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EWRT 2
Course Packet
De Anza College
By Amy Leonard
Table of Contents Readings............................................................................................................................................................. 4 Storming New York With Ceviche .........................................................................................................................5 A Review of La Mar Cebicheria Peruana in Manhattan..................................................................................5 RESTAURANTS; Thai as Theater, Restaurant as Stage ...................................................................................8 Critical Thinking .......................................................................................................................................... 15 Discussion Strategies.................................................................................................................................. 30 Why Are Classroom Discussions and Small Groupwork So Important For Learning?..................... 31 Improving Class Discussions ............................................................................................................................... 32 Reading & Study Strategies....................................................................................................................... 34 What is Schema? ...................................................................................................................................................... 35 What is Metacognition? ......................................................................................................................................... 35 There Are Several Strategies We Can Use to Activate Schema….............................................................. 36 General ........................................................................................................................................................................ 37 Specific ........................................................................................................................................................................ 37 Purpose ....................................................................................................................................................................... 37 Sample Double-­Entry Journal.............................................................................................................................. 40 Annotation.............................................................................................................................................................. 41 Coding and Nutshelling: How Big is a Nutshell? ............................................................................................ 43 How to Write A Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 44 TIPS: A Reading Strategy for Writing a Summary......................................................................................... 45 Mapping an Article ................................................................................................................................................ 46 Fact vs. Opinion ........................................................................................................................................................ 47 Murder Mystery ....................................................................................................................................................... 51 Inference: Classwork.............................................................................................................................................. 53 Pre-­Writing Strategies ............................................................................................................................... 54 The Writing Process ............................................................................................................................................... 55 The Writing Process.................................................................................................................................................. 56 Organizing—Writing Plans & Outlines...............................................................................................................................56 Prewriting: Clustering ........................................................................................................................................... 57 Brainstorming Technique .................................................................................................................................... 58 Freewriting ................................................................................................................................................................ 59 Cubing.......................................................................................................................................................................... 60 Journalistic questions ............................................................................................................................................ 61 Practice: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 61 Consider Purpose and Audience ........................................................................................................................ 62 Paragraph Structure ................................................................................................................................... 63 The Paragraph .......................................................................................................................................................... 64 Narrative vs. Expository Writing........................................................................................................................ 65 Guidelines for Topic Sentences........................................................................................................................... 69 Topic Sentences........................................................................................................................................................ 71 Paragraph Development ................................................................................................................................... 72 PIE PARAGRAPHS .................................................................................................................................................... 75 PIE Strategies ................................................................................................................................................. 75 Do You Have Enough E in Your PIE? .................................................................................................................. 76 Identify P.I.E. Elements -- Practice ....................................................................................................................... 77 F.R.I.E.D. Paragraphs .............................................................................................................................................. 81 The P. I. E. Paragraph + Quote Sandwich........................................................................................................... 82 THE LEAST YOU SHOULD KNOW ABOUT USING DIRECT QUOTES........................................................... 84 Quotations.................................................................................................................................................................. 86 Transitions................................................................................................................................................................. 91 The Essay ........................................................................................................................................................ 92 Elements of an Essay .............................................................................................................................................. 93 The Structure of an Argument ............................................................................................................................... 94 What is a Thesis & How Do I Get One? .............................................................................................................. 95 The thesis statement .............................................................................................................................................. 98 Thesis Generator.................................................................................................................................................... 99 The Six "Moves" of Argument ............................................................................................................................100 How to Write Good Introductions....................................................................................................................102 How To Write Good Conclusions ......................................................................................................................103 MLA Formatting Guidelines ...............................................................................................................................105 Peer Review Communication: Problems and Solutions ...........................................................................107 The Sentence ...............................................................................................................................................108 Commas.....................................................................................................................................................................109 Explanation ............................................................................................................................................................................... 109 Series ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 110 Comma-­‐Adjective Rule......................................................................................................................................................... 110 Setting off Nonessential Elements .................................................................................................................................. 110 Transitional Words and Phrases ..................................................................................................................................... 111 Quotations ................................................................................................................................................................................. 111 Exercise 3 – Commas – Essential and Nonessential Items ................................................................................... 113 Exercise 4 – Commas – Transitions................................................................................................................................ 113 Sentence Focus .......................................................................................................................................................114 Active Voice .............................................................................................................................................................129 Passive Voice...........................................................................................................................................................130 Analysis: Responding to What You Read ...........................................................................................166 Critical Thinking: Analyzing the Text .............................................................................................................167 The Reading Comprehension Process ............................................................................................................168 Levels of Questioning .......................................................................................................................................169 Tone ...........................................................................................................................................................................172 Types of Bias in Writing ........................................................................................................................................173 Analysis of Text for Bias ........................................................................................................................................174 Literary Analysis ........................................................................................................................................175 Figures of Speech ...................................................................................................................................................191 Figures of Speech Definition Sheet ..................................................................................................................193 LITERARY TERMS Continued .............................................................................................................................194 Research Project/Paper ..........................................................................................................................198 Part One: From Subject to Research Question.............................................................................................199 Narrowing Down Your Subject..........................................................................................................................200 Issue to Question ...................................................................................................................................................202 Research Question ................................................................................................................................................203 Self-­Directed Research Paper Part Two: Annotated Bibliography .......................................................204 Source List: Evaluating Your Sources .............................................................................................................206 Sample Source List ................................................................................................................................................207 C.A.R.S. Evaluation of a Source ..........................................................................................................................208 Writing Center Tutorial Session .......................................................................................................................212 GRADING RUBRICS.....................................................................................................................................217 Readings
Storming New York With Ceviche
A Review of La Mar Cebicheria Peruana in Manhattan
By PETE WELLS
ON one of the few nights this winter when the temperature sagged below freezing, the host at La Mar
Cebicheria Peruana led my party to an upstairs table without offering to take our coats. This was a
surprise, because the coat check had been in full swing on a warmer night weeks earlier.
In September, Gastón Acurio, the prodigious restaurateur and chef from Peru, opened this eighth
branch of his expanding ceviche chain on Madison Square Park where Tabla once held court. The
designer Stephanie Goto, hired to redo the two-story space, cast off its warm subcontinental palette in
favor of a shimmery, tropical cool.
When we reached the top of the stairs, images of the tropics came to a thudding halt. Nearly every
chair had a winter coat draped over it, giving the room all the elegance of a church-basement bingo
game.
The coat-check clerk must have gone south for the night, taking along the employee in charge of
cleaning up. At the beginning of that meal, the men’s room wastebasket overflowed with paper towels.
An hour later, the room was still a mess.
Like those paper towels, the oversights piled up. Pisco punch came in a goblet as sticky as a jelly jar.
Explanations of menu terms like lúcuma and chicha morada were rushed and mumbled. Plates sat
around so long before being cleared that they looked like archaeological sites.
But what happened to a dish called Salmon Macho was no mere oversight. You could tell from the
scorched surface of the fish that it had been cooked miles beyond the medium rare that the chef
allegedly preferred. The flesh was parched, the yellow-pepper sauce was browned like crème brûlée
and some clams that came with it were heat-blasted into nothingness.
Any restaurant can get the hiccups. This one was having a full-blown seizure.
I had other, better, far less disheveled meals at La Mar. And whenever I was spooning up a ceviche —
bathed in a marinade that delivered chile heat and citrus acidity in precisely calibrated doses — I knew
why Mr. Acurio is a rock star in Lima, and how he has managed to build a 31-restaurant empire in 12
countries.
Still, once I got beyond ceviches, tiraditos (another raw-fish specialty) and a few other successes, too
many dishes were either carelessly prepared or not very much fun to begin with.
La Mar is a sometimes exciting, often disappointing demonstration of the ways in which a global
restaurant chain opening an outpost in New York faces more complex challenges than a retailer
planting a new Abercrombie & Fitch in SoHo. When you reproduce a menu from afar without testing
it on the locals, or bet on a style of cuisine without scoping the competition, or hire servers who aren’t
versed in the care and feeding of the natives, the city’s response can be cold and lingering, or brutal
and swift.
Some of this is local chauvinism. But the restaurateurs share the blame. Before presenting a choice of
luxury fountain pens that turned the signing of the check at Alain Ducasse New York into a moneyburning display that could well have embarrassed a Kardashian, Mr. Ducasse might have reflected
that much of New York’s wealth is discreetly hidden away on the upper floors of skyscrapers.
Before importing the menu for Le Caprice, Richard Caring might have asked whether the loyalists at
his London original are loyal despite, rather than because of, the dressed-up and overpriced club food.
As for Mr. Acurio, he had reason to be confident riding into Manhattan. Bogotá, Mexico City and São
Paulo had taken to his ceviche-centric chain. Before a San Francisco location opened, he was asked
how he intended to sell Americans on his country’s cuisine. Simple, he replied: “With a pisco sour in
one hand and ceviche in the other, I think I can convince everybody.”
La Mar’s ceviche is indeed compelling. Gleaming tiles of fish bask in liquids so vivid and potent that
the Peruvian name, tiger’s milk, makes a kind of sense, almost. The one called Elegance, with Rhode
Island fluke in an invigorating lime broth, is less marinated fish than raw seafood soup.
I was persuaded, too, by a tiradito called Nikei, with sliced yellowfin tuna belly in a small lake of soy
and sesame oil sauce; it starts out Japanese before a sour nudge of tamarind takes it in an unexpected,
delicious direction.
With all this fine raw seafood, I was surprised to find that my favorite appetizer of all was the tender,
emphatic skewers of beef heart cooked on a grill. You eat it and feel strong. And if you are going to dip
into the deep end of the menu, strength will help.Causas were busy assemblages of ingredients on
bland cups of whipped potato; I could never figure out what was supposed to be good about them.
Arroz con pato, a main course, featured washed-out duck on a mash of gluey green rice. Another rice
dish, though, arroz negro, had the deep flavor and character of squid ink, and I appreciated the quality
beef in lomo saltado, a stir-fry reflecting Peru’s Asian population.
Both grouper and salmon belly main courses were overcooked, though they couldn’t compete with the
Salmon Macho meltdown. The best part of a $42 lobster in hot ceviche was the dish of tiny potatoes
that came alongside — a recipe from the family of Victoriano López, the executive chef.
What about the Peruvian classic in Mr. Acurio’s other hand, his second weapon in the campaign for
the American palate?
The bartenders at La Mar can in fact shake up a reasonably good pisco sour. The trouble is that they
generally do so only when a customer wants a more expensive brand of pisco.
Everybody else gets a cocktail mixed ahead of time and finished in the blender. Meanwhile, serious
cocktail haunts all over the city routinely shake every pisco sour to order as a matter of pride.
A high-end restaurant in the heart of Manhattan that showed off Peruvian cuisine in all its vast, hybrid
glory would have been a real event. If you sit at the bar of La Mar, order up a grilled heart and some
raw fish, and get a drink made by hand, you can catch some bright glints of what that might have
tasted like. And have a good little meal, too.
La Mar Cebicheria Peruana
SATISFACTORY
11 Madison Avenue (East 25th Street); (212) 612-3388; lamarcebicheria.com.
ATMOSPHERE Light and airy, with a tropical shimmer.
SERVICE Erratic, but often cheerful.
SOUND LEVEL It’s a party.
RECOMMENDED DISHES Ceviches, tiraditos, anticuchos, encamotados, arroz negro, lomo
saltado.
DRINKS AND WINE Cocktails, many based on pisco, are good. The wine list, with worthwhile
choices under $50, features Spain and the New World.
PRICE RANGE Appetizers, $11 to $28; main courses, $26 to $42.
HOURS Lunch: Monday to Friday, 11:30 a.m. to 2:30 p.m.; Saturday, 11:30 a.m. to 3:30 p.m. Brunch:
Sunday, noon to 4 p.m. Dinner: Monday to Thursday, 5:30 to 10:30 p.m.; Friday and Saturday, 5:30 to
11:30 p.m.
RESERVATIONS Accepted.
WHEELCHAIR ACCESS The dining room is up a flight of stairs, but a louder bar area serving the
full menu is on the street level, as are the accessible restrooms.
WHAT THE STARS MEAN Ratings range from zero to four stars and reflect the reviewer’s reaction
primarily to food, with ambience, service and price taken into consideration.
RESTAURANTS; Thai as Theater, Restaurant as Stage
By Frank Bruni
Published: August 11, 2004
IN Kittichai's liberally and fantastically interpreted Thailand, the orchids do not bloom in vases on the
tables. They twist in an ersatz spider web above a dark reflecting pool in the center of the dining room.
Buoyant votive candles skitter across the pool's surface, unless the manufactured currents are not
working right. In that case, a server or a manager pokes and prods the recalcitrant props into action.
Dinner here is not so much like a night in Bangkok as a night in Bangkok in a David Lynch movie.
That maple bird cage next to the host's station, just a few steps inside the entrance? Look closer: it is
actually a fish tank. Look closer still: its eight inhabitants are no garden-variety species. They are red
caps, so named for a manner of freakish plumage that resembles external brains.
The meal commences, and its components arrive on bowls, plates and saucers that are disconcertingly
asymmetrical, the lip on one side lower than the lip on the other or the central dimple not quite in the
center. The ''crispy whole fish'' comes -- on this night, it is branzino -- and instead of being laid out
flat, it is twisted with toothpicks into an S-shaped squiggle, as if it were about to squirm away. A
version of tapioca pudding has iridescent green and red pearls.
Protein as diorama, dessert as décor: Kittichai, in SoHo, is staking its claim on the same turf that other
new restaurants -- Megu in TriBeCa and Spice Market and Matsuri in the meatpacking district -inhabit. In that surreal and sexy place, which is more often than not downtown, upscale dining meets
assiduously eccentric theater. The tantalizing seasonings of a distant land encounter the cheeky
attitude of our own. The Manhattan economy may have its discontents, but an ebbing of pose-striking,
scene-stealing Manhattan restaurants is not among them. That is very lucky for us, because the
gustatory pleasures of Kittichai (pronounced kitty-chai) rise almost to the level of the visual ones.
The restaurant's Thai soul asserts itself through the recurrence, in dish after dish, of kaffir lime and
lemon grass, Thai basil and Thai chili peppers, coriander and coconut. Its Thai chef, Ian
