-12.
Chapter 7 begins with a narrative marker, continuing the narrative
introduction in 6:1.29 It is clear that chapter 7 connects to chapter 6, continuing the story, even if a generation removed. Frankly, King Ahaz will
prove to be ìexhibit Aî of one who had not ears to hear, and he is quite
possibly the main antagonist of the entire section.30
Again, the historical context is important, as God’s message speaks
within the particulars of time and space. We cannot rehearse all the details
of the Syro-Ephraimite War, but suffice it to say that Ahaz had no obvious
solution to the threat of the Israelite invasion (in a defensive coalition
with Aram) noted in 7:1-6 (see 2 Kings 16:5-20 and 2 Chron. 28:5-27). He
could surrender, losing control of the house of David. He could resist, risking the overthrow noted in Isaiah 7:6. He could seek help in Assyria (which
he did). Or he could have ears to hear and simply trust the plan of the true
28
Again, we can only hint at the connections that appear when understanding the
book (vision) of Isaiah as a whole, but 62:1-5 reverses the destruction of the land as
predicted in 6:12, asserting that it will no longer be called hbIWz[
Wz[] and hmImIv..
29
In fact, the use of yhiy>w
yhiy>w: in 7:1 forms a connection to and continuation of the narrative begun in 6:1. See, e.g., C. H. J. van der Merwe, ìThe Elusive Biblical Hebrew Term
yhiy>w
yhiy>w:: A Perspective in Terms of Its Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics in 1 Samuelî in
Hebrew Studies 40 (1999), 83-114 and the forthcoming work of doctoral student John
David Duke, Jr.
30
Was he the hdIWhy> vya
vyai (ìman of Judahî) of 5:7?
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
331
king of Judah, as Isaiah exhorts him to do in 7:7-9.31
The fundamental problem was clear: Ahaz thought that he was king,
when, in fact, God is king of the “kingdom of God.” To be sure, Ahaz was
the undershepherd of the divine shepherd-king, but his leadership was
greater than himself and engaged so much more. Isaiah continued to address him as the ìhouse of Davidî (7:2, 13) and in the plural (e.g.,
nI-W[m.v
dwI
DI tyBe a
-W[m.vi). Perhaps this was a bit of overly polite rhetoric (cf. the
dwID
an
royal plural) to distance himself from Ahaz, but the title reminded the
king that he is part of the whole lineage of David and all that it meant to
the promised salvation of God.
As a sign against the faithlessness of King Ahaz, whose false piety and
pretense would not ìput Yahweh to the test,î Isaiah delivered the message
aWh y
nIdoa
that ìAdonay himselfî (aWh
yn
doa]) will give a sign. But God is not simply
“Lord,” He will dwell in the midst of His people. The head of Damascus was
Rezin, the head of Samaria was ben Ramaliah (7:8-9), but the king in Jerusalem was Yahweh, the holy God in the midst of His people.
That should have been a message of confidence and security, since
God’s presence in holiness and glory defines and determines the life of His
people. At first blush, it was. Ahazí plan to appeal to Assyria had the intended initial effect. The Syro-Ephraimite threat was destroyed by Assyria;
the ìland before whose two kingsî Ahaz was ìin dread,î was indeed forbzE
[ITe, 7:16). But because Ahaz and ìthis peopleî had refused the
saken (bzE
bzE[
waters of Shiloah, symbol for Godís peace and life in the midst of Jerusalem, the presence of the holy God in the midst of the people (ìImmanuel,
lae Wn
MI[i, God with usî) became also a message of judgment. ìIn that dayî (of
WnM
judgment), God would shave bare the land with the razor of Assyria (7:1825). The flood of the mighty river would overflow into Judah, covering the
ìbreadth of your land, O Immanuelî (8:8).
Conspicuous by its absence, and in spite of Isaiahís exhortation in 7:9,
is any sense of the appropriate response of humility before God on the part
of Ahaz. The faithless action of the king stands in stark contrast to that of
Isaiah in chapter 6. Instead, this human kingís trust in his own strategies
for salvation would lead to destruction. In fact, the sign of Immanuel stands
against all strategies and plans of all the nations (8:9-10). But indeed, those
who know Godís presence and promise will have true confidence and security, even against all earthly appearances, for ìGod is with usî (8:10, the
MI[i). Sadly, Israel and Judah
third reference to the sign and message of lae Wn
WnM
were now numbered to be ìlike the nations,î and the presence of God in
their midst would become ìa stone that causes men to stumble and a rock
that makes them fall, for Jerusalem he will be a trap and a snareî (8:14).
Himself having the confidence of Godís word of forgiveness, Isaiah had
fulfilled his mission and now awaited Yahwehís fulfillment,32 with his chil31
The word play on the root ! m a is striking, as Isaiah exhorts Ahaz,
Wnm)E
aIte aloo yKi Wnymia]t; alo ~a
Wnm)Ea
~ai (ìIf you do not believe/stand firm, you will not be made firmî).
32
Al-ytiyWEqiw
Al-ytiyWEqiw> (8:17). The root hwq implies an expectation, a ìsure hope.î
332
dren as sign and portents (8:17-18). In fact, his commission was now to
ìbind up the testimony and seal up the torahî (8:16) until God would act
again in judgment and salvation, in darkness and in light. For the mission
of God would not end in judgment. There is hope in God’s promise. Moving
from north to south, as did both the threat of the nations and Godís judgdybik.h
ment upon them, God would again bring glory (dybik.h
dybik.hi, 8:23 = 9:1 English)
or ìhonorî Galilee of the Gentiles. All Israel would reprise what should
have been the glory years of the judges (9:2-4[3-5]). And then they will
rejoice in the birth of a new son of David (9:5[6]).
C. Isaiah 6 (-8) As the Core of Isaiah 2-12
Godís promise and hope even extends beyond the judgment and anger
of His outstretched arm, as the poem in 9:7(8)-10:4 now recapitulates the
terrible violence between Israel and Judah that precipitated the crisis reported in chapters 7-8. But in spite of Ahazí faithless appeal to Assyria, God
was king even over all the nations. Godís ìwoeî is now pronounced against
mighty Assyria (10:5), who was used by God for His purposes of judgment
but then offended God by her own arrogance (10:7, 12-13). The ìHoly Oneî
has become a consuming fire in the midst of the nations (10:17), not only
to destroy but also to save. The remnant of Israel will turn in faith and
bWv
yI r
aIv., ìa remnant will rerely on Yahweh, the Holy One of Israel (bWv
bWvy
ra
turn,î33 10:21-22, cf. Isaiahís son, 7:3).
The historical fulfillment of chapter 10 would seem to be the march of
Sennacherib upon Jerusalem from the west (10:28-32) and the miraculous
salvation which God provided in one night (10:16, 24-26).34 Isaiah 11 extends the message of the Davidic child from 7:14 and 9:5-6(6-7), but now in
a highly eschatological passage. Here is described a ìradicalî restoration of
Yahwehís messianic kingship, right from the very root of Jesseónot just
another son of David, but a second David. This new king will establish a
sn
perfect reign of peace and stand as a ìensignî for all nations (sn
sne, a pun on
the ìfalling of the standardî of Assyria, ssenO ssom.k
ssom.ki, in 10:18), whose place of
dbwO
KI, in contrast to the
rest (= salvation) is described as simply ìgloryî (dbwO
dbwOK
ìgloryî of Assyria in 10:18). ìOn that dayî Adonay will gather the remnant
from Assyria and from every part of the earth in the way He rescued His
people from Egypt. The ìway of Egyptî and the ìriver Euphratesî have
become a shallow stream, easily crossed without taking off oneís sandals.
Indeed, the way has become a highway through the sea (11:15).35
We have already noted how the theme of the ìDay of Yahwehî (ìthat
dayî) is described in terms of both judgment and salvation in chapters 2-4.
We have also recognized how the motif of ìthat dayî becomes thematic for
the literary unit 10:5-12:6. The message of 10:5ff., where the anger of God
One could also translate, ìa remnant will repent.î
In this way, the message of chapter 10 anticipates the narrative of Isaiah 36-37.
35
See 40:3; 43:16-19.
33
34
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
333
turns against the pride of Assyria, also turns ìthat dayî into a day of salvation for Judah, after Godís king and people have come to grips with Godís
righteous judgment (10:17, 20, 27). Chapter 11 also turns on the phrase in
11:10 and 11, and the formula aWhh; ~wOYB
~wOYB; forms the structure for the two
poems of joy and praise that bring the entire section to conclusion in chapter 12.
III. The Message of Isaiah 2-12
Isaiah 2 is introduced with the heading, ìthe word that Isaiah ben
hzx
Amoz saw (hzx
hzx) concerning Judah and Jerusalem.î That message began
with the vision of the last days, when the temple of Yahweh would be
raised up before all nations, who would come to hear the word of Yahweh
go forth. But that word was a word of both judgment and salvation. The
Day of Yahweh would be a day of reckoning with the only one, the Holy
One, who is high and lifted up. Godís judgment stands against all nations
(chap. 2), even against His own people, the men and women of Jerusalem
and Judah (chap. 3), and even upon His beloved son of David (5:1-7). At
stake was the survival and identity of Godís people Israel, whose dependence on God and interdependence on one another as ìall Israelî had been
threatened by arrogant independence, individuality, self-reliance, and even
civil war.
At the heart of the matter, at the center of Godís people, and at the
core of both the problem and the solution, was the presence of the Holy
One of Israel, whose glory filled the temple and would seek to fill all the
earth. To the problem of sin, Isaiah received a word of forgiveness. To the
problem of faithless trust in the ways and means of this world, Isaiah
delivered a message of judgment, for the sign of Immanuel was first a
reminder that the plan of King Ahaz would ultimately fail. To the problem
of a futile search for salvation in anything other than the presence, the
promise, and the plan of the one true God, Yahweh provided hope and
security in His promised presence, ìGod with us.î
But first there was judgmentóupon Ahaz, upon Israel, upon Judahó
delivered by the very power they had feared more than God, Assyria. Then
would come judgment upon Assyria for her arrogance and pride before the
Holy One of Israel. But once judged, a remnant would return, humble and
faithful in repentance and restored through the forgiveness of sin. And
even as they would return, there was the expectation of a yet more glorious day, when Yahweh would send forth a shoot from the stump of Jesse,
and the fulfillment, the ìfilled-fullmentî of the kingdom of God would appear. This would be Godís righteous reign on earth and into a new age,
when wolf and lamb will lie down together. Isaiahís vision began with the
last days (2:2), and it concludes with eschatological anticipation and joy.
Godís people are bold to say, ìBehold, the God of my salvation, I will trust
and not be afraid.î And the word of the Lord will go forth among the na334
tions, as they ìmake known his deeds among the peoples.î
Yes, ìcry out and shout for joy, O inhabitant of Zion, for great in your
midst is the Holy One of Israel.î God is with us, Immanuel!
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
335
Look to the Holy One of Israel,
All You Nations:
The Oracles about the Nations
Still Speak Today
Paul R. Raabe
I once heard a public lecture given by a renowned authority on the
ancient Near East. After his brilliant lecture someone asked him why he
was not a Christian. He replied, ìBecause Christians are presumptuous.
To think that the almighty Maker of the heavens and earth is concerned
about me would be the height of arrogance. He has more important things
to worry about.î Well, the speaker had a point. It would go beyond the
bounds of human reason to think that the almighty Creator of the universe would be concerned with the puny creatures on some insignificant
planet circling an average star located at the edge of an average galaxy. If
powerful human leaders do not worry much about lowly nobodies, how
could one expect the almighty Creator of all things to do so?
But the surprise is that the Creator of all things, out of His boundless
generosity, stooped to bless the human race. And the further surprise is
that the almighty Creator did not simply shower His blessing on everyone
directly and immediately like rain but instead chose to bring His blessing
to all nations through particular vehicles. Thus He chose ancient Israel,
Zion, and the line of David to be His vehicles. The Creator of all made
Himself the God of Israel. He entered into a special covenant relationship
with one specific people and in the fullness of time fulfilled His covenant
through Jesus of Nazareth. And through Jesus of Nazareth, the Creator
blesses the entire human race. Although human reason is scandalized by
such particularities, faith extols them.
The Holy One of Israel Is the Lord of All Nations
The Creator of all things made Himself the God of Israel. But we must
stress the other side as well. The God of Israel is the Creator of all. Yahweh
is the God of Jacob, whom Isaiah likes to call ìthe Holy One of Israel.î This
Holy One of Israel is no tribal deity. In a very religious world, a world of
polytheism and pluralism, a world of many gods and goddesses, the God of
Israel is not simply another deity on the list. One cannot treat Him as just
another religious option on a smorgasbord of religious options, as if to say,
ìThe Canaanites worship Baal, the Moabites worship Chemosh, the IsraelDr. Paul R. Raabe is Professor of Exegetical Theology at Concordia Seminary in St. Louis, MO. He is also Chairman of the Department of Exegetical
Theology.
336
ites worship Yahweh, and the Edomites worship Qaus.î
This leveling of Yahweh with other deities was precisely how ancient
Assyria treated Yahweh, the God of Israel. The king of Assyria taunts the
people of Jerusalem:
Do not listen to HezekiahÖlest Hezekiah mislead you, saying,
ìYahweh will deliver us.î Have the gods of the nations deliveredó
each one his own landófrom the hand of the king of Assyria? Where
were the gods of Hamath and Arpad? Where were the gods of
Sepharvaim? Have they delivered Samaria from my hand? Who
were they among all the gods of these lands who have delivered
their land from my hand, that Yahweh should deliver Jerusalem
from my hand? (Is. 36:16-20)1
But the God of Jacob is completely different, in a class all by Himself: ìthe
Holy One of Israel.î In response to the Assyrian kingís taunt, Hezekiahís
great prayer of faith reveals the truth:
O Yahweh of hosts, the God of Israel, who sits enthroned on the
cherubim, you are the God, you alone, of all the kingdoms of the
earth; you have made the heavens and the earth. Incline, O
Yahweh, your ear and hear; open, O Yahweh, your eyes and see;
and hear all the words of Sennacherib, which he has sent to mock
the living God. Truly, O Yahweh, the kings of Assyria have laid
waste all the lands and (even) their land and have put their gods
into the fireófor they were not gods but the work of human hands,
wood and stoneóand they have destroyed them. But now, O Yahweh
our God, save us from his hand, that all the kingdoms of the earth
may know that you are Yahweh, you alone (Is. 37:16-20).
Yahweh heard Hezekiahís prayer and responded in a mighty way by striking down the Assyrian army, 185,000 soldiers, overnight! Yes, the Assyrian
kings destroyed the gods of the other nations; they were no gods at alló
simply fabrications, idols, the work of human hands. But Yahweh is the
living God who made the heavens and earth. And He intends that all the
kingdoms of the earth stop looking toward their idols and instead look to
Him (e.g., Is. 2:20; 17:7-8).
The Creatorís rule and authority extend beyond the land of Israel.
Yahweh, this particular God, is the Lord over all nations. All nations are
accountable to the God of Israel. This God has claims on all peoples. The
gods and goddesses of the nations are idols, the work of human hands;
they can neither hurt nor help (Is. 2:18-21; 17:8; 19:1; 21:9; 37:19). As
postmodernism would put it, they are simply the social constructs of dif1
See also Is. 37:10-13 and 10:8-11. All translations are by the author.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
337
ferent communities; and social constructs have been constructed by human creatures. The gods and goddesses of the nations cannot create anything. But the God of Israel created the heavens and earth. We did not
make Him; He made us. He is God, and we are not. He is God, and the
nations are not. The Holy One of Israel is the only God who deserves to be
worshiped and honored as God. And the plans of this particular God encompass all nations.
Isaiah 13-23
In chapters 13-23 the prophet named Isaiah ben Amoz proclaimed the
international authority of the God of Israel. This section of the book contains what is usually called ìoracles against the nationsî (OAN). However,
as we shall see, this label is one-sided, since there also are statements for
the nations. Therefore, it has been suggested that a better label may simply be ìoracles about the nations.î The practice of making a proclamation
about the foreign nations was common among the classical prophets.2 It
was an important part of the prophetic job description to announce how
the God of Israel was about to exercise His rule over all nations. The God
of Israel always had a worldwide concern.
Isaiah 13-23 contains ten sections, each of which has the label massa
aFIm;), ìburdenî or ìoracle.î The place name given in each heading is not
(a
meant inclusively; it refers only to the first place name mentioned in the
oracle:
13:1-14:27óBabylon (and Assyria);
14:28-32óPhilistia;
15:1-16:14óMoab;
17:1-18:7óDamascus (and Ephraim);
19:1-20:6óEgypt (and Cush);
21:1-10óBabylon;
21:11-12óDumah (= Edom?);
21:13-17óArabia;
22:1-25óJerusalem;
23:1-18óTyre (and Sidon).
In these ten sections Isaiah announces the coming disasters that God is
about to inflict on different parts of the ancient Near East. Notice that
Isaiah includes Jerusalem in the list and even pairs it with a pagan city,
2
This type of material comprises 15-20% of the prophetic corpus. For a further
discussion of this type of material, see Paul R. Raabe, ìWhy Prophetic Oracles Against the
Nations?,î 236-257 in Fortunate the Eyes That See: Essays in Honor of David Noel
Freedman in Celebration of His Seventieth Birthday, ed. A. B. Beck, A. H. Bartelt, P. R.
Raabe, and C. A. Franke (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995).
338
Tyre. Jerusalem has acted like a goy and therefore stands under Godís
judgment like a goy.3
What Is the God of Israel Up To?
The place is Jerusalem. The time is the second half of the eighth century B.C. Yahweh, the God of Israel, is about to do certain things, public
things, events that will shake the world. Godís hand is stretched out over
all nations, and He purposes to break them as He will break Assyria (14:2427). God will bring destruction upon the surrounding nations. His chief
instrument will be the Assyrian army. Isaiah ben Amoz as Yahwehís mouthpiece has been commissioned to announce what the Holy One of Israel is
about to do.
The questions to ask of Isaiah 13-23 are: ìWhat is the God of Israel up
to?î ìWhy devastate nation after nation?î ìWhat good will that do?î ìWhat
are the divine purposes?î The answers can be summarized in five ways:
1. The God of Israel purposes to execute His wrath in order to eliminate sinners from the earth (13:9; 14:20-23).
2. The God of Israel purposes to put an end to human pride and glory
(13:11; 14:11-17; 16:6-14; 21:16-17; 23:7-9).
3. The God of Israel purposes to defeat enemies, thereby giving rest
to His oppressed people and enabling the return of the exiles (14:18; 14:25; 17:12-14).
4. The God of Israel purposes to draw the nations with their homage
and tribute to Zion and Zionís messianic King (16:1-5; 18:7; 23:1718).
5. The God of Israel purposes to redirect all people toward Himself
and away from their idols (17:7-8; 19:1; 19:16-25).
We can see in the above list both Godís alien work and His proper
work. His alien or strange work is to destroy the wicked, to debase the
proud, and to defeat the tyranny of Assyria and Babylon. His proper work
includes the restoration of Israel in Zion. Yet His proper work reaches
beyond Israel to encompass the foreign nations. They, too, will look to
Yahweh and come to Zion. They, too, will enjoy the protection of Israelís
Messiah (16:3-5; cf. 11:10). In fact, 19:25 goes so far as to call Egypt ìmy
peopleî and Assyria ìthe work of my hands,î along with Israel as ìmy inheritance.î Yahwehís ultimate goal is to bring all nations into fellowship
with Himself. Moreover, that fellowship with the true God will end the
conflicts between nation and nation. Even traditional enemies and rivals
like Egypt and Assyria will become friends (19:23; cf. 2:4).
The status quo is completely unacceptable to Yahweh. Therefore He is
3
By including Israel and Jerusalem in his list of foreign nations, Isaiah exhibits the
same move as Amos 1-2 and Zephaniah 2-3.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
339
about to act in a mighty way so that the future will be different, so that
Yahweh alone will be exalted. In order to change things, God first must
bring judgment on the nations. Yet this judgment is not the ultimate goal
but only a means to an end. Godís alien work serves His proper work. The
destruction of the sinful old age will clear the way for the holy new age.
The defeat of Assyria and Babylon leads to the restoration of His people,
Israel, in Zion. Moreover, the deflating of the self-reliant pride of the nations ultimately leads to their own salvation, so that they turn away from
themselves to Yahweh and come to Zion.
It is by design that the vision of all nations streaming to Zion appears
already in chapter 2. That vision forms the backdrop for all the subsequent
material, including chapters 13-23. For Yahwehís ultimate purpose is to
make Zion a centripetal force that draws all peoples. ìNo longer bringing
the threat of destruction, foreign nations are here described as coming
(actually as flowing uphill!) to listen and to learn.î4
The first question above concerns the announced actions of God and
their purposes. The second question to ask is this: ìWhat is the intended
impact of these speeches?î This second question concerns the rhetorical
strategy of the prophet, the goals of his utterances, the nature and force of
his speech acts.
What Is the Intended Impact of the Speeches?
The God of Israel is about to act, and He sends Isaiah ben Amoz to
announce His future actions. Like the other classical prophets, Isaiah was
Godís messenger to peopleóhis discourses were meant to be heard.5 He
was a public speaker, an orator, a preacher. Therefore, we may ask the
text some homiletical types of questions: What is the prophet doing with
these words? What impact did he intend to have on his original hearers?6
What was the prophet doing with the words of judgment? By announcing impending doom against each nation, Isaiah was issuing a death sentence. God the Judge, with His words spoken through the prophet, was
placing the targeted nation under judgment. The speech itself ìinitiates an
objective state of condemnation.î7 Just as a guilty defendant in a court of
law is, in fact, convicted and sentenced by the judgeís words, so each nation is actually sentenced and placed under the death penalty by the words
of the divine Judge. The words sentence the guilty party to death, and
4
Andrew H. Bartelt, The Book Around Immanuel Biblical and Judaic Studies 4
(Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1996), 236.
5
See Reed Lessing, ìOrality in the Prophets,î Concordia Journal 29 (2003): 152-165.
6
See Walter Houston, ìWhat Did the Prophets Think They Were Doing? Speech Acts
and Prophetic Discourse in the Old Testament,î Biblical Interpretation 1 (1993): 167-188.
For an introduction to the field of pragmatics and speech acts, see James W. Voelz, What
Does This Mean? 2nd ed (St. Louis: Concordia, 1997), 275-292. Also see the classic work by
John Austin, How to Do Things with Words (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962).
7
Houston, ìWhat Did the Prophets Think They Were Doing?,î 180.
340
Assyria will function as the executioner. Moreover, because the targeted
nation has already been sentenced, the coming ruin is often depicted in
the past tense (e.g., Is. 14:3-21; 15:1-16:12).
What impact were the words meant to have on their original hearers?
What response did God desire from the hearers of His words of doom?
Here the answer depends on identifying the original hearers of Isaiahís
oracles. It is doubtful that Isaiah himself traveled from nation to nation to
deliver his messages.8 The most likely hearers were the Jerusalemites
and especially the members of the royal palace. Isaiahís utterance to King
Hezekiah, in which he condemned the overweening hubris of the Assyrian
king, illustrates the probable setting for these oracles (37:21-35). In other
words, the discourse itself judged a foreign nation; but the actual hearers
were the palace officials in Jerusalem.
So what were Isaiahís rhetorical purposes for Jerusalem in speaking
judgment against the surrounding nations? A clue is given in the Philistine oracle (14:28-32). The oracle summons Philistia to wail, since it is
about to get clobbered by two more Assyrian kings. As a general rule in
the Old Testament, lamentation and wailing form the appropriate response
to bad news directed toward you.9 Yet what was the rhetorical function of
the Philistine oracle for Jerusalem? Verse 32 reveals its function:
What should one answer the messengers of a (foreign) nation?
ìThat Yahweh has founded Zion, and in her the afflicted of his
people shall find shelter.î
The oracle against Philistia was intended to dissuade Jerusalem from joining an anti-Assyrian alliance, whether the one proposed by Philistia or any
other proposal.10 In effect, Isaiah was saying to the royal court in Jerusalem:
Donít accept the invitation from foreign ambassadors when they
come to recruit you for their alliances. Their nations are doomed,
and their schemes will fail. Instead, take refuge in Yahweh in Zion
for your security.
The function of warning against reliance upon other nations is also
8
However, one should entertain the possibility that foreigners came to Jerusalem
and inquired of Isaiah, who was a generally recognized prophet. One illustration is
provided by the strange oracle concerning Dumah or Edom in 21:11-12. Apparently
someone from Seir inquired of Isaiah (the ìwatchmanî) concerning the future of his
homeland.
9
See Delbert R. Hillers, ìA Convention in Hebrew Literature: The Reaction to Bad
News,î Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 77 (1965), 86-90.
10
On the function of warning against alliances, see G. R. Hamborg, ìReasons for
Judgment in the Oracles Against the Nations of the Prophet Isaiah,î Vetus Testamentum
31 (1981), 145-159.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
341
illustrated by Isaiahís action prophecy recorded in chapter 20. There Isaiah
engages in pantomime as he walks naked and barefoot for three years to
illustrate how Assyria will take Egyptian and Cushite captives into exile,
naked and barefoot. To rely on Egypt and Cush for security from Assyria is
to lean upon a broken reed (36:6; cf. 30:1-5; 31:1-3). Egypt and Cush cannot
provide security. They are doomed.
The announcements of judgment against foreign nations were intended
to warn Jerusalem against joining any anti-Assyrian coalition. They had
other functions as well. The Israelites were very attracted to imitating the
nations. The Israelites admired their military strength, wisdom, wealth,
and gods (e.g., 2:6-8). In many ways Israel wanted to become, and in fact
did become, like the other nations. They became proud; they trusted in
their own military might and fortifications; they worshiped the gods of the
nations. Therefore, one function of the oracles condemning the nations
was to show Israel what lies in store for those who imitate the ways of
these nations. Because Jerusalem has become like the proud nations, it
can expect to meet their same fate (chap. 22).
Furthermore, that fate is painted in horrific colors precisely to ìrouse
the wicked with the judgmentís dread alarms,î to frighten and terrify the
carnally secure. The rhetorical impact would be to shake up those Israelites who esteemed the haughty, self-sufficient ways of the nations, so that
they would stop admiring the glory of the other nations and instead consider the glory of Yahweh.
But Isaiahís speeches would have had a very different impact on the
faithful within Israel, ìthe afflicted of Godís peopleî (14:32). The coming
doom against Damascus and Ephraim on the one hand and against Assyria
and Babylon on the other hand would have given hope of victory to suffering Zion (14:1-4; 14:25; 17:12-14). In other words, announcing the defeat of
enemies provides an implicit promise of salvation to Godís faithful people.
The plans of the Holy One of Israel will prevail and not the plans of the
powers that be. That is good news for the faithful. They would respond by
trusting and hoping in Yahweh to protect them and restore their fortunes.
So What?
The final question is this: So what? What meaning do chapters 13-23 of
the Book of Isaiah have for people today? Here I will suggest a few ways to
make a connection between Isaiah 13-23 and the New Testament. The two
previous sections will guide the suggestions.
Isaiah everywhere presupposed that there really is a God out there,
that this God chose Israel to be His covenant people and Zion to be His
dwelling place, that this God of Israel is the Creator of the heavens and
earth, and that this God of Israel has authority over all peoples. The text
of Isaiah is not simply about this-worldly international politics and economics. It is first and foremost about Yahweh, the Holy One of Israel. And
342
Isaiah ben Amoz was His prophet, His mouthpiece. Isaiah was not simply
a socio-political analyst of the world scene. His material belongs in the
theology department, not the anthropology or political-science department.
As Godís mouthpiece he spoke Godís utterances. The divine voice and the
human voice merged and became as one. God Himself spoke through Isaiah.
Godís Word came into space and time, and that means into a specific
place and time on planet earth. It has an incarnational and located quality
about it. Therefore, what God had to say was communicated in terms of
the social, political, economic, and international realities of the day. The
mighty acts of God occurred within the history of different nations. Hence
we read about ancient countries like Babylon, Assyria, and Philistia. Permit me to belabor the obvious; sometimes the obvious needs to be belabored. These peoples no longer exist! There are no more Babylonians,
Assyrians, or Philistines. The current occupants of Iraq are not the descendants of ancient Babylon and Assyria, nor are the current occupants
of the Gaza Strip the descendants of ancient Philistia. Isaiah was referring
to the nations and places of his day, not of our day. He was not predicting
what would happen in the international politics of the twenty-first century
A.D.
The Book of Isaiah gives an ancient word. And yet, what the Holy One
of Israel had to say back then and there continues to speak to us today.
The same God still speaks today through the ancient words of Isaiah ben
Amoz. Those ancient words from Jerusalem remain alive for us even though
we dwell in a different part of the world centuries later. For by faith in
Jesus of Nazareth, the Messiah, the only-begotten Son, we have fellowship with the God of Israel. Through Christ, the Holy One of Israel is our
God. Christís Father has become our heavenly Father. In fact, Jesus is the
God of Israel made flesh. He is both the human Messiah descended from
Israel and God over all (Rom. 9:5).
The God of Israel is the One weóto pick up on some of Isaiahís vocabularyólook to, and pray to, and rely upon, and take refuge in, and
worship, and praise. Our God is not Baal or Marduk but the God of Israel.
