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A Guide to the Pompeii Excavations, The Four Arms of Destiny: Swastikas in the Hopi World & …, The Origins of Roman Cultural Values - World
History, AAnncciieenntt RRoommee - Ignite!, The Evolution of Typography - INFOAMÉRICA, BACKGROUND ABOUT PASTA, Brief Guide to
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2017
Etruscans
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Etruscans
Etruscan civilization
The Etruscan civilization ( ) is the modern name given to a powerful and wealthy civilization of ancient Italy in the area
corresponding roughly to Tuscany, western Umbria, and northern Lazio. As distinguished by its unique language, this civilization
endured from before the time of the earliest Etruscan inscriptions (c. 700 BC) until its assimilation into the Roman Republic,
beginning in the late 4th century BC with the Roman–Etruscan Wars.
Culture that is identifiably Etruscan developed in Italy after about 800 BC, approximately over the range of the preceding Iron
Age Villanovan culture. The latter gave way in the 7th century BC to a culture that was influenced by ancient Greece, Magna
Graecia, and Phoenicia. At its maximum extent, during the foundational period of Rome and the Roman Kingdom, Etruscan
civilization flourished in three confederacies of cities: of Etruria, of the Po Valley with the eastern Alps, and of Latium and
Campania. The decline was gradual, but by 500 BC the political destiny of Italy had passed out of Etruscan hands. The last
Etruscan cities were formally absorbed by Rome around 100 BC.
Although the Etruscans developed a system of writing, the Etruscan language remains only partly understood, and only a
handful of texts of any length survive, making modern understanding of their society and culture heavily dependent on much
later and generally disapproving Roman sources. Politics were based on the small city, and probably the family unit. In their
heyday, the Etruscan elite grew very rich through trade with the Celtic world to the north and the Greeks to the south, and filled
their large family tombs with imported luxuries. Archaic Greece had a huge influence on their art and architecture, and Greek
mythology was evidently very familiar to them.
The latest mitochondrial DNA study (2013) shows that Etruscans appear to fall very close to a Neolithic population from Central
Europe and to other Tuscan populations, and are ancestral to the modern inhabitants of Casentino and Volterra. The study also
excluded recent Anatolian connection.
Origins
The ancient Romans referred to the Etruscans as the Tusc? or Etrusc?. Their Roman name is the origin of the terms Tuscany,
which refers to their heartland, and Etruria, which can refer to their wider region. In Attic Greek, the Etruscans were known as
Tyrrhenians (???????? , Turrh?noi, earlier ???????? Turs?noi), from which the Romans derived the names Tyrrh?n?, Tyrrh?nia
(Etruria), and Mare Tyrrh?num (Tyrrhenian Sea), prompting some to associate them with the Teresh (Sea Peoples). The word
may also be related to the Hittite Taruisa ( Tursha). The Etruscans called themselves Rasenna, which was syncopated to Rasna
or Ra?na.
The origins of the Etruscans are mostly lost in prehistory, although Greek historians as early as the 5th century BC, repeatedly
associated the Tyrrhenians (Turrh?noi/????????, Turs?noi/????????) with Pelasgians. Thucydides, Herodotus and Strabo all
denote Lemnos as settled by Pelasgians who Thucydides identifies as "belonging to the Tyrrhenians" (?? ?? ????????
??????????, ??? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ????????), and although both Strabo and Herodotus agree that the migration
was led by Tyrrhenus/Tyrsenos, son of Atys, king of Lydia, Strabo specifies that it was the Pelasgians of Lemnos and Imbros
that followed Tyrrhenus/Tyrsenos to the Italian Peninsula. The Lemnian Pelasgian link was further manifested by the discovery
of the Lemnos Stele, whose inscriptions were written in a language which shows strong structural resemblances to the language
of the Tyrrhenians (Etruscans). Dionysius of Halicarnassus records a Pelasgian migration from Thessaly to the Italian Peninsula
noting that "the Pelasgi made themselves masters of some of the lands belonging to the Umbri" and Herodotus describes how
the Tyrrheni migrated from Lydia to the lands of the Umbri (????????).