Chalermkittichai, for whom the restaurant is named, grew up in Bangkok. But he worked and cooked
in London and Sydney, Australia, and then, as the executive chef at the Four Seasons hotel in
Bangkok, supervised not just a Thai restaurant but also Italian and Japanese ones. Small wonder,
then, that boundaries blur in his kitchen and he readily makes concessions to the habits of New
Yorkers and the culinary fads of the moment.
Monkfish provides the supple flesh in a sublime yellow curry. Short ribs get the attention of an equally
sublime green curry. And that trusted warhorse of Thai cuisine, seared Hudson Valley foie gras, claims
a place among the appetizers. The only Siamese spin on it is an accompanying relish of pineapple.
Mr. Chalermkittichai also makes concessions to the whims of his own imagination. He uses cocoa
powder, apple butter and A1 steak sauce for a glaze on baby back ribs, which he unabashedly
advertises as ''chocolate back ribs.'' Do not cringe: when I had them, they were delightful, because the
meat really did fall from the bones and the hint of chocolate was just that, a hint, not an emphatic
statement.
In fact, some of the best dishes on this broad menu, which emphasizes small plates by having both
tapas and appetizer categories, reflect the chef's determination to find a balance of sweet, sour, salty
and hotly spicy. Although he occasionally overemphasizes sweetness, he often hits his mark. Those
curries are an example. So is this restaurant's exalted version of the chicken, lemon grass and coconut
soup that almost every Thai takeout place offers. Here it is a gorgeous pale red, reflecting the inclusion
of roasted red chili paste among other ingredients like galangal and kaffir lime.
Familiar Thai spices appear with the kind and quality of meats that your neighborhood Thai
restaurant may not have. Among the best entrees is a divinely moist Chilean sea bass under a
caramelized sheen of palm sugar and red curry paste. I also liked the loin of lamb, served with a Thai
basil pesto, and the Cornish hen, flanked by a turmeric emulsion.
Kittichai's menu is not one of uniform excellence, so a road map is in order. The entrees to steer away
from are the prawns, which were unpleasantly salty, and the duck, which was tough. No-go appetizers
include a frenetically busy Thai fruit and vegetable salad, an almost-as-busy prawn and citrus salad
and a carpaccio of bluefin tuna, which was simply ordinary. Instead try the crispy rock shrimp, the
marinated monkfish in pandan leaves or the Kittichai fish cakes. For dessert, give first consideration
to the kaffir lime tart, the Champagne mango with sticky rice and the flourless chocolate cake.
Give some thought, too, to cocktails instead of wine or beer, because Kittichai has delicious, colorful
creations, some in ribbed martini shakers that look like metallic beehives. They are carried by servers
who wear fetching pajamalike black outfits and are themselves quite fetching. Kittichai cares about eye
candy.
The Rockwell Group did the design, which deftly downplays the fact that the dining room is a lowceilinged windowless rectangle deep inside the Sixty Thompson Hotel. The pool helps. So do the regal
silk curtains -- in crimson, gold and plum -- that cover the walls. Kittichai's publicity materials
announce that all of this is blessed by a feng shui master and that the dim lighting is calibrated to
make everyone look good. Inner peace, outer prettiness and wok-fired vegetables in a red curry sauce - that's a fusion New Yorkers are bound to embrace.
Kittichai
**
[Rating: two stars]
60 Thompson Street (Broome Street), SoHo; (212) 219-2000.
ATMOSPHERE -- A dark, sexy room with a reflecting pool and walls lined by plush drapes in regal
colors.
SERVICE -- Attentive and extremely good-looking.
SOUND LEVEL -- Fairly loud.
RECOMMENDED DISHES -- Marinated monkfish in pandan leaves; galangal and coconut soup with
chicken; crispy rock shrimp; steamed mussels; banana blossom salad; chocolate ribs; Chilean sea
bass; loin of lamb; Cornish hen; short ribs in green curry; monkfish in yellow curry; kaffir lime tart;
Champagne mango with sticky rice.
WINE LIST -- Brief but diverse, with selections from many countries and continents. More impressive
are the specialty cocktails, including a slushy watermelon cooler and mango, mandarin, kumquat and
Asian pear martinis.
PRICE RANGE -- Thai tapas and appetizers, $6 to $18; entrees, $14 to $27; desserts, $7 to $9.
HOURS -- Dinner, Sunday through Thursday 6 to 11 p.m., Friday and Saturday until midnight.
Beginning late August, lunch daily from noon to 3 p.m.
RESERVATIONS -- Call two or more weeks in advance for prime times.
CREDIT CARDS -- All major cards.
WHEELCHAIR ACCESS -- Accessible.
WHAT THE STARS MEAN:
(None) Poor to satisfactory
* Good
** Very good
*** Excellent
**** Extraordinary
Ratings reflect the reviewer's reaction to food, ambience and service, with price taken into
consideration. Menu listings and prices are subject to change.
PAST REVIEWS from The Times, with additional capsule reviews by Times critics:
nytimes.com/dining
The Find: Himalayan Cafe in Old Town Pasadena
Himalayan Cafe in Old Pasadena climbs to new heights with Nepalese cuisine.
By Linda Burum
Special to the Los Angeles Times
March 1, 2012
The path to nirvana starts with appetizers at Himalayan Cafe in Old Pasadena. Those hot, steamy
curry-stuffed dumplings called momo look exactly like twisty-top Chinese xiao long bao, but their
fillings taste vaguely Indian. Every spectacular bite, accented with bright pungent "pickle" dipping
sauce, shows off the Indo-Chinese personality of a cuisine that makes its home in the valleys and hills
in the shadow of Mt. Everest.
On the menu, familiar terms like pakoras, lamb masala and sag aloo give an impression that Nepal's
food mimics that of northern India. "But we use completely different masalas and a lot less oil," says
the cafe's Nepal-born chef, Chudamani Adhikari.
His bhindi tareko exemplifies the style: Sliced okra is flash-fried to banish any slime. The crisp-edged
pods, along with onion and tomato, glimmer with a thin veil of capillary-expanding spice. There's no
actual sauce to speak of, just flavor-infused vegetable (the kitchen will adjust the heat to your liking).
Adhikari, a bespectacled slender man, exudes enthusiasm for cooking. Lured into the professional
kitchen after his childhood in a small rural town, he got his first big-city job in a Katmandu hotel. "I
fell in love with the excitement of the work, and in the kitchen I discovered what I wanted to become,"
he says. After chef's school in Bangalore, India, gigs in international tourism followed. His first jobs in
L.A. were at neighborhood restaurants where he cooked strictly Indian dishes.
But Nepalese cooking is his soul food. And at Himalayan Cafe, Adhikari offers us glimpses of the fare
he grew up eating in Gorkha, his traditional village several hours' drive from Nepal's capital,
Katmandu. There he would milk the family buffalo each morning before school.
"The thing I miss over here," he says, "is Nepali ghee, which is made from buffalo milk; it flavors the
food in a way that might not appeal to American tastes."
His menu, though, has plenty that appeals to evolving L.A. tastes: For a start, the rustic producecentered meals now gaining a following here are the norm in Nepal. And Adhikari hits it out of the
park with his vegetable creations. Eggplant enters a different realm in his bhenta ra aloo. It becomes
almost creamy, simmered with potato, tomato, lots of garlic and freshly toasted, crushed spices. Sag
aloo, spinach sautéed with potato chunks, lights up the palate with a kiss of fresh chiles. Slithery
house-made egg noodles called thukpa bob with vegetables or chicken chunks in spice-rich tomato-y
broth that is tummy-warming comfort food.
Although meat is scarce in Nepal (lucky families might get a whole goat once a year at festival time,
but then it's back to locally grown vegetables and the occasional chicken), carnivores are well taken
care of here.
The cafe's tandoori-cooked meats, chicken and fish, known as sekuwa, turn out nicely juicy. They're
more highly seasoned than their Indian counterparts; you'll know you're not eating Indian-style
tandoori after a few bites.
Meat curries, in the traditional Himalayan style, are less saucy than Indian ones. Chicken "chilli," a
stellar example, is slabs of white meat steeped in capsicum-laced onion and tomato juices that
permeate and fuse with the meat's essences. Adhikari is proud to tell you he doesn't pre-make curries
and reheat them. Rather, he cooks and seasons each dish to order, which helps the taste of individual
spices pop with a zingy intensity.
We suspect the burrito-like constructions dubbed Himalayan rolls may have sprung from the chef's
imagination. The luscious stuffed, flaky flat breads are the sort of hand-held extravaganza you'd line
up at a great food truck to score. Packed to bursting with lightly sauced tender lamb or chicken cubes,
they belong on every devoted eater's must-try list.
Though just a small storefront, Himalayan Cafe aims to coddle patrons with creature comforts:
There's a civilized wine display, ice-cream-like Indian kulfi for dessert, table linens and harmoniously
arranged artifacts hung on pastel-washed walls the color of a Himalayan evening sky. The setting
encourages you to sit back, soak up the serene ambience and imagine you're traveling ever closer to
nirvana.
[email protected]
Location: 36 S. Fair Oaks Ave., Old Pasadena, (626) 564-1560 or (626) 676-3550,
http://www.himalayancafeLA.com.
Prices: Appetizers and momos, $4.99 to $9.99; entrees, $8.99 to $16.99; breads, noodles and desserts,
$2.50 to $8.99.
Details: Open 10 a.m. to 11 p.m. daily. City parking lot and street meters. Credit cards accepted. Beer
and wine available.
The Find: House of Chicken
House of Chicken doesn't overwhelm the chicken. Instead its chicken
kebabs are subtle — and delicious.
By C. Thi Nguyen, Special to the Los Angeles Times
February 16, 2012
You may have had a moment in your life — a lot of Angelenos have — when your understanding of
sushi completely transformed. Before, all you knew was big crass Americanized sushi rolls — you
know, the kind with fried stuff and spicy mayo and avocado and teriyaki sauce — and then somebody
handed you an unvarnished piece of perfect sashimi, and suddenly you understood. You got the
pleasure of comprehending a beautiful thing.
Eating at House of Chicken is the same kind of thing, but for chicken. Its chicken kebab is subtle and
tastes purely of the chicken itself. It makes you realize how cheap and tawdry so many of your earlier
garlic chicken flings were.
House of Chicken is a tiny, almost invisible place — yet another kebab joint in the corner of a
Hawthornestrip mall adrift in the Los Angeles sprawl. Maybe it's the goofy signage that draws you in
— an excellent example from the happy-cartoon-chickens-invite-you-in-to-eat-their-brethren school.
The menu is standard-issue: shawarmas and kebabs, in wraps or on combo plates.
But it feels peculiarly nice inside. It's a little happy green room with a big window into the kitchen;
everything smells clean and fresh. There's a weirdly adorable ultra-green polka dot theme. The door to
the kitchen bears the sign, "Don't mess with the Hawthorne PD." Everything about the room is
lovingly immaculate, in that carefully tended, homemade way that only tiny family restaurants can
truly achieve. Then, rising up out of the quiet, the smell of chicken on the grill creeps out of the
kitchen.
This is the place for a chicken epiphany. It might make you realize that a lot of those other popular
garlic chicken joints are built on the Taco Bell model of cookery: carefully engineered to push all the
right buttons, hammering at you with fat-crisp and salt-garlic blasts but little other flavor.
But House of Chicken appeals to the aesthete in you. They trust the true flavor of chicken, and they
trust you to be able to appreciate the experience. If most garlic chicken places are serving chicken
crack, this place serves chicken brandy. For a $6 wrap in the back corner of a strip mall, squeezed into
a row of auto body places, it's pretty remarkable.
Johnny Donikian and Virginia Ohanian, husband and wife, own and run the place. Donikian explains
that, where most other chicken joints freeze and defrost their chicken, he has fresh chicken delivered
every morning. It's a lot more work for him, and it means that he often runs out of chicken midday.
"But when my customers call me and tell me it's the best chicken they've ever had in their life, it's
worth it," says Donikian.
"Everything comes from Mom," says Donikian. His mother, Mayda Donikian, shows up each morning
and takes care of the most important part: the marination of the chicken breast in her special recipe of
yogurt, garlic and Armenian spices. All this before running off to her day job — babysitting in Beverly
Hills.
The chicken kebab wrap is the purest experience. The chicken shawarma wrap is more intensely
spiced but still modulated to let you taste the chicken itself, but flavored up. The happy medium,
though, is the garlic chicken wrap, with those perfectly charred cubes of chicken kebab covered in
delicate liquid garlic sauce.
The garlic sauce is zippy and lemony, with a teeny raw garlic bite, but it doesn't obliterate the chicken.
This is a confident wrap. This is a wrap that says, "Here is chicken breast. It is a beautiful thing. It may
be helped, but it should not be overwhelmed. You do not need to slather it in garlic and cinnamon.
Trust us. Trust the chicken."
[email protected]
Critical Thinking
Defining Critical Thinking
A statement by Michael Scriven & Richard Paul for the National Council for Excellence in Critical
Thinking Instruction
Summary
Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing,
applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by,
observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its
exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions:
clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and
fairness.
It entails the examination of those structures or elements of thought implicit in all reasoning: purpose,
problem, or question-at-issue; assumptions; concepts; empirical grounding; reasoning leading to
conclusions; implications and consequences; objections from alternative viewpoints; and frame of
reference. Critical thinking — in being responsive to variable subject matter, issues, and purposes — is
incorporated in a family of interwoven modes of thinking, among them: scientific thinking,
mathematical thinking, historical thinking, anthropological thinking, economic thinking, moral
thinking, and philosophical thinking.
Critical thinking can be seen as having two components: 1) a set of information and belief generating
and processing skills, and 2) the habit, based on intellectual commitment, of using those skills to guide
behavior. It is thus to be contrasted with: 1) the mere acquisition and retention of information alone,
because it involves a particular way in which information is sought and treated; 2) the mere possession
of a set of skills, because it involves the continual use of them; and 3) the mere use of those skills ("as
an exercise") without acceptance of their results.
Critical thinking varies according to the motivation underlying it. When grounded in selfish motives, it
is often manifested in the skillful manipulation of ideas in service of one’’s own, or one's groups’’,
vested interest. As such it is typically intellectually flawed, however pragmatically successful it might
be. When grounded in fairmindedness and intellectual integrity, it is typically of a higher order
intellectually, though subject to the charge of "idealism" by those habituated to its selfish use.
Critical thinking of any kind is never universal in any individual; everyone is subject to episodes of
undisciplined or irrational thought. Its quality is therefore typically a matter of degree and dependent
on , among other things, the quality and depth of experience in a given domain of thinking or with
respect to a particular class of questions. No one is a critical thinker through-and-through, but only to
such-and-such a degree, with such-and-such insights and blind spots, subject to such-and-such
tendencies towards self-delusion. For this reason, the development of critical thinking skills and
dispositions is a life-long endeavor.
A Brief Conceptualization of Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at the highest level
of quality in a fair-minded way. People who think critically consistently attempt to live rationally,
reasonably, empathically. They are keenly aware of the inherently flawed nature of human thinking
when left unchecked. They strive to diminish the power of their egocentric and sociocentric
tendencies. They use the intellectual tools that critical thinking offers – concepts and principles that
enable them to analyze, assess, and improve thinking. They work diligently to develop the intellectual
virtues of intellectual integrity, intellectual humility, intellectual civility, intellectual empathy,
intellectual sense of justice and confidence in reason. They realize that no matter how skilled they are
as thinkers, they can always improve their reasoning abilities and they will at times fall prey to
mistakes in reasoning, human irrationality, prejudices, biases, distortions, uncritically accepted social
rules and taboos, self-interest, and vested interest. They strive to improve the world in whatever ways
they can and contribute to a more rational, civilized society. At the same time, they recognize the
complexities often inherent in doing so. They strive never to think simplistically about complicated
issues and always consider the rights and needs of relevant others. They recognize the complexities in
developing as thinkers, and commit themselves to life-long practice toward self-improvement. They
embody the Socratic principle: The unexamined life is not worth living, because they realize that many
unexamined lives together result in an uncritical, unjust, dangerous world. ~ Linda Elder, September,
2007
Why Critical Thinking?
The Problem Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to itself, is
biased, distorted, partial, uninformed or down-right prejudiced. Yet the quality of our life and that of
what we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the quality of our thought. Shoddy thinking is
costly, both in money and in quality of life. Excellence in thought, however, must be systematically
cultivated.
A Definition Critical thinking is that mode of thinking - about any subject, content, or problem - in
which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the
structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them.
The Result A well cultivated critical thinker:
1. raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely;
2. gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively comes to
well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards;
3. thinks openmindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be,
their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and
4. communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems.
Critical thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking.
It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails
effective communication and problem solving abilities and a commitment to overcome our native
egocentrism and sociocentrism.
The Critical Thinking Process
1. The critical thinking process starts out with knowledge. All thinking starts with knowledge,
whether a little bit or a good understanding of your thinking topic. For example, if you were
thinking about how to fix a machine, you would want a good understanding of how it works
and what the problem is.
2. The next step in the process is comprehension. It is the understanding of what you think about.
If you can't comprehend what you're thinking about, you can't think about it effectively.
3. Another important step is application. If you can't apply your thoughts and knowledge to
anything, what good is thinking about it? Find something useful to think about.
4. The next step that you need to do is analyze what you're thinking about. Divide information up
into categories and subcategories. Select things that are the more important aspects, and solve
them first.
5. The second to last step of the critical thinking process is synthesis. Syntheses is organizing,
constructing, composing, and creating your finished result.
6. The last step is evaluation. See if you like your finished product. If not, go back through the
process with different objectives and goals, keeping in mind what you didn't like. If it comes
out to your liking, use it!
Components of Critical Thinking
The critical thinking process has four main components:
1. Questioning Assumptions An assumption is something we think we know already. When people think
critically about television or other media, they need to examine their own assumptions and also those of the
people behind the television cameras. When identifying your own assumptions, ask questions such as: What do
I know about this already? How do I know what I know? Where did I get that idea? How does that idea compare
to my experience? When identifying the assumptions that the TV program and the makers of commercials hold
about you, ask questions such as: Who do they think I am? What do they think I believe or value? Why do they
think that? How does their idea of who I am compare to my own experience?
2. Detecting Bias Ideas or information presented from one particular point of view are considered to be biased.
Detecting bias is especially important when dealing with television, because it presents information as
"authoritative." People often assume that television and other media are objective or unbiased, but this is not the
case. Critical thinking involves knowing that most information is presented from a specific point of view.
Critical thinking involves finding out what point of view is being expressed and what point of view is left
out. To find bias or point of view, ask questions such as: What is the source of this information or idea? What
do the producers have to gain by presenting this information? What information is left out? Could someone be
harmed by this information and the way it is presented?
3. Analyzing Context Context refers to factors that could affect an idea or action and how it is interpreted. For
example, watching a televised hockey game in the context of a bar full of fans is a completely different
experience from watching the same game alone at home. A parent may be much fussier about a child's table
manners in the context of a restaurant than at home. To identify the context, ask questions such as: Who is
telling the story? What do they have to gain or lose from this story or event? When did this event take place?
Where did this idea come from?
4. Seeking Alternative Points of View and Sources of Information Critical thinking involves seeking
alternative points of view or trying to imagine other ways of seeing things. It also involves looking for other
sources of information. For example, a critical thinker will check the prices at several stores before believing an
ad for the store that says it has the lowest prices. The critical thinker will put him/herself in someone else's
shoes. An adult viewer of a violent scene in a music video will try to imagine how a young person might
interpret it. To find alternatives, ask questions such as: Is there another way to look at this? Whose point of
view is included here? Whose is left out? Where could I get more information about this? Who would agree
with this point of view? Who would disagree? Why?
Source: Reprinted with permission from Pat Kipping, Think TV: A Guide to Managing TV in the Home.
Nova Scotia Department of Education, 2000, pp. iv-vii.
Critical Thinking Terms
Many of the following terms which we will use may be new to you. Therefore, it is strongly suggested
that you keep a separate "journal" of these words with their meanings and examples of each. These will
be on quizzes, and you need to understand their meanings and how to identify them in argument essays
— and how to use them in your argument essays.
Inductive reasoning draws a conclusion about something that is not already known based on
knowledge about something that is known. The conclusion is not contained in the premises and cannot
be certain, as it is in deductive reasoning. So, a valid inductive argument must go beyond what is