Moreover, His ancient message did not exhaust itself and come to an end
back then and there. It reaches beyond Isaiahís day to all subsequent generations (e.g., Is. 30:8). The fundamental maladies of sinners have not
changed. Godís ancient message still leads sinners to repentance and faith;
it still brings sinners to right worship in Zion; and it will continue to do so
until its consummation on the Last Day. Therefore we expect Godís ancient prophetic Word through Christ to work on us today. Here are some
ways to see connections between Isaiah 13-23 and the New Testament.
Typological Prophecy
The Book of Isaiah displays a pattern of prophecy and fulfillment. It
records the fulfillment or at least the preliminary realization of many of
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
343
Isaiahís prophetic announcements as already taking place during Isaiahís
own lifetime. Here are some examples:
ó
ó
ó
ó
ó
ó
Prophecy
The Syro-Ephraimite alliance
will be defeated (7:3-9; 8:4;
17:1-11; 28:1-4).
Assyria will invade Judah (8:5-8;
10:5-6, 12).
Assyria will be defeated by
Yahweh (10:24-27; 14:24-25;
29:1-8; 30:27-33; 31:4-9).
Two future kings of Assyria will
attack Philistia (14:29-31).
Eliakim will replace Shebna
as royal steward over the palace
(22:15, 19-22).
Babylon will fall (13:1-22).
Fulfillment
Defeat recounted by the Rabshakeh
(36:19; 37:12-13; cf. 10:8-11).
Assyria did invade (36:1).
God destroyed the Assyrian army
(recounted in 36-37).
Both Sargon II (20:1) and
Sennacherib (implied in 36:2; 37:8)
campaigned against Philistia.
This replacement took place
(36:3, 22; 37:2).
Already in Isaiahís day Babylon fell
(21:9; 23:13). However, this was
only the initial fulfillment. In
chapter 39 Isaiah predicted that
Babylon would again become a
threat.
These fulfillments recorded in the Book of Isaiah reveal that the Holy
One of Israel is serious about His threats and judgments. They are not to
be taken lightly. Yet each one was only a particular instance of a broader,
worldwide judgment. Each historical judgment that took place in Isaiahís
day gave a preview, a foretaste, an advance notice of what lies in store for
all sinners. Each historical judgment was a typological manifestation of
Yahwehís day of wrath against all the proud and carnally secure.11
In the Old Testament Godís mighty deeds usually took place on the
collective level of nations. This is understandable, given that Godís ancient covenant people were a geographically located nation. So the judgments prophesied in chapters 13-23 came down upon specific nations. Yet
these B.C. acts of divine judgment should be understood typologically as
having broader, cosmic implications. Isaiah placed these historical judgments within the setting of an eschatological horizon. The very language
Isaiah used in these chapters makes this broader dimension clear.12 This
eschatological horizon helps us see how chapters 13-23 still speak to us.
11
Prophetic discourse often speaks of historical judgments as particular instances of
Godís worldwide judgment. See Paul R. Raabe, ìThe Particularizing of Universal Judgment in Prophetic Discourse,î Catholic Biblical Quarterly 64 (2002): 652-674.
12
See, for example, Is. 13:6-13; 14:20, 26, 27; 17:12-14; 18:3; 23:9.
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The B.C. words and the B.C. events illuminate both the ìnowî and the ìnot
yetî of A.D. time.
Future Eschatology
God through His prophet Isaiah announced the coming destruction
appointed for specific nations. Those nations of Isaiahís day typified the
whole human race, the entire world in its arrogant self-seeking. Therefore, what God had to say to those B.C. nations still speaks today. The
material can be summarized under four headings:
1. Godís Wrath Against Sinners
Isaiah 13 supplies the universal, eschatological perspective for the specific acts of divine judgment:
Look! The day of Yahweh is comingócruel, and with anger and
hot wrathóto make the earth into a desolation; and its sinners he
will exterminate from it. For the stars of the heavens and their
constellations will not shine their light. The sun will have become
dark when it goes forth, and the moon will not cause its light to be
bright. And I will visit (its) evil upon the world, and upon the wicked
their iniquity; and I will make the pride of the presumptuous cease,
and the haughtiness of the terrifying I will lay low. I will make
man more rare than fine gold, and humans (more rare) than the
gold of Ophir. Therefore the heavens I will convulse; and the earth
will shake out of its place by the anger of Yahweh of hosts, and in
the day of his hot wrath (vv. 9-13).
Every individual, historical act of judgment was a particularization and
harbinger of a universal judgment. In that final, future day God will execute His righteous wrath against all sinners. Then God will bring to an
end the pride of the pompous. Then God will bring down the high and
mighty. Then God will put to shame the self-seeking glory of the entire
human race. It will be a terrible day, a day when the very heavens and
earth will convulse.
The New Testament everywhere presupposes this future day of wrath
against sinners, ìthe wrath to comeî (1 Thess. 1:10). It forms the basic
presupposition for the Gospel itself. Beginning with John the Baptizer, we
see it emphasized. It puts us all into the same boat, facing the eschatological
judgment as proud and guilty sinners curved in on ourselves. The future
day of judgment and accountability is coming, and coming soon. There is
no escape, no self-made exit. Our puny good works cannot avert the allconsuming anger of the Most High against sinners.
This word from God has causative power. It puts us all on our knees to
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345
confess before Him that we deserve His condemnation:
O almighty God, merciful Father, I, a poor, miserable sinner, confess to you all my sins and iniquities with which I have ever offended you and justly deserved your punishment now and forever.13
2. Removal of Hindrances
In Isaiahís day God brought calamity upon the surrounding nations in
order to remove the counterfeits that Israel was tempted to rely upon.
God was, as it were, discarding the crutches, removing the distractions,
blocking the detours, eliminating the evil influences that hindered His
fellowship with His people. Through the Assyrian army He revealed the
impotence of the false gods (16:12; 19:1), the weakness of other sources of
help (20:6), the fragility of human defenses (22:8-11).
Again, these B.C. acts of removal foreshadowed the future day of removal and separation (e.g., Matt 13:24-30, 36-43). Then God will eliminate
every false object of faith, every lie, and every manner of evil influence.
Then the temptations of the world and the father of lies himself will be
banished once and for all. Then there will be nothing to hinder Christís
people from an eternal life of perfect holiness and fellowship with Him.
3. Defeat of Enemies and Victory for Zion
Isaiah 13-23 also emphasizes that the defeat of the enemies means
restoration and victory for Zion. Isaiah expresses it in 17:12-14:
Hey! The commotion of many peoples, like the commotion of the
seas they make commotion; and the rumbling of the nations, like
the rumbling of mighty waters they rumble. The nations, like the
rumbling of many waters, rumble. But he [God] will blast them
and they will flee far away, and they will be chased away like chaff
on the mountains before the wind, and like whirling dust before
the storm. At the time of evening, lookócalamity! Before morning, they are not! This is the portion of those who loot us, and the
lot for those who plunder us.
The two-sided event of enemy defeat and victory for Zion happened twice
in Isaiahís day: the defeat of the Syro-Ephraimite coalition, and the defeat
of the Assyrian army before Jerusalem. The next instance would take
place after Isaiahís day with the fall of Babylon and the return of the exiles
(Is. 13:1-14:2).
13
The confession of sins given for Divine Service I in Lutheran Worship (St. Louis:
Concordia, 1982), 136-137.
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Yet, as Isaiahís generalization given above indicates, these defeats were
simply instances of how God typically protects His people. They typified
the future consummation, when the enemies of Christ and His church will
meet their final defeat (e.g., Rev. 18:1-19:21; 20:10, 14). Then the church
militant will become the church triumphant. Then even death itself will
be swallowed up in victory (Is. 25:7).
4. The Gathering of All Nations to Zion
God brought misfortune upon the nations to deflate their ego, to burst
their bubble, to bring down the high and mighty. But He did this to serve
an ultimate purpose, so that they would have regard for the God of Israel
(17:7-8; 22:8-11) and bring their tribute to Him in Zion (18:7; 23:17-18).
This ultimate goal will reach its consummation at the Parousia of Christ.
Then Christ will gather His own from the four corners of the earth (Mark
13:27). Then people from all directions will come to the eschatological banquet (Luke 13:29). Then a great multitude from every nation will sing
praise before the throne and the Lamb in Zion (Rev. chaps. 7 and 21).
Inaugurated Eschatology
On the one hand, Isaiahís threats and promises remain future threats
and promises in our not-yet existence. On the other hand, the threatened
and promised future has already broken into history ahead of time in a
hidden way. In Jesus Christ all these threats and promises reached their
fulfillment.
1. Godís Wrath Against Sinners
In one sense the final judgment already took place in a definitive way
on Good Friday. There on the cross we see the wrath of God being executed against the entire human race of sinners. To read of Godís wrath as
presented in Isaiah 13-23 is to see what happened on the cross. For Jesus
of Nazareth was not only Israel condensed into one; He was also the Second Adam, the entire human race of sinners condensed into one. As the
representative, embodiment, and substitute of all sinners, He suffered the
righteous wrath of God. Because He took that wrath away and because
His righteous obedience is imputed to us, we by faith now stand righteous
before God the Judge.
Through the Gospel, God already now gives His future, final verdict:
justified by Godís undeserved favor alone, received through faith alone, on
the basis of the all-sufficient work of Christ alone. Therefore the confession of sins continues:
But I am heartily sorry for them and sincerely repent of them, and
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347
I pray you of your boundless mercy and for the sake of the holy,
innocent, bitter sufferings and death of your beloved Son, Jesus
Christ, to be gracious and merciful to me, a poor sinful being.
Then justification, the forgiveness of sins, is given through the words of
absolution spoken by the pastor:
Upon this your confession, I, as a called and ordained servant of
the Word, announce the grace of God to all of you, and in the stead
and by the command of my Lord Jesus Christ I forgive you all your
sins in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy
Spirit.14
2. Removal of Hindrances
Christ does not promise to take His disciples out of the world, so as to
exempt them from all temptations, distractions, lies, and evil influences.
Until the Last Day the devil, the world, and our own flesh will continue
trying to redirect our trust away from Christ and toward pseudo objects of
faith. The temptation to rely upon broken reeds and to emulate the ways
of the world will remain. In this sense the oracles of Isaiah 13-23 still
function as warnings to us to take heed lest we fall, lest we become of the
world.
Nevertheless, Christ has already defeated these powers of the old age.
We no longer live under their sway. As Christís disciples we live under the
eschatological reign of God. Through Baptism we died with Christ to sin as
our master, and we were made alive with Christ unto God. We are not our
own; we belong to Christ. And He promises to keep us in the true faith
through the Gospel and the Sacraments (1 Pet. 1:4-5). In His almighty
hands we need not fear the power of the tempter (John 10:28-30; 1 Cor.
10:12-13). He gives us the armor we need to ward off the schemes of the
devil (Eph. 6).
3. Defeat of Enemies and Victory for Zion
According to Isaiah 13-23, the defeat of the oppressor means victory
for Godís people. The preliminary B.C. victories proleptically looked forward to the definitive victory. That victory, to be consummated at Christís
second advent, has already happened in history. By His life, death, and
resurrection Jesus Christ has already defeated the devil, the world, and all
the powers that persecute Christís people.15 Through the Gospel and the
Sacraments, the crucified, risen, and exalted Lord Jesus Christ gives us a
14
15
348
Lutheran Worship, 137.
See, for example, Luke 10:18; John 12:31; 16:33; Col. 2:15; Heb. 2:14-15; 1 John 3:8.
share in His victory. Although it is now hidden under the cross, we through
faith are already more than conquerors.
4. The Gathering of All Nations to Zion
As we have seen, Godís ultimate goal revealed in Isaiah 13-23 is to
draw all nations to His presence in Zion. For the past 2000 years God has
been about fulfilling His ancient promise. Through the spread of the Gospel Zion has gone out to the nations, and the nations have been brought
into Zion. Hebrews 12:22-24 beautifully sets forth the fulfillment of Isaiahís
Zion theology:
But you have come to Mount Zion and to the city of the living God,
the heavenly Jerusalem, and to innumerable angels in festal gathering, and to the assembly of the firstborn who are enrolled in
heaven, and to God, the judge of all, and to the spirits of the righteous made perfect, and to Jesus, the mediator of a new covenant,
and to the sprinkled blood that speaks a better word than the blood
of Abel (ESV).
Here in Zion we Jews and Gentiles have already been gathered together
to the Messiah to enjoy His protection (Is. 11:10; 16:1-5). Here in Zion we
already receive the foretaste of the eschatological banquet as we orally eat
Godís Body and drink Godís Blood, the medicine of immortality (Is. 25:6-9).
Here in Zion we already pay homage to the Holy One of Israel as we sing
Zionís doxology (chaps. 12 and 25-26).
Conclusion
Chapters 13-23 of the Book of Isaiah can be easily overlooked. Yet
these chapters form an important part of the glorious vision God gives in
the Book of Isaiah. Not only that, they can also inform the churchís worldwide mission today. Isaiah 17:7-8 offers a fitting summary and conclusion:
In that day man will regard his Maker, and his eyes will look to the
Holy One of Israel. And he will not regard the altars, the work of
his hands; and that which his fingers have made he will not look
to, the Asherim and the incense altars.
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Babylon in the Book of Isaiah
Deomar Roos
I. Introduction
The present study has its focus on the texts linked with Babylon in the
book of Isaiah. It is the discussion of Babylon in the book that is here
under investigation as we observe what is there, both from the literary
and theological perspectives.
II. Survey of the Material
The material referring to Babylon in the book of Isaiah is found in two
areas: in the lexical and thematic fields. The lexical field provides the terminology related to Babylon, and the thematic field points to the Babylon
motif. The terminology referring to Babylon in Isaiah consists of three
BI (ìBabylonî), followed by {~yDif.K
~yDif.K
words. The main term is lb,
lb,B
~yDif.K; (ìChaldeansî)
and r[In>vi (ìShinarî). Other words may be related, but only these three referential terms are connected directly to Babylon.
BI has 287 occurrences in the
The Hebrew and Aramaic proper noun lb,
lb,B
Hebrew Bible, distributed as follows: twice in the Pentateuch, 237 times in
the Prophets, and forty-eight occasions in the Writings.1 The thirteen instances in Isaiah (13:1,19; 14:4, 22; 21:9; 39:1, 3, 6, 7; 43:14; 47:1; 48:14, 20)
represent 4.53% of the occurrences in the Hebrew Bible and 6.34% of those
BI refers to the city of Babylon, to the
in the prophetic books. The word lb,
lb,B
country of Babylonia, to the people of Babylonia, and to the Neo-Babylonian
empire. It is translated ìBabylonî (when referring to the major city in
central Mesopotamia)2 and ìBabyloniaî (when referring either to the country or to the land and its people).
The Hebrew proper noun ~yDif.K
~yDif.K; appears eighty times in the Hebrew
Bible, distributed as follows: three times in the Pentateuch, seventy oc1
BI, see Deomar Roos, ìBabylon in the Book of Isaiahî
For a treatment of the word lb,
lb,B
(Ph. D dissertation, University of Cambridge, 1997), 10-11. The meaning of the word is
lb,
BI,î in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament,
discussed by Helmer Ringgren, ìlb,
lb,B
eds. G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977, vol. 1),
lb,
BI ,î in Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament,
466-469; and by Louis Goldberg, ìlb,
lb,B
vol. 1, ed. R. Laird Harris (Chicago: Moody, 1980), 89.
2
The site is agreed to be the city named Hillah in the suburbs of modern Baghdad.
See H. W. F. Saggs, ìBabylon,î in Archaeology and Old Testament Study, ed. D. Winton
Thomas (Oxford: Clarendon, 1967), 39-56, and Jean-Claude Margueron, ìBabylon,î in
Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 1, ed. David N. Freedman (New York: Doubleday, 1992),
563.
Dr. Deomar Roos is a visiting Professor of Exegetical Theology at Concordia
Seminary in St. Louis, MO.
350
currences in the Prophets, and seven occasions in the Writings.3 The seven
entries of {~yDif.K
{~yDif.K; in Isaiah (13:19; 23:13; 43:14; 47:1, 5; 48:14, 20) represent
8.75% of the occurrences in the Hebrew Bible and 11.3% of those in the
prophetic books. The word {~yDif.K
{~yDif.K; has three basic meanings in the Hebrew
Bible: name of a people (ìChaldeansî or ìBabyloniansî), name of a territory
(ìChaldeaî), terminus technicus in the book of Daniel4 (ìChaldeansî as a
learned class skilled in interpretations, ìastrologers,î ìsagesî).
The Hebrew proper noun r[In>v
n>vi occurs eight times in the Hebrew
Bible (four times in the Pentateuch, three in the Prophets, and once in the
Writings).5 The single entry of r[In>vi in the book of Isaiah (11:11) represents
12.5% of the occurrences in the Hebrew Bible and 50% of those in the
prophetic books. There is no doubt about the meaning of r[In>vi in the Hebrew Bible; it is translated as ìShinar, Babylonia.î The Biblical usage and
the overall consensus take r[In>v
n>vi as referring to Babylonia as a geographical
territory of the Ancient Near East, which includes the city of Babylon and
the surrounding areas.
A reference to Babylon can also be detected in the book of Isaiah in
BI, ~yDif.K;
~yDif.K;, and r[In>vi are not present. It is identipassages where the terms lb,
lb,B
fied by means of other expressions in the context associated with Babylonó
namely, a thematic connection. From the thematic perspective, Babylon
as a theological motif in the book of Isaiah is detected in two texts that
lack terminological evidence. The first is in Isaiah 46, where Bel and Nebo
(vv. 1-2), the gods of Babylon, are depicted as powerless, humiliated, and
eventually taken off into captivity. The reference to these gods is a direct
allusion to Babylon. Secondly, Isaiah 52:1-12 recalls the past captivities (v.
4) and portrays Yahweh as returning to Zion, redeeming His people and
showing His power before the nations (vv. 8-10). Zion should depart quickly
(v. 11): ìGo out from there, from its midst!îónamely, from Babylon. This
pericope conveys a thematic reference to Babylon.
The following material of the book of Isaiah was identified and isolated
to be investigated: 11:11; 13:1ó14:23; 21:1-10; 23:13; 39; 43:14-15; 46; 47;
48; 52:1-12. Isaiah 40-45 will be examined as an introduction to the explicit
treatment of Babylon in the subsequent chapters. The treatment of Babylon
in the book of Isaiah is developed in terms of a restoration program on
behalf of Israel.
For a treatment of the word ~yDif.K
~yDif.K;, see Roos, 11-12.
See Daniel 2:2; 5:4.
5
For a treatment of the word r[In.v
n.vi, see Roos, 12-14. The etimology of r[In>vi is discussed by Donald J. Wiseman, ìShinar,î in The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the
Bible, vol. 5, ed. Merrill C. Tenney (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1986), 407-409; Ran Zadok,
ìThe Origin of the Name Shinar,î Zeitschrift für Assyriologie 74 (1984), 240-244; and
James R. Davila, ìShinar,î in Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 5, 1,220. See also Koehler and
Baumgartnerís The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament, vol. 4, 1,6071,608.
3
4
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
351
III. Isaiah 11:11
Isaiah 11 follows the preceding chapter on the judgment of Assyria and
provides an appropriate contrast to it. Upon the downfall of a forest (Assyria,
10:33-34), there will come an offshoot from the root of Jesse (11:1). Verses
1-9 depict the advent of Jesseís descendant (v. 1) as well as his God-given,
charismatic character (v. 2), and government (vv. 3-5). In virtue of his wisdom and might, all his actions will be done in righteousness and faithfulness (vv. 4-5). Nature will be transformed and the conditions of paradise
will return: fauna and humankind will both live together in harmony (vv.
6-9). Verses 10-16 describe the formation of the new community when the
remnant will be brought back from among the nations. Verses 12-14 announce Godís signal to the nations to gather the dispersed of Israel and
Judah. The result is the unification of the kingdom with sovereignty over
its neighbors. Verses 15-16 depict Godís intervention to remove the obstacles to returning: there will be a highway for the returning remnant,
like the path of the first Exodus.
The word r[In>vi (ìShinar,î v. 11) is the only connection to Babylon in
Isaiah 11. Two motifs are related to Babylon in Isaiah 11:11.6 First,
r[In>vi
Babylonia (r
n>vi) is one among eight geographical regions or nations named
in verse 11.7 Second, the noun r[In>vi represents a faraway place and nation.
It is connected with the scattered people of God and is mentioned on the
same level as other foreign nations. r[In>vi is a locus where Israelites will be
scattered and recovered; it is also a locus of Yahwehís redemptive action.
The allusion to r[In>vi in 11:11 inaugurates and sets up the nature of the
Babylon discussion, and it introduces the agenda of the restoration program in the book of Isaiah. The following arguments substantiate this
proposal:
1. The proper noun r[In>vi and the content of verse 11 bring Babylon to the
center stage for the first time, thus inaugurating the Babylon motif in
the book.
twOnq.l
2. The remnant will be ìacquiredî (twOnq.l
twOnq.li) by Yahwehís action with His
hand, a terminology that implies an opposition between Yahweh and
Babylonia. This overall understanding pervades the Babylon pericopes
in Isaiah, notwithstanding the distinct emphases and perspectives supplied by each text.
3. Verse 11 sets the agenda for the restoration program. First, the remnant of Godís people will be in Babylonia, a locus that is not their
proper abode. Therefore, they must be removed from there. Second,
the text asserts that God will act positively on behalf of the remnant of
His people in Babylonia. The outcome is that they will be recovered by
Verse 11 presents a major textual problem. See the commentaries.
There are five if we understand ~yir;c.mi
~yir;c.mi, sArt.P
sArt.P;, and vWK as referring to Egypt and ~YIh;
yYeai as a general designation for the west.
6
7
352
Yahweh outstretching His hands; this reflects opposition between God
and Babylonia. Third, Yahwehís positive action on behalf of Israel, and
consequently His presumed opposition to Babylonia, point to the formula that will be explicitly developed in other textsónamely, ìjudgment for the nations, salvation for Israel.î Fourth, the release of the
remnant is the result of Yahwehís ìreacquiringî His people, a motif
specially prominent in the second half of the book.
Thus Isaiah 11:11 enunciates the agenda of the restoration program in a
concentrated proposition, as follows: sometime in the future the remnant
in Babylonia will be rescued and brought back to its own land by the saving
activity of Yahweh. The task of the following Babylon texts is to unfold and
develop this agenda, as anticipated in Isaiah 11:11.
IV. Isaiah 13:1ó14:2
BI section in the book of Isaiah starts at 13:1 and runs until
The first lb,
lb,B
lb,
BI a
FIm;, 13:1)
14:23. The whole section stands under the same heading (lb,
lb,B
aF
and develops two major motifs found in continuity with each other: first,
the devastation of Babylon, intermingled with the day of Yahweh motif
(13:1ó14:2); second, the downfall of its king, associated with the ruin of
the city (14:3-23).
Isaiah 13:1ó14:2 opens the collection of oracles against the nations in
Isaiah 13ó23 and depicts the destruction of Babylon. The superscription
lb,
BI a
FIm;). The
(v. 1) labels the chapter as an ìoracle concerning Babylonî (lb,
lb,B
aF
oracle opens with a summons to battle and an assembling of warriors (vv.
2-3). The noise of the gathering troops is heard through the mountains (v.
4). The army assembled is a remarkable force collected from a ìdistant
landî and from the ìends of the heavens,î whose purpose is to destroy the
whole earth (v. 5). The arrival of the day of Yahweh is announced, when
men will be paralyzed with dismay (vv. 6-8). It will come as desolation
accompanied by the failure of heavenly bodies (vv. 9-12). Its purpose is to
punish the world for sin and destroy the impious and tyrants. Heaven and
earth will be shaken and few will survive (vv. 13-16). People will be hunted
like game, with no one to protect them. Mothers and children and even
the houses will not stand such an attack. The Medes are the instruments
of Yahwehís indignation, and its object is Babylon (vv. 17-19). The Median
troops are depicted as competent, ferocious, and unbribable. Babylon will
be completely destroyed like Sodom and Gomorrah and left as a place of
wild beasts and demons (vv. 20-22). Its days will not be prolonged because
its time is close at hand. Isaiah 14:1-2 focuses on Israelís future, depicting
their liberation and repossession of their own land. A reversal of fortunes
will be implemented: the captors will become captives and Israelís servants. The return will be shared by those joining Israel.
BI is found in verses 1 and 19, and ~yDif.K
The word lb,
lb,B
~yDif.K; occurs in verse 19.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
353
The content of the text shows that Isaiah 13:1ó14:2 is dealing with Babylon.
The following motifs are connected with Babylon in Isaiah 13:1ó14:2:8
1. Devastation of Babylon. Babylonís former glory will be gone, and the
city will be razed and inhabited by wild fauna and demons. The cityís
devastation is no historical accident but is theologically motivated. It
is Yahweh who is stirring up the Median army to accomplish His divine purpose.
2. Day of Yahweh. The punishment of Babylon is set in the context of the
hwhy ~wOy
~wOy, which permeates the scenario in Isaiah 13. The day of Yahweh
is referred to three times (vv. 6, 9, 13), is close at hand, and is coming
from Yahweh as the ìdevastatorî (v. 6) who will manifest Himself as
cruel, full of wrath and fierce anger on that day. The historical and
eschatological realities are put together in Isaiah 13: the judgment of
the world and the destruction of Babylon are intermingled in the text.
3. Yahwehís omnipotence. Isaiah 13 shows that Yahweh controls history
and nature, Babylon included. He summons the armies, controls the
heavenly bodies, and decides the final day; the destiny of the nations is
in His hands.
4. Israel. In contrast to Babylonís desolation, Isaiah 14:1-2 addresses
Israel with words of encouragement. There will be a reversal of fortunes due to Yahwehís positive action on behalf of His people.
Isaiah 13:1ó14:2 is thus inserted within the frame ìjudgment for the nations, salvation for Israel.î
In Isaiah 13, Babylon is the central motif and devastation is its sure
destiny. This accent is intermingled with the day of Yahweh motif, which
pervades the whole chapter. Israel is brought into focus in 14:1-2; this
provides a fresh insight to an otherwise gloomy text. Thus Isaiah 13 has
started the development of the restoration program in the book by pointing to the final destiny of Babylon.
V. Isaiah 14:3-23
Isaiah 14:3-23 opens with a short, prose introduction that refers to a
time of rest for Israel after hard service (vv. 3-4a). Then follows a taunt
lvImI) comprising a sharp irony over the fall of a monarch (vv. 4b-21) identi(l
fied as ìking of Babylonî (v. 4a). Verses 4b-8 report the kingís fall, which
brings rest to the earth and rejoicing for the trees of Lebanon. The king is
greeted by the inhabitants of Sheol on his arrival and is there subjected to
a miserable existence among worms (vv. 9-11). Verses 12-15 portray the
king as an arrogant, mythical character who sought to ascend above the
stars and establish his throne in heaven, intending to be compared to God
8
The inclusion of 14:1-2 with Isaiah 13 calls for a clarification. See Roos, 27, and the
commentaries.
354
Himself. However, he was cast down to the underworld. Verses 16-21 center on the unburied corpse of the king as a mocking spectacle for the
wondering observers. The taunt ends in a curse for the extermination of
the kingís name and descendants. Yahwehís triple oath rounds off the text
(vv. 22-23): He will destroy Babylon and wipe out its memory; its land will
be inhabited by wild fauna.
BI is found in the introduction (v. 4a) and conclusion (v. 22)
The word lb,
lb,B
of the taunt. The subject of the taunt in verses 4b-21 (the king) is thus
connected with the Babylon motif.
The following motifs are associated with Babylon in Isaiah 14:3-23:
1. The u[brij motif. This is the pivotal theme unfolded by the taunt over
GI (v. 11) and
the Babylonian king (vv. 4b-21), as indicated by the word !Aa
!AaG
the arrogant behavior of the ruler. The development of the pride motif
portrays the impressive attempt by the king in trying to match God
Himself on His own throne (vv. 13-14). It represents the climax of the
poem, when pride reaches its highest point.
2. Yahwehís omnipotence. The book of Isaiah assumes that Yahweh controls history, Babylonís included. The king of the universe, history, and
nature is not a human ruler but Yahweh. All rulers and kingdoms are
under Godís control. The powerful king of Isaiah 14 ended up in the
underworld; but, in contrast, Yahwehís intent will prevail.
3. Israel. In contrast to Babylonís doom, Israel is Yahwehís chosen people.
Their hard service will come to an end; a reversal of fortunes is in
store for Israel; and they will be at rest.
The prose sections in verses 3-4a and 22-23 insert Isaiah 14:3-23 into the
scheme ìjudgment for the nations, salvation for Israel.î
Isaiah 11:11, 13:1ó14:2, and 14:3-23 stand in a relation of continuity
and point forward to further unfolding of the Babylon motif in Isaiah.9 The
close links between 14:3-23 and chapter 47 should be underlined. While
11:11 suggests the positive aspect of the Babylon motif in relation to the
exiles, Isaiah 13ó14 reflects its destructive side, pointing to the final destiny of Babylon. The development of the restoration program in the book
of Isaiah is in progress.