Strabo as well as the Homeric Hymn to Dionysus make mention of the Tyrrhenians as pirates. Pliny the Elder put the Etruscans
in the context of the Rhaetian people to the north and wrote in his Natural History (AD 79):
Historians have no literature and no original Etruscan texts of religion or philosophy; therefore, much of what is known about this
civilization is derived from grave goods and tomb findings. An mtDNA study in 2007 confirmed that the Etruscans were not
related substantially to the Upper Paleolithic hunter-gatherer populations of Europe and that they showed no similarities to
populations in the Near East. Another earlier DNA study performed in Italy, however, partly gave credence to the theory of
Herodotus, as the results showed that 11 minor mitochondrial DNA lineages extracted from different Etruscan remains occur
nowhere else in Europe and are shared only with Near Eastern Anatolian people.
Another source of genetic data on Etruscan origins is from four ancient breeds of cattle. Analyzing the mitochondrial DNA of
these and seven other breeds of Italian cattle, it was found that the Tuscan breeds genetically resembled cattle of the Near
East. The other Italian breeds were linked to northern Europe.
One other hypothesis gives credence to a claim made by a DNA study, which states that the Etruscans are indigenous,
probably stemming from the Villanovan culture or from the Near East, while the latest mitochondrial DNA study (2013) also
suggests that the Etruscans were probably an indigenous population, showing that Etruscans appear to fall very close to a
Neolithic population from Central Europe and to other Tuscan populations, strongly suggesting that the Etruscan civilization
developed locally from the Villanovan culture, and genetic links between Tuscany and Anatolia date back to at least 5,000 years
ago during the Neolithic.
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Etruscans
Expansion
Around 540 BC, the Battle of Alalia led to a new distribution of power in the western Mediterranean. Though the battle had no
clear winner, Carthage managed to expand its sphere of influence at the expense of the Greeks, and Etruria saw itself relegated
to the northern Tyrrhenian Sea with full ownership of Corsica. From the first half of the 5th century BC, the new political situation
meant the beginning of the Etruscan decline after losing their southern provinces. In 480 BC, Etruria's ally Carthage was
defeated by a coalition of Magna Graecia cities led by Syracuse, Sicily. A few years later, in 474, Syracuse's tyrant Hiero
defeated the Etruscans at the Battle of Cumae. Etruria's influence over the cities of Latium and Campania weakened, and the
area was taken over by Romans and Samnites.
In the 4th century BC, Etruria saw a Gallic invasion end its influence over the Po Valley and the Adriatic coast. Meanwhile,
Rome had started annexing Etruscan cities. This led to the loss of the northern Etruscan provinces. Etruria was conquered by
Rome in the 3rd century BC.
Etruscan League
According to legend, there was a period between 600 BC and 500 BC in which an alliance was formed among twelve Etruscan
settlements, known today as the Etruscan League, Etruscan Federation, or Dodecapolis (in Greek ???????????). The Etruscan
League of twelve cities was founded by two Lydian noblemen: Tarchon and his brother Tyrrhenus. Tarchon lent his name to the
city of Tarchna, or Tarquinnii, as it was known by the Romans. Tyrrhenus gave his name to the Tyrrhenians, the alternative
name for the Etruscans. Although there is no consensus on which cities were in the league, the following list may be close to the
mark: Arretium, Caisra, Clevsin, Curtun, Perusna, Pupluna, Veii, Tarchna, Vetluna, Volterra, Velzna, and Velch. Some modern
authors include Rusellae. The league was mostly an economic and religious league, or a loose confederation, similar to the
Greek states. During the later imperial times, when Etruria was just one of many regions controlled by Rome, the number of
cities in the league increased by three. This is noted on many later grave stones from the 2nd century BC onwards. According to
Livy, the twelve city-states met once a year at the Fanum Voltumnae at Volsinii, where a leader was chosen to represent the
league.
There were two other Etruscan leagues: that of Campania, the main city of which was Capua, and the Po Valley city-states in
the North, which included Spina and Adria.
Possible founding of Rome
Those who subscribe to an Italian foundation of Rome followed by an Etruscan invasion, typically speak of an Etruscan
"influence" on Roman culture – that is, cultural objects which were adopted by Rome from neighbouring Etruria. The prevailing
view is that Rome was founded by Italians who later merged with Etruscans. In this interpretation, Etruscan cultural objects are
considered influences rather than part of a heritage. Rome was probably a small settlement until the arrival of the Etruscans,
who constructed the first elements of its urban infrastructure such as the drainage system.
The main criterion for deciding whether an object originated at Rome and traveled by influence to the Etruscans, or descended
to the Romans from the Etruscans, is date. Many, if not most, of the Etruscan cities were older than Rome. If one finds that a
given feature was there first, it cannot have originated at Rome. A second criterion is the opinion of the ancient sources. These
would indicate that certain institutions and customs came directly from the Etruscans. Rome is located on the edge of what was
Etruscan territory. When Etruscan settlements turned up south of the border, it was presumed that the Etruscans spread there
after the foundation of Rome, but the settlements are now known to have preceded Rome.