contained in the premises. There is always at least some uncertainty, even when the premises are
accepted. e.g. "If I do well on my final exam, I might get an A for the class. I think I did pretty well on
the final, so there's a chance I'll get an A." This example draws an uncertain conclusion.
Deductive reasoning draws from the known to the known and reasons to an absolute conclusion based
on what is known in the major premise and in the minor premise. If all the premises are true, the
conclusion must also be true. e.g. "Trees and flowers are different from one another. The tulip is a
flower. Therefore, it is not a tree.
"FORMAL VALIDITY concerns how well an argument conforms to the rules of logic to arrive at a
conclusion that must be true, assuming the premises are true. A formally valid argument is one in
which, if the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true (see deductive reasoning). Formally
valid arguments are those that follow a proper pattern of reasoning.
MATERIAL TRUTH concerns whether or not the conclusion of an argument is true, at least to the
extent that truth can be determined. If the premises are true and the argument is formally valid, the
conclusion will be materially true. However, depending on how the argument is constructed, the
conclusion may be materially true even if the premises are false and the logic is invalid. That is, a
materially true argument is one that comes to a truthful conclusion, regardless of whether the reasoning
is formally valid or not.
FORMAL LOGICAL STRUCTURE:
An ENTHYMEME is an argument similar to a syllogism, but may be missing one or more parts OR
arrive at an uncertain conclusion, OR both. An enthymeme is similar to a syllogism, but it has either
one or both of the following characteristics: (1) It leaves one or more parts (major premise, minor
premise, conclusion) unstated, (2) It arrives at a conclusion that is not absolutely certain. e.g. "Most
instructors at Cerritos are excellent teachers. Jay is an instructor at Cerritos. Therefore, Jay is probably
a good teacher." This example has a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion, but arrives at
an uncertain conclusion. So, an enthymeme may look like a syllogism, but comes to a probable
conclusion instead of a certain conclusion. When it leaves out one or more parts of a syllogism and
comes to a probable conclusion, it is called truncated.
A SYLLOGISM is an argument that has a major premise, minor premise, and conclusion and arrives
at an absolutely certain conclusion, assuming the premises are true (see deductive reasoning). Words
like "because" and "since" usually indicate that what follows is the premise of an argument. Depending
on who is making the argument, these words can indicate that what follows is either a major premise or
a minor premise.
Premise
The major premise is a statement of a general or universal nature. "My math exam had 100 questions.
The minor premise is a statement regarding a particular case, related to the subject of the major
premise. All exams with at least 50 questions are good exams.
The conclusion is the inevitable result of accepting the major and minor premises. "My math exam
was a good exam."
The major premise presents general categories, general alternatives, or general conditions, and the
minor premise represents an instance of what is presented in the major premise.
Categorical syllogsim: if one of the premises is negative, then the other premise must not be negative
and conclusion must be negative.
VALID CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS:
1) "All fruits are plants. A peach is a fruit. Therefore, a peach is a plant." The term "fruit" is the middle
term, that of a category, the major premise of a categorical syllogism. In this example, peach fits into
fruit which fits into plants. You can also think of the middle term as the term that appears in both
premises but not in the conclusion of a categorical syllogism.
2) "All trees are plants. A redwood is a tree. Therefore, a Redwood is a plant. This categorical
syllogism, has three terms (trees, plants, and redwood).
4) "American citizens must pay their taxes or they will be in trouble with the government. Susie did
not pay her taxes. Therefore, she is in trouble with the government." This argument is a valid
categorical syllogism if you assume that Susie is an American citizen; so, she falls within the category
established in the major premise.
INVALID CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS:
1) "All the people in the math classroom are students. Betty is in the math classroom. Therefore Fred is
a student. A valid categorical syllogism may only have three terms, and this one has four ("All the
people in the math classroom," "students," "Betty," and "Fred.")
2) "Some Americans believe in UFO abductions. I am an American. Therefore, I must believe in UFO
abductions." The middle term ("Some Americans") is not used in an unqualified or universal sense, so
the conclusion cannot be certain. If the conclusion was "Therefore, I might believe in UFO abductions"
it would be a valid categorical enthymeme.
4) "Recreational drugs are safe to use. Cocaine is too addictive. Cocaine is not safe to use." This
argument has four terms: "recreational drugs," "safe to use," "cocaine," and "too addictive."
Conditional or hypothetical syllogism:
The minor premise must either affirm the antecedent or deny the consequent.
If the minor premise affirms the antecedent the conclusion must affirm the consequent.
If the minor premise denies the consequent the conclusion must deny the antecedent.
In the major premise of a conditional syllogism, the "If . . ." phrase is known as the antecedent. The
antecedent is the "if . . ." phrase and the "then . . . " phrase is known as the consequent. A conditional
argument has a major premise with the form "If A, then B" and is also known as a hypothetical
argument. It could be either a syllogism or an enthymeme.
The major premise of a conditional syllogism establishes only two things that you know about the
universe: (1) If the antecedent happens, the consequent has to happen, and (2) if the consequent doesn't
happen, the antecedent couldn't have happened, and you cannot draw a valid conclusion. Sometimes an
argument that is invalid becomes valid if what was meant to be the conclusion is used as a premise, or
if what was meant to be a major premise is used as a minor premise. The most common mistake people
make is thinking that if an argument comes to a clearly untrue conclusion, it must be invalid, and that
if it comes to a clearly true conclusion, it must be valid. Remember that truth and validity do not
necessarily coincide.
VALID CONDITIONAL SYLLOGISM:
1) "If the sky is blue there won't be rain. The sky is blue today. Therefore, there won't be rain." This
takes the form of "If A then B," so it is a conditional syllogism. The minor premise affirms the
antecedent, and the conclusion affirms the consequent.
2) "If I finish this assignment then I will eat sushi and watch the X-files. Luckily, you are reading this,
so I finished. So I am leaving to go eat sushi and watch the X-files." The minor premise affirms the
antecedent and the conclusion properly affirms the consequent. The wording leaves some room for
doubt because the exact same phrases are not used throughout, but that is a characteristic of everyday
arguments.
3) "If my English professor cancels class today, she got stuck in Fortuna because of the flood. She
canceled class today. Therefore, she is stuck in Fortuna because of the flood." The minor premise
affirms the antecedent, and the conclusion affirms the consequent. This one may seem to be invalid
because, as a reasonable human being, you realize being stuck in a flood is not the only reason why the
English professor might cancel a class. However, when determining formal validity you must accept
the premises as everything you know to be true. This argument is formally valid, but it may be
materially untrue.
4) If the price of seafood increases due to the affects of El Nino, then Mother Nature has an influential
role in our economy. The price of seafood has increased due to El Nino. Therefore Mother Nature has
an influential role in our economy." This argument is a valid hypothetical* syllogism because the
minor premise affirmed the antecedent and the conclusion then affirmed the consequent. * Remember
a hypothetical syllogism can also be called a conditional syllogism.
INVALID CONDITIONAL SYLLOGISM:
1) "If I study my homework then I will get better grades. I didn't study my homework. Therefore, I'm
not going to get better grades." This argument is not valid because the antecedent is "If I study my
homework," and this argument has a minor premise that denies the antecedent. The minor premise
must either affirm the antecedent or deny the consequent or the argument must be invalid.
2) "If I drink beer then I will get fat. I drink beer. Therefore I am in good shape." The minor premise
affirms the antecedent, but the conclusion does not affirm the consequent as it should.
3) "If we go out to dinner tonight, we will not have to do the dishes. We did not do the dishes.
Therefore, we went out to dinner." The minor premise affirms the consequent, which cannot be done
and reach a valid conclusion. In this example the major premise only allows you to know what will
happen if you go out to dinner, not what will happen if you don't do the dishes. There could be many
reasons why you did not do the dishes that have nothing to do with going out to dinner.The point of an
argument is to give reasons in support of some conclusion. An argument commits a fallacy when the
reasons offered do not, in fact, support the conclusion.
Review the following per instructions in class - for our discussion of the use of language in
speeches/political advertising/argumentation. Consider how each has a use in appealing to the human
heart/mind/ear. Can you find ways of employing any of these Rhetorical Devices in your
presentations? Be prepared to create examples of your own - in your group assignment\
Alliteration: repetition of the initial consonant sounds beginning several words in sequence.
• "....we shall not falter, we shall not fail."
• President G.W. Bush Address to Congress following 9-11-01 Terrorist Attacks.
• "Let us go forth to lead the land we love." President J. F. Kennedy, Inaugural 1961
• "Veni, vidi, vici." Julius Caesar (I came, I saw, I conquered)
Assonance: repetition of the same vowel sounds in words close to each other.
"Thy kingdom come, thy will be done."
The Lord's Prayer
Anadiplosis: ("doubling back") the rhetorical repetition of one or several words; specifically,
repetition of a word that ends one clause at the beginning of the next.
"Men in great place are thrice servants: servants of the sovereign or state; servants of fame; and
servants of business." Francis Bacon
Anaphora: the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses or lines.
"We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas
and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend
our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing
grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never
surrender."
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill
Antistrophe: repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of successive clauses.
"In 1931, ten years ago, Japan invaded Manchukuo -- without warning. In 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia
-- without warning. In 1938, Hitler occupied Austria -- without warning. In 1939, Hitler invaded
Czechoslovakia -- without warning. Later in 1939, Hitler invaded Poland -- without warning. And now
Japan has attacked Malaya and Thailand -- and the United States --without warning."
President Franklin D. Roosevelt
Antithesis: opposition, or contrast of ideas or words in a balanced or parallel construction.
"Extremism in defense of liberty is no vice, moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue."
Barry Goldwater - Republican Candidate for President 1964
"Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more".
Brutus in: " Julius Caesar" by William Shakespeare
Aporia: expression of doubt (often feigned) by which a speaker appears uncertain as to what he should
think, say, or do.
"Then the steward said within himself, 'What shall I do?" Bible: Luke 16
Apostrophe: a sudden turn from the general audience to address a specific group or person or
personified abstraction absent or present.
"For Brutus, as you know, was Caesar's angel.
Judge, O you gods, how dearly Caesar loved him".
Mark Antony in 'Julius Caesar' - William Shakespeare
Asyndeton: lack of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words.
"We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardships, support any friend, oppose any foe to
assure the survival and the success of liberty."
J. F. Kennedy, Inaugural
"But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this
ground."
President Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address
Cacophony: harsh joining of sounds.
"We want no parlay with you and your grisly gang who work your wicked will."
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill -referring to Hitler.
Catachresis: a harsh metaphor involving the use of a word beyond its strict sphere.
"I listen vainly, but with thirsty ear."
General Douglas MacArthur, Farewell Address
Chiasmus: two corresponding pairs arranged not in parallels (a-b-a-b) but in inverted order (a-b-b-a);
from shape of the Greek letter chi (X).
"Those gallant men will remain often in my thoughts and in my prayers always."
General Douglas MacArthur
"Renown'd for conquest, and in council skill'd."
Marcus Tullius Cicero
Climax: arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of ascending power. Often the last
emphatic word in one phrase or clause is repeated as the first emphatic word of the next.
"One equal temper of heroic hearts,
Made weak by time and fate, but strong in will
To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield."
Tennyson, " Ulysses"
Euphemism: substitution of an agreeable or at least non-offensive expression for one whose plainer
meaning might be harsh or unpleasant.
Examples: Euphemisms for " stupid" A few fries short of a Happy Meal. A few beers short of a
six-pack. Dumber than a box of hair. Doesn't have all his cornflakes in one box. The wheel's
spinning, but the hamster's dead. One Fruit Loop shy of a full bowl. All foam, no beer. The cheese
slid off his cracker. Body by Fisher, brains by Mattel.
Hyperbole: exaggeration for emphasis or for rhetorical effect.
"If you call me that name again, I'm going to explode!"
Irony: expression of something which is contrary to the intended meaning; the words say one thing but
mean another.
*Yet Brutus says he was ambitious;
And Brutus is an honourable man.
Shakespeare's Mark Antony in "Julius Caesar"
Metaphor: implied comparison achieved through a figurative use of words; the word is used not in its
literal sense, but in one analogous to it.
*Life's but a walking shadow; a poor player,That struts and frets his hour upon the stage. "
Shakespeare, in "Macbeth"
*From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the
continent.
W. Churchill
Oxymoron: apparent paradox achieved by the juxtaposition of words which seem to contradict one
another.
*I must be cruel only to be kind."
Shakespeare, Hamlet
"Hurts so good" John Cougar Melancamp
"Jumbo Shrimp"
Paradox: an assertion seemingly opposed to common sense, but that may yet have some truth in it.
*What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young."
George Bernard Shaw
Personification: attribution of personality to an impersonal thing.
*England expects every man to do his duty."
Lord Nelson
The rose was a soft as a baby's skin
"Rise up and defend the Motherland"
Line from "Enemy at the Gates"
Pleonasm: use of superfluous or redundant words, often enriching the thought.
*No one, rich or poor, will be excepted.
*Ears pierced while you wait!
*I have seen no stranger sight since I was born.
Simile: an explicit comparison between two things using 'like' or 'as'.
*My love is as a fever, longing still
For that which longer nurseth the disease"
Shakespeare, Sonnet CXLVII
*Reason is to faith as the eye to the telescope"
D. Hume
*Let us go then, you and I,
While the evening is spread out against the sky,
Like a patient etherized upon a table"
T.S. Eliot, The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock
Syllepsis: use of a word with two others, with each of which it is understood differently.
*We must all hang together or assuredly we will all hang separately.
Benjamin Franklin
Tautology: repetition of an idea in a different word, phrase, or sentence.
"With malice toward none, with charity for all."
President Abraham Lincoln, Second Inaugural
9 Tips to become a better Critical Thinker
• Be open-minded to new ideas.
• Know that people have different ideas about the meaning of
words.
• Separate emotional and logical thinking.
• Question things that don't make sense to you.
• Avoid common mistakes in your own reasoning.
• Don't argue about something that you know nothing about.
• Build a strong vocabulary to better share and understand ideas.
• Know when you need more information.
• Know the difference between conclusions that could and must be
true.
Discussion Strategies
Why Are Classroom Discussions and Small Groupwork So
Important For Learning?
As I mentioned in the syllabus, this is a seminar class; thus, we will be spending much of our
time in class discussions or group work activities, rather than in lectures. In class we
discussed some of the problems with group work: students often complain that they find
group work pointless because they don’t like working with other people or because they think
it’s a chance for the teacher to take a break while students work. So why, then do I have you
participate in groupwork and class discussions?
Evidence:
Studies show that students actually learn better when they work in groups than when a
teacher lectures to them. This is partly because when you work on a problem in a group,
your brain is more active, and thus, better able to remember the information you are learning.
Think about it as similar to learning to ride a bike: you probably learned from doing instead of
from someone just telling you how to do it.
Similarly, class discussions are meant to help you learn actively by engaging you in a topic.
Though I do sometimes lecture, I rarely lecture on the readings because there is no one right
answer. I want to help you learn to think for yourselves instead of telling you what to think!
Thus your opinions on the readings are important because you help bring up different ideas
that other people (myself included) wouldn’t have thought of!
Making it work:
In class we brainstormed ways of making group work “work.” One thing that helps is giving
everyone a job to do (see the group roles). This ensures that everyone has something to do
and no one is slacking off. Also try being flexible; sometimes we have to make compromises!
Improving Class Discussions
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Address your comments to the group, not just the teacher.
Show the speakers you are listening by looking at them when they speak.
Ask questions of the speaker if you don’t understand their point, or if you are interested and
would like to hear more.
Relate what the speaker says to your own personal experience, while still staying on the subject,
or your own interpretation of the reading.
Jot down notes on paper while someone is speaking so you don’t forget what you want to say
when it is your turn.
You don’t always have to raise your hand to speak; if you notice a pause in the conversation, feel
free to jump in.
Taking time to gather your thoughts is okay, but drifting off is not.
Your ideas are as important as anyone else’s in the class—share them!
Braving Uncharted Waters: Tips for Starting or Adding to a Discussion
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My first impression of the text/story was... because...
I noticed that...
I might be off here but I think the writer saying...because...
I’m confused about...but I have a feeling it has to do with...
It seems to me that...
Acknowledging Others and Adding to the Conversation
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I like what Michelle said about...
I never thought about that connection between...until Miguel brought it up...
Anthony’s point about...makes me think about...
Angela said something really important in our group discussion that gets to what we’re talking
about now...
Sonia’s last comment put things into perspective and got me wondering about...
Gently Clarifying and Challenging
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Hmm. I just want to make sure I get what you said, Brian. Are you saying...?
Now I see what you’re getting at, Camille. Do you mean...?
Even though it is true that...we also need to keep in mind that...
That’s an interesting point, Raymond, but I’m not sure I agree because.
How to Make Inquiry Maps
From: David J. Rosen, January, 1996 ------------------------------------------------------------------------
A group decides to make an inquiry map. This could be a group of students, educators, a study circle of
people interested in a particular topic, or other groups. A guide-someone who knows how to make
inquiry maps, or at least who understands the process described below-leads the group. An inquiry
map generally takes several meetings or sessions, at least three and perhaps as many as ten. A session
could range from an hour to two hours.
1.
The group chooses a topic together, one which participants care about, and want to learn more
about.
2.
Then the participants generate (real and important) questions;
a.
The questions are clarified and possibly focused and narrowed so that they can be
researched.
b.
Questions are selected by the participants who want to research them.
3.
Identify and choose the inquiry methods, such as:
a.
an interview
b.
documenting personal experience
c.
survey (classroom, school, family, neighborhood)
d.
systematic observation and recording of information
e.
experiment
f.
access to an expert-and opportunity to interview by telephone or in-person
g.
reference book(s) at home or school
h.
library research
i.
research using database on the World Wide Web
j.
posting questions to net user groups
Plan their research.
Carry out research.
4.
5.
6.
Present their findings. Usually in prose, but possibly in a chart, graph or illustration, or through
videotape. They:
a.
cite sources
b.
indicate if there are multiple (and consistent/inconsistent) findings
c.
indicate new questions which have merged
d.
critique limitations of findings
e.
may recommend further research that is needed
f.
may critique their findings
7.
The questions are graphically linked with the findings (and possibly or emerging questions). In
the case of an inquiry map on a wall, these can be linked by colored string or thread. For a three-ring
binder version, at the end of each question is the page number of the answer(s). In the case of a
hypertext version, the link is made with html tags.
Other participants read and possibly critique findings.
Reading & Study Strategies
What is Schema?
Schema comes from the Greek word meaning plan or shape. Although many different
disciplines, such as computer science, use the term schema, I want you to be familiar with
how it is used in psychology and cognitive science. Schema is a learning theory that
describes how our brains organize information. You might think of your brain as a filing
cabinet that contains many different files on many different subjects within each drawer.
When you are learning or discussing a certain topic, your brain automatically goes to that file
in order to access what you know about that topic so that you can understand and
remember the new information better.
Essentially, schema is background knowledge or prior knowledge, which is vital to
learning! For instance, the “K” of KWL+ allows you to begin with your schema, or background
knowledge, so that you can remember and understand what you are reading better.
What is Metacognition?
Metacognition is another term that is important to the learning process, because it helps us
think about how to be better learners. Basically, it is self-awareness of how we learn or think
(thinking about thinking or reflecting on thinking and learning). When we reflect on how we
learn, then we are better able to find out what strategies work best for us or how we can
improve.
There Are Several Strategies We Can Use to Activate Schema…