VI. Isaiah 21:1-10
yI-rB;d.mi a
FIm; (ìoracle concerning the wilderness
Isaiah 21:1-10 is titled {~
{~y
aF
of the sea,î v. 1).10 The prophet sees a powerful storm ready to break (v. 1)
and announces that he has received a ìhard vision,î a vision of a disaster
(v. 2). Like whirlwinds in the wilderness, an enemy is coming with destrucThe connections with other Babylon texts are discussed in Roos, 52-54.
This difficult phrase has received attention by scholars. See commentaries and
Roos, 58-59.
9
10
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
355
tive power. There is a voice summoning Elam and Media to attack. This
revelation fills the prophet with anguish and bodily pain. The arrival of the
fresh evening breeze brings no relief to him. He finds himself in a state of
terror (vv. 3-4). The scene changes to a feast (v. 5). Preparations are made
and the banquet is proceeding when it is suddenly interrupted by a call to
arms: the guests are called from the feast to the field. The prophet is
commanded to assign a watchman to look out carefully for the possible
approach of riders (vv. 6-7). After a patient watch, the sentinel finally identifies the approaching rider (vv. 8-9). He reports that Babylon has been
overthrown and the images of its gods are shattered to the ground. The
last verse points to the source and addressees of the vision: it is a revelation from Yahweh directed to the oppressed people.
BI occurs once in the emphatic clause lb,
BI h
lIp.
nI h
lIp.
nI (ìfallen,
The word lb,
lb,B
lb,B
hl
p.n
hl
p.n
fallen is Babylon,î v. 9), thus connecting the pericope with the Babylon
motif.
The following motifs are linked with Babylon in Isaiah 21:1-10:
1. Babylonís devastation. Babylon is doomed and will be devastated, despite being an outstanding city with strong traditions since ancient
times. The cityís destruction is depicted at the end of the unit, and
there is no positive proclamation for its people.
2. Idolatry. The shattering of the idols of Babylon means the defeat of its
pantheon and the theological structure that supports the Babylonian
life. In the context of the book of Isaiah, it means, in the final analysis,
Yahwehís victory over the pagan theology.
3. Yahwehís omnipotence. The controlling power behind history is
Yahweh. The text implies that the fall of Babylon and its gods is no
historical accident but is theologically motivated. No powerful nation
and no god will take the control of history and nature out of Yahwehís
hands. Rather, the opposite is true: Yahweh is in control.
4. Israel. In contrast to Babylonís fate, verse 10 addresses Israel positively. Yahweh directs His fatherly attention to His chosen people, and
Yahweh deals with this nation with special care due to the special
relationship between them. Thus the formula ìjudgment for the nations, salvation for Israelî is present in this oracle.
Isaiah 21:1-10 has introduced a new and important element into the
discussion: the polemic against idolatry. The shattering of the idols in Isaiah
21 introduces the motif that will be developed in Isaiah 40ó45, leading to
the fiasco of Bel and Nebo in Isaiah 46. From this point onward, the polemic against idolatry becomes an integral element in the development of
the restoration program in the book of Isaiah.
356
VII. Isaiah 23:13
The superscription labels Isaiah 23 as an ìoracle concerning Tyreî
(rc
rco aFIm;, v. 1). Verses 1-7 present a negative portrait of Tyre and Sidon.
rc
Tyre is said to be destroyed, with no harbor left (v. 1). Both cities are
warned to be silent and ashamed because they will not be powerful and
influential anymore (vv. 2-5). Verses 8-13 shift the focus to reflect on who is
responsible for desolating these cities. Verses 8-9 state that God has planned
to devastate Tyre in order to defile its pride. Yahweh has shown His power
against Phoenicia, and Sidonís fortress has been destroyed (vv. 10-12). Sidon
will have no rest in Cyprus (v. 12b), and the land of the Chaldeans is set as
the example of a country that has felt the power of the Assyrians (v. 13).
Therefore wail, O ships of Tarshish! (v. 14). Verses 15-18 focus exclusively
on Tyre and anticipate its restoration after seventy years of neglect.
~yDif.K; #r,a
Isaiah 23 has a single reference to Babylon in the phrase {~yDif.K;
#r,a,
BI refer(ìthe land of the Chaldeans,î v. 13), thus making verse 13 a lb,
lb,B
ence.11 The following motifs are related to Babylon in Isaiah 23:13:
1. Devastation of Babylon. This motif is articulated when the destruction
of the land of the Chaldeansónamely, Babylon and the surrounding
areasóby the Assyrians is set as a warning example for Phoenicia.
The content of the warning is precisely the totality of Chaldeaís desolation.
2. Yahwehís omnipotence. In Isaiah 23, Yahweh is against Phoeniciaís
pride and sets the land of the Chaldeans as a sure sign that His wrath
will fall upon Tyre. Godís hand is behind the peopleís abasement.
BI reference attests that Yahweh has active control over
Therefore, this lb,
lb,B
history and nature and directs the life of the nations.
Isaiah 23:13 ascribes to Chaldea a function of symbol, even though a
negative one. If this was implied in 13:1ó14:23, it is now expressly stated
at 23:13. Therefore, Isaiah 23:13 contributes a new element to the discussion: namely, Babylon as a type.
VIII. Isaiah 39
King Merodach-Baladan, of Babylon, sent envoys to bring letters and a
gift to King Hezekiah, who has recovered from being sick (v. 1). The embassy is welcomed by the Judean king. They are shown all the kingdomís
treasures and weapons (v. 2). The prophet Isaiah comes into the presence
of the king and inquires about the embassy (vv. 3-4). After being informed
about the visit, Isaiah prophesies the carrying off of Jerusalemís treasures
11
70.
This verse has some difficult textual problems. See the commentaries and Roos, 69-
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
357
and Hezekiahís descendants to Babylon sometime in the future (vv. 5-7).
Hezekiah apparently accepts the doom and thinks that there will be peace
and stability in his days (v. 8).
BI occurs four times in this chapter: lb,
BI-%l,m
BImi
The word lb,
lb,B
lb,B
-%l,m, (vv. 1,7), lb,
lb,B
BI (v. 6). The text mentions the name of the Babylonian king,
(v. 3), and lb,
lb,B
Merodach-Baladan (v. 1). The whole narrative presupposes the Assyrian
background and the political maneuvers by Merodach-Baladan in Hezekiahís
time.
The following motifs are connected with Babylon in Isaiah 39:
1. Opposition to Babylon. The prophetís oracle to King Hezekiah is harsh
and opposes Babylon. Isaiah appears to see in the reception of the
embassy and in the display of the resources an act of rebellion against
God. This explains the prophetís opposition to political alliances.
2. Babylonian exile. The chapter reflects concern with events beyond
Hezekiahís time. The oracle is connected with the Babylonian exile
when the text is read in its historical perspective and in the context of
the whole book. Subsequent history exhibits the descendants of
Hezekiah (especially Jehoiachin) taken to be punished in Babylon, the
nationís and the templeís wealth transferred to Babylon, and the Judean
people deported to Babylon in the events of 598/587 B.C. The Davidic
line was thus interrupted, and submission to Babylon was inevitable.
3. Yahwehís omnipotence. Yahweh intervenes via the prophet in opposition to Babylon. As subsequent history demonstrated, the kingís plan
was proven a deception. Later, when Babylon turned out to be an empire, it became Judahís oppressor, not its partner.
Hence, Isaiah 39 exhibits Yahweh as the one who directs His peopleís history, even in opposition to their own plans.
Isaiah 39 contributes three new elements to the Babylon discussion in
the book of Isaiah. For the first time the punishment of Israel is implied by
the text in connection with Babylon. Secondly, for the first time a reason is
given for the punishment of Godís people. The chapter accepts a political
maneuver as a valid reason for discipline. Thirdly, for the first time Babylon
is presented as the locus and the instrument of Judahís punishment. This
prepares the way for the second half of the book and the exile.
IX. Isaiah 40ó45
Isaiah 40ó45 introduces the Babylon discussion in the second half of
the book of Isaiah and leads to its culmination in chapters 46ó48 and 52.
This introduction offers not a random discussion but rather a theological
elaboration of the Babylon theme. As such, it indicates a deliberate composition aiming toward its climax. A progressive development in the introduction is discernible as the text evolves and approaches the climactic
358
chapters. Isaiah 40 speaks generally and does not mention the deliverance
from the Babylonian exile. Isaiah 41 promises help in general and refers to
a hero from the east and north who shall conquer nations and kings (vv. 2,
25). In the last verses of Isaiah 42, it becomes clear that the prophet is
referring to the deliverance of Israel from the captivity in which it was
being held by ìrobbersî (v. 24). Isaiah 43 states that deliverance from Babylon
is meant (vv. 14-15). Isaiah 44 names Cyrus, describes his function as a
deliverer, and refers to the rebuilding of Jerusalem and the temple (vv. 2427). The second half of chapter 45 describes the exaltation of Israel and the
invitation to the nations to come to Yahweh and be saved (v. 22). The
Babylon motif and restoration program are introduced, outlined and narrowed down in Isaiah 40ó45, thus ready for their climax in Isaiah 46ó48
and 52.
BI section, designates Babylon explicitly. For the
Isaiah 43:14-15, a lb,
lb,B
BI and ~yiD.f;K are explicitly mentioned in the second part of the
first time lb,
lb,B
book, and the message conveyed is the defeat of Babylon (v. 14). The blow
against Babylon was sent by Yahweh and reflects His control over the
nations. It thus anticipates the downfall of Babylon as predicted in Isaiah
47.
The following motifs are linked with Babylon in Isaiah 40ó45:
1. Babylon. The Babylonian captivity is taken for granted in the background of these chapters. Babylon is named once, and it is said that
Yahweh will send someone to devastate it; its inhabitants will flee in
their ships (43:14). The purpose of the defeat of Babylon is to set Israel
free (43:14; 45:13). The deliverance from Babylon is mentioned (45:13)
and is portrayed as a second Exodus (43:19-20).
2. The nations. A disputation among Yahweh, the nations, and their gods
is developed in these chapters, Babylon included. Yahwehís opponents
are summoned to appear in court (41:1; 43:9). The gods cannot match
the challenges proposed by Yahweh and are considered as nothing (40:1517), being like their rulers under Godís control (40:23-24). Yahweh will
overcome His enemies (42:13), and the nations and adversaries of Israel (Babylon included) will be utterly defeated (41:11-12). However,
Yahwehís relationship to the nations is not only negative. They have a
role in Godís project: the Servant of Yahweh will bring justice to the
nations (42:1-4); they are Yahwehís agents for the punishment of Israel (42:24-25) and will come to Israel and realize that Yahweh is among
them (45:14). The nations are invited to turn to Yahweh and be saved
(45:22). Thus Babylon is included in the positive project that God has
for the nations.
3. Cyrus. King Cyrus is a vital element in the Babylon discussion in these
chapters. Cyrus is Yahwehís shepherd (44:28), anointed one (45:1), agent
(43:14), and one grasped by His right hand (45:1). He is empowered to
overcome Babylon. Yahweh has brought him from the east and north
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4.
5.
6.
7.
and will give up the nations (Babylon included) before him (41:2-3, 25).
He will fulfil Yahwehís purpose with Babylon and Israel (44:28). The
release of Israel from the Babylonian bondage is the main purpose of
Yahwehís action through Cyrus (43:14; 45:4, 13).
Gods and idolatry. The gods of the nations are depicted as nothing
(41:24), unable to prove their divinity in disputation (41:21-23; 43:9);
and this is applicable to the Babylonian gods. They cannot claim to be
gods and are an abomination (41:24). The same applies to the idols.
They are useless (40:19-20), lifeless, do not help and cannot save (44:17,
20). The very nature of the idols is faulty: they are the result of human
labor (44:13, 15, 19). The idol makers are ashamed and confounded
(45:16); and the idol worshipers are nothing, have a deceived heart and
will be put to shame (44:9, 20; 42:17; 45:16). Thus the way is prepared
for the fiasco of the Babylonian gods Bel and Nebo in Isaiah 46.
Exodus. The release from Babylon is described as a new Exodus (43:1920; 44:3). It conveys the picture of a deliverance from the Babylonian
oppressor and a second return to Zion, Babylon being left behind.
Yahweh. The character of Yahweh is strongly underlined in order to
describe Him as the God who can defeat Babylon and its gods and
release Israel from the Babylonian exile. He is depicted as the only
God (43:11-12; 44:6-8), only Savior (43:10-11), incomparable (40:12-14,
18; 46:5); there is no other God besides Him (44:24), and the nations
will realize it (45:14). He is the controller of nature and history (40:1826). As such, He will overcome Babylon.
Israel. The picture of Israel is characterized by tension in the Babylon
discussion of Isaiah 40ó45. First, the text has a message of reproach.
Israel is seen as an unbelieving people (43:22-28) and is handed over to
destruction (43:28), the nations (presumably Babylon) being the agents
for its punishment (42:24-25). Second, Israel is Godís chosen people
and will be set free from Babylon (43:14). God will trade peoples in
exchange for Israel (43:3-4), and her people will be recovered from the
ends of the earth (43:5-6). The nations will come to Israel and worship
the true God (45:14). After the release from Babylon, Jerusalem will
be inhabited and its ruins and temple will be rebuilt (44:26, 28). The
special status of Israel as chosen people is confirmed, and the formula
ìjudgment for the nations, salvation for Israelî is here present. Babylon
is counted among those ìnations.î
Isaiah 40ó45 exhibits an uncommon consistency in introducing the
Babylon discussion. The different motifs are interwoven throughout as
the text evolves toward its climax. The input of Isaiah 40ó45 represents a
remarkable progress in the development of the restoration program. The
stage is now set for the culmination of the treatment of Babylon in the
book of Isaiah.
360
X. Isaiah 46
lB
OAbn
With no formal introduction, the text names Bel (lB
lBe) and Nebo (OAbn
OAbn>),
the chief Babylonian gods. They are bowed down, stoop and are being led
on the backs of beasts into captivity (vv. 1-2). In contrast, Yahweh has
carried His people since ancient times and will continue to do so in the
future (vv. 3-4). Verses 5-7 show the incomparability of Israelís God over
against all other gods. The gods are made of costly material, they are
carried on menís shoulders, and they are set down so that they will not fall
over. However, they do not respond to cries; they cannot save their worshipers in the time of their distress. Verses 8-11 present the events of the
past, foretold and fulfilled by Yahweh, as evidence that He is the true God.
The same God has now called Cyrus to execute His plans. The conclusion
of the chapter turns to the deliverance and glory of Zion, despite the hardness of the peopleís heart (vv. 12-13).
Verses 1-2, 11, 13 are linked with Babylon, and verses 5-7 are associated with the nations in Isaiah 46. Although loosely, verses 9-10 are also
connected with the nations. The Babylonian gods Bel and Nebo are named
in verse 1, Cyrus is alluded to in verse 11, and Israelís approaching salvation is referred to in verse 13. This connects the whole of Isaiah 46 with
the Babylon discussion.
The following motifs are associated with Babylon in Isaiah 46:
1. Babylonian gods. The all-important motif of this chapter is the downfall of the Babylonian gods. The heads of the Babylonian pantheon are
defeated (vv. 1-2) and cannot save even their own worshipers (v. 7).
2. Idolatry. Verses 1-2, 6-7 issue a strong statement against idolatry. The
idols are nothing else than the work of human hands. They are deaf,
blind, and lifeless; do not help, and cannot save. They cannot move by
themselves but have to be moved by others. The gods here envisaged
are the gods of Babylon.
3. Yahweh. This chapter points to two aspects of Yahwehís nature that
are important in the Babylon discussion: His incomparability and His
kindness. Yahweh is really unique, has shown His power in the events
of the past that He planned and executed (vv. 9-10), and will succeed in
His purpose of sending Cyrus to capture Babylon and let Israel go free.
He is incomparable and controls history and the destiny of the nations. At the same time, Yahweh is the kind God who shows mercy to
Israel. In verses 1-4 the central theme is the contrast between the
idols which are carried, and Yahweh, who carries His people. The
Babylonian idols are carried into captivity, while Yahweh carries the
remnant of Israel out of captivity. Godís deliverance is very close for
Zion (v. 13). This is associated with the approaching release from
Babylon.
4. Israel. The theme of Israel is treated in tension. The disloyal Israelites
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361
are addressed as ìtransgressors, rebelsî (v. 8), ìstubborn of heartî and
ìthose who are far from justiceî (v. 12). Yet, at the same time, Israel is
the object of Godís kind intent. They have been carried by God since
ancient times and will be sustained until old age (vv. 3-4). Yahwehís
salvation is coming close and will be announced to Zion (v. 13). Therefore, the formula ìjudgment for the nations, salvation for Israelî is
here present.
5. Cyrus. The instrumentality of Cyrus in Godís intent against Babylon is
underlined. Cyrus is designated as a ìbird of preyî (v. 11), which probably refers to his conquests throughout his career. He is named as
ìthe man of my [Yahwehís] counselî (v. 11). He is the one called to
execute Yahwehís plan of releasing the exiles from Babylon.
Isaiah 46 has explicit references to Babylon and is totally integrated
with Isaiah 40ó45. The theological basis for the existence of Babylon is
here undermined. The heads of the Babylonian pantheon are humiliated
and defeated. The irony expressed in the image of the gods going into
captivity is devastating. In contrast, the incomparable superiority of Yahweh
stands out. He is the only God and is victorious over the gods of Babylon.
With such sharp assertions, the discussion about idolatry in Isaiah reaches
its culmination and is concluded.
XI. Isaiah 47
Isaiah 47 starts in medias res, deals with the downfall of Babylon, and
employs the literary device of the city personified as a queen. Babylon, the
enthroned queen, is told to sit desolate on the ground. Instead of living in
luxury and being served, she will have to put on a servantís dress, work for
her own food, and be exposed to public shame. She has treated Israel with
cruelty and now has to face Yahwehís vengeance (vv. 1-4). In her arrogance, she thinks of herself as triumphant and secure against any retribution (vv. 5-7). However, ruin will come upon her suddenly. All her supposedly powerful superstition, and magic arts will be of no help at this time. A
disaster is coming that no sorcerer can charm away (vv. 8-11). So let
Babylonís wise men save her! But they cannot even foresee the coming
disaster. They themselves and the city of Babylon will be ruined. The final
verses (vv. 12-15) focus on the forces that Babylon is counting on, those
unable to help her. Verses 14-15 convey a vision of a fire that consumes
everything, and the final sentence seals Babylonís doom: ìYou have no
savior!î
Isaiah 47 has terminological and thematic references to Babylon. Out
of its fifteen verses, all but one (v. 4) are directly related to Babylon. The
BI and ~yDif.K
words lb,
lb,B
~yDif.K; occur in verses 1 and 5. Verse 4 may be understood as
integrated in the context despite having no explicit terminological connection with Babylon. It rounds off the first unit, and its doxological content
362
seems to celebrate the assertion of the preceding verses by ascribing to
Yahweh the victory over Babylon. Therefore, all the verses of the chapter
are linked to Babylon.
The following motifs are linked with Babylon in Isaiah 47:
1. Babylonís devastation. Isaiah 47 culminates and concludes the discussion about the devastation of Babylon. The reason for the cityís defeat
is summarized in verse 3: Yahweh will bring vengeance upon Babylon.
Its astrologers will not be able to protect it. The last few words of the
chapter (v. 15) are remarkable: ìThere is none to save you!î
2. Babylonís u[brij. Babylonís pride is characterized by strong claims. She
describes herself as the ìmistress of kingdomsî (v. 5); she thinks that
she is alone (v. 8) and will stay forever (v. 7); no one sees her actions (v.
10), and thus she can do whatever she wants. Her exaggerated complacency amounts to blasphemy.
3. Babylonian astrology. The attack on the astrologers and magicians (vv.
12-15) is linked with the discussion of Babylonís downfall. The astrologers are ironically summoned to save Babylon, something they are
not able to do. Therefore they are false advisers, good for nothing, and
unable to avert Babylonís capitulation.
4. Israel. Babylonís dealings with Israel reflect a tension. Verse 6 states
that Yahweh was angry with His people and handed them over to
Babylon. At the same time, Israel is close to being released from her
Babylonian captivity. Therefore, the formula ìjudgment for the nations,
salvation for Israelî is present in Isaiah 47.
The motifs of Isaiah 47 present a consistent picture of Babylonís devastation. The previous allusions and references to Babylonís capitulation are
taken up, expanded, explained, and fulfilled in Isaiah 47. The discussion
about the Babylonian oppression over Israel is thus concluded.
XII. Isaiah 48
Isaiah 48 starts with a solemn word to the people of Israel, who have
been disloyal to God and are charged with swearing falsely in the name of
Yahweh (vv. 1-2). Yahweh evokes the past events, which He foretold and
which came to pass (v. 3). Despite Israelís obstinate attitude, Yahweh has
announced future actions in advance so that the people could not ascribe
them to their idols (vv. 4-5). God declares that He is now providing ìnew
thingsî and ìhidden thingsî that they do not know (vv. 6-7). However, Israel is treacherous and a rebel from birth (v. 8). The people were tested in
the furnace, but since they do not deserve Godís good intents, Yahweh will
keep His glory for His own sake (vv. 9-11). God makes known to Israel that
He is the only one who created the universe (vv. 12-13). He is now about to
bring His servant Cyrus to perform His purpose against Babylon (vv. 14CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
363
16). Although Israel failed in keeping Godís commandments (vv. 17-19),
she should not despair. The deliverance from exile is close at hand (vv. 2021). Verse 20 exhibits a joyful call to Israel to flee from Babylon and to
declare to the ends of the earth that Yahweh has redeemed His people
from captivity. Verse 21 conveys a vivid description of the return in terms
of Exodus imagery. The final verse rounds off the chapter and the first
major section of the second half of the book, which began in Isaiah 40.
Isaiah 48 has terminological and thematic references to Babylon. The
BI and {~yDif.K; occur in verses 14 and 20 as terminological links. All
words lb,
lb,B
the other links are thematic. Verses 6-7 point out the ìnew thingsîí to be
brought about by God, namely, the deliverance from captivity. Verse 10
states that Israel was refined in the furnace (presumably of the captivity),
and verse 11 asserts that Yahweh will not give His glory to another god
(presumably the Babylonian gods). Verses 14-16 refer to Cyrus, who will
accomplish Yahwehís purpose against Babylon. Verses 20-21 convey a jubilant song in which Israel is summoned to leave Babylon. Verse 22 represents a general observation that may also include Babylon.
The following motifs are connected with Babylon in Isaiah 48:
1. End of Babylonian captivity. Verses 20-21 convey a jubilant song and
bring the Babylon discussion to its first climax. The people are not
only invited but actually summoned to go out of Babylon. Yahweh has
redeemed His people, and they are now free from bondage (v. 20). Verse
21 portrays the return from Babylon as a second Exodus.
2. ìNew thingsî and Cyrus. In the context of Isaiah 48, the ìnewî and
ìhidden thingsî (v. 6) are the defeat of Babylon and the release from
the Babylonian exile. Such important events are directly linked to Cyrus
and his conquering actions, as indicated by verses 14-15. Godís purpose is against Babylon. His arm is shown as acting against the
Chaldeans. He loves Cyrus (v. 14) and has called the Persian king to
serve Him in the conquest of Babylon (v. 15). Cyrus will fulfill Yahwehís
purpose (v. 14).
3. Yahwehís omnipotence. The chapter asserts that the release from the
Babylonian bondage is actually provided by God. God has created the
ìnewî and ìhidden thingsî (v. 7) and will postpone His anger against
Israel (v. 9). He is depicted as the ìfirstî and the ìlastî (v. 12). His hands
made heaven and earth (v. 13). He invites Israel and the nations for a
disputation and presents Cyrus as the one who will accomplish His
purpose against Babylon (v. 14). Yahweh is the sovereign God who, via
Cyrus, defeats Babylon and releases Israel.
4. Israel. In contrast to the great news of release from Babylon, a sad
tone mars the celebration of this chapter, namely, Israelís sinfulness.
Of the twenty-two verses of this chapter, eleven address the disloyalty
of Israel (vv. 1-2, 4-5, 8-10,17-19, 22). The sin of Israel is exposed and
the severity of its diagnosis is a most striking feature. This exposure
364
of sin forms an anticlimax to the song of victory. Regardless of this sad
reality, the formula ìjudgment for the nations, salvation for Israelî is
found in this chapter.
Isaiah 48 provides an important contribution to the development of
the restoration program in Isaiah, since it brings the release from captivity to the forefront. The Babylonian gods and nation have been defeated.
Now is the time of liberation. This is announced by the victory song of
verse 20-21. The restoration program here reaches its climax and must be
celebrated. However, the sad reality of Israelís disloyalty mars the joyous
feast. This forms the anticlimax to the positive conclusion. Therefore, the
celebration is postponed. That is the reason the new celebration, as described in 52:1-12, will be held later.
XIII. Isaiah 52:1-12
The text exhorts Zion to exchange sorrow for joy and to put on festive
garments in anticipation of the approaching deliverance (vv. 1-2). Zion is
no longer to be defiled by uncircumcised and unclean foreigners. Instead,
she is to shake herself from the dust and free herself from the neck-fetters. Verses 3-6 recall the past Egyptian and Assyrian captivities. Yahweh
has decreed the overthrow of the oppressors and the release of the captives without price. Israelís bondage represents the dishonor of Yahwehís
name. A messenger appears on the hills and proclaims peace, goodwill,
and salvation to Zion, a message summed up with the words ìYour God
reigns!î (v. 7). The watchmen on Zionís walls will see the approach of Yahweh
at the head of the returning exiles (v. 8). In response, they sing for joy as
they witness Yahwehís victorious return. The waste places of Jerusalem
are invited to rejoice, for Yahweh has comforted His people (v. 9). He has
bared His arm before the nations with the salvation provided to Israel (v.
10). In conclusion (vv. 11-12), the people are summoned to go out, to depart
from Babylon. They should cleanse themselves of pagan practices. Now
they are free. A new Exodus is ready to begin, and they receive assurance
that Yahweh will conduct them to safety.
Isaiah 52:1-12 has no terminological reference but only thematic links
with Babylon. Verse 2 mentions the loosing of the ìbonds of your neckî and
addresses the ìcaptive daughter of Zion.î Verses 3-4 focus on the past Egyptian and Assyrian bondages. In verse 5, Yahweh asks, ìWhat have I here?îó
presumably in Babylon. Verse 7 depicts a messenger proclaiming that
Yahweh reigns, and verse 8 portrays Yahwehís return to Zion from Babylon.
Verses 9-10 announce Israelís redemption provided by Yahweh before the
nations. Verses 11-12 refer to the release and return from Babylon.
The following motifs are associated with Babylon in Isaiah 52:1-12:
1. Restoration of Zion. The pivotal theme of 52:1-11 is the redemption of
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
365
Israel from the Babylonian bondage. Zion, personified as a woman, is
elevated to the status of a queen (vv. 1-2). The reference to past captivities, the messenger with good tidings, the saving activity of Yahweh
before the nations, the summons to departóall focus on Zionís restoration. The formula ìjudgment for the nations, salvation for Israelî is
here present.
2. End of captivity. Zionís restoration is possible because the Babylonian
exile is ended. The fetters have been loosened from Israelís neck (v. 2),
a messenger has brought the good tidings (v. 7), and a new day has
dawned upon the captives. The exiles are now free and ready to return
to their own land, led by Yahweh Himself (vv. 8, 11-12).
3. Babylon. Babylon has a negative and a positive function in 52:1-12.
Negatively, Babylon is the locus of the oppression of Godís people and
a place to be left behind. It constitutes a temporary, oppressive abode
for Zion. Positively, Babylon is also the locus of Yahwehís redemption.
Godís saving action on behalf of Israel is done in Babylon before all the
nations of the world. It is in Babylon that Yahwehís control of history
and His mercy on Israel are demonstrated before the nations.
4. The captivities. The Egyptian and Assyrian bondages are mentioned
(vv. 3-4). Babylon as oppressor is presented as parallel to the earlier
captivity under Assyria (Is. 10; 14).
5. Yahweh. Three prominent motifs link Yahweh with the restoration of
Zion from the Babylonian bondage. First, it is important to underline
the presence of the hwhy ~Ay motif in this text. It is explicitly referred to
in verse 6 and taken for granted in verses 7-10. The day of Yahweh
motif emphasizes the constructive elements related to the release from
Babylon. Second, the extolling and enthronement of Yahweh are exhibited as the culmination of the good news brought by the messenger
(v. 7). Yahweh is King and reigns with divine power. Therefore, He is
capable of releasing His people from Babylon and leading them on the
return journey to Zion. Third, the defeat of the Babylonian oppressor,
the ascension of Zion to the throne, the release of the exiles, the return journey to Jerusalemóall are redeeming acts performed by
Yahweh. He has bared His arm before all the nations (v. 10), indicating
that Yahweh is fulfilling His ancient promises.
6. Second Exodus. The second Exodus as here proclaimed (vv. 11-12) is an
improved version of the first Exodus from Egypt. At this time there
will be no haste; the people should avoid any unclean contact; only the
temple vessels will be taken along; and God Himself will be all around
the returning exiles. This second Exodus will be a nobler experience
for the returnees from Babylon.