Etruscan settlements were frequently built on hills – the steeper the better – and surrounded by thick walls. According to Roman
mythology, when Romulus and Remus founded Rome, they did so on the Palatine Hill according to Etruscan ritual; that is, they
began with a pomerium or sacred ditch. Then, they proceeded to the walls. Romulus was required to kill Remus when the latter
jumped over the wall, breaking its magic spell (see also under Pons Sublicius). The name of Rome is attested in Etruscan in the
form Ruma-? meaning 'Roman', a form that mirrors other attested ethnonyms in that language with the same suffix -?: Velzna-?
'(someone) from Volsinii' and Sveama-? '(someone) from Sovana'. This in itself, however, is not enough to prove Etruscan origin
conclusively. If Tiberius is from ?efarie, then Ruma would have been placed on the Thefar (Tiber) river. A heavily discussed
topic among scholars is who was the founding population of Rome. In 390 BC, the city of Rome was attacked by the Gauls, and
as a result may have lost many – though not all – of its earlier records. Certainly, the history of Rome before that date is not as
secure as it later becomes, but enough material remains to give a good picture of the development of the city and its institutions.
Astra-Edu.us
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Etruscans
Later history relates that some Etruscans lived in the Vicus Tuscus, the "Etruscan quarter", and that there was an Etruscan line
of kings (albeit ones descended from a Greek, Demaratus of Corinth) that succeeded kings of Latin and Sabine origin.
Etruscophile historians would argue that this, together with evidence for institutions, religious elements and other cultural
elements, proves that Rome was founded by Italics. The true picture is rather more complicated, not least because the Etruscan
cities were separate entities which never came together to form a single Etruscan state. Furthermore, there were strong Latin
and Italic elements to Roman culture, and later Romans proudly celebrated these multiple, 'multicultural' influences on the city.
Under Romulus and Numa Pompilius, the people were said to have been divided into thirty curiae and three tribes. Few
Etruscan words entered Latin, but the names of at least two of the tribes – Ramnes and Luceres – seem to be Etruscan. The
last kings may have borne the Etruscan title lucumo, while the regalia were traditionally considered of Etruscan origin: the
golden crown, the sceptre, the toga palmata (a special robe), the sella curulis (curule chair), and above all the primary symbol of
state power: the fasces. The latter was a bundle of whipping rods surrounding a double-bladed axe, carried by the king's lictors.
An example of the fasces are the remains of bronze rods and the axe from a tomb in Etruscan Vetulonia. This allowed
archaeologists to identify the depiction of a fasces on the grave stele of Avele Feluske, who is shown as a warrior wielding the
fasces. The most telling Etruscan feature is the word populus, which appears as an Etruscan deity, Fufluns. Populus seems to
mean the people assembled in a military body, rather than the general populace.
Government
The historical Etruscans had achieved a state system of society, with remnants of the chiefdom and tribal forms. In this, they
were different from the surrounding Italics, who had chiefs and tribes. Rome was in a sense the first Italic state, but it began as
an Etruscan one. It is believed that the Etruscan government style changed from total monarchy to oligarchic republic (as the
Roman Republic) in the 6th century BC, although it is important to note this did not happen to all the city-states.
The Etruscan state government was essentially a theocracy. The government was viewed as being a central authority, ruling
over all tribal and clan organizations. It retained the power of life and death; in fact, the gorgon, an ancient symbol of that power,
appears as a motif in Etruscan decoration. The adherents to this state power were united by a common religion. Political unity in
Etruscan society was the city-state, which was probably the referent of methlum, "district". Etruscan texts name quite a number
of magistrates, without much of a hint as to their function: the camthi, the parnich, the purth, the tamera, the macstrev, and so
on. The people were the mech. The chief ruler of a methlum was perhaps a zilach.
Family
The princely tombs were not of individuals. The inscription evidence shows that families were interred there over long periods,
marking the growth of the aristocratic family as a fixed institution, parallel to the gens at Rome and perhaps even its model.
There is no sign of such a hereditary aristocracy in the preceding Villanovan culture. The Etruscans could have used any model
of the eastern Mediterranean. That the growth of this class is related to the new acquisition of wealth through trade is
unquestioned. The wealthiest cities were located near the coast. At the centre of the society was the married couple, tusurthir.