Prediction:
Making guesses about what will happen or what will be said in a text. When we
predict, we are using what we do know and forming expectations about what will
follow.

Pre-reading:
Looking over the text, reading the first and last lines of a paragraph to
form an idea about what you will be reading and to activate your schema.

Visualization:
Creating mental pictures or images based upon the words that you are reading.

Comprehension Monitoring:
Checking or noticing what we are doing when we read and also being aware of how
we do it (also called metacognition or thinking about how you think).

Previewing:
A method of assessing your needs before starting to read by deciding what the
material is about, what needs to be done, and how to go about doing it. It is
formulating a reading strategy and then reading to meet those goals. To preview,
look over the material, think and ask yourself questions like: What is my purpose for
reading? How is the material organized?

Coding:
Putting the text into your words—taking notes on a reading, commenting to yourself on
what you just read, underlining a quote and explaining why you think it is important.

Recall:
To review what you have read, to think about important points you have read, to
connect what you have read to other experiences in order to increase
comprehension.
General and Specific1
We use writing and reading in many different ways: to understand our world and to communicate our
own feelings, needs, and desires. The information we read and write can be divided into two groups:
general and specific. Both have important functions as you may remember from the first day in
class when you worked on asking general and specific questions to find out more about your classmates.
General
General information or terms refer to groups. For instance, food would be a general term, because it
covers a whole group of different things (i.e. bagels, rice, chocolate). You can also think of it as a topic,
such as identity, or media violence. General information always refers to many different things, rather
than one, precise detail.
You may find general statements in:
Introductions
Thesis Statements
Conclusions
Topic Sentences
Specific
If general information refers to groups, then specific information refers to one, individual thing. For
instance, whereas a general term would be “food,” a specific term would be “pizza.” Think of specific
information as the details.
Specific information may appear as:
Quotes
Explanations
Details
Personal Examples
Purpose
Though they seem like opposites, general and specific information are actually linked. Think about if you
only used general information: no one would understand what you were talking about, and writing
would be boring. Likewise, if you only used specific terms, no one would the topic you were writing
about. Thus, most writing contains a mixture of both general and specific information in order to
introduce readers to the topic, and then give them details about the topic.
1
Adapted from John Friedlander and www.grammarcommnet.edu/grammar
Questions to Guide Your Reading
What is the key issue? What is the key question, and how is it introduced? How did the
author dramatize the issue—bring the topic to life?
Who is the intended audience? Who would care? Who would have (or who would lack) the
necessary background?
Is there a main point? Is there an early statement or an early hint of the author’s answer to
the central question? Where is the author’s message stated most directly or most eloquently?
How carefully or how aggressively does the writer state the main point?
Does the argument hinge on a key term? Does much depend on what we mean by a term
like culture, assimilation, self-esteem, false feminism, or affirmative action? Where and how is
it defined? Are there key examples or test cases that clarify the term?
What is the plan? Is there an early hint of an overall plan or organizing strategy? For
instance, is an article going to contrast the then and now? Is it going to start with surface
impressions and then take a look behind the scenes? Is the writer going to look first at the
arguments on one side and then at arguments on the other?
What backup is there? What examples or evidence does the author use to support a
general point? Which are most striking or convincing? Where does the writer turn for personal
witnessing, facts or hard data, expert testimony, inside information?
How simple-minded is the argument? Does the author recognize possible objections or
counterarguments? Are they brushed off or are they taken seriously?
Is there a strong conclusion? Does the conclusion merely summarize, or does it go a step
beyond what the author said before? For instance, is there a clinching final example or an
effective punchline? Does the author relate his/her argument to the larger picture?
Double-Entry Journals
During this unit, one of the things we will be working on is incorporating information from
the readings into your writing as away of strengthening your argument. Double-Entry
Journals (also known as dialectical journals) will help prepare you for this while also providing
you with away of organizing and reflecting on what you read. In particular Double-Entry
Journals help you:
1) Interact with new information in a variety of formats
2) Relate information to prior knowledge
3) Generate ideas for class discussions and writing assignments.
Your entries can include, but are not limited to, one or more of the following:
• a quote, word, or phrase that is interesting or confusing
• a paraphrase of a complex segment of text
• a possible explanation of a confusing material
• a main idea from the resource and why it is important
• a strong positive or negative reaction and an explanation of that reaction
• a reason for agreeing or disagreeing with the author/producer
• a comparison and/or contrast of a passage with another resource or with prior
knowledge
• a prediction based on evidence from the resource
• a question generated as a result of reading, viewing, or hearing the resource
• a description of a personal experience that relates to the resource
Sample Double-Entry Journal
(On Bolinger’s “Dialect”)
Directions: In the first column write passages from the text that you find interesting, or confusing. In
the second column comment on the passages you have chosen.
The Text
Below, write key quotes or passages from the text
•
“The infant differs from the child, the
child from the adolescent, the adolescent
from the adult. The most extreme case
is baby talk…” (Pg. 97).
Your Thoughts
Below, respond to the passages or quotes you listed in the first
column. You may wish to ask a question, evaluate, reflect,
analyze, or interpret the passage in the left column—whatever
comes to mind!
• I can definitely see this in my own life. As I’ve
•
•
“It is part of an economic order in which
everyone’s way of earning somehow
influences his speech because of the need
to manipulate a certain set of objects
and concepts that are the tools of the
profession. But ordinarily it goes no
deeper than the choice of terms to match
the objects” (pg. 99).
gotten older, I keep changing the way I speak. I
think now I try to sound more mature by using
a bigger vocabulary or not using so much slang.
I’m not sure that I understand what this means.
I know economic has to do with how much money
you have, so I guess this is talking about how
people from different backgrounds talk
differently. And I think Bolinger is also talking
about how different groups name things
differently.
Annotation
As we discussed in class, good readers employ many strategies before, during, and after reading to
ensure that they understand what they are reading. One strategy we’ve talked about is schema
activation (thinking about what you already on a topic). KWL+ can help you activate your
background knowledge (schema) and organize your thoughts and notes before and after reading.
Another strategy you can employ during the reading process is annotation, which means marking the
text as you read it.
Why Annotate?
Although annotation may seem to take too much time, it can benefit you in a couple of ways. The first
is that if you have to look back at the text—for a class discussion, or an essay—you won’t have to
reread the entire piece for the spot you’re looking for. Another is that annotation helps you remember
the ideas you think of when you are reading. If something confuses or interests you mark it, so you can
remember it later; if something reminds you of something else you read or talked about mark it!
Some Suggestions for Annotating
It’s important to use a system or set of symbols when annotating, because otherwise you might not
remember why you marked something.
• Write notes in the margin or at the top or bottom of the page. For example, jot down main ideas,
key summary words or phrases next to their respective paragraphs.
• Circle or underline key words or phrases.
• Use stars ✩or asterisks ** in the margins to emphasize the most important ideas.
• Pose questions in the margins to express your difference of opinion about the author’s message,
or put a question mark next to anything you don’t understand (what teachers mean when they
ask, “Any questions about last night’s reading?”).
• Use a personal symbol (!, Yes!, Right!) next to anything that seems on target to you.
• Write notes or questions on Post-Its / sticky notes and use them to mark important pages of the
text.
(Especially great for library books or books you want to sell back at the end of the semester.)
Coding and Nutshelling: How Big is a Nutshell?
Purpose of Nutshelling: to capture the main idea of each paragraph in 5-7 words.
Nutshelling helps the reader focus on the main point and exclude the details. After
reading each paragraph, ask yourself what is being said. What is the topic?
Sample: “California public school educators suspended students more than 332,000
times for violence or drugs last year—a jump of nearly 16,000 from the prior year.
That’s 6 out of every 100 students, up from 5 per 100 the year before, a Chronicle
analysis of state records show. It means that beneath the studious demeanor of
California campuses runs an undercurrent of trouble: students harming students,
intimidating peers, packing weapons and even making terror threats.”
Nutshell: suspension of students for violence/drugs up.
How to Write A Summary
Follow these steps after you have read a text and each time you need to summarize:
Get Information
1. Find the topic. “What is this article mostly about?”
 Say it in one or more words.
2.
Find the main idea. “What does the author say about this topic?”
 Read the first paragraph.
 Skim the rest of the article to check what the author is saying
in each paragraph about the topic.
 Write a sentence that states the author’s controlling idea.
3.
List the important details that go with the controlling idea.
Reread and check information
4. Reread and check information
 Cross out information that is not important.
 Cross our information that repeats.
Write Sentences Using the Information
5. Put the information into complete sentences.
 Write a sentence that states the topic and the author’s main idea (see the
main idea template and use that as your first sentence).
 Write sentences that include the important details. (Use about 3 general
important details. Too many details will make your summary too long.)
 Change the order of your sentences if you need to.
Write the Summary
6. Put the sentences into a paragraph to complete the summary.
 Consider using transition words: first, next, in addition, finally...
Summarizing is an important skill to have in college and in life. Now and for the rest of your
life, people will be asking you to explain things in movies, books, reports, articles, history and
life in a succinct and careful way. The ability to pull out the salient features of a chain of
events, whether on the page, the screen, or real life, and describe them accurately and
concisely will make everything you do easier. Whether you are a business executive, a
lawyer, a real estate agent, an insurance salesman, a poet, a parent, teacher, a scientist or
an engineer – you will need this skill. Now is a great time to start honing it.
TIPS: A Reading Strategy for Writing a Summary
PURPOSE & BACKGROUND:
TIPS stands for Topic Idea Points and Summary. It is a strategy that helps you identify and
organize the main idea and supporting details of a text. After filling out a TIPS handout, the
content you have come up with will serve as the basis for your summary paragraph.
Below is a sample TIPS Chart
T topic
What is the topic of this
article?
I main idea
What is the main idea of
the article? What is the
author telling us about
this topic? (What is
his/her opinion?)
Answer to the right using
complete sentences.
P points or supporting
details
What information does
the author use to support
his/her main idea? Write
down three supporting
details.
S summary
Write a brief summary of
this article. What are the
most important parts of
this piece? What are the
most important ideas?
Mapping an Article
Use the graphic organizer below to make a map to show the thesis statement (or Thesis) and
how three major points support it. This map can help organize your ideas for writing a paper.
Remember, no two people will map a reading exactly the same.
Essay Title:
Author’s Name:
TOPIC:
AUTHOR’S MAIN IDEA/THESIS:
SUPPORTING DETAIL:
SUPPORTING DETAIL:
SUPPORTING DETAIL:
Fact vs. Opinion
Fact: An idea or piece of information that can be verified. We can find out whether it is true or not, at
least theoretically. Is it a fact that the moon is 568 feet from earth? We can check it. These are usually
found in the middle of paragraphs and are used by writers to support their opinions or arguments. They
are also known as “supporting details.” They are specific information.
Opinion: Is also known as a judgment. This is when we come up with a positive or negative idea based
on the facts we know. It is something arguable that others might disagree with. Examples of opinions
are thesis statements or main ideas and topic sentences. Opinions are more general than facts.
Directions: Based on your own knowledge, decide which of the following statements are facts and
which are opinions.
1. The Los Angeles Lakers won the 1987 National Basketball Association championship.
2. Chicago is situated on the southwest shore of Lake Michigan.
3. The United States Navy is the finest fight force in the world today.
4. Cats are more fun than dogs.
5. The Constitution of the United States of America was approved in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
6. As a result of the Watergate investigations, President Nixon resigned from office.
7. Sacramento, California, possesses as many Mexican restaurants as a porcupine has quills—they’re
everywhere.
8. William Shakespeare is the world’s greatest playwright.
Inferences
What is an INFERENCE?
An inference is a conclusion about the unknown made on the basis of the known. We
see a car beside us on the freeway with several new and old dents; we infer that the driver must
be a bad one. A close friend hasn’t called in several weeks and doesn’t return our calls when
we leave messages; we infer that she is angry with us. Much of our thinking, whether about
casual observations or personal relationships, involves making inferences. Indeed, entire
careers are based on the ability to make logical inferences. In Snow Falling on Cedars (1995), a
contemporary novel by David Guterson, a coroner describes his job.
It’s my job to infer. Look, if a night watchman is struck over the head with a
crowbar during the course of a robbery, the wounds you’re going to see in his
head will look like they were made with a crowbar. If they were made by a ballpeen hammer you can see that, too — a ball-peen leaves behind a crescentshaped injury, a crowbar leaves, well, linear wounds with V-shaped ends. You
get hit with a pistol butt, that’s one thing; somebody hits you with a bottle, that’s
another. You fall of a motorcycle at 40 miles an hour and hit your head on
gravel, the gravel will leave behind patterned abrasions that don’t look like
anything else. So yes, I infer from the deceased’s wound that something narrow
and flat caused his injury. To infer — that’s what coroners do.
How Reliable Is an Inference?
The reliability of inferences covers an enormous range. Some inferences are credible,
but inferences based on minimal evidence or on evidence that may support may different
interpretations should be treated with skepticism. In fact, the strength of an inference can be
tested by the number of different explanations we can draw from the same set of facts. The
greater the number of possible interpretations, the less reliable the inference.
In the cartoon, given the marks made by the pogo stick and the broken window, we
cannot arrive at any other inference but that the person on the pogo stick went out the window.
The driver of the dented car may not be the owner: She may have borrowed the car from a
friend, or she may own the car but have recently bought it “as is.” Our friend may not have
called us for a number of reasons: a heavy work schedule, three term papers, a family crisis.
She may not have received our messages. These alternative explanations weaken the reliability
of the original inferences. Clearly, the more evidence we have to support our inferences and
the fewer interpretations possible, the more we can trust their accuracy.
What is a FACT?
We make inferences based on our own observations or on the observations of others as
they are presented to us through speech or print. These observations often consist of facts,
information that can be verified. Marks on the floor lead to a broken window. “A crowbar
leaves linear wounds with V-shaped ends.” Our own observations attest to the truth of these
claims. But often we are dependent on others’ observations about people, places, and events
we cannot directly observe. Books, newspapers, magazines, and television programs are filled
with reports — facts — giving us information about the world that we are unable to gain from
direct observation. If we doubt the truth of these claims, we usually can turn to other sources to
verify or discredit them.
Facts come in a vast array of forms — statistics, names, events — and are distinguished
by their ability to be verified. Confusion tends to grow less from the facts themselves than from
the inferences we make based on a given set of facts.
It is important, however, to think
critically about our sources, including our own observations, in order to understand possible
biases. Eyewitness reports and individual experiences, your own or those of others, can serve
as valuable factual evidence. Whether or not evidence is accepted depends on how your
audience views you as a witness or on their evaluation of a cited witness and the circumstances
under which the report was made.
What is an Opinion?
When we infer that the individual on the pogo stick took one jump too many, we laugh
but are unlikely to express approval or disapproval of the event. On the other hand, when we
infer that the woman in the car in front of us is a poor driver, we express disapproval of her
driving skills; we make a judgment, in this case, a statement of disapproval.
A judgment is
also an inference, but although many inferences are free of positive or negative connotation,
such as “I think it’s going to rain,” a judgment always expresses the writer’s or speaker’s
approval or disapproval. Certain judgments are taken for granted, become part of a culture’s
shared belief system, and are unlikely to be challenged under most circumstances.
For
example, most of us would accept the following statements: “Taking the property of others is
wrong” or “People who physically abuse children should be punished.” But many judgments
are not universally accepted without considerable well-reasoned supporter may be rejected
regardless of additional support and cogent reasoning.
Murder Mystery
Inference: Classwork
Inference from Action (Fiction)
When he came to the surface he was conscious of little but the noisy water. Afterward he saw his
companions in the sea. The oiler was ahead in the race. He was swimming strongly and rapidly. Off to
the correspondent’s left, the cook’s great white and corked back bulged out of the water, and in the
rear the captain was hanging with his one good hand to the keel of the overturned dinghy.
There is a certain immovable quality to the shore, and the correspondent wondered at it amid the
confusion of the sea.
~by Stephen Crane
Answer the following with a, b, c, or d.
1. The reason that the people are in the water is because of
a. a swimming race
b. an airplane crash
c. a capsized boat
d. a group decision
2. In relation to his companions, the correspondent is
a. closest to the shore.
b. the second or third closest to the shore.
c. farthest from the shore.
d. in a position that is impossible to determine.
3. The member of the group that has probably suffered a previous in- jury is the
a. oiler
b. correspondent
c. cook
d. captain
4.The uninjured member of the group that the author seems to regard as the least physically fit is the
a. oiler
b. correspondent
c. cook
d. captain
5. The story is being told through the eyes of the
a. oiler
b. correspondent
c. cook
d. captain
Pre-Writing Strategies
The Writing Process
Prewrite
Draft
The Writing Process
Publish
or
Hand in
Revise
Edit
The Writing Process
There are many steps to writing, and there is no perfect or sanctioned order—play around until you
find the process that works best for you. Remember, breaks are important! Don’t jam all the steps into
one night—try to leave time between the steps (anywhere from a few hours to a day or two) to give
yourself time to re-focus your efforts and reduce your stress so you can make the most of your time.
Break help you avoid the dangerous condition of “Mushy Brain” that can ruin an essay.
P r e w r i t i n g —Brainstorm, Free-write, Cluster
1. Collect Information. Make a list of all your impressions about the topic. The list doesn’t have to be
in complete sentences, and don’t worry about spelling, grammar or punctuation-just get all of your
ideas down. Don’t censor yourself and be as specific and detailed as possible.
2. Focus. Ask yourself, “What is the dominant impression I want to give my reader? What point do I
want to make?” (This will help you create your thesis statement.) Choose the descriptions which
convey your dominant impression. Pick the descriptions and information that work best.
Organizing—Writing Plans & Outlines
Think about how to organize your descriptions and ideas-what order will be the easiest for your reader
to follow? Which main ideas are most important and relevant?
Drafting: Speed Draft, Rough Draft, Peer Review Draft
Try a “speed draft” first, one in which you try to follow your organizational plan, but don’t worry
about mechanics (spelling, grammar, punctuation). A speed draft may be handwritten or composed on
the computer. In a rough draft you can rewrite/type your speed draft, making any changes you think
are needed. This, or a third, or fourth draft, will be the “good faith draft” you bring to peer review.
Revising: Rearrange, Tighten Up, Join Sentences, Explain, Give Examples!
Revision doesn’t just mean “correcting” grammar or “fixing” sentences. Give yourself permission to
make significant changes, even to change your opinion about your topic. Think of revising as looking
at your paper in a whole new way—a re-visioning of your work—not just looking at small or
inconsequential parts of your essay, such as grammar or mechanics.
Look over the notes from peer response and re-read the essay to yourself with a pen or pencil in hand,
making notes to yourself. Revise your draft as often as necessary to make it clearer and more fully
developed. Make sure your paragraphs have topic sentences and you have a main point that you stick
to throughout the essay. Make sure you have fulfilled the requirements of the assignment.
You are in control; you can make whatever changes you want. But in the end, don’t forget to ensure
that it all hangs together, that the end matches the middle and the beginning.
Prewriting: Clustering
by Melanie Dawson & Joe Essid
Clustering is a type of prewriting that allows you to explore many ideas as soon as they occur to you. Like
brainstorming or free associating, clustering allows you to begin without clear ideas.
To begin to cluster, choose a word that is central to your assignment. For example, if you were writing a
paper about the value of a college education, you might choose the word "expectations" and write that
word in the middle of your sheet of paper. Circle "expectations," then write words all around it--words that
occur to you as you think of "expectations." Write down all words that you associate with "expectations,"
words that at first may seem to be random. Write quickly, circling each word, grouping words around your
the central word. Connect your new words to previous ones with lines; when you feel you have exhausted a
particular avenue of associations, go back to your central word and begin again.
For example, "expectations" might lead you to consider "the social aspects of college," which may lead
you to consider "career networking." You may then find yourself writing down words that compare the
types of jobs you might get through career networking. You may end up asking yourself questions such as
"What sorts of jobs do I want? Not want? "Have fun with this exercise; even silly questions can open
avenues to explore, such as "What if I ended up waiting tables at Buddy's?" "Would I rather be a lion-tamer
or an accountant?" "What about my brilliant career as a stand-up comedian?"
Some words will take you nowhere; with other words you may discover that you have many related words
to write. Random associations eventually become patterns of logic as you look over your work. After
looking over the clustering exercise above, you might conclude that you want an exciting career as a
performer of some type, rather than a job in the service sector or behind a desk.
Now your sample paper about the value of a college education has some focus: how you expect college to
lead to an interesting career that involves creativity, skill, and performance. You might then want to return
to the phrase "Job Skills" and develop that part of your cluster, noting the skills that you'd need to reach
your ideal career. Clustering does not take the place of a linear, traditional outline; but, as the example
shows, it allows you to explore ideas before committing them to a particular order.
Example:
Brainstorming Technique
What follows are great ideas on how to brainstorm—ideas from professional writers, novice writers, people who
would rather avoid writing, and people who spend a lot of time brainstorming about…well, how to brainstorm.
Try out several of these options and challenge yourself to vary the techniques you rely on; some techniques
might suit a particular writer, academic discipline, or assignment better than others. If the technique you try first
doesn't seem to help you, move right along and try some others.
Example:
Topic: Success
• Money
• Power
• Status
• People looking up to you
• People hating you
• People loving you
• The Donald
• My mom
• A college degree
• A car I own
• Being able to choose the job I work at
• Owning a house
• Having a lot of savings
• Being happy
Practice:
Topic:
Freewriting
When you freewrite, you let your thoughts flow as they will, putting pen to paper and writing down whatever
comes into your mind. You don't judge the quality of what you write and you don't worry about style or any
surface-level issues, like spelling, grammar, or punctuation. If you can't think of what to say, you write that
down—really. The advantage of this technique is that you free up your internal critic and allow yourself to write
things you might not write if you were being too self-conscious.
When you freewrite you can set a time limit ("I'll write for 15 minutes!") and even use a kitchen timer or alarm
clock or you can set a space limit ("I'll write until I fill four full notebook pages, no matter what tries to interrupt
me!") and just write until you reach that goal. You might do this on the computer or on paper, and you can even
try it with your eyes shut or the monitor off, which encourages speed and freedom of thought.
The crucial point is that you keep on writing even if you believe you are saying nothing. Word must follow
word, no matter the relevance. Your freewriting might even look like this:
"This paper is supposed to be on the politics of tobacco production but even though I went to all the lectures and
read the book I can't think of what to say and I've felt this way for four minutes now and I have 11 minutes left
and I wonder if I'll keep thinking nothing during every minute but I'm not sure if it matters that I am babbling
and I don't know what else to say about this topic and it is rainy today and I never noticed the number of cracks
in that wall before and those cracks remind me of the walls in my grandfather's study and he smoked and he
farmed and I wonder why he didn't farm tobacco..."
When you're done with your set number of minutes or have reached your page goal, read back over the text.
Yes, there will be a lot of filler and unusable thoughts but there also will be little gems, discoveries, and insights.
When you find these gems, highlight them or cut and paste them into your draft or onto an "ideas" sheet so you
can use them in your paper. Even if you don't find any diamonds in there, you will have either quieted some of
the noisy chaos or greased the writing gears so that you can now face the assigned paper topic.
Cubing
Cubing enables you to consider your topic from six different directions; just as a cube is
six-sided, your cubing brainstorming will result in six "sides" or approaches to the topic.
Take a sheet of paper, consider your topic, and respond to these six commands.
1. Describe it.
2. Compare it.
3. Associate it.
4. Analyze it.
5. Apply it.
6. Argue for and against it.
Look over what you've written. Do any of the responses suggest anything new about
your topic? What interactions do you notice among the "sides"? That is, do you see
patterns repeating, or a theme emerging that you could use to approach the topic or
draft a thesis? Does one side seem particularly fruitful in getting your brain moving?
Could that one side help you draft your thesis statement? Use this technique in a way
that serves your topic. It should, at least, give you a broader awareness of the topic's
complexities, if not a sharper focus on what you will do with it.
Journalistic questions
In this technique you would use the "big six" questions that journalists rely on to thoroughly research a story.
The six are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Who?
What?
When?
Where?
Why?
How?
Write each question word on a sheet of paper, leaving space between them. Then, write out some sentences or
phrases in answer, as they fit your particular topic. You might also answer into a tape recorder if you'd rather
talk out your ideas.
Now look over your batch of responses. Do you see that you have more to say about one or two of the
questions? Or, are your answers for each question pretty well balanced in depth and content? Was there one
question that you had absolutely no answer for? How might this awareness help you to decide how to frame
your thesis claim or to organize your paper? Or, how might it reveal what you must work on further, doing
library research or interviews or further note-taking?
For example, if your answers reveal that you know a lot more about "where" and "why" something happened
than you know about "what" and "when," how could you use this lack of balance to direct your research or to
shape your paper? How might you organize your paper so that it emphasizes the known versus the unknown
aspects of evidence in the field of study? What else might you do with your results?
Practice:
Who?
What?
When?
Where?
Why?
How?
Consider Purpose and Audience
Think about the parts of communication involved in any writing or speaking event act: purpose and
audience.
What is your purpose? What are you trying to do? What verb captures your intent? Are you trying to
inform? Convince? Describe? Each purpose will lead you to a different set of information and help you
shape material to include and exclude in a draft. Write about why you are writing this draft in this
form.
Who is your audience? Who are you communicating with beyond the grader? What does that
audience need to know? What do they already know? What information does that audience need
first, second, third? Write about who you are writing to and what they need
Practice:
What do they
look like:
What do they
know about
your topic
What info do
they need to
know
What is Your Purpose With This Audience?:
What biases do
they have?
What are five
things you can
use to grab
their attention?
Paragraph Structure
The Paragraph
In American academic writing, a paragraph is the basic unit of writing. It is a series of related
sentences about one idea called the topic. A paragraph usually begins with a general
sentence that introduces the topic and often sets up a claim or analysis related to the thesis
statement that needs to be developed within the paragraph. This sentence is commonly
referred to as the topic sentence, and it tells what the paragraph is going to be about.
The rest of the sentences in the paragraph provide the reader with specific support for the
general topic sentence; that is, they either explain, describe, or illustrates the Thesiss in the
topic sentences. The Thesis is called the controlling idea because it controls the information
that is provided in the paragraph.
A paragraph has no specific length. It may be as short as five sentences or as long as fifteen
sentences; it need only be long enough to support the topic clearly and completely.
Often a paragraph ends in a concluding sentence which signals the end of the paragraph and
leaves the reader with important points to remember. Concluding sentences can also help
transition from one Thesis to the next.
A paragraph will look like this:
Topic sentence (includes topic and opinion)
Several sentences that support the topic sentence