7. The nations. It is striking that Zionís redemption from Babylon is done
in the sight of the nations (vv. 8, 10). This reflects the idea that Israelís
release is not to be considered a private event, isolated from the rest
of the world. It is rather an event to be witnessed and to be proclaimed
366
to the nations of the world.
Isaiah 52:1-12 provides the second climax to the treatment of Babylon
in the book of Isaiah and thus concludes the discussion with a grand finale.
The text reflects intense jubilation which matches its positive message.
All the steps that lead to the release of Godís people from the Babylonian
captivity have been accomplished. Therefore the program of the restoration of Israel from Babylon has also reached its climax and is accordingly
concluded.
XIV. Conclusion
1. Thought Flow. When the Babylon texts are drawn together and read
in the Masoretic Text (MT) sequence, a progressive thought flow is discernible. Isaiah 11:11 sets the subject and tone of the discussion in the
whole book and the agenda for the restoration program. The opposition to
Babylon in Isaiah 13 is mingled with the day of Yahweh motif, and the
Medes are summoned to attack the city. The proud Babylonian king of
Isaiah 14 attempts to establish his throne in heaven but is thrown down
into Sheol. The ìhard visionî of Isaiah 21 depicts Babylon as defeated, with
its idols shattered to the ground. Isaiah 23:13 refers to past events, and
Chaldea is set as a negative example for Tyre. Isaiah 39 centers on the
Babylonian embassy and King Hezekiah. It points to the future, and
Babylon is envisaged as a locus of punishment and exile. Isaiah 40-45 sets
the subject and tone of the Babylon discussion in Isaiah 11 by introducing
BI section in 43:14-15. Isaiah 46
a long theological elaboration with a lb,
lb,B
focuses on the defeat of Bel and Nebo, the heads of the Babylonian pantheon. This is followed by the downfall of the nation, Babylon personified
as a proud queen (Is. 47). The exiles, now free, are summoned in Isaiah 48
to leave Babylon, but the sad reality of Israelís sins constitutes an anticlimax. The final climax comes in Isaiah 52:1-12, when the exiles are for the
second time summoned to depart from Babylon.
2. Literary Structure. The Babylon texts exhibit a remarkable literary
structure when they are drawn together.12 A double structure (with introduction, development, transition, and conclusion) is discernible. Isaiah 11:11
introduces the Babylon discussion in the book by describing a summary of
the restoration program. This is followed by the development of the motif
in Isaiah 13-14; 21:1-10; and 23:13, sections unified by the theme of opposition to Babylon. Isaiah 39 comes next, with its transitional character. Although belonging to the first half of the book, Isaiah 39 looks to the second part. The same structure is repeated in the second half of the book.
Isaiah 40-45 introduces the treatment of Babylon by a detailed, theological
elaboration in preparation for its climax. This is followed by Isaiah 46-47,
12
See diagrams on the following pages.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
367
where the theme of opposition to Babylon is developed and the city and its
gods receive the final blow. The double conclusion comes in Isaiah 48 and
52. The first conclusion (48:21-22) is marred by the strong charges against
Israel, thus becoming an anticlimax. The second conclusion (52:1-12) contains a vibrant celebration that concludes the treatment of Babylon in
Isaiah.
Three important observations should be stressed in connection with
the overall literary structure of the Babylon texts. First, the structure is
clearly symmetrical. The texts exhibit a coherent outline and provide an
easy flow to the treatment of Babylon in the book. Second, the theme of
opposition to Babylon comprises the bulk of the treatment of Babylon in
both halves of the book. And third, such a sequence of the Babylon texts in
the MT reflects a probably deliberate plan in the final form of the book.
Therefore, the literary structure of the Babylon texts provides an important argument for the unity of the book of Isaiah.
3. Terminology. The prominent vocabulary links in the treatment of
Babylon should be highlighted. The first obvious connection is found among
lb,
BI, ~yDif.K
the three words for Babylon (lb,
lb,B
~yDif.K;, r[In.v
n.vi) that are distributed throughout the texts. The phrase aWhh; ~AYB; (11:11; 52:5) is connected with hwhy ~Ay
BI ~ymi
yI (39:6). Isaiah 11:11
(13:6, 9), APa; !Art] ~AOy (13:13), ~AyB
~AyB. (14:3), and ~yai
~yaiB
~ymiy
and 52:5 form an inclusio that envelops the Babylon texts. The verb rW[ is
important and is associated with Yahweh (13:17; 42:13) and His anger
(42:13), the Medes (13:17), Sheol (14:9), Cyrus (41:2, 25; 45:13), and Zion
(52:1). The abandonment of the Babylonian site (13:21-22; 14:23; 23:13) is
characterized by the presence of wild fauna, conveyed by synonymous words.
GI occurs at 13:19 and 14:11 and matches the image of Babylon
The word !Aa
!AaG
as a proud queen in Isaiah 47 (where the word does not occur). The use of
the preposition !m
!mi is significant in that the remnant will be recovered from
Shinar (11:11) and that the exiles are told to depart from Babylon and
Chaldea (48:20), and from ìthereî and ìits midstî (52:11). These passages
are linked in the sense of a place from which the exiles will be recovered.
The connections of the verb hnq (11:11; 43:24) with lag (43:1, 3-4; 44:22, 23;
48:20; 52:9) in the sense of the redemption motif should be highlighted.
The word dyI and the hand motif generally is used throughout (11:11; 13:2,
[;Arz
7; 40:2; 41:20; 45:12; 48:13). In 52:10, it is Yahwehís arm ([;Arz
[;Arz.) that is bared
before the nations. The recurrences of gn<[
gn<[o and hGInU[
nU[] (13:22; 47:1), tyriaev
tyriaev. and
raIv. (11:11; 14:22; 44:17; 46:3), and rWVa; (11:11; 23:13; 52:4) are found at
strategic points of the Babylon texts. Although not distinctive in the Babylon
ynIdoa
aI hK
texts, the messenger formula (y
doa]) hwhy rm;
rm;a
hKo is a favorite one in the
bIc.
second half of the book. The holy name hwhy and Godís designation as tAa
tAab
hwhy or lae
rIf.yiyheloa
laer
yheloa/ are found in both halves of the book. The standard phrase
lae
rI.f.yi vAdq
laer
vAdq. is found only in the second half of Isaiah, whereas hwIhy.-~aun
hy.-~aun. is
used throughout the book, always denoting authority. The six occurrences
of the expression aWh-ynia
aWh-ynia], a favorite in the second half of the book, are
linked with Yahweh and oppose the claims of the daughter of Babylon, who
368
says, ìI am!î (47:8).
Two main conclusions emerge out of this identification. First, the vocabulary links stitch the Babylon texts together. Second, the vocabulary
links seem to reflect a relation of continuity and sometimes of progression
among the Babylon texts in which the same term is employed in the unfolding of a similar motif.
4. Types of Babylon Texts. The different kinds of references to Babylon
may be classified as positive and negative. Positively, Babylon is portrayed
as the glory of the pride of the Chaldeans (13:19); this refers to its greatness and power. In a possible gesture of courtesy, Merodach-Baladan sends
an embassy to greet King Hezekiah upon his recovery from illness (39:12). The negative perspectives in relation to Babylon refer to distinct situations. They refer, for instance, to Babylon as a locus of punishment and
exile (39:6-7) and as a negative sign to Tyre (23:13). Shinar is a place from
which the remnant will be recovered (11:11). Babylon is a place to be left
behind (48:20; 52:11), to be avoided by people (13:20), and to be inhabited
by wild fauna (13:21-22; 14:23; 23:13). Babylon is also a political entity to be
opposed. God is definitely against it (14:22; 48:14); it will be attacked by
other nations (13:17; 21:2; 23:13; 43:14); and its days will not be prolonged
(13:22). Its sure future is devastation (13:22; 14:23; 21:9; 23:13; 43:14; 47).
Babylon is also perceived in terms of its religion. Its gods will be shattered
(21:9), defeated, and taken into captivity (46:1-2). Its wisdom and magic
can save no one in the day of trial (47:9, 12, 14). Babylon is referred to in
terms of human relationships: The king of Babylon is thrown into Sheol
(14:4), the queen is dethroned (47:1-2), and its descendants and name are
wiped from the face of the earth (14:22).
5. Isaiah 52. It is important to stress that Isaiah 52:1-12 constitutes a
lb,
BI section and, as such, is regarded as an integral part of the treatment of
lb,B
Babylon in the book of Isaiah. This pericope is terminologically and thematically integrated with the other texts in the book. The day of Yahweh
motif in its background, the links with Isaiah 40, and the vibrant celebration of the release constitute important reasons, among others, to include
Isaiah 52:1-12 among the Babylon texts.
6. Babylon Motifs. The major Babylon motifs in the book of Isaiah may
be summarized as follows:
a. Babylon. The desolation of Babylon is the central motif in the Babylon
texts. It is stated that Babylon will be devastated (13; 21; 23:13; 43:14; 47)
and its idols will be defeated (21; 46). In Isaiah 14, Babylon is represented
by its king, who attempts to replace God on His throne in heaven but is
cast into Sheol. The abandonment of Babylon is indicated by the destruction of its palaces, the indwelling of wild fauna, and its transformation into
a flooded site (13:21-22; 14:23; 23:13). God has a purpose against Babylon
(48:14), and there is no salvation for it (47:14-15). The purpose of the downfall of Babylon is to set Israel free (43:14; 45:13), and the exiles are told to
go away from Babylon (48:20; 52:11).
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369
b. Exile. The theme of the Babylonian exile is present under two aspects. First, it occurs in terms of people being taken into exile, as suggested by Isaiah 39:6-7. Second, the release motif is clear in the recovery
of the remnant from Shinar (11:11) and in the end of their hard service and
in their return to their own land (14:1-3). Cyrusís task is to free the exiles
(45:13), which happens when they are summoned to depart from Babylon
(48:20; 52:11).
c. Yahweh’s omnipotence. In Isaiah 11:11, Yahweh recovers the exiles
from Babylonia. In Isaiah 13, He musters the heavenly army, brings in the
day of Yahweh, and stirs up the Medes to attack Babylon. In Isaiah 14:1-3,
He shows mercy on Judah. In the taunt of Isaiah 14, Yahweh humiliates
the proud king, punishes the rulerís descendants and country, and turns
Babylon into a ruined and abandoned site. In Isaiah 21:9, Babylon has
fallen and its idols are shattered to the ground, presumably by Yahweh. In
Isaiah 23:13, He sets the land of the Chaldeans as a sign against Phoenicia.
In Isaiah 39, Yahweh intervenes via the prophet to change Hezekiahís
intent. Yahweh is depicted as the only God and Savior, and there is no
other god besides Him (43:10-12; 44:6-8). He is incomparable (46:5); no
other god was with Yahweh at the creation of the universe (44:24), which
He controls (40:18-26). God has a purpose against Babylon (47:3; 48:14).
The final victory hymns declare that Yahweh has redeemed His people
from captivity (48:20; 52:1-2, 11-12). Therefore, Yahweh has a firm and
active control over history and nature.
d. Cyrus. The Persian king is a vital part of the whole Babylon discussion in Isaiah. Yahweh loves Cyrus (48:14); he is Godís anointed and is
grasped by the right hand (45:1). Cyrus is designated as Yahwehís shepherd (44:28), a bird of prey (46:11), the man of Yahwehís counsel (46:11),
and His agent (43:14). God has called him, gives the nations before him
(41:2-3, 25), and makes his way prosper (48:15). Cyrus will fulfill Yahwehís
purpose concerning Babylon and Israel (44:28; 45:13; 48:14).
e. Israel. The land of Shinar includes Babylon, from where the exiles
will be recovered (11:11). Isaiah 14:1-3 states that Yahweh will choose Israel again, they will be settled in their land, and they will be freed from
heavy service. In Isaiah 21:10, Yahweh addresses Israel as ìmy threshed
oneî and ìson of my threshing floor.î The second half of the book exhibits
a double picture of Israel. First, it brings a message of reproach. Israel is
considered a blind and deaf servant (42:18-25); the people do not believe
Godís promises (43:22-28; 48:1-19); and the nations are Yahwehís agents
for their punishment (42:24-25). Second, it also offers a positive perspective. The purpose of Babylonís defeat is to set Israel free (43:14; 45:13).
God is ready to trade nations and peoples in exchange for Israel (43:3-4),
and their children will be recovered from the corners of the earth (43:5-6).
The nations will come to Godís people and realize that Yahweh is among
them (45:14). The discussion closes with the good news of Israelís release
and return (48:20; 52:11).
370
f. Idolatry. Isaiah 21 depicts the Babylonian idols as shattered to the
ground (v. 9). The book also asserts the uselessness of the idols (40:19-20).
They are lifeless, do not help, and cannot save (46:7). The very nature of
the idols, as the result of human labor, is faulty (46:6). Babylonís gods are
gone into captivity (46:1-2), and the Babylonian astrologers and magicians
cannot save the city (47:12-15). The sharp irony of Isaiah 44:9-20 mocks at
all the idols, idol makers and idolaters. The idol makers are ashamed (45:16)
and the idolaters will be defeated (42:17).
g. The u[brij motif. It may be possible to detect overtones of the pride
motif in the portrait of Babylon as the beauty of kingdoms and the splendor of the pride of the Chaldeans (13:19). The u[brij motif is indicated in
13:11. In Isaiah 14, the proud Babylonian king defies God Himself. The
devastation of the land of the Chaldeans is the assurance of the desolation
of proud Phoenicia (23:9, 13). Babylonís pride in 47:5, 8, 10 is striking,
coming close to blasphemy (47:7). In contrast, those who show u[brij are
overcome by humiliation and defeat brought about by God.
7. Comparison. A comparison between the major Babylon motifs in
the book of Isaiah shows their similarities and differences. Despite the
differences, a clear relation of continuity and development is found among
the Babylon texts. The recovery motif launched by 11:11 is picked up in
the release from exile in 45:13, whose climax is reached in 48:20-21 and
52:11-12. The devastation of Babylon as stated in Isaiah 13 is continued in
Isaiah 14, 21, and 23 and is picked up and developed in Isaiah 47, which
constitutes the climax of this theme. The day of Yahweh motif of Isaiah 13
is resumed in Isaiah 52 in its positive and saving aspects. The Exodus
motif, which seems to be implied in 14:1-3, is openly stated in 41:17-18;
43:16-21; 48:21; 52:12. The u[brij motif of Isaiah 14 recurs at Isaiah 47. The
proud Babylonian king allusion of Isaiah 14 is echoed in the proud queen
allusion of Isaiah 47; the queen also represents Babylon. The polemic
against idolatry started in Isaiah 21 is picked up and continued in Isaiah
40ff., reaching its climax with the Babylonian gods being carried into captivity (Is. 46). The exile, implied in 11:11 and 14:1-3 and referred to in
Isaiah 39, has its continuity in the presupposed Babylonian exile in the
background of the second half of the book, and finds its counterpart in the
reversal of Israelís fortunes at 48:20-21 and 52:11-12. The strong charges
against Israel in the second part of the book seem to be an addition to the
gentle perspective found in the earlier chapters. Despite this peculiarity,
the formula ìjudgment for the nations, salvation for Israelî is consistently
found throughout the Babylon texts. There seems to be a spiral movement
in the Babylon texts, from a general to a more particular approach. The
same subjects are picked up in later chapters but with distinct perspectives.
8. Picture of Babylon. The overall picture of Babylon in the book of
Isaiah may now be assessed. It has an ìintensely and virtually unrelievedly
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
371
negative character.î 13 Babylon is first referred to as a locus from which the
exiles will be recovered (11:11). It is doomed to devastation in Isaiah 13-14
and 21, in which chapters its own capitulation, the abandonment of its
site, the cutting off of its name and survivors, and the shattering of its
gods are depicted with dramatic intensity. Babylon is raised as a negative
warning symbol before Tyre (Is. 23), because it was not able to resist the
Assyrian power. The possible gesture of courtesy (although with a diplomatic intent) by the Babylonian king encountered a negative reaction of
Yahweh via the prophet Isaiah (Is. 39). Yahweh declared that Babylon would
become a locus of punishment and captivity for Judah. Isaiah 40-45 emphasizes the nothingness of the nations before Yahweh, regardless of their
power. The devastation that God has in store for Babylon is anticipated in
43:14. The full development of Babylonís devastation comes with its gods
being taken into captivity (Is. 46) and with its capitulation under the picture of the dethronement of a proud queen (Is. 47). Yahweh definitely has
a purpose against Babylon (48:14). After its downfall, Babylon is for the
last time referred to in the book in 48:20-21 and 52:11-12óas a locus to be
left behind by the now-exultant, free people of God. With this, the treatment of Babylon is concluded; Babylon is not mentioned anymore in the
book of Isaiah.
9. Restoration Program. The treatment of Babylon in Isaiah unfolds in
Godís restoration program for Israel. The author presupposes that Judah
is in captivity under Babylon, depicted as a terrible oppressor. Hence,
Babylon must be defeated so that the exiles may be set free. That is the
function given to Cyrus by Yahweh, namely, to overcome Babylon so that
the release may be achieved. The treatment of Israel, although more optimistic in the earlier chapters, is realistic in the latter chapters. The exiles
are faced by strong charges that mar the celebration of the release (Is. 48);
and a second celebration, more complete, is conveyed by Isaiah 52. Despite His peopleís fickleness, God is clearly on the side of Judah and against
the Babylonians. The interaction among Yahweh, Judah, and Babylon shows
that the major objective is the release of the exiles. Although the aim of
BI reference (11:11), its
the program is already disclosed in the first l,b
l,bB
accomplishment is unfolded progressively, step by step, toward its climax
BI section (Is. 52). Therefore, the restoration program is a
in the last lb,
lb,B
project with distinct progressive features, aiming at the defeat of Babylon,
the release of the exiles, and their return to Zion.
10. Unity of the Book of Isaiah. In line with recent scholarly observations about unifying features of the book of Isaiah, this investigation has
detected some important indications that the final form of the text was
assembled with a clear objective. First, the Babylon motif is discussed in
the first half of the book and is continued in Isaiah 40-52. Babylon references are found throughout most of the book, between Isaiah 11 and 52.
13
Christopher T. Begg, ìBabylon in the Book of Isaiah,î in The Book of Isaiah, ed. J.
Vermeylen (Leuven: University Press, 1989), 124.
372
Second, the distribution of the Babylon texts does not seem random. They
are rather organized in a successive and progressive sequence. Third, the
basic vocabulary of the Babylon texts has several important points of connection. In several cases, there is a strong suggestion that the words were
picked up from a previous Babylon text and continued in the new text with
interpretive treatment. Fourth, the themes depicted by the Babylon texts
demonstrate a progressive unfolding, seem to exhibit a basic internal harmony, and do not involve contradiction in the overall picture. Fifth, some
sections present a remarkable connection. For instance, 11:11 has a close
proximity with 52:1-12; Isaiah 14 and 47 match quite well; Isaiah 46 seems
to pick up its main theme from 21:9; Isaiah 40:1-11 has close links with
52:1-12; Isaiah 48:20-21 is parallel to 52:11-12. Sixth, the overall sequence
of the Babylon texts is striking: there is an introduction, development,
transition, and conclusion of the discussion. Seventh, the symmetrical literary structure of the Babylon texts is remarkable and seems to reflect a
deliberate compositional intent. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude
that these features, as well as the overall treatment of the Babylon motif,
provide an important contribution to the unity of the book of Isaiah.
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373
Is.
1-39
11:11
The remnant of Godís people will be recovered
from Shinar.
13:1-14:2
- The hwhy ~wy motif.
- The devastation of Babylon by the Medes.
- The return to Zion.
14:3-23
- The proud Babylonian king.
- The devastation of the land, descendants,
and name.
Introduction
Development
13
14
21:1-10
- The ìhard visionî by the prophet.
- Media and Elam are summoned to attack.
- Babylon is fallen and its idols are shattered.
Is.
40-66
21
23:13
Chaldaea as a warning example to Tyre.
23
39:1-8
- A historical narrative.
- The Babylonian embassy to Jerusalem.
- Oracle concerning the Babylonian exile.
Transition
40-45
- The nations are nothing before Yahweh.
- Idol making and idolatry are foolishness.
- Cyrus is called and given a task.
- Yahweh is the only God, there is no other.
- Babylon will be devastated.
46:1-13
The Babylonian gods are defeated and sent
into captivity.
Introduction
Development
Gods
47:1-15
- Babylon is personified as a proud queen.
- Babylonís devastation.
- Babylonís sages and magic are useless.
48:1-22
- Anticlimax: strong charge against Israel.
- First climax: ìGo out from Babylon!î
52:1-12
- Israel is personified as a queen.
- Yahwehís redemption of Israel.
- Second climax: ìGo out from there!î
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Nation
Conclusion
48
52
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
375
Is.
40-66
Is.
1-39
Development
Introduction
47:1-15
Babylon, personified
as a proud queen, is
defeated; and its
wisdom and sages
cannot save it.
46:1-13
The Babylonian
gods Bel and Nebo
are defeated and
sent into captivity.
Opposition
to Babylon
21:1-10
The ìhard visionî
of the devastation
of Babylon and its
idols.
23:13
Chaldaea as a
warning example
to Tyre.
13:1-14:2
The day of Yahweh
motif and the
devastation of
Babylon.
14:3-23
The proud Babylonian king and the
devastation of
Babylon.
Opposition
to Babylon
Development
Theological
elaboration
40-45
The nations, idolatry,
Cyrus as Yahwehís
agent. Yahweh is the
only God. Babylonís
devastation.
11:11
The remnant of
Godís people will be
recovered
from Shinar.
Program
summary
Introduction
Second conclusion
(climax)
52:1-12
Israel personified
as a queen, and
the summons to
the exiles to go out
from Babylon.
Conclusion
First
conclusion
48:1-22
Israelís disloyalty
as an anticlimax,
and the summons
to the exiles to go
out from Babylon.
39:1-8
Historical narrative:
The embassy from
Babylon to King
Hezekiah.
Transition
to Is. 40-66
Transition
Homiletical Helps on LW Series A
óOld Testament
All Saintsí Day
Isaiah 26:1-4, 8-9, 12-13, 19-21
November 7, 2004
I am sometimes a bit perplexed by how the authors of our pericopes break up
certain texts. The problem here is that the way this text has been divided makes it
quite different in tone from the text in its original, complete form. In the one
instance, it is a text that emphasizes grace and judgment. As it has been presented to us, it emphasizes grace without judgment.
On All Saintsí Eve, Martin Luther posted his theses on the door of the Castle
Church for academic debate on the issue of whether one could purchase salvation
through letters of indulgence. All Saintsí Eve was the day prior to All Saintsí Day.
Because the saints would be walking the earth on November 1 (All Saintsí Day),
the ghosts and goblins and wicked spirits would be out the day before, making
mayhem because they could not emerge when the saints were present. From this
we get the term All Hallowed Eíen, or Halloween.
But in all the mayhem of celebrating this fall festival, the All Saints Day has
been completely lost. Of course, as nonsuperstitious Lutherans, we know that
there is no more likelihood of saints, ghouls, or goblins emerging on one day rather
than another. I suppose if God wanted to send back a modern-day Samuel, as He
did to Saul and the witch of Endor, He could. Speculating on the timeline of the
afterlife is a risky thing; but from a Reformation perspective those who departed in
the faith are either in the grave, or perhaps with Jesus in heaven (from their
perspective), or else awaiting the judgment in sleep, and in any case not likely to
bother us (dogmaticians have disagreed over such things, and I would not presume
to second-guess them and solve all these matters here). In any case, prior to the
actual resurrection and judgment, we do not believe that there are any more saints
appearing among us on November 1 than there were on the day before or will be on
the day after.
Then what does the term All Saintsí Day mean for us? This has to do with our
understanding of what in fact constitutes a ìsaint.î Our belief is that all believers
in Christ Jesus are saints, not because they are or were particularly ìsuper holyî in
life, but because Christ died and gave them His grace and faith and declared them
holy. In effect, He raised them from the dead by His powerful Word while they are
or were still in this life. So all who believe in Jesus Christ as their Lord and Savior
are saints. On All Saintsí Day, we Lutheran Christians celebrate those saints who
are among us now (the believers in this world) and those who have preceded us into
glory (believers who have died). It is a day of remembering that there is a resurrection to new life for all who believe in Christ, and a resurrection to judgment for
those who do not.
The text: Our text supports this theme in several ways. First, is the concept of
the strong city. Isaiah rejoices in the ramparts, walls, and gates where the righteous enter. While Jerusalem was a fortified city, I believe that Isaiah is referring
to that city we call an eternal home, the New Jerusalem, the city of faith in God. Of
course, we more clearly understand that this faith is a faith in Christ Jesus, and
376
Isaiah does indicate that this city is established by God.
There is a here-and-now quality to this city as well. It refers not only to the city
that is to come, but also to the city of God on earthóthe bride of Christ, the church.
Note that verse 7 (not part of the pericope) says: ìThe path of the righteous is level;
O upright one, you make the way of the righteous smooth.î Here is God preparing
the way. Here is Jesus justifying and straightening the hearts of people so that
they take the smooth path that God has prepared. As the psalm says, ìYou broaden
the path beneath my feet.î The work of making saints, citizens of the New Jerusalem, is Godís. He is the One who makes them righteous. Through the blood of Jesus
Christ, He changes the heart and broadens the path. He makes them people of the
narrow way to eternal life and transforms them so that they walk in it, turning
neither to the right nor the left. And the result of this straightening out is that we
yearn for God. Godís ìteachingsî (better than ìlawsî here) are the desire of our
hearts. The new man craves new things, and the Word of God is what he thrives on.
The new man also craves fellowship with God and looks for true justice in the
world. He desires that the wicked be converted to righteousness and that all people
be saved.
God is a God of peace. He establishes peace for us and in us. Through us, He
accomplishes what He wills. We glorify the Prince of Peace, who makes us whole.
The name of Jesus Christ is exalted among us. He is the source of the resurrection
mentioned in verse 19. He is the One who has set things right and who is the
firstfruits of our new life and new kingdom.
Verses 20 and 21 indicate a time of testing and wrath. Shutting the doors
while Godís wrath passes by would have had special meaning for Jews accustomed
to celebrating the Passover; for in the Passover the angel of death passed by the
doors that were shut, guarded by the blood of the lamb. Here we find a message of
refuge. After a little while of suffering and ambiguity in this world, all will be clear
in the judgment. And Godís people will prevail in heaven.
Here is a message for all the saints. God protects and cares for you through
Christ Jesus. By His blood He has made your paths straight, and now you await
your fulfillment in the kingdom He has established for you, where you will enjoy
peace, freedom, and justice forever.
Tim Dost
Second-Last Sunday in the Church Year
Jeremiah 8:4-7
November 14, 2004
Notes on the text: 1. In their examination of the structure of Jeremiahís prophecy, some scholars place our text at the beginning of a section that extends from 8:4
to 10:25. The previous section (7:1-8:3) is concerned with aspects of religious practices current in Judah at the end of the seventh century B.C. Specifically, it speaks
about abuses in the appropriation of pagan rites and in the misuse of the temple
cult. The section in which our text occurs seems to be a miscellaneous collection,
but two themes appear: (a) Israelís incurable rebellion, and (b) Israelís inevitable
doom. Our text focuses on the former. Most scholars date this oracle to the early
years of Jehoiakimís reign, between 605 and 601 B.C.
aI hKo ~h,ylea] TIr>m;
aIw>The initial formóas frequently seen in
2. Verse 4: hwIhy> rm;
rm;a
r>m;a
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
377
Deuteronomy, for example, is usually translated as an imperative, with the force of
a command and with Yahweh understood as the subject. It functions to link this
dmoo[
text with Yahwehís initial command in 7:2: ìStand (dmoo[
dmoo[}) in the gate at the house of
tI;a
rIqIw>) this word and say (TIr>m;
aIw>)Ö.î This is a command
the Lord and proclaim (t
;ar
r>m;a
repeated in 7:27-28, so one can see that the text is loosely related to what has
preceded it.
3. Verses 4-5: In these verses Yahweh asks a triple sequence of questions,
followed in verses 6-7 by accusation. Most commentators understand the first two
questions as rhetorical questions that offer general truths about human nature.
That is why they are usually translated something like: ìWhen men fall, do they
not get up again? If they turn aside, do they not turn back?î (This translation
notwithstanding, note the switch from singular verbs to plural, which seems to be
a common feature in prophetic literature.) Israelís behavior, then, is set in contrast
to what people naturally do. The implication is that in their continual apostasy,
the people of Israel are acting in a most unnatural way! The Hebrew is somewhat
tricky here, but the meaning is clearówhile it is a general truth that people who
ìturn asideî naturally ìturn backî (to go the way they are supposed to), Israel is
persistently or continually turned (the wrong way!). Throughout these verses
bWv
yI h
bIb.v h
bIvum
Jeremiah is playing with different forms of the Hebrew root bWv (bWv
bWvy
hb
hb
vum.).