The Etruscans were a monogamous society that emphasized pairing.
Similarly, the behaviour of some wealthy women is not uniquely Etruscan. The apparent promiscuous revelry has a spiritual
explanation. Swaddling and Bonfante (among others) explain that depictions of the nude embrace, or symplegma, "had the
power to ward off evil", as did baring the breast, which was adopted by western culture as an apotropaic device, appearing
finally on the figureheads of sailing ships as a nude female upper torso. It is also possible that Greek and Roman attitudes to the
Etruscans were based on a misunderstanding of the place of women within their society. In both Greece and Republican Rome,
respectable women were confined to the house and mixed-sex socialising did not occur. Thus, the freedom of women within
Etruscan society could have been misunderstood as implying their sexual availability. It is worth noting that a number of
Etruscan tombs carry funerary inscriptions in the form "X son of (father) and (mother)", indicating the importance of the mother's
side of the family.
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Etruscans
Military
Cities
The range of Etruscan civilization is marked by its cities. They were entirely assimilated by Italic, Celtic, or Roman ethnic
groups, but the names survive from inscriptions and their ruins are of aesthetic and historic interest in most of the cities of
central Italy. Etruscan cities flourished over most of Italy during the Roman Iron Age, marking the farthest extent of Etruscan
civilization. They were gradually assimilated first by Italics in the south, then by Celts in the north and finally in Etruria itself by
the growing Roman Republic.
That many Roman cities were formerly Etruscan was well known to all the Roman authors. Some cities were founded by
Etruscans in prehistoric times, and bore entirely Etruscan names. Others were colonized by Etruscans who Etruscanized the
name, usually Italic.
Religion
The Etruscan system of belief was an immanent polytheism; that is, all visible phenomena were considered to be a
manifestation of divine power and that power was subdivided into deities that acted continually on the world of man and could
be dissuaded or persuaded in favour of human affairs. How to understand the will of deities, and how to behave, had been
revealed to the Etruscans by two initiators, Tages, a childlike figure born from tilled land and immediately gifted with prescience,
and Vegoia, a female figure. Their teachings were kept in a series of sacred books. Three layers of deities are evident in the
extensive Etruscan art motifs. One appears to be divinities of an indigenous nature: Catha and Usil, the sun; Tivr, the moon;
Selvans, a civil god; Turan, the goddess of love; Laran, the god of war; Leinth, the goddess of death; Maris; Thalna; Turms; and
the ever-popular Fufluns, whose name is related in some way to the city of Populonia and the populus Romanus, possibly, the
god of the people.
Ruling over this pantheon of lesser deities were higher ones that seem to reflect the Indo-European system: Tin or Tinia, the
sky, Uni his wife (Juno), and Cel, the earth goddess. In addition, some Greek and Roman gods were taken into the Etruscan
system: Aritimi (Artemis), Menrva (Minerva), Pacha (Dionysus). The Greek heroes taken from Homer also appear extensively in
art motifs.
Architecture
Relatively little is known about the architecture of the ancient Etruscans. They adapted the native Italic styles with influence from
the external appearance of Greek architecture. In turn, Ancient Roman architecture began with Etruscan styles, and then
accepted still further Greek influence. Roman temples show many of the same differences in form to Greek ones that Etruscan
temples do, but like the Greeks, use stone, in which they closely copy Greek conventions. The houses of the wealthy were
evidently often large and comfortable, but the burial chambers of tombs, often filled with grave-goods, are the nearest approach
to them to survive. In the southern Etruscan area, tombs have large rock-cut chambers under a tumulus in large necropoli, and
these, together with some city walls, are the only Etruscan constructions to survive. Etruscan architecture is not generally
considered as part of the body of Greco-Roman classical architecture.
Art and music
Etruscan art was produced by the Etruscan civilization between the 9th and 2nd centuries BC. Particularly strong in this tradition
were figurative sculpture in terracotta (particularly lifesize on sarcophagi or temples), wall-painting and metalworking (especially
engraved bronze mirrors). Etruscan sculpture in cast bronze was famous and widely exported, but few large examples have
survived (the material was too valuable, and recycled later). In contrast to terracotta and bronze, there was apparently little
Etruscan sculpture in stone, despite the Etruscans controlling fine sources of marble, including Carrara marble, which seems not
to have been exploited until the Romans. Most surviving Etruscan art comes from tombs, including all the fresco wall-paintings,
which show scenes of feasting and some narrative mythological subjects.