analyze
explain
describe
illustrate
comment
concluding sentence
Narrative vs. Expository Writing
Version 1
One very hot summer morning, Little Red Riding Hood’s mother interrupted Red from her play in
the brightly-colored flowers in the garden, telling her to deliver a basket of goodies to her
grandmother, who was very ill. Red’s mother warned her not to talk to strangers on her way through
the woods to her granny’s house, for she had recently read in the newspaper that a wolf disguised as
a narcotics agent was lurking in the woods, waiting to accost little girls as they passed by. Striding
through the woods, Red was approached by a man who introduced himself as Mr. Wolf, the local
narcotics agent. “Where are you going, little girl? And what do you have in that basket?” he asked in
the most threatening manner. “I’m bringing some goodies to my grandma,” she said. “Delivering
goodies?” he said. “Do you know what the penalties are for selling goodies in this state?” “But it’s not
what you think,” she protested. “Just tell me where you’re going so I can investigate further,” he
demanded. “But—” she tried to say. “Tell me where you’re going or I’ll throw the book at you,” he
snarled. “To my granny’s, down at the end of the pass,” Red said. “Aha,” said Mr. Wolf, who then got
into his private helicopter he had hidden behind the trees. When Red arrived at her grandmother’s,
Mr. Wolf was already waiting for her. “Darn,” she said, as he pounced on her and gobbled her up.
•
What is the point of this paragraph?
•
How is this paragraph organized?
Version 2
Little Red Riding Hood is gobbled up by a wolf because of her own stupidity. First, she does not
listen to her mother’s warning about not talking to strangers. When her mother asks Red to deliver
goodies to her sick Granny who lived on the other side of the woods, she specifically tells her not to
talk to strangers along the way, but when Red is stopped by Mr. Wolf in the woods, she does indeed
talk to him. Her protests and distress demonstrate that she speaks to him out of fear, fear Mr. Wolf
creates by telling her that he is a narcotics agent and by speaking to her in a threatening manner. Her
response to him also indicates her stupidity. She believes the man is an officer of the law simply
because he tells her he is, but she neglects to ask to see his credentials. And believing him to be an
officer, she tells him exactly where she is going. This, of course, is her greatest act of stupidity. She
could have avoided her miserable fate by simply not telling him where she was going. Knowing her
destination, Mr. Wolf is able to get to Granny’s house before she does, waits for her in that secluded
place, and pounces on her when she arrives, safe from witnesses. Thus Red helps set the trap for
herself, realizing what a fatal mistake she had made only when the wolf actually gobbles her up.
•
What is the point of this paragraph?
•
How is this paragraph organized?
•
How is version 2 different from version 1?
•
What effect does each paragraph have on you as a reader?
The Interior Logic of a Paragraph
These are real paragraphs by real writers, but they have been scrambled. Try to reach
agreement in your group on how the sentences should be ordered for each paragraph. Figure
out how you know what the order should be. Is one harder than the other?
Paragraph #1
a) They keep track of blooming dogwood in the spring—the more abundant the blooms, the more
bitter the cold in January.
b) They watch the acorn crop—the more acorns, the more severe the season.
c) They examine the size and shape and color of the spleens of butchered hogs for clues to the
severity of the season.
d) They observe where white-faced hornets place their paper nests—the higher they are, the deeper
will be the snow.
e) Back country farmers use numerous superstitions to predict winter weather.
f)
They examine their corn husks–the thicker the husk, the colder the winter.
Paragraph #2
a) Then they will find that the food in no way resembles Mom’s cooking.
b) The furnishings look as though they were bought at a Motel 6 warehouse sale.
c) The lucky student finds his roommate snores or hangs dirty socks on the lampshade; the unlucky
student discovers his roommate is a practicing steel drum enthusiast.
d) New dorm residents usually make several unpleasant discoveries during their first week.
e) Finally, their roommates are likely to be as irritating as siblings, but in unfamiliar and eccentric
ways.
f)
Instead of Beef Wellington and Cherries Jubilee, the students choke down thin, cold hamburgers
followed by coconut cream pie that tastes like gluey cotton.
g) First, they will notice that their rooms are no larger than the average dog house, and
are equally as barren.
Topic Sentences
Topic sentences are the “thesis statements” of paragraphs; therefore, they are both a part of keeping
the promise made by the thesis, as well as a sub-promise that should be kept by the paragraphs.
They are usually the first sentence in the paragraph. The reader expects topic sentences to provide
proof of one aspect of the thesis sentence as well as to provide an indication of what will follow in
the paragraph.
A topic sentence is NOT simply a statement of fact. A fact does not contain any controlling ideas
that can be easily explained, described, illustrated or analyzed.
There are two kinds of topic sentences:
1. A statement of opinion
A statement of opinion contains some form of judgment and the paragraph will support the
opinion in the topic sentence.
Example: The computer is the greatest invention of the twentieth century.
2. A statement of intent
A statement of intent contains no opinion; instead, it informs the reader of what will be
objectively explained in the paragraph.
Example: The common seasoning monosodium glutamate (MSG) has negative side effects.
Topic Sentence Functions
An effective topic sentence:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Relates to the thesis.
Sets up a claim, assertion, argument, evaluation, analysis.
Contains controlling ideas about the topic that need to be developed in the sentences that follow.
Is the most general sentence in the paragraph.
Orients the reader.
Provides a context for understanding what follows.
Explains the relationships among elements.
Summarizes the rest of the paragraph.
Promises what will follow.
Guidelines for Topic Sentences
A topic sentence must be a complete sentence to perform all the necessary functions.
•
Weak:
The type of birth control that should be provided by schools.
•
Better:
To prevent unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases,
schools should provide every form of non-prescription birth control available.
A topic sentence must predict or promise what follows, so it cannot be a question.
•
Weak:
Should schools provide free computers for their students?
•
Better:
Since schools should assist students in their studies and prepare them for their
future careers, they must offer students the technological advantage of free
and easy access to computers.
Phrases such as “I think” or “in my opinion” may muddle or weaken topic sentences. Your writing is always your
opinion, so you don’t need these phrases unless they are central to the idea that you are trying to convey.
•
Weak:
I think that it is important for every woman to carry mace or pepper spray.
•
Better:
As violent criminals take over the city streets, women must carry mace or
pepper spray to protect themselves.
The topic sentence should provide clear relationships among all of its elements so that it can provide a framework
for understanding the rest of the paragraph.
•
Weak:
Historians record only dry statistics; we should read novels.
•
Better:
Accurate historical novels give us a deeper understanding of the past than
do the dry collection of facts and statistics that pass for history texts.
A topic sentence needs to be clear and specific enough that it can predict and summarize the
rest of the paragraph for the reader.
•
Weak:
Public transit is terrible.
•
Better:
Incapable of providing reliable, comfortable service, the San Francisco
Municipal Transit system is failing its ridership.
Because the topic sentence is a reference for the rest of the paragraph, it needs to be
exceptionally clear. If there is figurative language in a topic sentence, the wording should be
such that the reader does not need to understand the allusion to understand the sentence.
•
Weak:
Better:
The Surgeon General must be the Hercules that slays the Hydra of chemical
addictions.
As Hercules slew Hydra, the Surgeon General must defeat the many-headed
monster that is chemical addiction.
Other Sentence Functions
The rest of the paragraph must:
• Fulfill the promise set by the topic sentence.
• Be on the same topic.
• Relate to each other and the topic sentence in a manner established by the topic sentence.
•
Topic Sentences
In expository prose — writing that informs, explains or analyzes — the main point of a paragraph is
usually indicated in a single sentence at the beginning of the paragraph, and this sentence is called
the topic sentence. Because it will have to hold all the following sentences together in unity, the
topic sentence will be the paragraph’s most general and inclusive sentence. In short, it tells the
reader what the paragraph is about and the information that follows — specific examples, details,
explanations — must be related to the idea or assertion introduced by the topic sentence.
The key to writing good topic sentences is not to make them too broad (all-encompassing) or too
specific (restrictive). Good topic sentences assist the reader in understanding and following the
direction of the writer’s ideas.
Exercise: The topic sentence of the paragraph below has been removed. Read the paragraph carefully and then
choose the best topic sentence among the four choices below. Be prepared to explain your choice.
___________________________________________. This belief is especially common among
weightlifters who often consume large quantities of high-protein foods and dietary supplements,
thinking it will improve their athletic performance. Like weightlifters, football players consume too
much protein, expecting it to produce additional muscle energy. Although it is true that muscles
contain more protein than other tissues, there is no evidence that a high-protein diet actually
constructs more muscle tissue than a normal diet. Nutritionists point out that muscle cells grow not
from excess protein but from exercise: when a muscle is used, it pulls in protein for its consumption.
This is how a muscle grows and strengthens. If athletes want to increase their muscle mass, then
they must exercise in addition to following a well-balanced, normal diet.
1. Many people believe in false ideas.
2. I don’t believe anything the nutritionists say because they are always changing their
minds about what is good and bad for our health.
3. Many athletes falsely believe that protein improves athletic performance by
increasing muscle mass.
4. My brother, a weightlifter, is an example of someone who consumes a lot of protein
because he thinks it will make him bulky.
Paragraph Development
Directions: Read the following response to an article, and then answer the questions below.
One experience I had is a good example of this. My best friend, Michelle, and I went to
the beach. A man who was about twenty years older than us approached us and asked if we
would put suntan lotion on his back. I was not about to touch that man’s wrinkled back but
Michelle agreed to put the lotion on him. I thought she was crazy. After we put the lotion
on his back, he asked if we wanted to join him for dinner that night. We politely said, “No,”
but he wouldn’t leave us alone. He kept asking us personal questions such as, “Are you
married?” and making comments like, “If you were my girlfriends, I would send you flowers
everyday.” We didn’t say anything to him. We tried to ignore him but he wouldn’t take the
hint. Finally, we gathered our belongings and left the beach even though we had been there
for only half an hour.
1. What is the writer trying to prove?
2. What is this paragraph an example of?
3. What did the writer learn from this experience?
4. Does the writer tell us why she gave the example?
Directions: Read the following paragraph and answer the questions below.
I believe that Jacoby is right when she states, “The code of feminine politeness,
instilled in girlhood, is no help in dealing with the unwanted approaches of strange men. Our
mothers didn’t teach us to tell a man to get lost…” One experience I had is a good example
of this. My best friend, Michelle, and I went to the beach. A man who was about twenty
years older than us approached us and asked if we would put suntan lotion on his back. I
was not about to touch that man’s wrinkled back but Michelle agreed to put lotion on him. I
thought she was crazy. After we put the lotion on his back, he asked if we wanted to join
him for dinner that night. We politely said, “No,” but he wouldn’t leave us alone. He kept
asking us personal questions such as, “Are you married?” and making comments like, “If you
were my girlfriends, I would send you flowers everyday.” We didn’t say anything to him. We
tried to ignore him, but he wouldn’t take the hint. Finally, we gathered our belongings and
left the beach even though we had been there for only half an hour. Later, when I asked
Michelle why she agreed to put lotion on his back, she said, “I couldn’t be rude.” At first, I
was angry at Michelle for not saying anything to him but now I realize I was just as guilty as
her. Instead of being rude and telling him to get lost, I, along with Michelle, left the beach. If
I had said something to him, if I had broken the “code of feminine politeness,” we might have
had an enjoyable time and gotten a great tan.
1. How are the two paragraphs different?
2. What is the main point of this second paragraph?
3. What is used to support the main point?
4. How does the writer connect the example back to the main point?
PIE
Point
Tell Me!
• Topic Sentence
Information
·
·
·
·
·
·
Show Me!
Information from the readings or class discussions
Personal Experience
Representations in mass media
Elements from popular culture
Definitions
Statistics
*Wikipedia is not a valid source to use.
Explanation
So What?
• How does this information relate to your thesis?
PIE PARAGRAPHS
Point
The Point Information Explanation Paragraph
Main point, Thesis, topic sentence, overall message of the paragraph.
Supports the thesis statement.
What is the point of this paragraph?
Information
Facts, data, examples, quotes, paraphrases, personal observations &
experience.
What information does the writer provide to support the point?
Explanation
Commentary, analysis, evaluation.
How does the writer explain the connection between the information and
the point or the thesis statement? What does the writer learn from the
information? How does the writer react to the information? What does
the writer think about the information?
PIE Strategies
How to make a Point
Decide what you want to say to support your thesis based on your reaction to the
text. Try categorizing your ideas and make a comment on a reoccurring theme or
pattern you’ve found.
Where to find Information
Paraphrases or short quotes from the readings/research.
Personal experiences (anecdotes, stories, examples from your life)
Representations from mass media (newspapers, magazines, television, radio)
Elements from popular culture (song lyrics, movie lines, TV characters,
celebrities)
Statistics (polls, percentages, data)
Definitions (from the dictionary, readings, another sources)
How to craft an Explanation
Interpret the information – what does it mean? Why is it important?
Explain what you or a reader can learn from the information.
State your opinion about or evaluate the information.
Comment on the accuracy or inaccuracy of the information.
Suggest how the information relates to your thesis.
Do You Have Enough E in Your PIE?
Worried you don’t have enough E in your PIE? Asking (and answering) yourself how, why, and what
questions can lead you to the E you need.
•
What is the most important idea that the readers should get from this paragraph?
•
Why is this information important? What does it suggest to me? To readers?
•
How do my examples help me prove my point to the readers?
•
Why did I choose that quote? How does it help me?
•
How can I introduce my quote or example to help readers see where I’m going with it?
•
How can I state this idea another way to make sure the readers understand my point?
•
What are some consequences/results/implications/ramifications of the information I just gave
the reader?
•
How is the information I’ve presented related to my overall point for this paragraph?
•
Is the idea in the topic sentence fully explained? Do I need another sentence ot elaborate on
what I mean?
•
How is this information related to my overall thesis, or to other points I make in this paper?
Identify P.I.E. Elements -- Practice
After reading each of the following paragraphs, identify and label the P.I.E. elements. Note which
sentences make a clear point, which illustrate the point, and which explain the illustration.
Paragraph A
TV misleads us into believing that what is false is true. As a 5th grade teacher and a driver’s
education instructor, I encounter students all the time who believe that if they see it on TV, it must be
so. I shared one of my pet peeves about TV’s artificiality in a recent workshop by recalling how cars
explode every time they have an accident on TV, but do not do so in reality. One of the teens attending
told us how she believed this was truth, so after the car her parent was driving flipped onto its roof, she
ran down the road leaving her mother trapped. Of course the car didn’t explode, and her mother was
able to get help and recovered, but the extra time that it took to get help on the scene and for her to be
reassured made the situation much more traumatic for her. This is consistent with the experiences of
emergency personnel who report that their most difficult task when arriving at an accident scene is to
deal with victims trapped in the car because the victims panic in fear of an explosion. What TV has
done is to cause people to react with fear in accident situations when instead they need to use their
heads.
Paragraph B
Contrary to what government officials are saying, the United States government seems to be
heading for a reinstatement of a military draft. Thom Shanker, writing in the May 3, 2005 New York
Times, reports that Gen. Richard B. Myers, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, told Congress
that the ongoing military effort in Iraq “limits ability to fight other conflicts.” This report, combined
with the May 2 announcement on NPR News that the United States has failed to meet its recruitment
quota for the third month in a row, suggests that eventually a draft will be necessary. Surprisingly,
Gen. Myers also asserts that “the armed forces are fully capable of meeting all Washington’s military
objectives,” but where will the military get the recruits? One source of more soldiers could be to loosen
requirements for enlistment. Another article in the May 3 2005 New York Times reveals that army
recruiters are “bending rules” and accepting enlistees with medical conditions and police records, but
this method of meeting personnel needs is not promising. Because reports from newspapers, television,
and radio all emphasize that our military lacks the personnel to continue our operations in Afghanistan
and Iraq and still be able to provide soldiers in new areas of military action, a draft must soon be
proposed. So far the Pentagon insists that a draft is not on the way, but how else can the necessary
bodies be provided for the bags?
Paragraph C
Fast food has become a reflection of our American life-style, not merely a satisfaction of
biological needs. What we consume, and how we eat our food, is a reflection of our culture. And what
we do in our daily lives molds and shapes culture. What are we doing every day? We’re eating fast
food. The average American eats out at a fast food restaurant four to five times a week. In fact,
“ninety-six out of every one hundred Americans eat fast food on some kind of regular basis.” (The
Negative Sides of Fast Food). As most people are aware, fast food is high in fat. Many favorite items,
like French fries, are cooked in lots of oil, which can lead to heart disease, obesity, and early stroke. It
would be one thing if we were all walking to KFC and Taco Bell, but as Americans we’re not only
driving, we’re not even getting out of our cars. The drive-through window is one of the most
compelling reasons to eat fast food. The customer can just drive up and eat, which also caters to the
American cultural notions of speed and efficiency. People eat fast food on their way to work, on the
highway, in a parking lot and never have to move an inch. But isn’t fast food just an eating option that
can simply be ignored? Not exactly. McDonalds spends $1.4 billion a year on advertising. Often these
advertisements rely on sports figures or celebrities to encourage potential customers to take advantage
of their services. Because American culture is obsessed with celebrities, people like Justin Timberlake
and Michael Jordan have an important and powerful voice. And if they eat McDonalds, the consumer
unconsciously believes the product—fast food—must be cool, fun, and exciting! The food itself
becomes familiar and comforting, even empowered, just like these celebrities. The experience of eating
at McDonald’s has become a way of life: a philosophy of consumerism that is intrusive and subtle.
American culture is in peril because of the influx of fast food. Americans are becoming unhealthy and
lazy with every Big Mac. But the ads keep telling me “I’m loving it!”
Fabulous Fast Food
While there has been a lot of criticism lately about fast food, there is no denying that it is
deservedly popular for many reasons, and one major reason is that it makes life easier for a lot of
people. The first way it makes life easier is by living up to its title of being “fast.” There is usually
little waiting in line or in your car to place your order and the food is ready to be handed over to the
customer right away. For people on the go like “soccer moms,” there is no beating the fact that you can
get what you need and be on your way with little delay. Life in general seems to be more fast-paced
that it used to be. Keeping at least one task, meal purchases or preparation, to a minimum saves time
for other important activities. Thus the speed of delivery for this service is, indeed, one way to make
our lives easier and less complicated. Another benefit of fast food is that it is so convenient. You can
find your favorite fast food place almost anywhere without having to travel very far. Even if one is in
unfamiliar territory or has just moved from one location to another, you are almost bound to run across
McDonald’s or Wendy’s. In fact, the franchises’ choices of location are so convenient and predictable
that you can easily find the kind of road or street where these establishments will be in almost any
town or city. So whether at home or on the road, you can easily find your favorite place, and this
convenience is another reason for their popularity. Finally, for making lives simpler and less stressful,
there is the benefit of reliability. Whether you go to the McDonald’s on the corner of Madison and
Wells in Chicago or to the one on any Main Street USA, you know your Big Mac is going to taste just
like the one you had last week in another town. For a while my job was traveling throughout
metropolitan Chicago with technicians or alone visiting customers’ sites. If with the local technician,
when it came time for lunch, we could go to one of his favorite places to eat, which is part of “knowing
the territory.” When alone, however, it was much safer to hit a Burger King than to trust the reliability
of “Harry’s Hot Dogs.” The same is true for moms trying to keep the kids happy. Why try something
new when you know you can trust that the meal will be just the same as the one they enjoyed the last
time? Life is easier when you can deal with the things you know you can count on. Lifestyles vary, and
for some people fast food serves little purpose. However, for the majority of us, fast food does indeed
make our lives better by providing speedy service, very available locations and the kind of reliable
offerings we have grown to appreciate. Fast food can be fabulous!
F.R.I.E.D. Paragraphs
The point of a paragraph is usually expressed in one or two specific sentences. The
illustration part is the majority of the paragraph; it is the filling for the PIE. When thinking
about the different kinds of filling you can use, consider these different types:
F = Facts:
R = Reasons
I = Instances
statistics, dates, numbers, things we know are true
why the point is important or true
your experience or experiences of others (people you know
or heard on TV, in books, etc.)
E = Experts
statements of people who know about the topic
D = Descriptive Details color, shape, size, smell, taste, sound or feel of something
Most writers use a combination of these F.R.I.E.D. fillings to support the points of the
paragraphs they write. A writer may choose to include an instance that she heard about on
the radio, a fact read in a book, and the reasons this point is important. All of these combine
to make a well-filled F.R.I.E.D. P.I.E.!
Exercise 2:
Find an example of each type of F.R.I.E.D. element in the paragraph on the previous page.
Facts:
Reasons:
Instances:
Experts:
Descriptive Details:
The P. I. E. Paragraph + Quote Sandwich
P = Point
What is the Thesis of this paragraph? The Point may be called the topic
sentence. The Point is the claim or assertion (or opinion) you will make in your
paragraph and prove to your audience. Remember, each paragraph should only
have one Thesis.
I = Illustration
Where is the Point supported with specific information? The Illustration consists
of supporting material. Consider using a variety of kinds of illustrations to
support your point, like the following:
F = Facts
statistics, dates, numbers, things we know to be true
R = Reasons why the point is important or true
I = Instances your experiences or that of others you know about personally or from your
readings.
E = Experts*
statements of people who know about the topic
D = Descriptive
Details
color, shape, size, smell, taste, sound or feel of
something
*One technique for using Experts in your Illustration is to cite experts by quoting them using a
Quote Sandwich.
Quote Sandwich
Bread #1
Briefly introduce the quote and why you are using it.
Meat
The quote. (Meat = I in PIE)
Bread #2
Explain what the quote means and how you interpret the details of the quote.
Consider how the quote supports the Point. (Bread #2 = E in PIE.)
E = Explanation
Where does the writer elaborate, evaluate, and/or explain why or how this
Illustration, (information), connects to the Point and what this information means? Explain all
your thinking fully.
Practicing Revising For Unity
While writing you may sometime drift away from your topic and include information that does not
belong in the paragraph. Hence, it is important to revise your paragraphs for unity; that is, to drop any
ideas or sentences that don’t relate to the POINT.
Before peer editing each other’s paragraphs for unity, please practice reviewing some sample
paragraphs for unity. Read the following paragraph, looking for unity, and answer the questions
afterward.
1. (1) Transport authorities in Brazil have caught up with a speed-loving Brazilian driver who
clocked up nearly $2 million in fines. (2) Police intercepted the driver of a 12-year-old car in
Sao Paulo at the spot he most frequently committed infractions. (3) For seven years, he had
been speeding and running red lights but was not arrested earlier because he never registered
the car in his own name. (4) He said his favorite color was blue. (5) The car, worth around
$6,500, would be auctioned if the driver, unnamed, did not pay the $1.8 million in fines in 90
days.