The root can be used to refer to ìphysical turning,î (e.g., ìIf one turns away, will he
not turn back?î) or also ìspiritual turning,î (e.g., ìWhy is this people continually
spiritually turned?î) Most English translations have ìrebelliousî as the translation in verse 5. Perhaps Jeremiah wants the readers to conceive of the possibility
that repentance for Godís people should be as much a part of them as ìgetting up
after one falls.î It is, after all, how Godís people have been (re)created! But it is not
happening!
wI yTib.v;q.h
4. Verse 6: [mIv.a,
v.a,w
yTib.v;q.hiìI have listened and heard,î i.e., to what His people are
saying. This utterance could be understood as a hendiadys: ìI have listened
!ke-aAlWrBed;y
carefullyî(!ke-aAlWrBed;y
!ke-aAlWrBed;y>). The Hebrew word can be understood in two ways: as a noun
meaning ìtruth,î in which case the phrase would be translated, ìThey are not
speaking the truth.î Or it could be understood as an adverb, ìthus,î in which case
it would be translated: ìThusly (in this way, i.e., as repentant people) they are not
At
[IrI-l[; ~
tIgI vyai !ya
[IrI-l[
At[
~t
!yae). The phrase At
At[
-l[; occurs five times in Jeremiah
speakingî (At
with Yahweh as the subject. This adds to the irony of Israelís behavior. Yahweh ìis
regretfulî over ìevil,î but the people are not.
5. When considering the pragmatics of the text so far, one notes that verses 45b are in the form of questions that are rhetorical. As such, they can be analyzed as
ìaccusations.î Yahweh begins by indirectly accusing His people of refusal to repent. In verses 5b-7, Yahweh appears to move to direct accusation. He is being less
subtle in order to persuade Israel to have a change of heart. No direct threats or
assertions of judgment are yet given. Yahweh is speaking much like a father who
wants to win his child back to him and who does not want to punish him. Yahweh
employs several strategies to accomplish His goal.
6. Verse 7: This verse ends the unit as it began, with a general truth that is set
[d;
yI) how
in contrast to Israel. Even animalsóunclean animals so it seemsóknow ([d;
[d;y
to respond to the ìnatural order of things.î They intuitively obey the ordinances
yI) the
Yahweh has established. But surprise! Yahweh’s people do not know (also [d;
[d;y
precepts of Yahweh. The rhetoric is powerful! When it comes to responding to
Yahweh, Israel ìknowsî less than unclean birds!
Sermon notes: This is a difficult text on which to preach because it seems to be
378
a specific word of accusation against apostate Israel. Most of us probably are not
going to be preaching to a congregation of unrepentant people who have fallen away.
It would seem inappropriate to simply substitute ìyour congregationî for ìunbelieving Israelî or to make such an identification. However, the text was probably
chosen because it is near the end of the church year when themes of judgment and
Godís wrath over sin are prominent.
Perhaps headway can be made by looking at what Yahweh is doing in this text
and by trying to accomplish that in the congregation. Since Yahweh wants repentance, perhaps the aim of the preacher in this sermon will be to talk in such a way
that the people actually repent. In other words, rather than trying to explain how
we are like Israel in the text, the preacher should proclaim so as to bring about
contrition and faith. The following outline is one way the preacher might proceed.
Suggested outline:
I. Look at how God treated His children of old.
A. He accuses them of leaving Him but not coming back.
1. They are not behaving as He (re)created them.
2. They thought God would never judge them (chap. 7).
3. He speaks this way to win them back.
B. Accusation preceded His punishment. Yahweh was long-suffering.
1. But punishment did come.
2. He exiled His own son. Look at how God treated His children!
II. Look at what God does, even to His own children today!
A. You see it at the cross.
1. He did not spare His own Son.
2. Accusation and execution fell on Christ.
B. How is God, finally, going to deal with us?
1. When will judgment fall?
2. What hope do we have that He will spare us?
C. We have every hope in the world. God canít give up His children.
1. RememberóHe brought Israel back from exile.
2. RememberóHe brought back Israel (Christ) from the grave.
3. Rememberóyour Baptism has made you His, so resurrection is your
hope too.
Timothy E. Saleska
Last Sunday in the Church Year
Jeremiah 23:2-6
November 21, 2004
ìPastorî is the churchís other word for shepherd. Pastors come in many varieties, but one thing is certainóthey all are tempted and tested by their sinful natures. Some do better than others in terms of their office (here read as officium in
Latin, meaning duty). This does not necessarily mean that they are no longer
shepherds. It simply means that no indelible character makes them intrinsically
different from others. They too have the battle between the New Adam and the Old
Adam, and sometimes they fail. Jeremiah does not have this sinful weakness in
mind when he writes about apostate shepherds; instead he accuses those who have
abandoned their duty of being unworthy wolves who fleece the flock.
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379
What distinguishes good shepherds from hirelings (to use Jesusí terminology,
John 10:12-13) or from lazy and abusive shepherds (to cite the Jeremiah passage)
is not their completely sinless or perfect character. The good shepherd feeds the
sheep and cares for them (John 10). The sheep are then able to prosper; but without
good shepherding, nobody does well. The shepherd does not maintain his livelihood, because the sheep cannot contribute to it. The sheep do not prosper because
they are harassed and abused.
Now, this makes it sound like it is all a matter of works. In the sense of the
signs that mark a good shepherd, it is. But this is not what makes the shepherd
good and able to do the good works required of God. Though there are good
undershepherds who tend the flock, what makes them good is the Good Shepherd,
who laid down His life for the sheep (John 10:11). Here we can see analogies in all
the ministry of Jesus. He heals the sheep from their various diseases. When wolves
want to attack and destroy peopleóhere read people such as those who would
judge mercilessly, as in the case of the woman caught in adulteryóJesus deals
with them. In the feeding of the five thousand, He has the people sit on the grass
and feeds them in companies, as a shepherd would feed his flock. And when it
finally comes time to redeem the sheep, there is the Good Shepherd, laying down
His life for us. As John the Baptist cried, ìBehold, the Lamb of God, who takes
away the sins of the worldî (John 1:29).
Answering the age-old question of pastoral vocation and office is a tough one.
Many say that call is more important; other say that office is more important. But
if we take the Scriptures seriously, we find that what is truly most important is
neither call nor office, but rather the Word. In the sense of John 1, the Word (Christ)
empowers and enables the carrying out of the office and enables the congregation
to issue a call. The Word becomes flesh and makes His dwelling among us. The
Word empowers us for both proclamation and practice. And it is this Word, found in
both the proclamation of the Word (in the Scriptures and in faithful preaching of
that Word) and in the sacramental Word, that empowers, enables and refreshes
the ministry we have with one another. It is the Word that builds the body of
Christ, through the power of His sacrifice and His Holy Spirit. It is truly by His
stripes that we are healed (Is. 53:5). It is through this renewing sacrifice that we
carry out our duties as called and ordained servants of the Word.
But where does this leave the laity? They too have a role. Although they do not
have the formal office, they are engaged in what we call (to paraphrase Peter) the
priesthood of all believers (1 Pet. 2:5-9). Members of the body of Christ also make
sacrifices and serve to support the shepherd who has been appointed for them.
Furthermore, they take advantage of the spiritual gifts and talents that they enjoy
as regenerate people through the Word.
So in the end, Christ is all in all. He is the Good Shepherd, who by His sacrifice
and death transformed us into undershepherds and flocks of well-tended sheep.
He is the One who has redeemed and paid for us and heals all our ills. He places us
in a position, despite our sinful nature, to bring the Word of God to others; and by
His grace empowers us to be the people of God, faithful to the calling we have
received from Christ. As renewed, refreshed, and enlivened people, we bring that
new Word of forgiveness and salvation to a world hungering and thirsting for the
righteousness of Christ. We all feed and tend those who are lost, bringing them into
the flock and counting on Christ to transform them through the Word we proclaim
by the power of the Holy Spirit. And on the Last Day, we will all rise to behold the
truth that Christ has paid for us. To this end, Christ empowers and enables us
380
along the way. Praising Christ, the believers will enter the joy of His kingdom, the
true and restored Israel and Judah; but those who do not believe will be punished
eternally. Here will be the true, eternal fruits of the Word who became flesh and
gave His life as a ransom for all. And there will be praise and thanksgiving for the
kindness of God in Christ Jesus to His children.
Tim Dost
First Sunday in Advent
Isaiah 2:1-5
November 28, 2004
Isaiah 2:1-5: Before getting too far into the study of this text, just sit back and
enjoy the poetry for a moment. Notice the subtlety, the nuances. Revel in the synthetic parallelism of verse 2, which advances the thought of the first part of the
verse; and the synonymous parallelism in verses 3-5, which repeats the element of
the first part of the verse in different words. God not only seeks to give His people
notification of what is to come; He does it with beauty and finesse.
Godís Beautiful Word Happens
I. With poetic imagery the mountain of the Lordís temple is lifted up.
A. The temple of the Lord was built on a hill in Jerusalem, on Mount Zion.
B. To raise a mountain is a formidable task.
C. God raises His mountain above all the other mountains by installing His
Son (Ps. 2:6; 9:11).
II. With pageantry, people of all ethnic backgrounds are drawn toward the mountain.
A. All nations will stream to it. No one will be left out (v. 2 ; Micah 4:1-3).
B. All cultures and subcultures are included. Subcultures in the United States
continue to grow.
C. People need to cross ethnic lines and beckon to their friends to go up
together for renewal (v. 3).
D. God will meet them in His house (1 Chron. 7:12; Matt. 12:6; John 2:19, 21;
Rev. 21:22).
III. With serenity, an era of justice and grace will be ushered in among the people.
A. God Himself will be involved in a new world order.
B. The dream of having no more war becomes a reality because God intervenes.
There are other foci in this text. Behind the text is a living, moving God who
operates not in a purposeless, good luck, first-mover fashion. He intervenes and
establishes true faith among the people of the world.
God Moves Forward with an Overall Plan for the World
I. He lifts up His plan of salvation as supreme over all other religions (v. 2;
Islam, Buddhism. Is. 42:8; Matt. 16:18).
II. He brings salvation through His chosen people, from Zion, Jerusalem (v. 3;
Gen. 12). He grafts in the New Testament people (Rom. 11:17).
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381
III. Godís plan brings justice and peace, now and in the future (v. 4).
A. This plan does not seek to use religion as a means of power or vengeance
(Rom. 12:19).
B. It centers in the forgiveness of God through the Messiah.
C. Godís peace is a precursor of heaven (Heb. 12:18-22).
This may be an important theme, due to the high exposure our people and our
college students are receiving to other religions and due to the societal tolerance
that is taught, a practice that reduces all religions to partial truths of a whole.
Also, the differences between the kingdom of the right and the kingdom of the left
may be important to discuss. When a religion seeks to obtain worldly justice through
power, it uses only Law and never Gospel. Therefore, the core of true religion is lost
and peace cannot prevail. Only the Gospel can change the hearts of humankind.
Another aspect of the text is that it is an oracle of redemption tucked in
between the judgments of chapter 1 and chapter 2:6-22. The moment of grace is
surrounded by the teaching of Godís Law.
Never the Same Again
I. God has set a day for punishing the arrogance of humankind (vv. 11-12).
A. The day of the Lord will bring both judgment and grace.
B. It happened at the birth of the Christ, and it will happen again at the Last
Day.
II. God will be God.
A. He has decided that these are the last days (2:2; Heb. 1:1-2).
B. God has decided that His way is the chief way (v. 2).
III. Godís way leads to peace (vv. 4-5).
A. Godís focus is elsewhere than on getting even.
B. Faith believes that people and nations can be changed (Heb. 11:1).
C. It is the role of believers to point to the mountain of the Lord (v. 3).
Godís Benefit Plan
I. Faith gives us Godís perspective on life (vv. 3, 11).
A. Godís Law keep us from destroying ourselves.
B. Godís grace offers us renewal in place of being stuck in sin.
II. Faith leads to a higher quality of life.
A. Ongoing forgiveness reduces interpersonal conflict (e.g., two adults who
were confirmed after being married said, ìWe donít fight as much as beforeî).
B. Faith leads to a society that tends to focus on societal forgiveness and
pragmatic solutions instead of vengeance and never-ending conflict.
III. Faith enables us to prepare for the life to come.
A. We are able to focus on the meaning of life and to live in repentance and
grace.
B. We are able to interpret life in the light of Godís Word and hold on.
C. A man had multiple sclerosis. When he temporarily lost his ability to
hear, he said, ìPerhaps God wants me to listen a little better.î Thatís a
beautiful faith.
Gary Schaper
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Second Sunday in Advent
Matthew 3:1-12
December 5, 2004
Though the church-year focus still falls on Advent, society is bent on dragging
us toward Christmas, counting down ìdays untilîóeven as the celebration snowballs. Golden visions of the holiday pick up energy, and weíre urged to prepare. Donít
wait till the last minute! This morningís text urges the same, though in a more
sober way, yet also with far greater joy in the offing.
ìCommercial Adventî (though the world hardly calls it that) conjures up warm
and cuddly images, and we hear lofty pronouncements this time of year about the
goodness of humanity (versus the goodness of the One who became man, just one of
many contrasts at nearly every turn). But even so staunch a promoter of human
potential as the Enlightenmentís Immanuel Kant confessed that ìout of such
crooked timber like that of humanity, no straight thing can ever be made.î So much
for golden optimism: ìÖno straight thing can ever be made,î though Kant still
tried.
Fortunately John the Baptist never had the benefit of reading the philosopher
Kant, so John puts it straight to his hearers: make straight the way! Level it all
out; smooth things till thereís nary a ripple in the road; for the King is on the way,
and He deserves nothing less. But even if Kant thought such a process impossible,
John, deep down, certainly knows it to be true, at least if left up simply to his
hearers. ìRepentî is a call to radical change. Radical: ìradixî in Latin, or the root of
the matter; a thoroughgoing makeover in thought, actions, relationships; a top-tobottom change. Words like the Baptistís are meant for our eternal good, but thatís
too great a task to leave to us. Repentance is really the Lordís doing, because our
preparations would fall short. Yes, repent is an imperative, but donít get any big
ideas about what can be done. The best Johnís hearers really can do, then and now,
is to give up on doing and see God do all that is needed in their lives for them to
reach their place in the kingdom.
God comes to be Lord in His world, as we remind ourselves in Advent. His
worldónot Satanís though he labors under that delusionóthe world created and
re-created. Any doubt about that? Listen to the axe flailing away at the treeóno
mere trimming but a hewing down. Johnís listeners in a parched land knew there
was no room or water to waste. Fruit matters. Fruit of repentance and fruit in lives
claimed and then committed.
But our repentance does not make the situation new. It rather signals what is
already divinely done as God makes new. Only because God comes to claim His
property do we have a chance. The voice in the desert calls for preparation in the
desert of our lives. We would rather meet on more pleasant turf, but we have no
choice (thank God); for God has already come to take care of things in the desert. We
often talk of mountaintop theological events, but important work also happens in
the desert: the first/old Israel in the Sinai, now comes the true Israel (Jesus, the
Christ) to John in the desert, and then to be tempted in the desert, and finally the
new Israel of the church is made Godís by being brought through the desert of
emptying and the following, clinging. Some groups in the early church thought it
appropriate to go out to the desert and wait for the second Advent. But truth be
told, there is enough desert in daily lives, since the old Adam still plagues us. So
watch out for misguided, false hopes and claims of whatís out in the wilderness
(Matt. 24:26). John stood as a kind of Elijah returned (Mal. 4:5) both in image and
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383
message to make sure this Advent of the Messiah and the kingdom is not missed.
We have an even better perspective today.
Judging from the ìmultitudes,î the Baptistís message must have resonated.
But he did not get numbers by accommodating or soft-pedaling his point. Curious
Pharisees and Sadducees came to see what was up, and judging from Johnís response, to go through the motions. They wanted approval, in effect, for their attitude and approach; but John had none of it. But ìwe have Abraham as father.î So
what?! If God can give true repentance and make straight crooked timbers (Kant
was wrong), He can certainly make another Israel from stones. Beware of misplaced trust. ìBrood/generation of vipersî was no compliment. Johnís hearers no
doubt may have thought not only of the serpents that plagued Israel in Sinai but
also of the serpent in Eden. Who needs serpents in an already dangerous wilderness? And God certainly has no need of them to usher in the kingdom. God is not
going to conform to them; they had better conform to God with true, not sham,
repentance.
Johnís rejection of the Pharisees and Sadducees hardly meant that others he
had been baptizing were ever-after as pure as the driven snow. His baptism was a
dramatic gesture, but repentance is not a one-time-never-again actionónot then
anymore than it is now for us who are baptized not with Johnís water but with
Christís Spirit at the font. Donít get caught up in timeline actions but look rather to
relationshipsóhow one stands over against God. ìChristians arenít perfectójust
forgiven,î says the bumper sticker. ìJustî?! What else is needed? Pharisaical types
can complain that there are sinners and even hypocrites in the church, but thatís
okay, for the Word is also at work there. Better to have hypocrites still around to
hear the Law, with Gospel also close at hand when repentance comes. And where
else should sinners go? Certainly not out to wander in the deserts of their own
efforts.
John was the herald and gave way to the Messiah, who came, who still comes
in the means of salvation, and who has promised a second Advent. John is gone but
the Messiah is still at hand. That means we are not left to wander alone, but we
have One to whom we cling through deserts or through whatever may come till He
comes again. Repent, prepareóit is not wasted effort. It is part of all God does for
His own.
RepentóThe Lord Comes
I. Give up on straightening crooked timber (ourselves) and make straight His
way.
II. No hiding behind privileges; the ax is ready and there are a lot of stones.
III. Repent and rejoice: giving up on self makes room for Him who saves as promised.
Robert Rosin
Third Sunday in Advent
Matthew 11:2-11
December 12, 2004
Preliminary considerations: Who is Jesus Christ? This is a question that is as
old as the incarnation of the Son of God. Given the long and rich history of the
384
Christian church, it is surprising that it is still being asked, and it is equally
surprising that various answers are still being given. One would think that after
the many Trinitarian and Christological debates of the first five or so centuries of
the Christian era, with the resolutions of early ecumenical councils like Nicea I
and Chalcedon, and with the definitive works of people like Athanasius, Augustine, John of Damascus, and others the question would be settled.
We live in a day of increasingly watered-down Christianity, when churches ask
what kind of theology people want and which teachings will prove successful or
popular. Jesus has become many things other than the Savior of the world, the one
who died on the cross to win the forgiveness of sin in order to satisfy the demands
of Godís justice. Unfortunately, to some He is no more than a problem solver, a
teacher of morality, and an exemplar of upright living. To others He is someone who
can provide us with a life of success and prosperity, with a sense of security in a
time of international terrorism, and the final resource for incurable diseases and
other human maladies.
After more than four millennia of Old Testament prophecy and twenty centuries after the actual advent of Jesus Christ, we still need to ask about the Christ
taught in many Christian churches today the question of John the Baptist, ìIs the
Christ you proclaim the one who was to come [according to Old Testament prophecy] or should we expect someone else?î In some Christian circles Jesus is even
diminished in status to a position equal to the deity of most other religions.
My colleague Won Yong JI in an unpublished article quoted this dictum: ìThe
Truth (Tao, Tien) is one; interpretations (understandings) are many.î The truth
never changes; interpretations do. So there is only one Jesus Christ, but there are
many interpretations of who He is. How unfortunate that is, given the centrality of
His person and work to our eternal salvation. If you get Jesus Christ wrong, you get
redemption wrong. Even sadder is the fact that His identity is often determined by
popular consensus, rather than on the basis of Scripture or (for us) also on the
Lutheran Confessions. When this is the case we might well apply the wisdom of
the Danish existentialist philosopher Soren Kierkegaard, ìWherever the crowd is,
there is untruth.î The true identity of Christ will never be popular to people governed solely by their human nature and concerns of this world. If we accept the
popular Christ, we may lose the real Christ.
Textual considerations: If we find it surprising that the centuries of definitive
theological development have not solved the problem of Christís true identify for
many Christians today, it seems even more surprising that John the Baptist should
have found it necessary to send some of his disciples from prison to ask Jesus: ìAre
you the one who was to come, or should we expect someone else?î John and Jesus
(via His human mother Mary) were blood related. They had both been conceived in
an unusual and miraculous wayñElizabeth when her biological clock had already
runs its course and Mary by conception from the Holy Spirit and without a human
consort. Both women had been informed of what God had in mind for them by an
angelñdirectly to Mary and to Elizabeth by way of her husband, Zacharias. Mary
visited her relative Elizabeth when both were already pregnant. Elizabeth knew
she would bear the forerunner of the Messiah, and Mary knew she would bear the
Messiah Himself. We have the Song of Zacharias and the Magnificat of Mary testifying to their understanding of what had taken place. Surely for several decades
the families must have visited and talked about these matters and shared the
information with their offspring. So it seems a little strange that John should have
to ask Jesus who He was. But to his credit, John knew the importance of asking,
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385
the importance of removing any doubt about who Jesus is. The identity of Jesus
was important to the integrity of Johnís work and his God-given commission of
heralding the coming of the Messiah, of preparing the way for Jesus.
The answer Jesus gives is a brief mentioning of His miracles. What better way
to establish His divine identity than by simply stating that He was doing things
that no human being could do on his own. All these miracles were only preludes to
His greatest work of alló the salvation of the world. The proof is in the pudding.
From other Biblical accounts we know that John believed that Jesus was the one
whom he was proclaiming.
The text begins with John, the focus then shifts to Jesus, and then Jesus
refocuses the attention back on John. Jesus must certainly be at the heart and
center of all proclamation of the Word of God. Since Jesus Christ and His work
must be the substance of all Christian preaching, it is absolutely necessary that
the proclaimer know who Jesus is, why He became incarnate, and what He accomplished.
The text has great significance for pastors and laity as they share in the
churchís responsibility to share the good news of the Gospel with the world. They
need to know who Jesus is. They need to proclaim Jesus as the worker of miraclesñ
especially the ultimate miracle of resurrection to life everlasting. Everyone who is
a true and faithful messenger of Christ will no doubt receive a similar accolade
from the Lord Himselfó ìWell done you good and faithful servant.î
Suggested outline:
Who Is Jesus Christ?
I. The desire and need to know who Jesus is.
II. The necessity of accepting the facts of Jesusí true identity without any distortion to suit human desires.
III. All Christians must be faithful proclaimers of Jesusí true identity and His
work of redemption.
Quentin F. Wesselschmidt
Fourth Sunday in Advent
Matthew 1:18-25
December 19, 2004
Introduction: June and Ward, Wally and Theodore. Of course, Theodore was his
given name; but we all know him byÖThe Beaver. Reruns of Leave It to Beaver on
ìNick at Nightî still delight todayís TV watchers, just as much as they delighted
those who first watched this classic ìsitcomî in the 1960s. Problems usually centered upon that incarnation of all evil, Eddie Haskell. We never see Ward completely lose it and yell at June in front of the boys. We never see June hysterically
running out of the kitchen because Ward is a binge-spender and womanizer. Rather,
with this version of Ken and Barbie, all the ìproblemsî are solved within thirty
minutes. But todayís families are a far cry from such romantic ideals. Family life is
no longer Tiny Timís 1966 hit ìTiptoe through the TulipsîÖbut more accurately, it
is ìTiptoe through the Torpedoes!î What follows is a sermon study under the title
ìFamilies under Fire.î It is designed to address the most pressing need for fami386
lies todayóforgiveness!
Liturgical context: The Old Testament lesson (Is. 7:1-17) promises, and the
epistle (Rom. 1:1-7) announces, that Jesus is the long-awaited Davidic heir to the
throne of Israel. Moreover, the Collect of the Day notes that because ìwe are sorely
hindered by our sinsîóand this is so evident in our family relationshipsówe
stand in desperate need for God to ìstir up his power and come among usî in Jesusí
name to be our Sin-bearer, Cross-carrier, and Family-healer; indeed, we need our
Immanuel not only to promise, but also to deliver what families need the mostó
forgiveness!
Biblical context: Matthewís genealogy has begun to answer the question ìWhere
did Jesus come from?î The answer of 1:1-17 is that Jesus comes as the fulfillment
of a history, as the goal of Godís dealings with the sons of Abraham, the nation of
Israel. Matthew continues to answer the question of Jesusí origin in 1:18-25. This
is clear from the opening words of the unit, Tou/ de. VIhsou/ Cristou/ h` ge,nesij ou[twj
h=nóìNow Jesus Christís origin was of this sort.î Following this introductory clause
of 1:18a, the text consists of three sections: 1:18b-19óJosephís weak human intentions and fallible human wisdom regarding the origin of Jesus; 1:20-23óGodís
truth and purpose regarding Jesusí origin; 1:24-25óJosephís trusting human response to Godís revealed plan in Jesus.
Comments on the text: Verse 19: According to Rabbinic Law, Joseph could have
taken Mary and brought her to the Sanhedrin, where those seventy-one elders
would have laughed her right out of Jerusalem and outside the city to the stoning
place where Mary would be publicly stoned to deathófor breaking the Sixth Commandment.
Verse 20: ivdou.óthis particle is a favorite of Matthewís; he uses it sixty-two
times. It functions to emphasize the point about to be made, and in some pericopes
it is an obvious structuring device. Here (as often) it sets up a contrast between
Josephís perceptions and plans and those of God.
Verse 22:i[na plhrwqh/| to. r`hqe.n u`po. kuri,ou dia. tou/ profh,tou le,gontojóthis is the
first of ten times when Matthew introduces an Old Testament citation with his
distinctive formula (1:22-23; 2:15, 17, 23; 4:13-14; 8:16-17; 12:16-17; 13:34-35;
21:4; 27:9). Matthew 3:3 also comes very close to this expression, although there
John the Baptist is not spoken of as one who fulfills the Scripture. Matthew reserves that important verb (plhro,w) for Jesus alone.
Verse 23: This, the first of Matthewís explicit Old Testament citations, has
occasioned much discussion! In terms of the lexical data, it cannot be said that the
hI in Isaiah 7:14 with its parqe,noj. The
LXX has mistranslated the Hebrew of hmIol.[;
ol.[;h
hI can clearly mean ìvirgin maiden,î and as such is closely related to
ol.[;h
noun hmIol.[;
hlI§WtB
§WtB. which also normally (but not always!) means ìvirgin.î In the context of Isaiah
7-9, this child ImmanuelóìGod with usîówill also be called ìWonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, and Prince of Peaceî (Is. 9:6) for He fulfills the
promise spoken of in 2 Samuel 7:13. More specifically, in Isaiah 7 the house of
David (i.e., Ahaz) did not accept Yahwehís offer of a sign; by contrast, this house of
Davidóas embodied in the Davidic descendant Josephóaccepts the sign about
the Child. In Matthew 18:20 and again in 28:20 the promise of Immanuel will be
reiterated, thus framing the entire first Gospel with this marvelous promise!
Homiletical development of the sermon: Deborah Ricketts is an independent
researcher for the film industry. She makes her living by pointing out mistakes.
You see, a film set in the 1930s canít have a person reading a newspaper that didnít
exist back then or a band playing a song that had not been written yet. But such
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387
mistakes happen. In Raiders of the Lost Ark, the map that charted Indiana Jonesí
flight routed him over Thailand. Problemóthe movie was set in 1936 and Thailand was ìSiamî until 1939! In Die Hard II Bruce Willis makes a phone call from
what is supposed to be a pay phone in Washington, D.C. No one noticed that the
phone booth read ìPacific Bellî! Deborah Ricketts lives to find these errors. She
winds her way into props and sets and examines everything. Now what is meet and
right and salutary for the movie industry is not what is helpful for the family. But
the hard fact is this, more often than not: the spirit of Deborah Ricketts lives in
your family and mine! Here, reference the setting of the text and Josephís legal
opportunity to seize upon Maryís predicament and ìcast the first stone!î Because
of our preoccupation with peopleís mistakesóindeed, their sinsóour families are
under fire!
This propensity for revenge is literally killing the American family. Here, reference the introductory comments concerning Leave It to Beaverónone of us lives in
such a family! A few years ago one of the authors of the Presidential Report on the
Family wrote this: ìIf we continue dismantling our American families at the accelerated pace we have been doing so since 1965, there will not be a single American
family leftóstatisticallyóin the year 2030.î Family members are crying out for
forgiveness. And in Advent this need can reach its highest levels! Uncle Fred may
hit the Christmas punch once too oftenÖagain. Aunt Helen will probably start
another of her dreaded political debates. And the ìmy kidís better than your kidî
competition with your wifeís brotherís family could be worse than usual.
When our family is under fire due to the ìspirit of Deborah Ricketts,î how can
we forgive and not ìthrow stonesî? In Josephís well-meaning incomprehension
(Matt. 1:19), we have the first glimpse of a powerfully important theme in Matthewís
Gospelóthat in order for human beings to know the ways of God and His Christ,
these truths must be revealed to them. Whether it is the difference between those
who did not repent at Jesusí miracles and those who did (11:25-28), or between
those on whom the seed of the Word falls in vain and those in whom the seed bears
fruit (13:1-9), God must reveal His purposes to save through Jesus, and through
that revelation evoke a trusting response in men and women. And this is exactly
what He has done for usóall in the name of Jesus! Jesus has come for the purpose
of saving His people from sin (Matt. 1:21). How and to what extent will Jesus save?