Bucchero wares in black were the early and native styles of fine Etruscan pottery. There was also a tradition of elaborate
Etruscan vase painting, which sprung from its Greek equivalent; the Etruscans were the main export market for Greek vases.
Etruscan temples were heavily decorated with colourfully painted terracotta antefixes and other fittings, which survive in large
numbers where the wooden superstructure has vanished. Etruscan art was strongly connected to religion; the afterlife was of
major importance in Etruscan art.
The Etruscan musical instruments seen in frescoes and bas-reliefs are different types of pipes, such as the plagiaulos (the pipes
of Pan or Syrinx), the alabaster pipe and the famous double pipes, accompanied on percussion instruments such as the
tintinnabulum, tympanum and crotales, and later by stringed instruments like the lyre and kithara.
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Etruscans
Language and etymology
Knowledge of the Etruscan language is still far from complete. The Etruscans are believed to have spoken a non-Indo-European
language; the majority consensus is that Etruscan is related only to other members of what is called the Tyrsenian language
family, which in itself is an isolate family, that is, unrelated directly to other known language groups. Since Rix (1998), it is widely
accepted that the Tyrsenian family groups Raetic and Lemnian are related to Etruscan.
No etymology exists for Rasna, the Etruscans' name for themselves, although Italian historic linguist Massimo Pittau has
proposed the meaning of 'Shaved' or 'Beardless', backing the opinion of ancient figurines collector and author Paolo Campidori.
The etymology of Tusci is based on a beneficiary phrase in the third Iguvine tablet, which is a major source for the Umbrian
language. The phrase is turskum ... nomen, "the Tuscan name", from which a root *Tursci can be reconstructed. A metathesis
and a word-initial epenthesis produce E-trus-ci. A common hypothesis is that *Turs- along with Latin turris, "tower", come from
Greek ?????? , "tower." The Tusci were therefore the "people who build towers" or "the tower builders." This venerable
etymology is at least as old as Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who said "And there is no reason that the Greeks should not have
called them by this name, both from their living in towers and from the name of one of their rulers."
Giuliano and Larissa Bonfante (Bonfante, 2002) speculate that Etruscan houses seemed like towers to the simple Latins. It is
true that the Etruscans preferred to build hill towns on high precipices enhanced by walls. On the other hand, if the Tyrrhenian
name came from an incursion of Sea Peoples or later migrants, then it might well be related to the name of Troy, the city of
towers in that case.
Literature
Etruscan texts, written in a space of seven centuries, use a form of the Greek alphabet due to close contact between the
Etruscans and the Greek colonies at Pithecusae and Cumae in the 8th century BC (until it was no longer used, at the beginning
of the 1st century AD). Etruscan inscriptions disappeared from Chiusi, Perugia and Arezzo around this time. Only a few
fragments survive, religious and especially funeral texts most of which are late (from the 4th century BC). In addition to the
original texts that have survived to this day, we have a large number of quotations and allusions from classical authors. It should
be noted that in the 1st century BC, Diodorus Siculus wrote that literary culture was one of the great achievements of the
Etruscans. Little is known of it and even what is known of their language is due to the repetition of the same few words in the
many inscriptions found (by way of the modern epitaphs) contrasted in bilingual or trilingual texts with Latin and Punic. Out of
the aforementioned genres, is just one such Vorrio (Vorrius) cited in classical sources mention. With a few exceptions, such as
the Liber Linteus, the only written records in the Etruscan language that remain are inscriptions, mainly funerary. The language
is written in the Etruscan alphabet, a script related to the early Euboean Greek alphabet. Many thousand inscriptions in
Etruscan are known, mostly epitaphs, and a few very short texts have survived, which are mainly religious. Etruscan imaginative
literature is evidenced only in references by later Roman authors, but it is evident from their visual art that the Greek myths were
well-known.
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Etruscans
References
1. A Guide to the Pompeii Excavations
2. The Four Arms of Destiny: Swastikas in the Hopi World & …
3. The Origins of Roman Cultural Values - World History
4. AAnncciieenntt RRoommee - Ignite!
5. The Evolution of Typography - INFOAMÉRICA
6. BACKGROUND ABOUT PASTA
7. Brief Guide to Herculaneum - Pompeii
8. THE SIBYLLINE ORACLES
9. Ancient Rome - Welcome to the Scientia Review
10. History of the Western European Alphabet - Thinking with …
11. Maloclusión Clase III - uan.edu.mx
12. Etruscan civilization on Wikipedia
13. Etruscans
References QR Codes
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