What is the point:________________________________________

Which sentence or sentences don’t relate to the point? _____________

Which sentences should be dropped and why? __________________________
2. (1) Personalized license plates have become very popular. (2) These “vanity plates” allow car
owners to express their sense of humor, marital status, pet peeves, or ethnic pride. (3) I don’t
have a personalized license plate. (4) Driver’s have created messages such as ROCK ON, NT
GUILTY, and (on a tow truck) ITZ GONE. (5) In some states, as many as one in seven autos
has a personalized plate. (6) Recently, Parade chose the nation’s top ten vanity plates,
including XQQSME on a Massachusetts plate, ULIV1S on an Arkansas plate, and on an SUV
in Missouri, a message read in the rear-view mirror – TI-3VOM.

What is the point:________________________________________

Which sentence or sentences don’t relate to the point? _____________

Which sentences should be dropped and why? __________________________
THE LEAST YOU SHOULD KNOW ABOUT USING DIRECT
QUOTES
We use direct quotes for a number of reasons:
 To avoid plagiarism – using other people’s words without giving them credit
 To support and illustrate our claims
 To increase our credibility
 To validate all our points
Direct quotes do not substitute for your ideas; they enhance them!
INTIGRATING QUOTES INTO YOUR WRITING WITH A QUOTE SANDWICH:
1. TOP BREAD/The LEAD-IN introduces or leads into the quotation so that the readers know whose
words are being quoted and why the quotation is important.
2. THE MEAT/QUOTE AND CITATION: “to be or not be that is the question” (Shakespeare
22).
3. BOTTOM BREAD/The EXPLANTAION: After every quote, you must comment on the quotation so
that the reader understands its connection to the point you are making in your topic sentence.
Quote Sandwich Recipe:
LEAD-IN + QUOTE + CITATION + PERIOD + 1-3 sentences analyzing the quote’s importance.
Example: In “Meanings of Community” Thomas Bender asserts, “The sense of self and community may be
hard to distinguish”(1). What Bender means is that individuals no longer see themselves as a single person, but,
instead, an individual takes on the identity of the people they hang around.
Identifying Effective or Ineffective Quote Sandwiches
Directions:

In your group, discuss whether each quote effectively or ineffectively uses the quote formula.

Circle your answer.

Write down one reason why you made that choice.
According to Henry Miller, “Writing, like life itself, is a voyage of self-discovery”(437). What Miller means is
that every time we sit down to write we discover something new about ourselves and our perception of the
world.
Effective or Ineffective:
Why?
Grace says, “Don’t be afraid your life will end; be afraid your life will never begin”(Hansen 436).
Effective or Ineffective:
This quote by Korita Kent asserts, “Flowers grow out of dark moments”(436). She must have been a gardener.
Effective or Ineffective:
“A professional writer,” Richard Bach asserts, “is an amateur who didn’t quit”(437). Bach’s advice should be in
the back of every writing student’s head because it will inspire them to keep trying even when they want to give
up.
Effective or Ineffective:
Margaret Atwood characterizes the pain of a failed marriage by lamenting, “A divorce is like an amputation;
you survive, but there’s less of you”(434). Atwood is correct because no matter how civil people try to be in a
divorce, they always end up losing a part of themselves.
Effective or Ineffective:
Quotations
Writing from sources is a sophisticated skill that includes being able to distinguish when to quote and when to paraphrase
and how to integrate direct quotations smoothly into your writing. Whether quoting or paraphrasing, you always need to
give your source(s) credit.
A Warning on Plagiarism:
To be fair and ethical, you must always acknowledge your debt to the writers of the sources you
use. If you don’t, you are guilty of plagiarism, a serious academic offense.
Four different acts are considered plagiarism:
(1) failing to cite quotations and borrowed ideas;
(2) failing to enclose borrowed language in quotation marks;
(3) failing to put summaries and paraphrases in your own words;
(4) mixing an author's phrases with your own without citation or quotes.
1. Smoothly integrate direct quotes into sentences of your own
Avoid Dropping Quotes:
Sometimes writers will make the mistake of simply dropping a quotation into their paragraph without integrating it into a
sentence of their own. For example:
Dropped quote: A number of journalists have been critical of genetic engineering. “The problem is, no one really
knows the long-term effects of such complex genetic manipulation—and the potential dangers to humans and the
environment are substantial” (Turner, 21).
Why is this so bad?
•
•
An un-integrated direct quote interrupts the flow of your writing, as the reader must jump abruptly from your words
to someone else’s and back again
If you’re not integrating direct quotations into your own writing, you’re probably
not giving your reader the context they need to understand the quote.
In order to successfully integrate quotations into your writing, you need to introduce or in some way lead into the quotation
so that readers know whose words are being quoted or can understand why the quotation is important. For example:
Integrated quote: A number of journalists have been critical of genetic engineering. Lisa Turner, in an article for the
magazine Better Nutrition, targets the unpredictable nature of this new technology : “The problem is, no one really
knows the long-term effects of such complex genetic manipulation—and the potential dangers to humans and the
environment are substantial” (21).
Provide Contextual Information for the Quote:
When connecting the quote into your sentence, consider how to convey the key pieces of information you might want to
include so the quote and its source are clear:
•
•
•
•
The title of the text the quote comes from
The page number in parenthesis (this is required)
The speaker of the quote if different from the author (for example, a character speaking in a story)
The author's name: generally include the full name in the first reference. Afterwards, refer to authors by last name.
If you don't include the name in the sentence, put it in the parenthetical citation. For example:
Author Named in the sentence:
For example: Flora Davis reports that a chimp at the Yerkes Primate Research Center “has combined words into new
sentences that she was never taught” (67).
Author Not Named in the sentence:
If the sentence connecting the quote does not include the author’s name, the author’s last name must appear in
parenthesis along with the page number. For example: The novel Monster: The Autobigraphy of an L.A. Gang
Member ends with these words of perseverance, "Gangsterism continues. But more importantly, the struggle to
eradicate the causes of gangsterism continues. And it is this struggle to which I am dedicated" (Scott 377).
Different Methods to Integrate Quotes into Your Sentences:
1) Identify the speaker and context of the quote
Example: Dee protests to her mother that her sister does not know the true value of the quilts, “Maggie can’t appreciate
these quilts! She’d probably be backward enough to put them to everyday use” (Walker 490).
2) Lead in with your own idea
Example: Miss Emily Grierson’s house is a reflection of her being out of sync with the times: “But garages and cotton gins
had encroached and obliterated even the august names of that neighborhood; only Miss Emily’s house was left, lifting its
stubborn and coquettish decay above the cotton wagons and gasoline pumps—an eyesore among eyesores”(Faulkner 459).
3) Formulas
• In (title of source), (author) writes/ argues/ explains/ describes, "quote" (#).
Example: In I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, Maya Angelou writes, "In Stamps the segregation was so
complete that most Black children didn't really absolutely know what whites looked like" (20).
• According to (author) in (title), "quote" (#).
To avoid monotony, try to vary your formulas. The following models suggest a range of possibilities:
In the words of researcher Herbert Terrace, “…”
Jason Applegate, Smith’s trainer, points out, “…”
“…,” claims linguist Noam Chomsky.
Psychologist H.S. Terrace offers an odd argument for this view, “…”
Also, by choosing an appropriate verb, you can make your stance clear:
acknowledges
adds
admits
agrees
argues
asserts
believes
characterizes
claims
comments
compares
condemns
confirms
contends
contrasts
criticizes
declares
defends
demonstrates
denies
describes
disputes
distinguishes
emphasizes
endorses
explains
grants
identifies
illustrates
implies
insists
justifies
notes
observes
objects
points out
reasons
refutes
rejects
reports
responds
shows
suggests
supports
thinks
writes
wonders
Exercise: For each quote below, create a sentence that smoothly integrates the quote. Try a few different methods:
Method #1: Identify the speaker and context of the quote:
Quote: "On this island, you walk too far and people speak a different language. Their own words reveal who belongs on
what side"
Background information: From The Farming of Bones by Edwidge Danticat, the speaker is Senora Valencia, page 304.
Senora Valencia is referring to the island of Hispanola, which the countries of Haiti and the Dominican Republic share.
She is speaking during the times that the dictator Trujillo had many Haitians murdered in and exiled from the Dominican
Republic
Quote integrated into a sentence:
Method #2: Lead in with your own idea:
Quote: "They did not have the tanates to go up north and break through the wall of electric fences and enter the land of
plenty, the U.S. of A., a land so rich that what garbage they throw away in one day could feed entire pueblos."
Background information: From Macho! By Victor Villasenor, page 31. The book tells the story of young man named
Roberto from Michoacan who risks himself to go north to California to work as an illegal alien picking fruit in California.
Quote integrated into a sentence:
Method #3: Formula (try using a good and dynamic verb):
Quote: "Racial targeting and abuse by police is costly. U.S. taxpayers have paid tens of millions of dollars in police
brutality lawsuits. Between 1992 and 1993, Los Angeles county alone paid more than $30 million to citizens victimized by
police brutality."
Background information: From The Color of Crime by Katheryn K. Russell, page 45 who writes about the ways in which
African-Americans are misrepresented by the media and mistreated within the criminal system.
Quote integrated into a sentence:
3. Properly Punctuate Sentences that Integrate Quotations:
1.
Use quotations marks at the beginning and end of any word, phrase, line, or passage you
quote.
“A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds,” wrote Ralph Waldo Emerson.
2.
Commas and periods go inside quotations marks.
After the professor stood up quietly and said, "I do not expect to continue at this position any longer," the other
professors at the meeting stared at her in amazement.
3. Periods go outside of parenthetical citations.
Malcolm X asserted, “Most students are potential revolutionaries…when you have an illegal, immoral, and unjust
situation, it should be changed" (54).
4. Semi-colons, colons, and dashes go outside quotation marks.
Baker focuses on two choices that cause young women "to be unclear about their goals": their interest in family life
and their desire for professional success.
4. Question marks and exclamation points go: inside quotation marks, if they are part of the original quotation, but
outside, if they are part of the sentence.
It was not all clear however, after the president exclaimed, “That is not an acceptable alternative!”
Did you ever hear of someone suggesting that we remove all windmills “super fast or immediately, which ever comes
first”?
5. Use square brackets whenever you need to substitute or add words to a quotation. You can change individual words
and then put them in brackets [ ] so that the quote fits your sentence grammatically. For example:
Sonny would “as soon as he came in from school, or wherever he had been when he was suppose to be at school [go]
straight to that piano and [stay] there until suppertime” (Baldwin 275).
6.
Single quotation marks are placed inside regular quotation marks when you have a quote within a quote.
Professor Stevens claimed that he "always asks his students Professor Begley's question about 'the meaning of a
college education’ in order to start off the discussion.”
7. Sometimes you will want to leave out material in the middle of a passage, quoting the most important words. When
you do this, use an ellipsis (...). Use three dots if the omitted passage does not contain a period and four dots if it does.
Fadiman observes that the doctors at MCMC “could hardly be expected to ‘respect’ their patients’ system of health
beliefs…since the medical schools they attended never informed them that diseases are caused by fugitive souls
and cured by jugulated chickens” (61).
8. If you decide to use a quotation of more than three lines, set it off from the rest of your essay by indenting about ten
spaces from either side and single-spacing the quotation. You do not need to put quotation marks around this block
quotation, unless it is actual dialogue.
In the essay "A Room Of One's Own," Woolf elaborates her argument for psychological androgyny:
And I went on amateurishly to sketch a plan of the soul so that in each of us two powers preside,
one male, one female. . . . The normal and comfortable state of being is that when the two live in
harmony together, spiritually cooperating. (Woolf 98)
This passage resonates distinctly with Freud's own theories on...
9. In deciding whether to quote or underline text titles, use the following guidelines:
 Use quotation marks (“ ”) around the titles of shorter works such as short stories, essays, articles, poems,
chapter names, song names.
SHORT STORY: Richard Christian Matheson's "Red"
ESSAY:
"A Tale of Two Sitcoms" by Steven D. Stark
ARTICLE:
"Generation Next" by Chris Smith
POEM :
Lois-Ann Yamanaka's "Haupu Mountain"
CHAPTER NAME: "Let's Go Mexico!" from How to Be a Chicana Role Model by Michele Serros
SONG:
"Livin' La Vida Loca" by Ricky Martin