Clearly, by His ransom death (Matt. 20:28) and His outpoured blood (Matt. 26:28),
on behalf of and in the place of many, Jesus will pay the price needed to forgive. But
there is more! Not only does God purpose to forgive sins, but He will also save
people from their sins. As the remarkable citation of Isaiah 53:8 at Matthew 8:17
shows, salvation from sin entails healing and full eschatological restoration. In
that sense there is a ìnowî and ìnot yetî to the salvation of Jesus, for believers now
are forgiven but they also await the full salvation from sin when their bodies will
be raised from the dead. Note that this saving name of Jesus is literally the textís
last wordókai. evka,lesen to. o;noma auvtou/ VIhsou/n. And He is Godís final and sufficient
Word for usóand for our families when we are under fire!
One teenager is talking to another and says, ìIím really worried. Dad slaves
away at his job so that Iíll never be without anything. He keeps working so I can go
to college. And momówhy, she is always washing and ironing and cooking and
cleaning; she never takes a break!î The other teenager asks, ìHey, whatís the problem? What are you so worried about?î The first teenager responds, ìIím afraid they
might try to escape!î There are times when we would all like to escape from our
families because of the pain and challenge and angst and brokenness. But all too
388
often we escape by casting stones and finding faults and holding grudges. However,
God has a better plan in His gift of Jesusójust ask Joseph!
Reed Lessing
First Sunday after Christmas
Matthew 2:13-15, 19-23
December 26, 2004
Introduction: The text is a story of two kingsóone named Herod, the other
named Jesus. One was electrified about going up; the other was just as passionate
about going down. This is their storyóand ours as well!
Liturgical context: As the church celebrates the ìTwelve Days of Christmas,î
she sings the Introit for the day that says, in part: ìShout for joy to the Lord, all the
earth; shout for joy before the Lord, the King.î Jesus has come as our King ìin the
fullness of timeî (Gal. 4:4, part of the dayís Epistle reading) to redeem us, adopt us,
and send us His Spirit, so that we may cry, ìAbba, Fatherî (Gal. 4:6). Since we are
part of this Kingís realm, like Isaiah, we say, ìI will tell of the kindnesses of the
LORD, the deeds for which he is to be praisedî (Is. 63:7, part of the dayís Old
Testament reading). These propers point to the celebration of the worldís only true
kingóJesus!
Biblical context: Matthew 2:12-23 continues the account of Jesusí earliest years
and of the radical contrast between two kings. These verses are remarkable in that
in one page of Greek text, Matthew gives three of his ten Old Testament ìformula
citationsî (ìX happened to fulfill the thing spoken through the prophetÖî). Both in
the way that he narrates the events of this text, and in the particular Old Testament citations that he applies to the Child, Matthew proclaims that Jesus is the
true King worth trusting, following and loving!
Comments on the text: Verse 15: The Old Testament citation is from Hosea
11:1b. Matthew here renders his own translation of the Hebrew, eschewing the
LXXís kai. evx Aivgu,ptou meteka,lesa ta. te,kna auvtou/: ìI summoned his children.î This is
the first time in Matthew that Jesus is explicitly referred to as Godís Son. Here,
and later in verse 18, Matthew develops the typology of Jesus as the embodiment
of Israelís history. ìOut of Egypt I called my sonî is the beginning of Israelís history;
and Jeremiah 31:15, ìA voice is heard in RamahÖî (Matt. 2:17-18), proclaims the
end of Israelís history with her exile to Babylon. By this geographical moveóEgypt
to Babylonóamong other things, Matthew is announcing that Jesus is the beginning and end, the ìAlpha and Omega,î the sum total of all of Israelís history!
Verse 17: to,te evplhrw,qhóMatthew normally introduces his Old Testament
ìfulfillment citationsî with a purpose construction, either i[na or o[pwj. But only
here and in 27:9 (where the events surrounding the suicide of Judas also fulfill
Scripture) does Matthew write of the things he is narrating, ìThen the thing spoken was fulfilled.î Although God uses evil deeds such as the slaughter of Bethlehemís
sons to bring His Scriptural plan and promise to fruition, Matthew stops short of
declaring that it was Godís purpose that the children die.
Verse 23:o[pwj plhrwqh/| to. r`hqe.n dia. tw/n profhtw/n o[ti Nazwrai/oj klhqh,setaió
By the repeated use of the fulfillment phrase, Matthew clearly wants us to see that
Jesus is not only the completion of the Old Testament story at a historical level but
also that He is, in a deeper sense, its fulfillment. The problems associated with
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this, the fourth of Matthewís explicit ìformula quotations,î are legion. No one
knows for sure where in the Old Testament Matthew is directing his readers/
hearers. Without rehearsing all the options, perhaps it is best to see a word play
rcn
upon the Hebrew of Isaiah 11:1ó(rcn
rcn) ìshoot.î This then highlights the Matthean
theme that ìNazareneî is a title of disdain and rejection (cf. Matt. 26:71; note also
John 1:46; 7:40-44, 52) and that this King of Israel who fulfills the ancient Scriptures is climactically the One who is ìdespised and rejected by men.î
Homiletical development of the sermon: The text begins on the edge of absurdity. Herod the Great, the all-powerful king of Judea is worried about a Baby born
in Bethlehem. At first Herod uses deception to try to discover the location of the
ìrivalî King (Matt. 2:8). When that doesnít work, he orders the execution of all boys
under the age of two in Bethlehem and the surrounding area. As outrageous as that
act is, it comes as no surprise, because Herod is consumed with moving up. When
we blow the dust off the history books, Herod emerges larger than Lon Chaney in
The Phantom of the Opera! To say that he was a monster is putting it lightly. Born
into a politically well-connected family in 73 B.C., Herod was destined for a life of
hardball. Rarely has history recorded so clearly the life of someone so obsessed
with moving up. His father was poisoned by a political opponent. Soon afterward
Herod, seething with revenge, formed an ingenious plan. He invited his fatherís
killers over for a dinner party. As they arrived, he had them butchered by hit men.
From that point on, Herod did everything he could to climb up. He frequently
barked out orders that resulted in arrests, beatings, extortion, blackmail, torture,
and execution. Herod married ten times, and he ordered the execution of two of his
wives as well as three of his sons. There was little he wouldnít do in his quest to
move up. For the most part, it worked pretty well. Herod ruled for more than thirty
yearsóuntil another King was born, Jesus.
To say that Herod and Jesus ìcrossed pathsî is to understate the force of the
text. According to a fundamental law of physics, the force of impact depends on
speed and direction. Jesus and Herod are both moving fast, from totally opposite
directionsóone going up, the other just as intent on going down. One king is bent on
promotion, the other on demotion. One is a tyrant, the other a servant. One is
consumed with self-interest, the other consumed with loving people. One manipulates, slanders, deceives, and coerces; the other heals, cries, loves, bleeds, and dies.
There is only one characteristic Herod and Jesus share in commonóthey both
believe there is nothing that bloodshed canít cure.
ìThank God,î I can almost hear us all say, ìthat Iím not like Herod. I try never
to raise an angry hand against a small child; I pay my taxes and slip a little money
into the offering plate. Once I even played bingo with some old folks at a nursing
home.î But if we are honest with ourselves and take a hard look inside, we will see
in the mirror little Herods staring back at us! All too often we are consumed with
going up. Call it office politics, turf wars, marital rights, or parental perks. We
share the part of Herod that would rather rule than serve, wield power than submit
to authority, be honored rather than look for ways to honor others.
In contrast, the way of Jesus seems almost ludicrous; why, He was as up as
anyone ever could be! The Second Person of the Trinityóvery God of very God, from
eternity past; the object of worship and praise by the cherubim and seraphim. But
at Christmas, ìthe Word became fleshî is a confession that He took the biggest
step down in the history of humanity! He stepped down to become an embryo in a
teenagerís womb, down to be born in a stable, down to live in the filth and stench of
this present evil age, down to be called a Nazarene! (Here, reference the comments
390
on Matthew 2:23.)
At least Herod is practical; up is really the only way to live, right? In order to
answer this, we must examine how each king died. In the final year of Herodís life,
his body was infected with disease; his pain was so bad that often in the middle of
the night his screams could be heard throughout his palace. But there was more
than the physical pain. He brooded over the fact that his death would be mourned
by few. He wanted tears at the moment of his death. So he devised one final,
desperate plan. He would bring together the top leaders of the land for a meeting in
Jericho, and once they arrived, he would have the gates locked. Just before the
moment of his death, he would order all the leaders massacred. One way or another, the tears of the people would flow at Herodís death.
Jesus, after doing down all His life, descended even further to a Roman whipping-post and instrument of execution, even to death on a cross! His cries, like
Herodís, pierced the darkness. But there is a critical difference between the death
of Herod and of Jesus. For all his power, Herod could not save himself from deathó
for all His power, Jesus could have saved Himself but didnít. And so, while Herodís
body rots in a granite grave, Jesus is resurrected in great power and glory! Here,
reference the textual notes on Matthew 2:15, 17; all of Israelís history points to and
is fulfilled by King Jesus, not by King Herod. In our text Jesus demonstrates His
kingship by saying nothing, doing nothing. This is in contrast to Herod, who despite
all his political maneuvers, canít thwart the divine plan. This contrast accents that
both kingship and power are realities to be understood in a paradoxical light and
to be identified in the unlikeliest of forms and placesófinally on a cross, under a
sign that proclaims: ìThis is Jesus, the King of the Jewsî (Matt. 27:37). Thus God
demonstrates His surprising and lowly ways of ruling and saving!
Such is the story of two kingsówith two opposing messages. Herod says, ìGet!
Go up!î Jesus says, ìGive! Go down!î It is this life of giving and serving and going
down that we celebrate and live out during this joyful Christmastide!
Reed Lessing
Second Sunday after Christmas
John 1:1-18
January 2, 2005
John sets out to write a sermon with his main thesis being the deity of Jesus
in John 1:1-8. The rest of the Gospel merely points back to these summary verses.
While the text does give some relief to the focus on the details of the birth of the
Christ, the themes and the theological depth therein could lead to a myriad of
sermons.
If one wanted to lift up the divine/human nature of Jesus, one might develop
this outline:
What We See Is Not What We Get
I. Today in our society openness and authenticity are highly valued. Casual clothes
show the real person. People donít dress for travel or for work. ìWhat you see is
what you get.î
II. We see Jesus, but we are unable to grasp the significance of the holy Child
without Godís help.
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III. We see a finite human life with a beginning and an end. God says that the
eternal Word just took on flesh for a short time (vv. 1, 14).
IV. We see a helpless, little Baby. But God says that the eternal Word was instrumental in creating the present world (v. 3; Col. 1:16-17).
V. We mistakenly see a sinner like us. But God says that the eternal Word is full
of grace and truth (vv. 1, 14).
VI. We see bread and wine, one another, the Scriptures.
A. God says that the Word brings us Jesus, Himself (1 Cor. 10:16).
B. The Word is still among the people of God (Matt. 18:20; 26:26).
C. The Word does not change (Heb. 13:8).
In verse 4 the writer indicates that Jesus has life and light. These are the
essence of the created order, two things that God brought forth in the creation, but
there is a play on the words. Now the redemptive process echoes the creative
process and gives depth to the Light that is revealed. Jesus brings forth life a
second time because death reigns in the fallen, created order. Jesus brings light a
second time to the created order because darkness prevails.
The fallen world has not ìgraspedî (kate,laben, v. 5) the light. Perhaps ìcomprehendedî or ìgraspedî would be the better meaning than ìovercomeî because the
context of verses 6-13 shows Godís attempts to bring light to the world and the
rejection of that light by those living in darkness. The struggle seems more passive
than active, more not ìgraspedî than struggling to ìovercome.î
If one wanted to lift up the difficulty that God has in leading the world to
believe in Jesus, one might develop this outline:
Can You Hear Me Now?
I. Today communication is everything. Cell phones take pictures, send written
messages, and give instant communication from almost anywhere in the world.
Wars are fought through the media as well as on the battlefield, with the
media deciding what will be reported.
II. God speaks to humankind through His communication, the Word (v. 1). Jesus
is Godís communication link to us.
III. God gives us a picture of what He is really like (v. 18). Talk shows interview
superstars so people can see what they are ìreallyî like. The abstract idea of
God becomes concrete in the visible Jesus.
IV. God advertises the Word through John the Baptist (vv. 6-8). The main purpose
of the communication is that all may believe.
V. God gives product information about the Word so that the world might grasp
what it is missing.
A. Godís written Word testifies to Jesus (John 6:39).
B. Godís written Word conveys Jesus.
Another way of looking at the text is to lift up the contrast between the emptiness of life and the fullness that ca,rin avnti. ca,ritoj,, ìgrace upon grace,î gives to the
life of the believer (v. 16).
The Word Brings Fullness to Life
I. Today in America, people are searching for meaning. Second-career students
392
often come to the seminary because they were successful in their first vocation
but did not find enough purpose in it.
II. We have an impossible task: to fill our empty lives.
A. We try books, television, work, music, children, pets, movies, friends, trips.
B. We attempt to make the most of life by being very active.
C. Some are lured to find meaning in life by dabbling in non-Christian thoughts
or practices (e.g., Buddhism).
III. Jesus exposes our emptiness.
A. Without Him we do not have real life and light but only darkness (vv. 4-5).
B. There is no core meaning in only being busy. Busy-ness may cover up the
core meaning of what it is to live.
C. True religion does not come from within but from withoutóGod entering
our world and tenting among us (v. 14).
IV. Jesus brings a full life (John 10:10).
A. It is based on ìgrace upon grace.î
1. Grace to be part of the created order. Jesus has given us life (v. 3).
2. Grace to be part of the redeemed order, to become children of God as a
gift of God (vv. 12-13).
B. Jesus brings knowledge of Godís demands and Godís forgiveness (v. 17).
In the present-day confusion about God, knowing the truth brings relief.
C. Brings knowledge of God and the mission He has for us (vv. 18, 7). This
results in purposeful living.
Gary Schaper
The Epiphany of Our Lord
Matthew 2:1-12
January 6, 2005
Preliminary considerations: Unlike the extended and illustrious narrative in
Luke, the Christmas story in Matthew is limited to a few verses at the end of the
first chapter. In the short span of eight verses Matthew has recorded the bare
essentials of the birth of the Christ-child a virgin as predicated by prophecy, and
the privilege accorded Joseph to name Him, signifying the manner and purpose of
His earthly ministry. Joseph would name the Virgin Maryís Son ìJesus,î for ìHe
shall save his people from their sinsî (Matt. 1:21). Considerable time had elapsed
since the birth, and the family had now moved from the stable to a house (2:11).
Perhaps among many others, visitors from afar arrive to pay Jesus homage. This
post-Christmas event is a Matthean exclusive and it has become the standard
Gospel reading for Epiphany Sunday in the one-year as well as the three-year
series.
Notes on the text: In the appointed text, Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea
because that was where Joseph and Mary were living at the time. They had come
south to Bethlehem from their hometown of Nazareth to report for the census, in
accordance with the Caesarís decree (Luke). Bethlehem of Judea is five miles south
of Jerusalem; elsewhere it is called the City of David (Luke 2:4). Matthew mentions Bethlehem because the Messiah must be born there to fulfill the prophetic
prediction. The aorist participle gennhqe,ntoj suggests that the birth had already
taken place when the Magi arrived in Bethlehem.
Matthew mentions Herod to depict him as a king who trembles at the thought
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of a coming King who is a threat to his power; Herod resorts to desperate measures
to eliminate Him. Herod may have commenced construction of a temple in Jerusalem for the Jewish people; but he would annihilate anyone he deemed a threat to
his throne including two of his wives and three of his sons. A conflict of interest is
obvious at the very hearing of the birth of a King of the Jews (v. 2). In contrast to the
ruthless Idumaean usurper who won his kingship by currying the favor of Roman
overlords, Jesus is King by right of birth.
The evtara,cqh in verse 3 means literally ìto shake, stir up, throw into turmoil,î
as of the wind shaking trees, or ìwhipping up a stormy sea.î Metaphorically, therefore, the aorist passive signifies any kind of mental or spiritual turmoil. Both
Jerusalem and Herod are united in hostility against the newborn King, Jesus. At
His birth the religious authorities, the professional exponents of the law, and the
secular government suspect a significant threat to their own security. Rejection is
normal and that is what our Lord got used to until He breathed His last (27:20-25).
Now a new Ruler has come, a new Ruler born in Bethlehem of the family of
King David, in accordance with the prophecy in Micah 5:2. Jesus is the Messiah, the
promised King of Israel. This messianic King would both rule and shepherd His
people (Micah 5:3; 1 Chron. 11:2). Though Jesus Christ, salvation would come to all
people. His own life is the price the Shepherd King would pay to bring about His
rule. The Messianic King, the Son of David, would rule His people. Ruling and
shepherding go hand in hand.
The Magi (ma,goi) by definition were oriental priests, learned in the art of interpreting dreams and in the knowledge of stars. They had experienced divine guidance during their spiritual journey. The star they had seen rising in the eastern sky
guided them to witness the fulfillment of the Jewish eschatological expectation
concerning the coming King. They searched diligently (evxeta,sate in v. 8 means to
scrutinize, examine, inquire) for the special Child. By divine guidance the Magi
were able to complete their search and find the Child.
Verse 11 graphically portrays the eastern custom of obeisance: falling with
head to the ground, signifying homage and submission. The presentation of gifts to
the King of Israel by representative nations is symbolic of the submission of all
kingdoms to the one King. All kings will bow down to Him, and all nations will
serve Him (Ps. 72:11). The newborn King is King of all the world, and the appropriate homage shall be paid Him by all nations.
Suggested outline:
Kingdom Conflict
I. The Introit for the Epiphany of our Lord concludes with the refrain ìAll kings
will bow down to God and all nations will serve him.î The Gradual for the day
exhorts us to ìascribe to the Lord the glory due his name.î A basic sociological
principle calls for a place for everything and everything in its own place. When
things (and people) are misplaced or dislocated, disorder takes over. Any person or thing or idea in our lives that takes over Godís place conflicts with our
godly living. Spiritual life can be chaotic if conflicts of interests claim the best
of our thoughts. The powers of two kingdoms are at work here: the kingdom of
God and the kingdoms of this world. This is a kingdom conflict.
II. Even in the secular world, the message of Christís birth stands for peace and
joy. But peace and peace talks are threats to those who rule solely by power
and might. Their foundations shake when messages of peace and joy echo in
394
the air. Herod saw this challenge coming his way. He sensed a threat to his rule
which he had worked so hard to achieve by hook or by crook. The king of Judea
heard that threat as he listened to the Magiís question, ìWhere is the one who
has been born king of the Jews?î
III. This question shook up the Jewish authorities as well. It was an equal menace
to the wisdom of the traditional religious scholars of the day that knowledge of
the birth of the king of the Jews had been revealed to leaders of Gentile nations. Godís way of bringing His Light to the nations may sometimes surprise
those who are already His.
IV. At the birth of Christ a new Ruler has come into the world, One who rules the
world with truth and grace. He rules differently from the kings of the earth.
His kingdom is not of this world. The norm of His kingdom is righteousness,
peace, and joy in the Holy Spirit. He rules as king and shepherd, caring and
guiding, providing and leading.
V. This King is no threat to anything that is not party to the powers of this dark
world and to the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms. The Magi from
the east followed the star rising from the eastern horizon. That star led them
to the birthplace of the Messiah, the Shepherd-King of Godís people. The Star
has risen (Luke 1:78). The light of the Gospel of the glory of Christ (2 Cor. 4:4)
is the light that lightens Jew and Gentile to be saved and to come to the
knowledge of the truth. In Christ, Jew and Gentile reconcile as they are first
reconciled with God. In this kingdom there is no conflict.
Victor Raj
The Baptism of Our Lord
First Sunday after the Epiphany
Matthew 3:13-17
January 9, 2005
Though the text starts with verse 13, it helps to recall (in the previous verses)
with John the Baptistís sharp exchange with the Jewish leaders who have come to
see what is up. They would boost themselves, based on the Abraham tie, but John
considered them lower than others who had come there in true repentance. But
with verse 14 things turn, in a sense, and John finds himself on the ìunworthy sideî
(as he sees things). The leaders had been unworthy of Johnís baptism, but now
John and his baptism are unworthy of Jesusóor so John thinks. Unwilling to
accept the position of a superior in baptizing Jesus, John wants the tables turned.
And we can hardly blame him. Weíd likely protest as well, if we would be honest in
our self-assessment.
But Jesus knows better, knows that He must put Himself in the lowliest
spotóand He will indeed do that by being the Lamb on whom rests the sin of the
world. All sins from all people for all timeóit gets no lower than that. In lining up
for baptism (let alone not standing with the pharisaical critics), Jesus makes it
plain that He knows what He is to be about. He sides not only with those who had
come that day in repentance but also with all who ought to be there throughout the
history of the world. When He puts Himself in that position, He most certainly can
ask John to baptize Him. John does it, not because he inherently is better than
Jesus but because of the role or the reality Jesus has put on Himself. John has a
role as well; and he, too, is faithful. This is hardly the endó it is rather the start of
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what the public will see. But it is a significant start worth our attention, not just a
quick and forgettable first step because things have to start somewhere. The baptism sign of submission to the Fatherís will and the Fatherís business signals the
role, sets the tone, and points out the path Jesus is to take as the sin-bearer.
Who knows how many people John had baptized, but there had certainly been
none like this One. What John did was raised up to a one-of-a-kind status by what
comes next, the voice and the dove. God once brought old Israel through a Red Sea
baptism of sorts and signaled that they were His own. Now comes a signal that
this is the true Israel with the Fatherís voice and the Spirit dove. But though old
Israel stumbled often in the wilderness and though God still kept them safe, this
true Israel, Jesus, would do better with Satan and temptation in the forty days
(not to mention the three years) to come. Who He is and what He doesóChristology
and soteriologyócome together.
There are no shortcuts on the road to Jerusalem, but one step after another,
starting here. With such a beginning there ought to be no doubt who this Jesus is;
though a few years later, with heaven silent and day turned to night at Calvary, one
might wonder what went wrong. In fact, nothing goes wrong. John gets his role right
after his exchange with Jesus. Jesus gets His role right by siding with those who
had come in need of repentance and taking on the sin of all. And the Father would
speak again through the resurrection to make sure there is no doubt that what
started well is seen to end well. Jesus sided with sinners, and the Father and
Spirit sided with Jesus the Christ, anointed in the Jordan. Thatís a powerful
lesson, an encouragement for us who were not there for Johnís baptism, to be
numbered with His disciples, but who are part of Jesusí crowd by virtue of our
baptism into His death and resurrection, accomplished to take away the sin of the
world.
It is quite a dramatic episode, one that sets Jesus apart. And those now who
bear His name live in the aftermath of what He did, also set apart from the world
even while living and witnessing within it. Sharp lines and clear distinctions are
all around. Thankfully for us, these are not something we must do, but a differenceóbeing the Fatherís childrenóthat we enjoy because of the work, the ministry
begun here at the Jordan and carried to completion by Jesus the Christ, Jesus our
Savior. Because He sides with sinners in His ministry, we can side with the Father
because of the salvation given us. Think of Lutherís ìhappy exchangeî motif: He
takes our place, and we stand in His. And because we know that the Father was
well pleased, not only at the Jordan but also on Easter, we know that we baptized
children stand with faith, not in sin but in righteousness.
Taking a Stand
I. Jesus stands up for His person/work and stands with sinners.
II. The Father and Spirit stand with Jesus, who is accepted for that person/work.
III. G o d ó Father, Son, and Spiritóstand with us, baptized and redeemed for Jesusí
sake.
Robert Rosin
396
Second Sunday after the Epiphany
John 1:29-41
January 16, 2005
Preliminary considerations: The season of Epiphany in the churchís calendar
gives specific emphasis to Christian witnessing. Note that in Series A, B, and C,
John 1:1-18 is the Gospel lesson for the Second Sunday after Christmas, the Sunday most congregations celebrate the Epiphany. Epiphany Sunday is followed by
the Baptism of our Lord for which the appointed Gospel lesson is the Biblical
narrative of the same from one of the Synoptic Gospels. On the Second Sunday
after the Epiphany, however, all series contain a reading from the early part of
Johnís Gospel that ìmanifestsî the Lord. In Series A the text is John 1:29-41.
Textual matters: In John 1:15, the Gospel writer states that John the Baptist
was testifying (marture,w) concerning Jesus. Verse 19 is John the Baptistís own
testimony (marturi,a) that he is not the Christ but just a voice calling in the wilderness, preparing the way for the Coming One. The actual testimony concerning the
Messiah begins with Johnís own confession and its heavenly attestation (v. 32).
Jesusí baptism had already taken place; and Andrew and his brother, Simon
Peter, had been convinced by the testimony of the Holy Spirit that Jesus was the
designated Messiah (v. 41). Twice in our text, however, Johnís own testimony specifies that Jesus is the Lamb of God (vv. 29, 36), who takes away the sin of the world.
By employing this kind of language, John gives a paschal interpretation to the life
and mission of Jesus Christ. Christ is the Passover Lamb who takes away the sin
of the world. Thus in this text John the Baptist portrays preeminently Jesusí
preexistence, His Sonship, and the uniqueness of His mission in this world for the
salvation of all people. Consequently, while John 1:1-14 remains the prologue to
the entire Gospel, the testimony of John the Baptist concerning Jesus Christ is the
appropriate introduction to the accounts in the Gospel that testify to Christ as the
Savior of the world.
Jesus took away the totality of sins and secured their forgiveness, removing
the guilt of all sinners who put their trust in Him. No longer are animal sacrifices
offered for taking away the sins of ignorance, of commission, and of omission, as
was practiced in Judaism. One sacrifice, once and for all, of the Lamb of God has
taken away the sins of the whole world.
In Jesus, His disciples come and see a unique contact between heaven and
earth. At His invitation they transition from being followers of the Judaic traditions and rituals to being proclaimers of the Gospel of salvation which unfolded in
front of their eyes in the person and work of Jesus Christ. John the Baptistís
testimony concerning Jesus Christ is the litmus test that distinguishes the true
Gospel from all aberrations.
Suggested outline:
Test and Testify
I. Gospel proclamation is the unique privilege of the Christian church. The church
proclaims the Gospel so that people may ìobtain the faithî (cf. AC V and VII).
In our world of pluralism and competing ideologies that foster a false sense of
spiritual fulfillment, numerous religions may be cited that either offer a different ìGospelî or promote an ideology in the name of the Gospel. Equally real
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is the messiness in ministry where the messenger and not the Gospel message
can easily claim the center of attention. Those who proclaim the Gospel, as
well as those who listen, must therefore test the spirit that evokes such messages and heed the true Gospel that saves.
II. As soon as John the Baptist has borne his witness, he disappears from the
scene. In his public ministry as the forerunner of the Christ, he has no other
function to perform except to prepare the way for the Messiah (1:7). Johnís
revolutionary messages may have prompted the Jewish authorities at the
time to question his identity as well as the integrity of his proclamation (1:1922). Leaving no room for any confusion (1:20), John freely confessed that neither his person nor his office should be confused with those of the Messiah,
whose job it was to enter this world and become the expiation for sin. Such
confession of faith was beyond reason even for John, because there was a time
when John himself had not known Him (as the Messiah). But now John knows
that the Messiah will increase, while he, His forerunner, will decrease.
III. Gospel proclamation may be appearing in different packages. Doubtless, specific expressions in the New Testament witness about our Lord and His ministry speak directly to particular situations and to specific people. Even then,
truth be told, Gospel proclamation is never complete until Christ is proclaimed
as the Lamb who takes away the sin of the world. Proclaiming this message
confirms the testimony of Christ also among believers (1 Cor. 1:6).
IV. The invitation to ìcome and see,î which our Lord extended to the first disciples
He also extends to the church today in order to invite to His fold those outside
the faith. To see the Lord in the Gospel sense is to know Him as He really is
(John 14:9). To make Him known to the world is the emphasis of the Epiphany
season. We invite those of the world to come and see the One who has taken
away their sins as well. While testing the different spirits of our time that
circumvent the churchís mission, we testify with confidence to the Lord who
saves.
Victor Raj
Third Sunday after the Epiphany
Matthew 4:12-23
January 23, 2005
In Matthew 4:17 Jesus begins His public ministry by preaching in Galilee,
thereby fulfilling the prophecy of Isaiah (9:1-2), which Matthew quotes in verses
15-16. Starting at verse 18 Jesus begins the process of calling His disciples. Preaching and discipling are two steps in Jesus laying the groundwork for the establishment of the Christian church.
The most striking words of the text are Jesusí command and promise, ìCome,
follow me, and I will make you fishers of men.î ìCome, Follow Meî are three simple
words, but not a simple command to obey. These words do not resonate very well
with most people today. They contain a difficult message to proclaim in our world
of self-centered people who want to be personally in charge of their lives, what they
do, and even the environment in which they live, to the degree that is possible.
Today no one wants to be second or third. The old expression, ìToo many chiefs and
not enough Indians,î certainly applies today. Everyone wants to be in charge. When
we hear complaints about the glass ceiling, it is in reference to corporate board
398
rooms and top executive suits. We donít hear about people concerned with fair
representation in the service sector of the job market, such as trash collectors or
cleaning maids for motels.