Italicize/Underline or italicize the titles of longer works such as books, novels, periodicals, newspapers, plays, movies, TV
series, and album names.
BOOK:
NOVEL:
PERIODICAL:
NEWSPAPER:
PLAY:
MOVIE:
TV SERIES:
Errors & Expectations by Mina Shaughnessy
Island of the Sequined Love Nun by Christopher Moore
Newsweek
The San Francisco Bay Guardian
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead by Tom Stoppard
Chicken Run
Buffy the Vampire Slayer
ALBUM:
Less Than Jake's Losing Streak
Transitions
What is the Function of Transitional Words?
Single words can signal levels of importance, connections, and the direction of thoughts. For example,
after a friend begins a sentence with "I like you very much," would you prefer that the next word be
"and" or "however"? The word "and" signals more of the same, hinting that you could anticipate
another pleasant compliment. On the other hand, "however" signals a change of thought, so brace
yourself for a negative remark. If the next word were "consequently" or "therefore," you could
anticipate a positive result or reward for the positive feelings.
Such words are transitions or signal words that connect parts of the sentences and lead readers to
anticipate a continuation or a change in the writer's thoughts. Transitions also reveal organizational
patterns.
Patterns of Organization and Their Signal Words:
Addition (providing additional examples):
furthermore, again, also, further, moreover, besides,
likewise, and, indeed, in addition, too, next, first,
second
Cause and Effect (showing one element as
producing or causing a result or effect):
because, for this reason, consequently, hence,
as a result, thus, due to, therefore, if, so, since
Concession (acknowledging the merits of the
counter argument before reasserting an opinion):
whereas, granted that, even though, though, yet,
while, although
Illustration (explaining using examples):
that is, for example, to illustrate, for instance, in fact,
specifically, as seen in
Comparison (listing similarities among items):
in a similar way, similarly, parallels, likewise, in a
like manner, also, in the same manner
Contrast (listing differences among items):
on the other hand, more than, but, however,
conversely, on the contrary, although, nevertheless,
still, in contrast, yet, even though
Definition (defining a concept and expanding with
examples and restatements):
can be defined, means, for example, like, in short,
specifically
Description (listing characteristics or details
Using vivid language):
is, as, like, could be described (using adjectives,
adverbs and language that touches on the senses)
Location or Spatial Order (identifying the
whereabouts of objects or people):
next to, near, below, above, close by, within,
without, beside, around, to the right or left, opposite
Narration or Time Order (listing events in order
of occurrence):
first, second, finally, after, before, next, later, now, at
last, until, thereupon, while, during, as, meanwhile,
then, while, immediately
Simple Listing (randomly listing items in a
series):
also, another, several, for example
Summary (condensing major points):
in conclusion, to restate, briefly, to sum up,
in short, in a nutshell, in other words, therefore,
in summary
The Essay
Elements of an Essay
Title
The title is the reader’s first impression of the essay – the first words the reader reads. The title can do
any of the following:
• Convey the topic to the reader.
• Convey the writer’s attitude.
• Be thought-provoking, insightful.
• Engage the reader’s attention.
Introduction
• Introduces the subject or topic of the essay to the reader in a general way.
• Creates interests – grabs the reader’s attention.
• Indicates the writer’s stance.
• Includes a thesis statement.
The title, introduction and thesis statement form a promise to the reader. All three indicate to the reader
what the essay will be about – all three enable the reader to make predictions about what territory the
essay will cover. The promise that the title, intro, and thesis give must be consistent and clear, and it
must be fulfilled throughout the essay by the body paragraphs and finally, by the conclusion.
Body Paragraphs
Body paragraphs are the meat of the essay. Each paragraph must:
• Support the thesis statement.
• Have one Thesis or point expressed in a topic sentence.
• Include information (examples, data, facts, quotes, paraphrases, personal observations) which
support the main point of the paragraph.
• Provide commentary, or explanation, which connects the information to the point and thus to
the thesis.
Consciously or subconsciously, readers make predictions about what will be in the paragraph based on
the topic sentence. The topic sentence carries the point of the paragraph and is a promise as well. The
paragraph must fulfill the promise of the topic sentence.
Conclusion
The conclusion is the last impression the reader has of the essay and can function in a variety of ways.
A conclusion can:
• Restate the main message of the essay.
• Summarize the main points of the essay.
• Give the thesis a larger application – connect it to the world at large.
• Solve a problem raised in the essay.
• Make a call to action – encourage or command the reader to take some action related to the
thesis.
The Structure of an Argument
The Beginning….
Hooks your audience (attention getter)
States the problem
Establishes your position
Presents your thesis statement
The Middle/ Body Paragraphs….
Provides background information
Responds to other points of view
Presents arguments supporting your main claim
Anticipates possible objections
The End/ Conclusion….
Summarizes your position and implications
Invites readers to share your conclusion and/ or take action
What is a Thesis & How Do I Get One?
“Hello, What’s Your Thesis?”
Angela’s phone rings and when she answers, she finds it’s Billy calling, someone in her English 1A class
who she doesn’t know very well. Here are two different ways the conversation might go:
1)
Angela:
Billy:
Angela:
Billy:
Angela:
Billy:
Angela:
Billy:
Angela:
Billy:
Angela:
Billy:
Angela:
Billy:
Angela:
Billy:
Angela:
Billy:
Angela:
Billy:
Angela:
Billy:
Angela:
Billy:
•
Hello?
Hello. It’s Billy, from ENGLISH 1A
Hey! How are you?
I’m good. How are you?
Pretty good. Just doing some reading for class.
Oh, okay. How’s that going?
Well, this one article is kind of interesting.
Oh, that’s good. I haven’t read it yet.
Okay, well, it’s pretty interesting.
Okay.
Yeah, so…
So, you’re fine?
Yeah.
Good.
So, ah, so what’s up?
Oh, not much.
Okay, so…
Um, yeah, I was just calling some people.
Okay.
Alright, well, I won’t keep you from your homework.
Okay.
Okay, good luck with it.
Thanks. I’ll see you in class.
Bye.
What do you notice about this conversation?
2)
Angela:
Billy:
Angela:
Billy:
Angela:
Billy:
Angela:
Billy:
Angela:
Billy:
Angela:
Billy:
•
Hello?
Hey, it’s Billy from ENGLISH 1A.
Hey! What’s up? How are you?
I’m good. How are you?
Pretty good. Just doing some reading for class.
Cool. Did you hear that Dave from class is having a party on Saturday? You should
blow off our ENGLISH 1A homework come.
Hmmmmm. I dunno, I have that essay to finish…
I think Jessica and Claudia are coming too. How about I pick you up at 8pm? We
could get some food before.
Ok, that sounds good! I’ll just forget about the essay.
Nice. See ya tomorrow.
Ok, bye.
See ya.
What do you notice about this conversation? How is it different from the first conversation?
What is a Thesis (and how is it like a phone conversation)?
Imagine a phone conversation like the one above in which an acquaintance from class has
unexpectedly given you a call. As soon as you pick up the phone, you’re going to be wondering why
he/she called. While a close friend of family member might call “just to say hi” or “just to hear your
voice,” in more formal phone conversations, we normally expect whoever called to have something in
particular that they want to say to us. An essay is somewhat like one of these more formal
conversations. One person (the writer) has something that he/she wants to say to someone else (the
reader), a message that he/she wished to communicate. This main message that the writer wishes to
communicate to the author is often referred to as the essay’s “Thesis’ or “thesis.”
Thesis Statements: The Most Important Sentence(s) in your Essay2
As we’ve learned, the thesis is the 1-3 sentence central argument your essay will work to defend. All of
the PIE paragraphs will work to support and ultimately prove your argument. Remember, the thesis for
Essay #1 should A) present an argument about gender in response to a text* and 2) the argument
should analyze and evaluate the text. Effective college thesis statements include critical thinking about
absolutist positions. Words like however and which and phrases like on the other hand and as a result
help to construct these kinds of arguments. In class we discussed the importance of verbs in your thesis
statement. Here are some verbs to consider as you write your thesis: demonstrates, reveals,
exemplifies, illustrates, characterizes, shows, constructs, relies, contends, determines, notices, finds,
disputes, argues, realizes, discovers, discerns, claims, reasons.
*Text can include any of our class readings (poems, short stories, essays) or text can include cultural or
societal signifiers, like women’s bodies in hip-hop videos or Disney princesses.
Consider the following thesis statement constructions when responding to one of the reading
assignments.
The thesis may be:
1. Complete agreement with the author
2. Complete disagreement with the author
3. Partial agreement with the author, but disagreement on one or two issues
4. Partial agreement with the author, but you think the author MISSED one or two essential points
5. Partial disagreement with the author, but agreement on one or two issues
6. Partial disagreement with the author, and you think the author MISSED one or two essential
points
Consider the following thesis statement constructions with responding to other kinds of text, like
media.
1. Present a specific observation about how gender is used in the media and evaluate how that has
an influence on gender identity.
2. Present a specific observation about gender expectations and what effect these expectations
have on individuals or society.
3. Present a specific observation about family and gender, and examine how the role of family
history influences (or doesn’t influence) gender constructions.
4. Present a specific observation about gender identity in culture and what effects this observation
has on gender relationships and/or power structures.
2
Thanks to Jill Quigley for this handout!
The thesis statement
√
√
√
Is an arguable, debatable opinion that can be backed-up by reason and evidence.
 Topic sentences support the thesis and paragraphs develop the evidence and
reason which support the topic sentences.
Allows the reader to make clear yet general predictions based on the information in the
statement.
 The essay should follow through on those predictions – fulfilling the promise
of the thesis statement.
Is neither too broad, nor too narrow, but falls in the middle of the continuum.
Thesis
Broad
General
Vague
Specific
Clearly defined
Too Narrow
A good thesis must adhere to all the guidelines and pass three basic tests:
1. Is the thesis a debatable, arguable opinion that can be backed up with reason and evidence?
2. Can a reader make clear yet general predictions based on the thesis statement?
A second part of this test occurs while reading the essay – does the essay fulfill the
predictions inherent in the thesis statement?
3. Does the thesis land in the middle of the Continuum Line? Is it neither too broad, nor too
narrow – is it just right?
Evaluate the thesis statements below and answer the questions. Be prepared to explain your answers.
Thesis A
I equate democracy with economic stability and power. If money equals power, then the power
(money) should be distributed evenly among the citizens of a democracy. Given this definition and
based on the United States’ current economic situation, the United States is drifting away from
democracy.
Is it an arguable, debatable opinion that can be backed-up by reason and evidence?
Thesis Generator
Example:
1. Identify the topic of your paper
Relationships between teenagers and their
parents
Turn your topic into a guiding
question
How does the relationship between teenagers
and their parents change?
Answer your question with a
statement
As teens grow more independent, they resent
and resist the limitations and expectations their
parents impose on them.
4. Refine this statement into a
working thesis
Conflict between teenagers and their parents
is a difficult but necessary stage in kidsʼ
development.
Now you try it!
1. Identify the topic of your paper
2. Turn your topic into a guiding question
3. Answer your question with a statement
4. Refine this statement into a working
thesis
The Six "Moves" of Argument
An essay is not an introduction, a thesis, supporting paragraphs, and a conclusion. Those are merely the things
writers use to create an essay. But a true essay is more of a testing or advancing of an idea. It is a writer coming
forward in writing and saying, "Based on the information I have, I think THIS represents the best way of
thinking about this topic." That's really all an essay is.
Of course, in order to convince readers that the idea advanced in the essay (i.e. the idea expressed in the thesis)
is, in fact, the best way (or at least a reasonable way) of thinking about the topic, the writer must DO particular
things. This is key. Writers do not create arguments by simply pasting a thesis to an intro and then following it
with paragraphs. Rather, writers create written arguments by doing the following.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
5. Orienting Readers to a Question at Issue: Imagine a group of people in the college quad arguing. You step
into the circle, and it’s a flurry of arguments and voices. You don't know what's going on or what the
focus is. You pull a friend out of the group and asked to be filled in. When you do, you'll get the
following:
What group is arguing about (i.e. the topic).
A description of the topic (if you don't already know it).
An indication of the controversy involving the topic (the question at issue).
A brief description of what each side is saying in response to the question at issue.
A brief description of why the group can't seem to reach agreement.
A brief description of why the group is taking the time to argue (i.e. why the question at issue matters).
Proposing A Specific Argument/Thesis: Once you know what the question at issue is and you feel oriented
to the controversy, you can, if you know about the issue, offer your own answer to the question at issue
participate in the conversation. Your answer is your argument or thesis.
3. Defining Key Terms: If your argument hinges on people accepting or understanding particular concepts, you
need to define them. You'll want to be careful how you do this, though. You'll want to briefly define
terms, not exhaustively (unless it is a term that is, itself, driving the controversy), and you'll want to
define the terms in the context of your argument. In other words, you wouldn't, in this college quad
conversation, bring the conversation to a screeching halt by taking the floor to define a concept that you
plan to use in ten minutes. You'll define the concept as it is relevant to the immediate point you're
making.
4. Offering Reasons, Evidence, Explanations, and Examples that Support Your Thesis: The people
gathered in the circle listening to you will want you to offer information and reasons that will help them
understand why you have offered the argument you have. Your goal is to get them see your thinking
process—i.e. the process by which you’ve come to your conclusion—and the help them understand why
they should think similarly to you. You'll do whatever you can (without ever lying or misleading) to
help them "see" the reasonableness of your answer to the question at issue.
5. Acknowledging, Accommodating, and Refuting Differing points of view. You know many of the people
in your conversation circle have their own ideas about the topic. They have concerns, they have fears,
they have interests. And to protect these, they have positions. They may be content to listen to your
different ideas while holding fast to their positions. To get them to "let go" of some of their concerns,
fears, and interests (or to at least get them to think differently about them so they don't prevent them
from entertaining your ideas), you have to
• Acknowledge that you are aware of these concerns, fears, interests, and positions. This means simply that
you let them know that you are aware of and understand what's on their minds.
• Accommodate their concerns, fears, interests, and positions WHEN YOU CAN. The people in your
conversation circle will let their guard down and listen to you with a much more open mind when you
not only acknowledge their point of view, but also grant that some of what they think is actually correct
and/or well-intentioned. Do this whenever you can--even if you only say something like, "The
intentions behind my opponents' position is good." Sometimes, though, there is nothing about your
opponents' arguments that you can accommodate. When this is the case, don't pretend like there is.
• Refute their positions. In refuting, you are trying to get them to "let go" of the concerns, fears, and/or
interests that are causing them to take their position. You can do this by showing them that their
position is the wrong one to protect their concerns or interests; or that their fears or interests are based
on bad information or bad values; or that there are other concerns or interests greater than their own that
they should embrace.
Ending your argument. If after you've informed the people in your conversation circle of your position and
your reasons for it you simply turn and walk away, they'll feel "cut off" and slighted. They'll wonder what
you're problem is. With essays readers can have a similarly discomforting experience if the writer doesn't end
smoothly. All a writer needs to do to eliminate that discomfort the reader may feel is let readers know the essay
is over. You can do this by "winding down" and letting readers see that you are done supporting your argument
and coming back to sit with it.
How to Write Good Introductions
What is the function of an introduction?
An introduction
• captures your audience's attention.
• gives background/context on your topic.
• develops interest in your topic by explaining various positions on your topic.
• guides your reader to your thesis.
• ends with a strong thesis.
There are three basic ways to write an introduction:
•
•
•
You can write the introduction after you write the body of your essay.
You can write the introduction before you write the body of your essay.
You can rough out the introduction first and then focus and revise it once you have written your essay.
Many people write a rough draft and from that find out what their purpose really is and what they really believe.
Then they revise the focus, language, or order of their introduction. This sequence -- of drafting an introduction
and then revising and refining it once the body of the paper is sketched out -- is very common.*
*
This information was courtesy of LEO: Literacy Education Online
How To Write Good Conclusions
A Good Conclusions
•
•
stress the importance of the thesis statement,
give the essay a sense of completeness, and leave a final impression on the reader.
Suggestions for How to Write Conclusions:
• Answer the question "So What?" Show your readers why this paper was important. Show them that
your paper was meaningful and useful.
• Synthesize, don't summarize
• Don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. They have read it. Show them how the points you
made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together.
• Redirect your readers
• Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real" world. If your
introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think
globally.
• Create a new meaning
• You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By
demonstrating how your ideas
work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.
Strategies:
Strategy #1: Echoing the introduction:
Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full-circle. If you begin by
describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new
understanding. Example
Introduction
From the parking lot, I could see the towers of the castle of the Magic Kingdom standing stately against the blue
sky. To the right, the tall peak of The Matterhorn rose even higher. From the left, I could hear the jungle sounds
of Adventureland. As I entered the gate, Main Street stretched before me with its quaint shops evoking an oldfashioned small town so charming it could never have existed. I was entranced. Disneyland may have been built
for children, but it brings out the child in adults.
Conclusion
I thought I would spend a few hours at Disneyland, but here I was at 1:00 A.M., closing time, leaving the front
gates with the now dark towers of the Magic Kingdom behind me. I could see tired children, toddling along and
struggling to keep their eyes open as best they could. Others slept in their parents' arms as we waited for the
parking lot tram that would take us to our cars. My forty-year-old feet ached, and I felt a bit sad to think that in a
couple of days I would be leaving California, my vacation over, to go back to my desk. But then I smiled to
think that for at least a day I felt ten years old again.
What did you like about this strategy?
Strategy #2: Challenging the reader:
By issuing a challenge to your readers, you are helping them to redirect the information in the paper, and they
may apply it to their own lives.
Example
Though serving on a jury is not only a civic responsibility but also an interesting experience, many people still
view jury duty as a chore that interrupts their jobs and the routine of their daily lives. However, juries are part of
America's attempt to be a free and just society. Thus, jury duty challenges us to be interested and responsible
citizens.
Strategy #3: Looking to the future:
Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of your paper or redirect the readers' thought process. It
may help them apply the new information to their lives or see things more globally.
Example
Without well-qualified teachers, schools are little more than buildings and equipment. If higher-paying careers
continue to attract the best and the brightest students, there will not only be a shortage of teachers, but the
teachers available may not have the best qualifications. Our youth will suffer. And when youth suffers, the
future suffers.
Strategy #4: Posing questions:
Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic,
which they may not have held before reading your conclusion. It may also bring your Thesiss together to create
a new meaning.
Example
Campaign advertisements should help us understand the candidate's qualifications and positions on the issues.
Instead, most tell us what a boob or knave the opposing candidate is, or they present general images of the
candidate as a family person or God-fearing American. Do such advertisements contribute to creating an
informed electorate or a people who choose political leaders the same way they choose soft drinks and soap?
*This information was courtesy of LEO: Literacy Education Online
Questions:
Now that you have read about introductions and conclusions, what questions do you still have?
1.
2.
MLA Formatting Guidelines
The MLA (Modern Language Association) has specific formatting rules which primarily encompass
three areas: page layout, parenthetical citations, and the “Works Cited” page. In general, MLA is most
often used in disciplines within Liberal Arts and Humanities.
Page Layout