Jesusí call is unique. He called His disciples, as He continues to call us, to
servanthood, to self-denial, to complete submission to an overlord, and to willingness to forsake all and follow Him. It was not a call to pursue a comfortable life. It
was a call that might even require the ultimate sacrifice of martyrdom, as was the
case for most of Jesusí disciples and is still the case today for missionaries in some
countries. ìFollow Meî means living the kind of life Jesus livedña life of love, mercy,
humility, and servitude. It means accepting the message that Jesus taught, and
looking forward to the same goal, namely, reunion with His Father in heaven.
One of the reasons young people today (especially those down a little way on
the social scale) want to go to an elite, first-class college or university is that
matriculation at one of these schools will enable them to rub shoulders and network with individuals who will become powerful leaders and financially successful
people of tomorrow. Jesus didnít call men recognized as the movers and shakers in
their society. Jesus, for the most part, called common, blue-collar, working-class
people. He called them in the midst of their work. To follow Him meant giving up
their livelihood and abandoning the equipment they had invested in. Following
Jesus meant leaving all behind. It meant following a complete stranger with no
known track record of success in His field. Humanly speaking, Jesus was a neophyte at what He was doing and a stranger to the men He was calling to discipleship.
Jesusí call to discipleship was not an option for Peter, Andrew, James, and
John. God did not give them a choice of accepting or refusing. There were no qualifications or conditions that they could insist on before accepting. There are ample
instances of this aspect of discipleship throughout ScriptureñJonah, who couldnít
run away and hide, Amos (7:14-15), and St. Paul. It is noteworthy that not one of
the twelve men Jesus called into apostleship refused. Of course, Scripture also
records examples of people who refused Christís call to repentance, but we know of
no one who succeeded in refusing His call to discipleship.
This text provides the pastor with an excellent opportunity to reflect on what
it means to be a follower of Jesus Christ, to weigh the demands, and count the cost
of discipleship. The pastor can also call attention to the joys of being a follower of
Jesus Christ. An excellent resource for further material is Martin Franzmannís
Follow Me: Discipleship According to Saint Matthew (St. Louis: Concordia, 1961).
Suggested outline:
Come, Follow Me
I. The call to discipleship is
A. A call from God.
B. A call extended to ordinary people.
II. The expectations of discipleship are
A. Complete submission to God and His will for their lives.
B. Sacrifices in terms of their earthly lives.
III. The work of disciples is
A. To live their Christian faith.
B. To proclaim the Gospel.
C. To build up the church.
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399
Quentin F. Wesselschmidt
Fourth Sunday after the Epiphany
Matthew 5:1-12
January 30, 2005
Preliminary considerations: With a relatively short Epiphany season in this
church yearís calendar, the fourth Sunday after the Epiphany has become the Sunday before the Transfiguration of our Lord, at the threshold of the Lenten season.
Epiphany is the season for the celebration of the Gospel for all people, with a
specific focus on mission to the Gentiles. During this season Christians transcend
their comfort zones and become involved in Godís mission among those who do not
yet know Him as their Savior. As much as the Lord is the Glory of His people Israel,
He is manifest as the Light for revelation to the Gentiles (Luke 2:32). The Lenten
season is soon to cast the Lordís glory in a new light, since then He Himself will go
to the cross to fulfill all righteousness.
Notes on the text: Along with the Ten Commandments, the Beatitudes have
become a set of guidelines for most people who aspire to ìrighteous living.î As it
has been true of Mahatma Gandhi of India, this is a popular text from Scripture
that people, regardless of their individual religious orientation, look to as an incentive to strive toward moral perfection.
Consequently, there are at least two different ways of understanding this text
which stands as a prelude to the Sermon on the Mount. The popular way is to read
this as a guide to moral practice and spiritual living at its best, however difficult it
is to achieve such a goal. The other, which we follow here, is to recognize through
this text how all of us fall short of the glory of God; for with all good intentions, no
human being is ever able to measure up to Godís standard of righteousness. Christians humbly acknowledge that in terms of living by the letter of the Law, they are
no competition for the Pharisees and the teachers of the law. And our Lord made it
unequivocally clear that no one will enter Godís kingdom unless their righteousness surpasses that of the Jewish authorities (5:20). Furthermore, under Scriptural warrant the righteousness of a righteous man will not save him when he
disobeys (Ezek. 33:12). The pious and religiously righteous acts that Jewish tradition stipulated were definitely out of step with the way Jesus explained righteous
living. Sinners that we are, Godís imputed righteousness enables us to live in this
world as witnesses to the saving Gospel of our Lord.
The Beatitudes express the ìhappinessî of those who desire the life God wants
them to live. Matthew narrates this ìblessed stateî as the experience of those who
live under Godís kingly rule in His kingdom. In our text nine successive statements
begin with the word maka,rioi, each stating a specific reason for the blessed state of
believers and the ultimate outcome of their happiness. The unambiguously unique
Christian distinctive of the Beatitudes is evident at the conclusion of this pericope.
Verses 3 through 10 are one-line descriptions of some universal truths, as it were.
Actions have consequences. In verse 11, however, the verb forms change to direct
address. Thus the speech is addressed to a specific people. The people of God are
alerted to the persecutions that lie ahead as they live out their faith in Jesus
Christ. Their experience is backed up by history, by the prophets who spoke in the
Lordís name and endured persecution. In the face of persecution Godís people do
not give up hope because great rewards await those who endure such hardship for
Christís sake.
When endured for righteousnessí sake (e[neken dikaiosu,nhj) and for Christís
400
sake (e[neken Cristou/) persecutions take on specific meaning. Human and humane
expressions of the kingdom touch the lives of the poor, the meek, the peacemakers
and those who mourn. For those who engage in such kingdom activities for Christís
sake, He has become their advocate (para,klhto.j, 1 John 2:1) before God. They know
that their approval comes ultimately from God, who satisfies and fills with good
things the thirsty and the hungry (Ps. 107:9; cf. Luke 1:53). Those who serve the
needs of others for the sake of the Lord and His kingdom (10:22; 21:32) identify
with their Lord and walk in the way of righteousness. For them a reward awaits: a
reward that stems from the grace of God, who gives them the kingdom both in the
present and in the future. To receive the kingdom is to enter eternal life.
The Beatitudes describe the state of the redeemed. At Godís initiative the
poor and virtuous inherit Godís kingdom and await full vindication at the consummation. Clothed with Godís imputed righteousness, they fulfill His saving purposes. For those who have placed their trust in Jesus Christ as Savior, righteousness is accomplishing Godís will for them in its fullness, which is the goal of Christian discipleship. Proper Christian discipleship becomes a witness of our faith as
we act mercifully toward others in the community.
The ìpure in heartî (kaqaroi. th/| kardi,a|, v. 8) refers to the inner core of Godís
peopleó their thoughts and motivationó and hence calls for an internalizing of
our Lordís directions for righteous living, and, consequently for the integrity of
outward actions as they come from the bottom of the believerís heart. The reference
to seeing God (to.n qeo.n o;yontai) is eschatological in tone. Purity of heart and inner
peace are Godís gifts to His people. Implicit in all the Beatitudes, nevertheless, is
a call to judgment on those who do not heed Godís call.
In verse 9 the Beatitudes reach a climax that introduces peace and its relationship to the kingdom. Those who work for peace Godís way are Godís children.
Godís kingdom comes without human effort, as the meaning of the Second Petition
of the Lordís Prayer in Martin Lutherís Catechism shows: The coming of Godís
kingdom to us ìtakes place in two ways: first, it comes here, in time, through the
Word and faith; and second, in eternity, it comes through revelation, that is at the
second coming of Christî (Kolb-Wengert, Book of Concord, 447).
The ìpeacemakersî (oi` eivrhnopoioi,) as a noun occurs only here in New Testament; although St. Paul uses the aorist participle eivrhnopoih,saj in Colossians 1:20,
graphically portraying Christís redemptive work on the cross. In our text Jesus
announces the kingdom and explains that its inheritance belongs to the children of
God, who live in peace. Contrary to the zealots and other revolutionaries, it is the
peacemakers who inherit the kingdom. As the Lordís kingdom comes without our
efforts, our entrance to it is also not the result of our efforts.
Suggested outline:
The Right and the Righteous
I. Regular church attendance may not be at its best these days in many nations,
but religion is not irrelevant for the majority of people. Our world may be
fraught with relativism, but most of us still value our ability to know right
from wrong. For most Americans, even those who may not be all that religious,
what is good is what is in the ìGood Book,î the Bible. With right intentions we
try to do what is right.
II. For those who take morality at its face value, at first sight the Beatitudes
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
401
suggest the ìTen Steps to Right Living.î But soon we see in the same Scripture
how difficult it is to keep in step with the directions in that little handbook.
More than a motivation for virtuous living, this is counsel from a righteous
God who settles for nothing less than His righteousness. The words show us
how we fall short of doing what is right before God. They also assure us how
God has made us right with Himself through Christ Jesus.
III. According to Scripture, those who trust in God and obey His will are the blessed
(Ps. 1). Through Christlike eyes they take cognizance of the unity that binds
them to their society and to the world. The Beatitudes therefore display three
major Christian features: (1) Christians do not simply resign from this world
of harassment, resentment and sorrow; they endure hardship trusting in the
righteousness of their Lord Christ. (2) Christians rise above their pharisaic
legalism and submit to the weightier matters of the Law (Matt. 23:23). They
do this by maturing in their faith in Christ and rising above the elementary
teachings of the world (Col. 2:8, 20). (3) Christian happiness does have a
worldly character: in acting justly, loving mercy, and walking humbly with our
God amid the struggles within Godís created order, we find true happiness
through Christ.
IV. Christians are blessed because of the Blessed One whom they trust. What
they do in the world does not depend on them, but on the merits of Christ, who
has done everything right in their stead. Trusting in the Lord, they do what is
rightó not as they ought but as they are able. Even when they go wrong, they
are counted righteous before God because it is His righteousness that counts.
Victor Raj
402
ìOn the reading of many books...î
PORTRAIT OF PETER: Training, Leadership, and Humble Service. By Armin J.
Panning. Milwaukee: Northwestern, 2002. 90 pages. Paper. $11.99.
This book outlines the three stages in the life of the apostle Peter. In the first
stage, he is called and trained. In the second, he is placed in a position of leadership. Then in the third, he is eased out of the limelight. The latter part includes
comments on his two letters, 1 and 2 Peter.
The final part includes information on Peterís wife and daughter and on the
companionship and ministry of Peter and John Mark. This part is based on
information found in the writings of Eusebius and Clement of Alexandria. Panning
provides information on the non-canonical Gospel of Peter, Preachments of Peter, and
Acts of Peter.
Provided at the end of each part are helpful study questions on the material
covered in the chapter. Each of these is designed to result in a very purposeful study
and discussion of the material.
Erich H. Kiehl
THE THEOLOGY OF THE CROSS FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Signposts for a
Multicultural Witness. Edited by Albert L. GarcÌa and A. R. Victor Raj. Saint
Louis: Concordia, 2002. 254 pages. Paper. $15.99.
Theology and missiology have always been inseparably linked partners in the
churchís tasks of understanding and articulating the Christian Gospel. Both are
impoverished when the link is uncertain: theology becomes arcane and elitist, and
missiology becomes programmatic and activistic.
This book is a superb expression of the linking of the two disciplines, rooting
mission not merely in theology but specifically in the theology of the cross while
also presenting the missional expression of the theology of the cross in a variety of
settings and contexts: ìHow may we offer a genuine Biblical witness that is sensitive to our global village and to our postmodern times?î (8).
The structure of the book moves the reader nicely toward that end. The first
section provides three essays that speak about the theology of the cross (Garcia,
Kolb) and a missiology of the cross (Scudieri) in systematic terms. The second
section applies the theology of the cross to a variety of ethnic and religious contexts:
Confucian Asia (Ji), Islam (Fry), Hindu (Raj), Africa (Abate), and post-Marxist
Russia (Muench). The third and final section speaks specifically to the North
American context: Postmodernism (Veith), the bioethical revolution (Eyer), Hispanic
(Garcia), African-American (Nunes), and New Age (Ehlke). As can be seen, this
book assembles a remarkable collection of experienced and articulate scholars, all
from the Lutheran family. Most serve presently or formerly at one of the LCMS
Concordias, either seminary (Fort Way n e ó Fry, Garcia; St. LouisóJi, Kolb, Raj) or
university (MequonóEhlke, Eyer, Garcia, Veith; AustinóMuench), which leaves
three serving elsewhere in the ministry of the church (Mekane Yesus Church in
EthiopiaóAbate; parish pastoróNunes; LCMS World MissionóScudieri).
It is difficult for a review to do right by the variety of themes and concerns of
differing authors in an anthology. One can only highlight articles and themes that
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
403
seem particularly insightful or helpful to the reviewer. Kolbís presentation of the
theology of the cross is characteristically winsome and articulate, as is Scudieriís
linking of the cross and missiology. Among the various ethnic and religious
applications, this reviewer found Fryís presentation of Islam and Muenchís
observations about post-Marxist Russia to be particularly instructive as well as
timely. Likewise, as one who has shared some of Jiís sensitivity to the Eastern
world, this reviewer found his insights very thoughtful. As the focus turned to
North America, Eyerís contribution was a very helpful application of the theology
of the cross in the context of the increasingly ambiguous, even intimidating field of
biomedical ethics. Perhaps the most moving article was Garciaís mix of the
autobiographical and the theological in sharing life and theology through a Hispanic
filter. Especially thought-provoking was his characterization of the incarnation
itself as marginal and, as such, programmatic for the Christian church.
One sub-theme running through many of the articles is the reality and the
proper understanding of suffering. Understandably, of course, the subject of the
cross elicits such a topic. However, more than simply a variation on an imposed
theological theme, there was a sense of a primal human reality that cuts across
cultures, dominates the life-reality of many peoples, but has unique expressions in
different contexts: Russian, Hispanic, African-American. No surprise that only a
theology of the cross can deal substantively with the primal issues as they surface
across a variety of cultures.
Other important themes surfaced also that deserve further thought and a
fuller treatment, e.g., Abateís concern that a theology of the cross has an integral
linkage with social justice; Muenchís theological critique of mission policy; Nunesís
caution about misrepresenting the theology of the cross as a quietistic condoning of
an abusive status quo.
One final observation concerns the creative spark that seems built into
reflection on the theology of the cross. As that theme is reflected on in these articles,
there seems to be movement back and forth among related themes like Lutherís
theology of the cross, theology of crucifixion, the crucified Christ identifying with
the suffering, and theology of cross-bearing. The reader does need to sort through
these variations in order to fit them together into a coherent, though still living,
theology of the cross.
As always, there are also things that wrinkle the browóaside from typos and
occasional mixing of type-sizes (even on facing pages). Does, for instance, attributing
the ecumenical movement to modernist theologians (166) do right by the impetus
toward unity that came from the missionary drive of the church? Is it really true
that ìmost Christians hesitate to call Christianity a religionî (119)?
Minor questions aside, this is a lovely piece of theological-missiological
reflection as well as application. There is rigor to the scholarship, integrity to the
theological underpinnings, credibility to the observations and applications, and a
winsome, inviting spirit that invites the reader into both the theological reflection
and the missiological application. The combination of reflection and application
gives this book value for its methodology in addition to its rich contents. It will
certainly be used in this reviewerís mission-related courses.
Henry Rowold
404
NOT UNTO US: A Celebration of the Ministry of Kurt J. Eggert. Edited by William
H. Braun and Victor H. Prange. Milwaukee: Northwestern, 2001. 266 pages.
Paper. $14.99.
This is a Festschrift dedicated to the honor of Kurt J. Eggert, long-time parish
pastor in the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod, but better known for his
accomplishments in the area of church music.
The book contains eight essays written or compiled by friends and former
colleagues of Eggert, plus a biography by his wife Ruth. The first article is a
compilation of selected essays on worship and music by Eggert himself.
As one reads these essays, one is struck by the large musical output of this
servant of God while he was at the same time a devoted husband and father (of a
large family), as well as the pastor of a number of large congregations. Eggertís
first parish was a mission congregation in North Dakota; but he soon took a call to
a large, rural congregation in Wisconsin. From there he went to a large church in
Milwaukee, at the same time leading an all-city choir of seventy members (The
Lutheran Chorale) and for a while serving as a part-time professor at Wisconsin
Lutheran Seminary in Thiensville.
For a brief time he taught at Milwaukee Lutheran Teachers College. After that
college closed, he became the associate pastor of another large Milwaukee church.
He stayed in this position until he was called to head the new hymnal project of the
WELS, on which he worked during the last ten years of his life. During the last
years of this tenure, he suffered from various physical ailments to which he finally
succumbed on June 22, 1993; however, not before the first bound copy of Christian
Worship: A Lutheran Hymnal was placed into his hands.
Because of his congregational and family obligations, Eggert was never able to
travel extensively abroad or pursue a graduate program in music, but his musical
talent and his zeal to serve the Lord wherever he was called enabled him to leave
an indelible mark on his friends and colleagues, particularly in the WELS. One of
his early influential ventures was Viva Vox which he published with his close friend
Professor Ralph Gehrke. In a series of ìDear Fredî letters (imaginary letters to a
new choir director in a congregation), Eggert was able to convey to his fellow pastors
a better understanding of worship, church music, and the church year. In Viva Vox,
he also promoted the idea of the ìHymn of the Week.î In his article in the book,
Professor Gehrke traces how Viva Vox, was born and how it became a vehicle leading
to hymn-sings, church-music seminars, and workshops for pastors and
congregations, all led by Eggert.
The first article of the book, which contains selected essays by Eggert himself,
indicates how he constantly was trying to hold on to the best of the past in church
music and worship practices while pressing on to the future and new things.
Accordingly, he played a significant role in moving the WELS from a church that
used the King James Version of the Bible almost exclusively until 1975 to a church
where today the majority of pastors use the NIV.
Chapter two compiles a list of some seventy texts, tunes, and compositions,
one of which is the hymn ìNot unto Usî (which provides the title for the book under
review). Eggert wrote this hymn for the 125th anniversary of the WELS in l975. It
is, of course, found in Christian Worship (No. 392), as well as in Hymnal Supplement
98 (No. 974), where we find the following statement:
Both text and tune are contributed by Lutheran music scholar Kurt Eggert.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
405
The hymn focuses on the unfathomable love and mercy of God, who as our
Redeemer deserves all glory and praise.
This, perhaps better than anything else, sums up Eggertís spirit of servanthood.
For anyone who wishes to read a fascinating account of how God used a quiet
and unassuming, yet very gifted and accomplished person, who was little known
outside his own circles, to reach a large audience with his Gospel-centered musical
works and activities, this book is highly recommended.
Merlin D. Rehm
Bronxville, NY
GODíS GIFT TO YOU: A Devotional Book on the Lord’s Supper. By Gaylin R.
Schmeling. Milwaukee: Northwestern, 2001. 133 pages. Paper. $11.99.
In recent years the Sacrament of the Altar has been offered in many Lutheran
congregations more frequently, often every Sunday. This booklet by the president of
Bethany Lutheran Theological Seminary in Mankato, Minnesota, is a wonderful
way to emphasize the multiple benefits connected to this Sacrament. As Schmeling
notes in his introduction, ìThe purpose of this book of devotions is to assist us in
properly preparing for this blessed Sacrament and to deepen our appreciation for
its many blessingsî (vi).
Most of the devotional messages have some connection to the Lordís Supper,
although not all of them directly refer to the Sacrament of the Altar. Occasionally,
Schmeling develops a more general theme around the means of grace, adding only
a sentence or two to tie it to the Lordís Supper. All the devotions reflect his pastoral
experience as one who brings Good News of great joy to Godís people.
Arguably, part one of this booklet is the key to the rest of the work. Here
Schmeling lays out the command and institution of the Lordís Supper, introducing
its Passover connection, the significance of the Lutheran understanding of Christís
ìreal presence,î the fact that the Sacrament ìis the last will and testament of
Christ,î and a rather clear explanation of why most Lutherans practice ìclose
Communion.î
Somewhat troubling to this reviewer is the fact that, while indicating that
ìworthiness includes a confident faith in Jesus the Saviorî (9), Schmelingís emphasis seems to lie more on self-examination and confession of sins. He does note
later that ìChristians who are weak in their faith are not to be numbered among
the unworthyî (10), yet the echo of Martin Lutherís sweet encouragement is not as
clear as it could be. However, the third chapter provides a wealth of Biblical and
theological images regarding the blessings of the Sacrament. For example,
Schmeling uses medieval imagery reminiscent of Bernard of Clairvaux when he
writes: ìAs we come to the Lordís Table, we are in spirit at Golgotha, kneeling
before the cross, embracing his dying body, and drinking from his five bloody woundsî
(11). A little later he writes: ìThis Sacrament is a ford, a bridge, a door, a ship, and
a stretcher by means of which we pass from this life to the eternal.î He continues:
ìBecause of this hope, the early church fathers often spoke of the Supper as the
viaticum, ëthe medicine of immortality,í which is a food preparing us for eternal lifeî
(15).
Constructive and careful arrangement of over thirty of the forty-five meditations in a liturgically sensitive order according to the Church Year makes this book
a beneficial product for pastoral visitations or for family devotions. The second
406
part of the book provides thematic devotions for the four weeks of Advent, plus four
for Christmas, five for Epiphany, six for Lent, five for Easter, and seven for the
season of Pentecost. In part three, Schmeling offers four more general devotions on
the Sacrament and daily life as well as six devotions for times of conflict, sickness,
and the hour of death, always underscoring Godís gift through Word and Sacraments.
Helpful both in its purpose and content is the final part of this book, ìPrayers
for the Lordís Supper.î Included are five rather lengthy prayers to be prayed prior to
participating in the holy feast, six ìwhile receiving the Sacramentî (two of which
Schmeling indicates are ìa silent prayer at the altarî), and six prayers for after the
Sacrament (one with a Christmas theme and one with an Easter themeóthe
latter from Lutheran Worship, p. 46, #33).
Keeping the theme of the Lordís Supper as a central focus is not always accomplished, as mentioned earlier. For example, a devotion titled ìIs Everyone Happy?î
is well written, but it only mentions ìWord and the holy sacramentsî without
featuring the Lordís Supper specifically. Similarly, ìHe Is with Us on the Water,î an
Epiphany devotion, and ìHe Is Risen,î an Easter devotion, only advert to the
Supper but emphasize the beautiful benefits of Baptism. Perhaps some careful
editing could have made this resource more consistently focused on the Lordís
Supper as the title suggests. Or the subtitle could have been amended to reflect the
stronger emphasis on Godís gift in all the means of grace, since that seems to be the
actual focal point of many of the devotional messages. (The latter suggestion is the
preference of this reviewer.)
Entering into the presence of the Lord and receiving His body and blood broken
and shed is an awesome experience. Dr. Schmeling has given Lutheran Christians
a wonderful resource for reflecting on this experience and seeing Godís presence in
powerful ways in worship and in life. This book should accompany every pastor as
he brings Communion to shut-ins and hospitalized members, as well as be placed
in every Lutheran home. God is rich in His gifts to us, and President Schmeling has
elucidated them for our greater appreciation.
Timothy Maschke
Mequon, WI
PREACHING JOHN. By Robert Kysar. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2002.
252 pages. Paper. $18.00.
Kysarís monograph is ìdesigned to enable preachers to better understand the
Gospel of John in order that they might tap its resources for proclamationî (3). In
a more pensive, personal manner, Kysar summarizes his goal when he concludes
his book with the words ìIf this book does no more than stimulate a few readers to
think new thoughts about the Christian message of John and venture new kinds of
sermons to speak of John, I will be more than pleasedî (222).
Kysarís scholarly acumen on the Gospel of John is well known because of his
extensive publications. His love for good preaching is made obvious in this book.
The emeritus professor of New Testament at Candler School of Theology, Emory
University, Atlanta, admits that it is not easy to bridge the gap between good
exegetical study and meaningful proclamation. As the author of two well-received
commentaries, Kysar makes the surprising observation that commentaries ìseldom help much in the process of sermon preparationî (18).
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
407
The first three chapters of the monograph provide a good introduction or review of the historical, literary, and theological problems underlying contemporary
interpretation of Johnís Gospel, as well as creative ideas for responsible proclamation based thereon. The next two chapters examine Johannine discourses, narratives, and the passion story. Together with the exegetical interpretation and review
of scholarly opinion, Kysar often includes a portion of a sermon, either one of his
own or someone elseís. The sermon excerpts seek to illustrate or suggest responsible contemporary proclamation properly drawn from the Johannine text. Before
a brief conclusion, the final chapter of the book examines the sections of John
assigned for reading in the church year by the Revised Common Lectionary. An
appendix lists the lectionary readings as well. The book ends with copious and
valuable endnotes; a good, although limited, bibliography on both the Gospel of
John and preaching; and indexes of passages in John, of sermons and sermon
fragments, and of Gospel lessons from John in the Revised Common Lectionary.
There are few surprises in the exegetical and historical material, not only
because Kysarís publications are well known, but also because his intent is to
review rather than to break new ground. Nevertheless, the well-crafted review is of
great interest and value, since a lifetime of Johannine study is encapsulated in one
book. Kysar also makes many thought-provoking observations. For example, in a
footnote on page 229 he writes that J. Louis Martynís theory of ìan expulsion [of the
Johannine community] from the synagogue needs to be reexamined. It has been so
widely taken for granted during the last forty years that we are liable to forget that
it is only [Kysarís emphasis] a theoryÖ.î
As comfortable as I am in reviewing Kysarís exegetical labor, I am equally
uncomfortable in evaluating his insights into contemporary homiletical theory
and practice. At least for me, that underscores the importance of the book as it
seeks to connect good exegesis and effective proclamation. The chapter on word and
words is especially insightful and intriguing. Kysar argues that more careful linguistic study is necessary for sound Biblical teaching because the preacher continues the revelatory task. He warns that people should not be discouraged if preaching year after year seems to accomplish little. Despite outward appearances, good
preaching ìcan be the incarnation of Godís self-revelationî (84). Kysar also thinks
that the Gospel of John models a deliberate and careful usage of language in
sermons. The wonderful metaphors in John call us to find equally apt metaphors
in our own language and culture. For example, Christ as the Light of the world
suggests reference to lights on a landing strip to illustrate how Christ leads us to
safety. Like a night-light in a childís bedroom, the Light of the world assures security. Like streetlights guarding us from attackers, the Light of the world protects us
(92). Yet Kysar urges caution as well. He does not understate the challenge of being
creative and yet faithful when taking rural metaphors like vine, branches, sheepfold
and shepherd and making them lucid and relevant in a culture that is today primarily urban. Kysar also draws the preacherís own faith and life into focus by noting
that Christ is both word and deed in a single event. Christ walks the talk and talks
the walk (131). Preachers today must do the same. As preachers, we must ìdemonstrate whether or not the word is embodied in action in our livesî (131).
In his conclusion Kysar suggests that in content and form the Gospel of John
advocates a ìroundtable method of preachingî (218). He admits that this approach
is somewhat startling at first because the Gospel of John is clearly written with
deep conviction about Christology and a fervent attempt to share that faith. For
Kysar, roundtable preaching means proclamation that is conversational, inclusive
408
and imaginative. Conversation is defined as respectfully engaging the listeners in
genuine dialogue that invites and stimulates thought (218). Despite the obviously
exclusive nature of the Johannine Gospel, Kysar calls for inclusive preaching on a
different level, since John uniquely models the impact of sharing the Gospel with
Samaritans, Gentiles, and women. Finally, Kysar calls preachers to an imaginative use of images (221).
Aware of my own limitations, I recommend the monograph as a stimulating
guide in the important quest for valid and vivid preaching that flows from good
exegesis of the Gospel of John.
Robert Holst
St. Paul, MN
TILL THE NIGHT BE PAST: The Life and Times of Dietrich Bonhoeffer. By Theodore
J. Kleinhans. St. Louis: Concordia, 2002. 171 pages. Paper. $15.99.
With the airings on public television of the film Bonhoeffer: Agent of Grace, and
the advent of Martin Doblmeierís 2003 documentary, Bonhoeffer, individuals may
wish to take a more in-depth look at the most influential Lutheran theologian of
the twentieth century. Of course, the standard, definitive biography is still that by
Bonhoefferís closest earthly friend, Eberhard Bethge. Bethgeís Dietrich Bonhoeffer:
Theologian, Christian, Man for His Times, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2000),
published in 1967 and first translated into English in 1970, examines both the life
and the thought of Bonhoeffer to a degree yet unmatched. But weighing in at just
under 1,050 pages, Bethgeís account may be too much to handle for some. Thankfully, there are lighter texts that introduce readers to the main contours of this
uncommon man without burdening them with too many intricacies. In addition to
Renate Windís Dietrich Bonhoeffer: A Spoke in the Wheel (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1992; 182 pages), there is now Kleinhansí account.
Like many theologies (e.g., Augustineís, Lutherís, Kierkegaardís, Barthís) but
unlike many others (e.g., Origenís, Aquinasí, Quenstedtís), the theology of Bonhoeffer
is comprehensible only in relation to the life of its originator. The faith and order
and the life and the work run together and mutually affect each other so that
knowledge of the life and the actions are integral to knowledge of the faith and the
theology. Indeed, the coherence between Bonhoefferís life and thought, their fundamental integrity, makes Bonhoeffer attractive to many, both inside and outside
the Christian church.
Kleinhansí twenty-six chapters take the reader through the main events of
Bonhoefferís life, though they do not provide much analysis of the thought that was
shaped in relation to these events. The reader is taken from Bonhoefferís infancy in
Breslau, through his childhood in cosmopolitan Berlin and his decision to study
theology (T¸bingen and Berlin), to his years as pastor (Barcelona in 1928, London
in 1933-1934) and as an assistant lecturer in Berlin (1929-1930, 1933), to his year
as a graduate student at Union Seminary in New York (1930-1931), then onward
to his years spent as a participant in the Ecumenical Movement, as a radical
member of the Confessing Church, as director of an illegal seminary, and eventually as a collaborator in a conspiracy to assassinate Hitler. Kleinhans ends with a
summary of the ìtrialî and execution of Bonhoeffer at the Flossenb¸rg extermination camp.
Though Kleinhans has obviously relied significantly upon Bethgeís and othersí
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
409
accounts (in both book and documentary forms), as he himself admits, he also
provides an occasional insight of his own. Particularly interesting and enjoyable
are Kleinhansí descriptions of Bonhoefferís childhood, his university days and
Barcelona escapades, the Preachersí Seminary (both at Zingst and Finkenwalde),
his activities as international courier for the conspiracy, his courtship and engagement to Maria von Wedemeyer, and his final days as a prisoner. Kleinhans does not
provide much insight, however, into Bonhoefferís theology. This is a book to get a
sense of Bonhoefferís external life; it is not a book that examines his ideas to any
depth. The reader must look elsewhere for summaries and analyses of Bonhoefferís
Discipleship, Ethics, or the famous and influential letters from prison.
There are some additional weaknesses to the book. Unlike Windís and Bethgeís
texts, Kleinhansí does not contain a chronological table for Bonhoefferís life. This
would have been helpful to include, especially since the reader on occasion must
struggle to learn the year and season in which Bonhoeffer did something significant. Unfortunately, the book contains some rather glaring errors: Bultmann,
Gogarten, Tillich, and Reinhold Niebuhr were not ìfamous studentsî of Barth (52);
they were contemporaries and fellow theologians whose ideas often conflicted with
Barthís (Tillich was never labeled a Barthian!). Contrary to Kleinhansí statement
(170), Discipleship was published during Dietrichís lifetime (in 1937).
These drawbacks aside, the book provides a brief, straightforward, and very
readable account of Bonhoefferís life and times.
Matthew Becker
Portland, OR
REVERBERATIONS OF FAITH: A Theological Handbook of Old Testament Themes.
By Walter Brueggemann. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2002. xii + 256
pages. Paper. $19.95.
There are two kinds of Bible dictionaries. First, there are resourcesólike the
Anchor Bible Dictionary or Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bibleóthat supply information, facts, and figures. In contrast to this genre, Brueggemann has written a dictionary that contains facts and figures on 105 entries on various Old Testament
(OT) themes, but he also includes the dimension of Biblical theology. Going beyond
this new twist, from his first entry on ìancestorsî to his last on ìYHWH,î
Brueggemann further discusses theology not only to inform about ìhow it was,î but
also to show ìhow it is.î That is to say, he indicates how the elements of Israelís
metanarrative speak to postmodern men and women.
In each of his entries, Brueggemann first states a more-or-less consensus
position, discusses what is at issue in the interpretive question that pertains to
the entry, and then concludes with how the word matters to the church. References
following each entry reflect the most recent OT scholarship. In providing much
more than dictionary-style entries, Brueggemann demonstrates the deep
interconnectedness of OT themes as he defines their depth and complexities.
Let me demonstrate this methodology by offering several specific examples.
In the entry on ìatonement,î Brueggemann first discusses the Biblical data stressing the purification rite of yôm kippûr, concluding with two interesting remarks.
First, he points out that various forms of psychotherapy, in which healing is ìatone-ment,î continue the Biblical lines. Second, he pays attention to the technological society in which we are living. This societyódespite all its benefitsóprovokes
410
alienation and fragmentation of the person. In sum, the Biblical narrative of atonement is both comforting to us and critical of postmodern society. The brilliant entry
on ìBabylonî is another example that demonstrates how Brueggemann moves
from OT text to New Testament and then to church. He writes: ìThe metaphor
ëBabyloní is a prime example of the way in which biblical texts become generative
of interpretive imagination that ranges well beyond the text and its initial field of
reference in redescribing the reality of the worldî (18). He then notes Peterís use of
Babylon in 1 Peter 5:13 and even Lutherís famous critique of the Roman Church
with his phrase, ìThe Babylonian Captivity of the Church.î
In his discussion on ìFertility Religion,î Brueggemann discusses the mistaken contrast between a god of fertility (e.g., Baal) and Yahweh, the God of history.
This dichotomy was overstated by earlier generations of OT scholars, with the
result that separating Yahweh from all the wonders of fertility led to separating
Him from the act of creation. This ìeither/orî of nature and history is better understood as a ìboth/andîófor Yahweh is Lord of both.
Brueggemannís hermeneutic isóno surprise hereóat times vastly different
from what readers of this journal consider normative. His reading of the OT assumes different theological traditions, interpretive disputes, and a plurality of
ideas that contradict one another. His ongoing theme is that Christians have made
an illegitimate appropriation of the OTófor the Hebrew Bible really belongs to
Judaism. Another area that brings a certain amount of wincing is when
Brueggemann drives a wedge between what he terms ìremembered historyî and
ìactual historyîówith the idea that the OT never claims to be actual history as it
is commonly understood in the modern sense. Another critique is that
Brueggemannís reading of texts tendsóat timesóto overemphasize the social
dimension of Israel. One quotation will demonstrate the idea: ìThe linkage of God
and land makes the biblical tradition endlessly revolutionary in its social function. Every attempt to reduce the Bible to an otherworldly subject fails precisely on
this accent on landî (122).
In need of more extended critique is that Brueggemann regularly makes statements like this: ìJeremiah is preoccupied with the question of the return of deported Jews to Jerusalem and the return of obedient Judaism to covenant with
Godî (171ómy emphasis). Brueggemann mistakenly believes that the terms ìIsraelitesî and ìJewsî are synonymous. An Israelite, however, is a descendant of
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob who believes in Yahweh, the God who revealed Himself
to these patriarchs and subsequent people like Moses, Samuel, Huldah, etc. On
the other hand, a ìJewî denotes a person who is a physical descendant of Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob, but in addition to embracing the OT believes, to some extent, in
the Mishnah, Talmud, and other rabbinic writings. Put another way, the promises
made to Israel in the OT find their fulfillment not with Jews of today, but rather
with Christ and His churchóand it is precisely at this point where Brueggemann
is the least Christological and most ambiguous.
For the community of OT scholars, there is not much new in this bookó especially if one has already read any of Brueggemannís countless other publications.
Nevertheless, for those who want an insightfulóif not always agreeableóreading
of major OT themes, his latest offering is invaluable. It adds depth, insight, and
clarity to the churchís ongoing challenge of speaking its Biblical and theological
language in ways that demonstrate the breadth and depth of Yahwehís revelation
to Israel and the church.
Reed Lessing
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
411
BEYOND BABEL: A Handbook for Biblical Hebrew and Related Languages. Edited by John Kaltner and Steven McKenzie. Leiden: Brill, 2002. 241 pages.
Cloth. $59.95.
In Isaiah 19:18, Hebrew is called ![;n;;;.K tp;f., or ìthe language of Canaan.î This
description of Hebrew places it within the ancient Near Eastern Semitic family of
languages. This fact has important ramifications for those who preach and teach
from the Old Testament. Put another way, Hebrew didnít ìfall out of the skyî but is
part of a greater family of languages and can, therefore, be better understood in
light of these cognate dialects. Accordingly, for centuries students and scholars
have turned to other Semitic languages in their quest to understand the text of the
Hebrew Bible. One reason for this is that such study enables one to read texts
produced by ancient Israelís neighbors in the original tongues and by so doing finds
greater depth in the Old Testament text. A classic example can be experienced by
reading the Akkadian Enuma Elish, which contains several parallels with the
creation story of Genesis 1. Seen in this light, Yahwehís act of creation is culturally
different and theologically charged. A second reason to be aware of the world of
Semitic languages is that such knowledge sheds considerable light on the grammar, syntax, and vocabulary of Biblical Hebrew.
That being said, where can one findóin one volumeóa discussion of Semitic
languages and how they add to the interpretive task of exegeting the Old Testament? This void has been finally filled in Beyond Babel. Written by an international team of specialists, the book attempts to provide a general orientation to
the Semitic languages of importance for the study of the Old Testament while also
being structured for readers who do not have detailed exposure to those languages.
The languages treated are those that are the most significant for the study of the
Old Testament for comparative grammar and lexicography, or for comparative
history and literature, or both. These are Akkadian, Ugaritic, Phoenician, Moabite,
Ammonite, Edomite, Aramaic, and Arabic. Each chapter follows a three-part format: an overview of the language, its significance for the study of the Bible, and
ancient sources and modern resources for study of the language and literature.
This reviewer found many interpretive insights in the chapter on Akkadian.
This is because, for much of the second millennium B.C. and into the first, Akkadian
was a lingua franca throughout the Near East; and consequently a significant
number of Akkadian loanwords have made their way into the Hebrew Bible. For
example, the Akkadian word kerûbîm denotes winged creatures that are half man
and half beast, who had the duty of protecting sacred spaces. This fits the understanding of the Biblical cherubim who, after Adamís eviction, were assigned to
protect the garden of Eden (Gen. 3:24), as well as the two golden cherubim with
outstretched wings that overshadowed the ark in the wilderness (Ex. 25:18-20).
The winged cherubim are also said to accompany Yahweh from place to place (Ps.
18:10). Therefore, it is safe to suggest that the presence of cherubim in the Old
Testament implies that they are protecting Yahwehís sacred space (cf. Is. 6:1-9,
where the seraphim are synonymous with cherubim).
Next to the chapter on Akkadian, the second-most worthwhile discussion was
that on Ugaritic. One highlight from this chapter follows. The translation of #ra as
ìunderworldî or ìSheolî is now well-attested by examples from the Ras Shamra
discoveries. Consistent with this line of thinking is that the Ugaritic cognate for #ra
describes Motís realm in Sheol. So, for example, Exodus 15:12 states in part, #r,a
wOm[elb.Ti (ìearth swallowed themî)óbut it is better understood that the Egyptian
412
horses, chariots, and army were consumed by a hungry and ravenous Sheol whose
appetite is never satiated. The Exodus 15:12 use of the verb ìto swallowî ([lb) in
this context (cf., e.g., Num. 16:32) is consistent with the Ugaritic metaphor of Motís
devouring appetite. Sheol is credited with widening its throat and eating voluminously also in Isaiah 5:14. Understood this way, if Sheol swallowed the charging
Egyptians, then those who were ìhigh and mightyî found themselves ìas low as
they could go.î This comports with a constant Biblical themeónamely, that ìthose
who exalt themselves will be humbled.î That #ra is better understood as Sheol in
some contexts has also been recognized in Isaiah 44:23; Jeremiah 17:13; Psalm
46:2, 141:7; Job 10:21ff., and Jonah 2:6. Such insights are scattered throughout the
book and hence indicate the necessity of knowing something about the entire Semitic
language family.
Beyond Babel truly does deliver on its title. The ìbabblingî languages of the
Semitic world are untangled by scholars recognized as leaders in their field of
study. This book will find an audience among those who have not had detailed
exposure to one or more of the languages discussed here and who would like to
cultivate a rudimentary acquaintance with at least one, toward the end of becoming a more accurate interpreter of Yahwehís first testament.
Reed Lessing
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
413
Books Received
Bandy, Thomas G. FRAGILE HOPE: Your Church in 2020. Nashville: Abingdon
Press, 2002. 166 pages. Paper. $15.00.
Bandy, Thomas G. ROAD RUNNER: The Body in Motion. Nashville: Abingdon
Press, 2002. 125 pages. Paper. $12.00.
Bartels, Ernest. TAKE EAT, TAKE DRINK: The Lordís Supper through the Centuries. St. Louis: Concordia, 2004. 286 pages. Paper. $14.99.
Bethage, Renate. Trans. K. C. Hanson. DIETRICH BONHOEFEER: A Brief Life.
Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 90 pages. Cloth. $12.00.
Blenkinsopp, Joseph. TREASURES OLD & NEW: Essays in the Theology of the
Pentateuch. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004. 238 pages. Paper. $26.00.
Botterweck, G. Johannes, Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry, eds. THEOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT, Volume XIV. Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004. 702 pages. Cloth. $60.00.
Browning, Don S. RELIGIOUS THOUGHT AND THE MODERN PSYCHOLOGIES. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 304 pages. Paper. $25.00.
Buchholz, Jon D. PAUL: Ambassador of Peace. Godís People Series. Milwaukee:
Northwestern, 2004. 49 pages. Paper. $6.99.
Collins, John J. DOES THE BIBLE JUSTIFY VIOLENCE? Facets Series. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 56 pages. Paper. $6.00.
Dittmer, Terry, John Johnson, David Lumpp, Paul Raabe, William Weinrich and
Dean Wenthe. GOD WORDS: Intro to Classic Christian Theology. St. Louis:
Concordia, 2004. 188 pages. Paper. $12.99.
Doblmeier, Martin. BONHOEFFER: Pastor, Pacifist, Nazi Resister. Minneapolis:
Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 90 minutes. DVD. $29.95.
Echols, James, ed. I HAVE A DREAM: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Future of
Multicultural America. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 102 pages. Cloth.
$15.00.
Ehlke, Roland Cap. SPEAKING THE TRUTH IN LOVE TO MUSLIMS. Milwaukee: Northwestern, 2004. 219 pages. Paper. $13.99.
Feinberg, John S. THE MANY FACES OF EVIL: Theological Systems and the
Problems of Evil. Wheaton: Crossway Books, 2004. 544 pages. Paper. $35.00.
Green, Michael. EVANGELISM IN THE EARLY CHURCH. Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 2004. 474 pages. Paper. $25.00.
Grenz, Stanley J. REDISCOVERING THE TRIUNE GOD: The Trinity in Contemporary Theology. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 289 pages. Paper.
$23.00.
Gunderson, Gary. BOUNDARY LEADERS: Leadership Skills for People of Faith.
Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 162 pages. Paper. $17.00.
Hoard, Samuel L. THE TRUTH WILL SET YOU FREE. St. Louis: Concordia,
2004. 160 pages. Paper. $9.99.
Holley, Robert F. and Paul E. Walters. CALLED BY GOD TO SERVE: Reflections
for Church Leaders. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 88 pages. Paper.
$9.99.
Hutton, Rodney R. FORTRESS INTRODUCTION TO THE PROPHETS. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 115 pages. Paper. $16.00.
Hybels, Bill. THE VOLUNTEER REVOLUTION: Unleashing the Power of Everybody. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2004. 141 pages. Cloth. $16.99.
414
Johnson, Alan F. 1 CORINTHIANS: IVP New Testament Commentry Series.
Downers Grove: IVP, 2004. 343 pages. Cloth. $22.00.
Jung, L. Shannon. FOOD FOR LIFE: The Spirituality and Ethics of Eating. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 167 pages. Paper. $15.00.
Kaufman, Gordon D. IN THE BEGINNINGÖCREATIVITY. Minneapolis:
Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 152 pages. Paper. $19.00.
Lawrenz, Carl J. and John C. Jeske. A COMMENTARY ON GENESIS 1-11. Milwaukee: Northwestern, 2004. 339 pages. Cloth. $32.99.
Marsh, Richard. PRAYERS FROM THE EAST: Traditions of Eastern Christianity. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 160 pages. Paper. $15.00.
Maxfield, John A. editor. THE PIEPER LECTURES: Preaching through the Ages.
St. Louis: Concordia Historical Institute and the Luther Academy, 2004. 136
pages. Paper. No price given.
McKnight Scot and Grant R. Osborne. THE FACE OF NEW TESTAMENT STUDIES: A Survey of Recent Research. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2004. 544 pages.
Paper. $32.99.
Migliore, Daniel L. FAITH SEEKING UNDERSTANDING: An Introduction to
Christian Theology. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004. Xvii+439 pages. Paper.
$25.00.
Milgrom, Jacob. LEVITICUS: A Continental Commentary. Minneapolis: Augsburg
Fortress, 2004. 384 pages. Cloth. $30.00.
Miller, Patrick D. THE GOD YOU HAVE: Politics and the First Commandment.
Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 84 pages. Paper. $6.00.
Moltmann, J¸¸rgen. IN THE ENDóTHE BEGINNING. Minneapolis: Augsburg
Fortress, 2004. 192 pages. Paper. $17.00.
Muddiman, John. THE EPISTLE TO THE EPHESIANS: Blackís New Testament
Commentary. Peabody: Hendrickson, 2004. 338 pages. Cloth. $29.95.
Nagel, Norman. SELECTED SERMONS OF NORMAN NAGEL. St. Louis:
Concorida, 2004. 368 pages. Cloth. $21.99.
Neyrey, Jerome H. RENDER TO GOD: New Testament Understandings of the
Divine. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 264 pages. Paper. $23.00.
Parry, Robin A. and Christopher H. Partridge. UNIVERSAL SALVATION?: The
Current Debate. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004. 319 pages. Paper. $27.00.
Patterson, Stephen J. BEYOND THE PASSION: Rethinking the Death and Life of
Jesus. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 161 pages. Paper. $18.00.
Powell, Mark Allan. LOVING JESUS. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 200
pages. Paper. $16.00.
Preus, Daniel. WHY I AM A LUTHERAN: Jesus at the Center. St. Louis: Concordia,
2004. 224 pages. Cloth. $14.99.
Ramon, Brother and SimonBarrington-Ward. PRAYING THE JESUS PRAYER
TOGETHER. Peabody: Hendrickson, 2004. 134 pages. Paper. $12.95.
Roehrs, Walter R. and Martin Franzmann. COMENTARIO BIBLICO
CONCORDIA. St. Louis: Concordia, 2004. 1448 pages. Cloth. $44.99.
Sloyan, Gerard S. WHY JESUS DIED, Facets Series. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 154 pages. Paper. $6.00.
Tanner, Kathryn, ed. SPIRIT IN THE CITIES: Searching for Soul in the Urban
Landscape. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 144 pages. Paper. $15.00.
Thompson, Deanna A. CROSSING THE DIVIDE: Luther, Feminism, and the Cross.
Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 184 pages. Paper. $18.00.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
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Tinker, George E. SPIRIT AND RESISTANCE: Political Theology and American
Indian Liberation. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 144 pages. Paper.
$17.00.
Wagstrom Halaas, Gwen. THE RIGHT ROAD: Life Choices for Clergy. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 128 pages. Paper. $16.00.
Water, Mark, ed. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRAYER AND PRAISE. Peabody:
Hendrickson, 2004. 1184 pages. Cloth. $39.95.
Wilson, Stephen G. LEAVING THE FOLD: Apostates and Defectors in Antiquity.
Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2004. 158 pages. Cloth. $25.00.
Woldt, Michael A. JACOB: He Wrestled with God, Godís People Series. Milwaukee:
Northwestern, 2004. 42 pages. Paper. $6.99.
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Index of Volume 30
Since our page numbers are consecutive within a volume, the following key shows
the page number for each reference.
Volume 30, Number 1/2 ñ pages 1-108
Volume 30, Number 3 ñ pages 109-284
Volume 30, Number 4 ñ pages 285-420
Articles, Editorials, Homiletical Helps, and Short Studies
Ancient Rhetorical Criticism, Galatians, and Paul at Twenty-five Years (Surburg),
13-39.
A Human God: Some Remarks on Lutherís Christology (Zwanepol), 40-53.
Babylon in the Book of Isaiah (Roos), 350-375.
The Centrality of Isaiah 6 (-8) within Isaiah 2-12 (Bartelt), 316-335.
Civic Participation by Churches and Pastors: An Essay on Two Kinds of Righteousness (Schumacher), 165-177.
A Framework for the Practice of Evangelism and Congregational Outreach (Peter),
203-216.
Idols, Eating, and Rights (1 Cor. 8:1-11:1): Faithful and Loving Witness in a Pluralistic Culture (Kloha), 178-202.
The Impact of Societal and Educational Trends on Theological Education in The
Lutheran ChurchóMissouri Synod (Palka), 217-237.
Keeping Our Balance: Maintaing Unity in a World (and Church!) of Diversity
(Bartelt), 137-155.
Look to the Holy One of Israel, All You Nations: The Oracles about the Nations
Still Speak Todayî (Raabe), 336-349.
Louis Sacharís Holes: An Adventure Story with a Theological Bonus (Rossow), 412.
Not All Adiaphora Are Created Equal (Arand), 156-164.
The Redactional Interpretation of Discontinuity in Prophetic Texts: Isaiah 23 as a
Test Case (Lessing), 294-315.
Editorís Note (Wesselschmidt), 110, 286-287.
Homiletical Helps:
Advent (Schaper, Rosin, Wesselschmidt, Lessing), 381-382, 383-384, 384-386,
386-389.
All Saintsí Day (Dost), 376-377.
Christmas (Lessing, Schaper), 389-391, 391-393.
Epiphany (Wollenburg, Graudin, Raj, Rosin, Raj, Wesselschmidt, Raj), 54-57,
57-58, 393-395, 395-396, 397-398, 398-399, 400-402.
Easter (Redecker, Oschwald, Kiehl, Oschwald, Kiehl, Thomas), 70-72, 72-73,
74-75, 75-76, 76-78, 78-81.
Lent (Dost, Rowold, Wesselschmidt, Graudin), 60-61, 62-64, 64-67, 67-68.
Palm Sunday (Dost), 69-70.
Pentecost (Hartung, Rossow, Rowold, Redecker, Rossow, Adams, Weise, Meyer,
Burreson, Duke, Gerike, Burreson, Brauer, Peter, Duke, Groll, Peter, Gerike,
Brauer, Saleska, Dost), 81-82, 82-84, 85-87, 87-88, 88-90, 90-94, 94-96,
242-244, 244-246, 246-247, 247-249, 249-251, 251-252, 252-254, 254255, 255-258, 258-259, 259-261, 261-263, 377-379, 379-381.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
417
Reformation (Groll), 263-266.
Transfiguration (Hartung) 59-60.
Short Studies:
The Passion of the Christ (Warneck), 238-241.
Theological Observers (alphabetical by author, then title)
Arand: The State of Synod: An Assessment, 127-136.
Bartelt: The State of Synod: An Assessment, 127-136.
Berger: Civic Interfaith Religious Events: Maximal Hazards, Minimal Opportunities, 118-121.
Berger: Resolution 8-01A and Dispute Resolutionó Quo vadimus?, 290-293.
Brauer: Another Hymnal?, 111-113.
Lessing: What Really Happened at Sinai?, 288-289.
Okamoto: Seeking the Good Together, 113-116.
Raabe: The State of Synod: An Assessment, 127-136.
Raj: War and Peace, Peace and Warfare., 2-3.
Schumacher: Theology or Mission?, 116-118.
Voelz: The Beginnings of Christianity Are Not on Television, 122-123.
Voelz: The State of Synod: An Assessment, 127-136.
Wollenberg: Emmaus Isnít Far!, 123-127.
Authors of Articles, Editorials, Homiletical Helps, and Short Studies
Adams, David, 90-94.
Arand, 127-136, 156-164.
Bartelt, 127-136, 137-155, 316-335.
Berger, David O., 118-121, 290-293.
Brauer, James L., 111-113, 251-252, 261-263.
Burreson, Kent, 244-246, 249-251.
Dost, Timothy, 60-61, 69-70, 376-377, 379-381.
Duke, David, 246-247, 254-255.
Gerike, Henry V., 247-249, 259-261.
Graudin, Arthur F., 57-58, 67-68.
Groll, Douglas, 255-258, 263-266.
Hartung, Bruce, 59-60, 81-82.
Kloha, Jeffrey J., 178-202.
Kiehl, Erich H., 74-75, 76-78.
Lessing, Reed, 288-289, 294-315, 386-389, 389-391.
Meyer, Dale A., 242-244.
Oschwald, Jeffrey A., 72-73, 75-76.
Okamoto, Joel P., 113-116.
Palka, John M., 217-237.
Peter, David J., 203-216, 252-254, 258-259.
Raabe, Paul R., 127-136, 336-349.
Raj, Victor, 2-3, 393-395, 397-398, 400-402.
Redecker, Michael, 70-72, 87-88.
Roos, Deomar, 350-375.
Rosin, Robert, 383-384, 395-396.
Rossow, Francis C., 4-12, 82-84, 88-90.
Rowold, Henry, 62-64, 85-87.
418
Saleska, Timothy E., 377-379.
Schaper, Gary, 381-382, 391-393.
Schumacher, William, 116-118, 165-177.
Surburg, Mark P., 13-39.
Thomas, Glen, 78-81.
Voelz, James, 122-123, 127-136.
Warneck, Richard H., 238-241.
Weise, Robert W., 94-96.
Wesselschmidt, Quentin F., 64-67, 110, 286-287, 384-386, 398-399.
Wollenburg, David, 54-57, 123-127.
Zwanepol, Klaas, 40-53.
Book Reviews
BEYOND BABEL: A Handbook for Biblical Hebrew and Related Languages. Edited
by John Kaltner and Steven McKenzie (Lessing), 412-413.
DICTIONARY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT PENTATEUCH. Edited by T. Desmond
Alexander and David W. Baker (Lessing), 101-102.
THE DOCTRINES OF GRACE: Rediscovering the Evangelical Gospel. By James
Montgomery Boice and Philip Graham Ryken (Rossow) 98-101.
THE GOD OF PROMISE AND THE LIFE OF FAITH: Understanding the Heart of
the Bible. By Scott J. Hafemann (Kiehl) 272-273.
GODíS GIFT TO YOU: A Devotional Book on the Lord’s Supper. By Gaylin R. Schmeling
(Maschke), 406-407.
THE GOSPEL OF MATTHEW IN CURRENT STUDY: Studies in Memory of William G. Thompson, S. J. Edited by David E. Aune (Gibbs) 270-272.
HABAKKUK: Anchor Bible 25. By Francis I. Andersen (Raabe), 103.
JOYFUL NOISES. By John F. Wahl (Maschke) 280-281.
JUSTIFICATION: How God Forgives. By Wayne D. Mueller (Maschke) 274-276.
THE LAND: Place as Gift, Promise, and Challenge in Biblical Faith, 2nd Edition. By
Walter Brueggemann (Lessing) 277-279.
LOVE IN HARD PLACES. By D. A. Carson (Rowold) 279-280.
NOT UNTO US: A Celebration of the Ministry of Kurt J. Eggert. Edited by William
H. Braun and Victor H. Prange (Rehm), 405-406.
PALESTINE IN THE TIME OF JESUS: Social Structure and Social Conflicts. By
K. C. Hanson and Douglas E. Oakman (Kiehl) 267-268.
A PORTRAIT OF PAUL: Making Disciples of All Nations. By David J. Valleskey
(Kiehl), 105-106.
PORTRAIT OF PETER: Training, Leadership, and Humble Service. By Armin J.
Panning (Kiehl), 403.
PREACHING JOHN. By Robert Kysar (Holst), 407-409.
QUIET CONVERSATIONS: Concrete Help for Weary Ministry Leaders. By Alan C.
Klaas and Cheryl D. Klaas (Maschke), 103-105.
READING ISAIAH: Poetry and Vision. By Peter D. Quinn-Miscall (Lessing) 268270.
REVERBERATIONS OF FAITH: A Theological Handbook of Old Testament Themes.
By Walter Brueggemann (Lessing), 410-411.
STEWARDSHIP: What Can I Do with What God Gave Me. The Peopleís Bible Teachings. By Arno J. Wolfgramm (Kiehl) 276-277.
THAT I MAY BE HIS OWN: An Overview of Luther’s Catechisms. By Charles P.
CONCORDIA JOURNAL/OCTOBER 2004
419
Arand (Dost) 273-274.
THEOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. Edited by T. G.
Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry (Lessing), 102.
THE THEOLOGY OF THE CROSS FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Signposts for a
Multicultural Witness. Edited by Albert L. GarcÌa and A. R. Victor Raj (Rowold),
403-404.
TILL THE NIGHT BE PAST: The Life and Times of Dietrich Bonhoeffer. By Theodore
J. Kleinhans (Becker), 409-410.
WHO IS CHRIST FOR US? By Dietrich Bonhoeffer. Edited and introduced by
Craig Nessan and Renate Wind. (GarcÌa), 97-98.
Reviewer of Books
Becker, Matthew, 409-410.
Dost, Timothy, 273-274.
Garcia, Alberto L., 97-98.
Gibbs, Jeffrey, 270-272.
Holst, Robert, 407-409.
Kiehl, Erich H., 105-106, 267-268, 272-273, 276-277, 403.
Lessing, Reed, 101-102, 102, 268-270, 277-279, 410-411, 412-413.
Maschke, Timothy, 103-105, 274-276, 280-281, 406-407.
Raabe, Paul R., 103.
Rehm, Merlin D., 405-406.
Rossow, Francis C., 98-101.
Rowold, Henry, 279-280, 403-404.
420