Sample layout of the first page of your essay:
Peter Parker
Lisha
English 1A
West Valley College
Date
Assignment
Parker 1
Title
Indent one tab (0.5”) to begin each paragraph. Continue with your body paragraphs
and double-space throughout the essay.
 Write your last name and page number in the header of every page.
 Set the page margins to one-inch on each side (top, bottom, left, and right). If you have an older
edition
of Microsoft Word, you might need to use the “page setup” function in order to set the correct margins.
 Use 12-point, Times New Roman font and regular double-spacing.
 The title of your essay should be in regular font and center aligned. Do not use bold or italicized
print.
Parenthetical Citations
Parenthetical citations are in-text source citations. These citations are required when you use a quote or
offer very specific paraphrased information.
 Citations for quotes of four lines or less include the author’s last name and page number: “Good
writing, on the other hand, teaches the learning writer about style, graceful narration, plot
development, the creation of believable characters, and truth-telling” (King 341).
 You can also refer to the author’s last name as you introduce the quote: As King says, “Good
writing, on the other hand, teaches the learning writer about style, graceful narration, plot
development, the creation of believable characters, and truth-telling” (341).
 Citations for quotes of more than four typed lines also include the author’s last name and page
number. However, there are three specific formatting rules for “block quotes”:
• Indent the entire quote 1” (two tabs).
• Do not use quotation marks to enclose the quote.
• Place the period after the text of the quote and before the parenthetical citation.
 When you paraphrase specific information, you must include a parenthetical citation. To
paraphrase is to convey the ideas of a writer or researcher in your own words. If you use three or more
consecutive words from a source, you must use quotation marks (since you are no longer
paraphrasing).
As King explains, good writing provides examples of excellent narration, interesting plot, well-drawn
characters, and sophisticated style (341).
 If you come across a very lengthy quote that you would like to use portions of in your essay, you
must use ellipsis points [ . . . ] to indicate an omission within the quote:
“In other words, to read a great book for the first time in one’s maturity is an extraordinary pleasure . .
. in maturity one appreciates (or ought to appreciate) many more details and levels and meanings”
(Calvino 735-6).
Works Cited Page
An alphabetized “Works Cited” page is required as the last page of your essay whenever you cite
anything in a paper. Titles of books, films, journals, magazines, newspapers, and lengthier works are
italicized; titles of essays, short stories, articles, poems, etc. are placed in quotation marks. For every
entry, list the publication medium (print, web, film, etc.). The second line and beyond of each entry is
indented one tab (0.5”).
Peer Review Communication: Problems and Solutions
Directions:
Step 1: Pair up with a partner(s) and decide who will be the recorder, the
person who writes down your answers, and who will be the reporter, the
person who reports your findings to the class.
Step 2: Read the situation assigned to your group
Step 3: Identify what problems might occur for your situation and write
them in the problems section.
Step 4: As a group, brainstorm two specific ways of solving the
communication problem(s) described and write them in the solutions area.
Step 5: Report your findings to the class.
Situation One:
In peer review, Juan and Rosa, your partners, only praise your work. They always say nice things, complimenting you on
what you write. Because of this feedback, you don’t do much revising of your essay and end up getting a C- because your
work, according to your teacher, “lacks detail, doesn’t address the assigned topic, and has many confusing spots.” You know
you should do more yourself, but you also think perhaps your peer response partners aren’t being honest with you. You
want more substantial feedback from them. What would you say to get more direct, constructive feedback from them to
help you revise more effectively (and probably get a better grade)?
Situation Two:
In peer review, Shawna, a member of your group, gives you direct, honest feedback, but you end up feeling stung by her
abrupt, forceful style of talking. She says things like, “You have a lousy Thesis—where’s the insight?” or, “This part doesn’t
make any sense; it sounds childish.” How could Shawna change her way of talking so that she stays truthful to herself but
doesn’t hurt others?
Situation Three:
In peer review, Rajeev feels that his fellow students don’t know more about writing than he does. He feels that if they are
too uninformed or are not good writers, then they can’t help him with his essay. What could you say to Rajeev to make him
see that peer review is still a useful activity?
Situation Four:
In peer review, your partners, Judy and Raymond, are more interested in talking about Facebook and how many friends
they have than in reading each other’s papers. You are worried about not doing well because you aren’t getting any
feedback. How do you respond so that your group takes peer review seriously and you get the feedback you want?
Problem(s)
Solutions
The Sentence
Commas
Explanation
Commas have many uses in the English language. They are responsible for everything from setting
apart items in a series to making your writing clearer and preventing misreading. Correct comma use is
a difficult skill to master since it requires a combination of grammar knowledge and independent
stylistic judgment.
Sentence Combining
When you are joining ideas, phrases or clauses within a sentence, you often will use a comma for
punctuation.
An independent clause, also known as a simple sentence, is a group of words that contains a subject
and a verb AND can stand alone as a sentence. For example
·
The child went to the dentist.
·
His girlfriend is angry.
·
She will buy a new pair of shoes.
You can join an independent clause with another independent clause using a coordinator (FANBOYS)
and a comma:
·
·
Angelo rides his bike, and Mary takes the bus.
Marguerite grabbed the diamonds, but Oliver sold them on the black market.
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb BUT it cannot stand alone
because it starts with a subordinator, words like although, while, since, because, if, until, after. For
example:
·
When the child went to the dentist
·
Because his girlfriend is angry
·
Although she will buy new shoes
You will use a comma to join a dependent clause require a comma before it can be attached to the
independent clause that finishes the thought:
·
Even though Michael was allowed to go to the concert, his mother made sure he had completed
all his homework.
If you reverse the order and put the independent clause first and the dependent clause second, however,
you do not need a comma:
·
His mother made sure he had completed all his homework even though Michael was allowed to
go to the game.
Series
You will use commas to separate items in a series containing three or more coordinate elements.
·
·
·
Ron, Maria, and Jessica play soccer every day after school.
My favorite vegetables are Brussels sprouts, spinach, and cauliflower.
I want either fettuccini alfredo, eggplant parmesan, or the linguine with clams in a white sauce.
You will use commas to separate items in a series of two or more coordinate adjectives—adjectives
modifying the same idea independent of each other.
·
·
·
It should be a slow, lazy day.
Seven years passed in a destructive, whirling blur.
He brought his sleek, shiny bicycle.
Commas are not required when the adjectives are cumulative, or when they describe different aspects
of the same noun.
·
·
·
Donnie sold me ten gold bowling balls.
My favorites are the lazy white clouds.
He ordered a delicious chocolate cake for the party.
Comma-Adjective Rule
To help you decide whether or not you should use a comma when separating two or more adjectives,
ask yourself the following two questions:
·
Can the order of the two adjectives be reversed?
·
Can the word “and” be put between the adjectives?
If either answer is yes, then the adjectives are coordinate, and you should use a comma.
• Jessica is an ambitious, intelligent woman.
• Jessica is an intelligent, ambitious woman. [order reversed]
• Jessica is an intelligent and ambitious woman. [added “and”]
If you cannot reverse the order of or add “and” to the adjectives, then they are cumulative, and do not
require a comma.
• Roger has fourteen silver horns.
• Roger has silver fourteen horns. [The reversed order does not work.]
• Roger has fourteen and silver horns. [The added “and” does not work.]
Setting off Nonessential Elements
Some modifying elements of a sentence are essential, restricting the meaning of a modified term, while
others are nonessential and do not restrict the modified term's meaning. These nonessential elements,
which can be words, phrases, or clauses, are set off with commas.
Nonessential (Nonrestrictive)
Students, who use the majority of the Health
Center’s services, claim to be especially sick
this year.
All students claim to be sick this year.
The professor, with a wink, dismissed her
class early.
Essential (Restrictive)
Students who play any school sport will
receive free tickets to final game.
Only students who play a school sport
receive the tickets, not all students.
The professor with no students is good for
very little.
Removing the phrase “with a wink” doesn’t
change the meaning of the sentence.
Popular politicians, campaigning in every
small town in America, wave the American
flag and kiss babies.
The Big Lebowski, a 1997 Coen Brothers
film, is a modern mystery and a Western
rolled into one.
The prepositional phrase “with no students”
tells what kind of professor is good for very
little; it is essential.
The politician campaigning for president has
no time for a meaningful personal life.
The great American movie The Big
Lebowski popularized the nickname “Dude.”
When deciding whether information is nonessential or essential, ask yourself this question:
·
Is the modifier essential to the meaning of the noun or subject it modifies?
NO: Nonrestrictive (use commas)
YES: Restrictive (no commas)
Transitional Words and Phrases
Transitional words and phrases qualify, clarify, and make connections between ideas. They are usually
set off with commas when they introduce, interrupt, or come at the end of a clause.
·
·
·
Nevertheless, she took the bus knowing it would be late.
On the other hand, money is money and I have to pay my rent.
Rare horses, however, are something I would consider buying.
Note: When you use a transitional word to combine two independent clauses, you must use a
semicolon or punctuate them as two separate sentences.
·
·
·
·
Diamonds are rare; however, the coal that makes them is abundant.
The best dogs raced first; therefore, the spectators all went home before it rained.
Laughter is the best medicine; of course, penicillin also comes in handy sometimes.
I wanted to finish quickly. Unfortunately, I still had three exams afterward.
Quotations
In most cases, use commas to set off a direct quotation from the identifying tag (he said, she screamed,
I wrote and so on).
·
·
·
·
Thoreau said, “To be awake is to be alive.”
“To be awake is to be alive,” Thoreau said.
“To be awake,” Thoreau said, “is to be alive.”
“To be awake is to be alive,” Thoreau said. “I have never yet met a man who was quite awake.”
If the quoted text contains an exclamation point or a question mark, do not use a comma in addition:
·
·
“Should we bring the casserole tonight?” he asked.
“I love those children!” the father screamed.
Exercise 1 – Commas – Dependent & Independent Clauses
Add commas where necessary in the sentences below. Some sentences will not require one.
Examples:
Although my mother told me not to get her a gift, I decided to make her a scrapbook.
I want to give more money to her charity, but I think the IRS already took too much of my
salary.
1. Lately Katherine has wanted more companionship even though she rather likes to be alone.
2. Jerry vies for her attention but she has so much on her own mind as she suffers through this ordeal.
3. But whereas Alec acts like a friend he also wants Katherine’s admiration.
4. So that she will be found innocent Miss Smatter will write another’s confession.
5. Jerry eats his sandwich as coolly as the others do yet he can’t shake the feeling of deception and
mistrust.
6. Sabrina thinks that the apartment’s rent is trivial while Kelly thinks it crucial.
7. Although Rachel has little say in the matter her friends could use the advice.
8. Because her dog was hit by a car he walks with a substantial limp.
9. The doctor set it with pins and even though he didn’t scratch at it he was still forced to wear a giant
collar.
10. Either the bill came two weeks later or the doctor sent a collection agency for the money.
Exercise 2 – Commas – Series and Adjectives
Add commas where necessary in the sentences below. Some sentences will not require one.
Example:
I want to pick fragrant, colorful daffodils, roses, and lilies for my sister’s birthday party.
1. Sue won the “Vegetable Prize of the Day” that included carrots turnips and leeks.
2. Most people don’t know that their favorite chips contain preservatives artificial flavors and MSG.
4. The three tall brothers took the brilliant shining vitamins before playing sports.
5. Watching movies reading books sleeping and exercising are my favorite weekend activities.
Exercise 3 – Commas – Essential and Nonessential Items
Add commas where necessary in the sentences below. Some sentences will not require one.
Example:
·
The racing fans, who rarely wave pennants, showed up in full force on Sunday.
1.
Shelly my mother’s step-sister gave me thirty dollars last week.
2.
The campus police who rarely arrest any faculty members are responsible for patrolling all
night long.
3.
The man walking his dog down the street looks like my great-uncle Ted.
4.
My grandmother with a terrible scream alerted me to the fire in her closet.
5.
Doug gave me three helpings of dessert which was a crème brûlée.
6.
Speaking as if he was consumed with fury Louis yelled to the audience.
7.
The actor with no siblings starred in the blockbuster movie Grammar Cop.
8.
The helicopter a Grasker A-7 flew over the otherwise empty desert where two thousand
troops slept silently awaiting orders.
Exercise 4 – Commas – Transitions
Add commas and/or semicolons where necessary in the sentences below.
Example:
·
Nevertheless, I wanted to go to the farm to see the llamas.
1. I didn’t want to see the whole country however I did want to visit the biggest states and prettiest
parks.
2. On the other hand Martin said that Oklahoma is worth skipping.
3. Alternatively I dream about the open road even if it is scary sometimes.
4. My car takes five quarts of oil typically speaking.
5. I made the motel reservations already therefore I should leave next week.
6. Pharmaceuticals as a result are becoming more and more expensive.
7. Thus I will need to buy a new car before I set off on Sunday.
Sentence Focus
Are there ever times that you read something and it doesn’t make sense? Or, have you ever written
something and thought, “This doesn’t sound right?” When this happens, the chances are that the
writing isn’t clearly focused on a specific subject or a topic.
Often clear focus in writing depends on clearly-focused sentence subjects
Example of Poor Focus: My bus was missed.
Example of Good Focus: I missed the bus.
Read this paragraph out loud:
(a) Professor Seed suffered through a disastrous first day as a college professor. (b) The way in
which he set his alarm clock was wrong, (c) so the bus was missed and campus wasn’t reached until
30 minutes after his first class began. (d) Then the classroom couldn’t be found. (e) Help was given by
the students, (f) but still the wrong classroom was appeared at by him. (g) Finally, the realization
came that his wallet was lost, (h)so bus fare had to be borrowed. (i) At home that night, he was told by
his wife that the reason he had a bad day was because the wrong foot was started off on.
Take a moment and look at the sentences. Who is doing the action in each sentence?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
Please re-write the paragraph to make it more clear:
Time to practice:
Each of the following sentences begins well, but the parts in parentheses aren’t clearly focused.
Rewrite the parts in parentheses so that you keep the focus on a personal, human subject. Before
rewriting, ask yourself “who does what?” The answer should be the sentence subject.
Example: The employees of Macy’s often go bowling after work, and (usually a good time is had by
everyone).
Solution: The employees of Macy’s often go bowling after work, and usually everyone has a good
time.
1. But two Baseball teams gathered Rough Giant’s Stadium on a Sunday afternoon, and (trouble was
gotten into by everyone.)
2. The pitcher, Sean, hit the batter, Jenny, with a wild pitch, and (the ball was thrown back at Sean’s
head by Jenny.)
3. Jenny’s team claimed Sean hit Jenny on purpose, but it was argued by Sean’s coach that this was
an accident.)
4. Jenny’s teammates charged the field, and home plate was surrounded by the teams.)
5. The league fined both players for the incident, but the fines were contested by the players.
Parts of a Sentence
A sentence needs two minimum grammatical components:
A subject and a verb.
So far so good. But what exactly is a verb?
Common definition: A verb shows action or a state of being
Most everyone agrees on the above definition, but is it a helpful one?
Consider the following sentence:
Sample sentence: Taking dangerous risks seems to frighten most hardworking people.
Which words are action words? Well, let’s underline the ones that show or imply some
action.
Possible action words: Taking dangerous risks seems to frighten most hardworking
people.
You may argue, and with reason, that not all of these words indicate action to you. But even
if you only see taking and hardworking as action words, you still won't be able to find a
verb--because the verb in this sentence is not an action word at all. Nor is it clearly a state of
being. And anyway, what exactly is a state of being? It’s tough to define. So how do you
find a verb?
A Working Definition of Verbs
Verbs always tell the time (also called the tense) of the sentence. The easiest way to find a
verb in a sentence is to change the time of the sentence and find the word that changes.
How do you do this? Well, choose some time words for the past and future, such as Last
year or In the past or Next year or In the future. Then put them in front of the sentence you
are trying to find the verb in and see which word changes. Let's take our previous sentence:
(Last year) Taking dangerous risks seems to frighten most hardworking people.
It doesn't look right or sound right. Seems would have to change to seemed. That means
that seems is the verb in the sentence because it's the word that carries or indicates the time.
** Verbs are sometimes action words, but the problem is that lots of words can show
action, such as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. And verbs don't always show action.
Seems is not an action word. So the action rule is not a helpful one as you identify verbs.
* An important note: You will notice that some verbs seem to consist of two words:
Example: I am hoping to change jobs soon.
The complete verb is am hoping but the important verb to look for is the part that carries the
time of the sentence.
A (verb + ing) is never a main verb in a sentence all by itself. A (to + verb) is never the
main verb in the sentence.
Exercise 1
Identifying verbs
Change the following sentences to the future or past to find the word. If you try past, and the
word doesn't change, then the sentence may already be in the past, so the verb won't change.
Then try the future.
Example:
(will take)
(Next year) It took me a long time to recover from my illness.
(wanted)
(In the past) I never want to see that look on her face again. Want would change to wanted
so want is the verb.
1. Sports have many benefits for our lives.
2. They help us develop strong bodies and they make us independent.
3. Competition teaches us about fair play and sportsmanship.
4. When people play sports regularly, they live longer lives with healthier hearts.
5. Excelling at sports makes us proud of ourselves and losing sometimes motivates us to do
better..
6. But not all of us agree that sports are beneficial for kids.
7. Parents get too involved in their children’s success at times.
8. They argue and cause problems at their children’s games.
9. They blame their kids when the kids lose or play poorly.
10. This causes children to feel low self-esteem.
Exercise 2
Finding Verbs
Read the following paragraph and underline the verbs. Some sentences will
have more than one verb.
Cartoon superheroes are made up of a number of common traits. They have
extraordinary powers and abilities. They vary greatly, but superhuman strength, the ability
to fly and the ability to project energy are often common. Batman and Green Hornet possess
no superpowers but they know martial arts. Most superheroes risk their own safety in the
service of good. Many refuse to kill an opponent, even though they threaten the safety of
others. Many superheroes use a descriptive or symbolic code name. A supporting cast of
characters includes the hero’s friends and family. Superheroes often have a secret
headquarters or base. Female characters include Invisible Girl, and Marvel Girl. Some
examples of non-Caucasian characters are the Black Panther, Shang Chi and Cyborg.
Finding Subjects
Rule #3 Finding subjects is easy once you have found the verb in the sentence. Subjects
usually come before verbs. The subject is the word that you find when you ask the
question
(Who or What) + (Verb) + (The rest of the sentence)?
Let's take our first example:
Taking dangerous risks seems to frighten most hardworking people.
What + Verb + The rest of the Sentence?
(What) seems to frighten most hardworking people?
The answer is: Taking dangerous risks.
So Taking dangerous risks is the subject of the sentence. Let's go back to exercise #1 where
you already found the verbs and find the subjects of those verbs.
Finding Subjects
Exercise #1
1. Sports have many benefits for our lives.
2. They help us develop strong bodies and they make us independent.
3. Competition teaches us about fair play and sportsmanship.
4. When people play sports regularly, they live longer lives with healthier hearts.
5. Excelling at sports makes us proud of ourselves and losing sometimes motivates us to do
better.
6. But not all of us agree that sports are beneficial for kids.
7. Parents get too involved in their children’s success at times.
8. They argue and cause problems at their children’s games.
9. They blame their kids when the kids lose or play poorly.
10. This causes children to feel low self-esteem.
Rule #4 The subject of a sentence can never be found within a prepositional phrase.
Prepositions are little words that introduce nouns. Here is a list
About
After
Among
At
Below
Between
Down
For
Inside
Near
On
Past
To
Until
Without
Above
Against
Around
Before
Beneath
Beyond
During
From
Into
Next
Out
Since
Toward
Up
Across
Along
As
Behind
Beside
By
Except
In
Like
Of
Over
Through
Under
With
Off
Prepositional phrases are a combination of a preposition + a noun
Examples:
In our neighborhood
To the best
Of my ability
Finding Subjects in Prepositional Phrases
Exercise #2
Part A. Put brackets around the prepositional phrases in the following paragraph. The first
sentence is done for you.
[At the age] [of twelve] I won the swimming award [at the Lions Camp] [for Crippled
Children]. When my name echoed over the PA system the girl in the wheelchair next to me
grabbed the speaker of my hearing aid and yelled, "You Won!" I was the only physically
unencumbered child in a sea of braces and canes. I was ashamed of this, so I limped on my
way to the stage. The truth was that I was ashamed of my handicap. I wanted to be in the
same category as the girl who had lost her leg in an accident. In my eyes deafness was not a
desirable handicap.
Part B. Now underline the verbs in the paragraph above. Remember to change the time (use
the future time phrase). Remember also that a verb + ing is not a main verb because it does
not carry the time of the sentence.
Part C. Now underline the subjects. Remember that subjects cannot be found in
prepositional phrases.
Finding Subjects
Exercise #4
Underline all the subjects and verbs in the following paragraph.
Cartoon superheroes are made up of a number of common traits. They have
extraordinary powers and abilities. They vary greatly, but superhuman strength, the ability
to fly and the ability to project energy are often common. Batman and Green Hornet possess
no superpowers but they know martial arts. Most superheroes risk their own safety in the
service of good. Many refuse to kill an opponent, even though they threaten the safety of
others. Many superheroes use a descriptive or symbolic code name. A supporting cast of
characters includes the hero’s friends and family. Superheroes often have a secret
headquarters or base. Female characters include Invisible Girl, and Marvel Girl. Some
examples of non-Caucasian characters are the Black Panther, Shang Chi and Cyborg.
Finding Subjects and Verbs
In the following paragraph:
1. Double underline the verbs.
2. Put brackets around the prepositional phrases.
3. Single underline the subjects.
The Chinese animal signs are a 12 year cycle dating the years. They
represent a circular concept of time. In the Chinese calendar, the beginning of
the calendar falls between late January and early February. The Chinese have
adopted the Western calendar except for festive occasions such as the Chinese
New Year. Each of the animal signs has a horoscope. A Pig and an Ox bring
prosperity. Tigers have magnetic personalities with others while Rabbits are
unhappy with strangers. Dragons lose their tempers easily. Snakes lean
toward elegance and expensiveness while Rats tend to budget carefully.
Roosters begin many projects at one time to keep busy Dogs and Horses react
unpredictably but they form good relationships with others. Monkeys project
an image of mischief, and Sheep resent being led by others
Present Tense Subject and Verb Agreement
When are you supposed to use the present tense? We use it for the following:
1. Activities or events that occurring in the present.
2. Summarizing pieces of writing, films, plays.
3. Stating ongoing opinions, beliefs, habits, and facts
An important rule to know is that in the present tense subjects and verbs have to agree in
number. That means that the verb will either have an s on the end of it or not, depending on
the subject. Here is a simple formula:
Singular Subjects and Verbs
Subject (No S)
+
Singular
No s on the end (is not plural)
He/She/It
Plural Subjects and Verbs
Subject (+S)
+
Plural
Has s on the end (is plural)
I/You/We/They
Verb (+ S)
Always ends in S
(is, has)
(was = only past
singular)
Verb (No S)
No S on the end
(have, are)
(were = only past
plural)
Example:
(sing.)
(sing.)
(plural)
(plural)
Deborah Tannen (says) that women and men (talk) differently.
Present Tense Exercise #1
Put the correct form of the present tense verb in parentheses in the blank following the subjects.
1. (to consist) An Ironman competition
of three parts.
2. (to have) My brother
a girlfriend.
3. (to think)
that people
She never
they will treat her fairly.
4. (to recognize) My friend
management skills.
that her father has problems with his anger
5. (to be: is, am, are) The stereotype
more likely to do poorly in school.
that athletes
6. (to hope) Many men
to become professional athletes.
Present Tense Exercise 2
Find and underline the subjects and verbs in the following paragraph. The verbs should
all be in the present tense. Correct the subject-verb agreement problems.
Dr. Miller state in her article that men and women is different emotionally and
physically. She believes that men avoids emotional issues, but women are more
compassionate and sensitive. Miller face the fact about the two different sexes. They acts
and thinks very differently about ways of communication. Women tends to looks at
problems in several different ways but men looks at problems objectively only. I knows that
this point are quite true in the U.S. because the husband always talk about sports while the
wife want to talk about relationships and feelings. Men generally makes a lot of jokes and
they likes to talk in public, but woman are much more serious and they hardly ever speaks in
public.
Past Tense Errors
You have already learned that time is a very important element of verbs. There are three
main time frames in English: Past, Present, and Future. The following information concerns
some problems writers occasionally have with the past and future.
Present: Indicates experiences and events that are occurring now. It is also the tense we use
to express opinions and state facts.
Past: Indicates experiences and events that are over and done with in the past. Regular past
tense verbs have an -ed ending.
Examples of Regular Present and Past Verb Forms
Present
Past
ask
grab
start
stop
asked
grabbed
started
stopped
walked
(notice that the last letter is
doubled when the vowel
before it does not sound the walk
way the vowel is said alone.)
There are also lots of irregular verbs
Examples of Irregular Present and Past Verb Forms
Present
Past
is/am
are
has/have
do
get
leave
teach
think
was
were
had
did
got
left
taught
thought
Past Tense Proofreading: When you write about your experiences in the past, you need to
check and make sure all the verbs are in the correct past form.
Correcting Subjects and Verbs
Past Tense Exercise
Remember that you should not use the present tense unless you are writing about
something that is fact, opinion, currently in existence, or habit. The following paragraph is
a story of something that happened to someone in the past. All the verbs should be in the
past tense. Underline all of the verbs in the following passage and check to see if they are in
the correct past tense or if they need to be corrected. Use your dictionary to check the correct
forms.
When I was in elementary school people starts to alienated me because of how I look.
I am alienated because of the way I looks. I am skinny. In elementary school I am teased
about my weight. People use to call me all kinds of names. For example, they calls me chopstick,
light pole, 2 by 4 and so on. As I go on with my school people still calls me names. It don't stop in
elementary. It goes right on to junior high and high school. Throughout these years my feelings would
be hurt. I don't say anything because if I does then they would say more about me. So I would say
nothing throughout my school years. But it doesn't stop there either. It still go on after I get out of
high school. So every time I meet someone they would say something about my weight. So that's why
I stay quiet most of the time. But I still get the feeling that if I go somewhere there are people talking
about the way I look. That gets on my nerves. But I don't say anything because I am really not sure
what they are talking about.
So I told myself that I'm not going to take it any more. So I decide that I was going to change
the way I look. I start to worked out and start to eat some food to make me gain weight. I was hoping
that in two years I'm going to be a different person. But by the time I am in 3rd grade I would still be
skinny.
PARTICIPLES
Other common -ed errors don’t have anything to do with tense or time. They
come from words that follow the time words in a sentence.
1. The Have rule
Rule: Any form of the verb have must be followed by the past participle of a verb.
I have written to this pen pal for years.
I had spoken to him before.
She has been seeing him.(notice that the past participle follows has
and the present participle follows been( a form of to be)
To have told a lie is the worst shame of all.
Having traveled all over the world, she knows many countries
Find the past tense and past participles for the following verbs.
Verb
1. Begin
2. Break
3. Choose
4. Do
5. Fly
6. Give
7. Hide
8. Ride
9. Ring
Past Tense
Past Participle
Present Participle
Active Voice
In the active voice, the subject is the doer or causer of the verb.
The view from the hotel disappoints me. (The view is causing the
disappointment)
The story of the Titanic is very interesting to millions of fans. (The story of the Titanic
is causing the interest.)
I am driving the car. (I am doing the driving.)
**Rule : When you use some form of the verb to be in the active voice the
following verb has to end in -ing (present participle)
Forms of To Be:
Is
Am
Are
Was
Were
Being
Been
Be
Correct:
He is teaching a class so that the students can be learning enough to
pass the proficiency tests.
Incorrect:
The student is hoped that the book is interested enough for the
student to read.
The important thing to remember here is that you must use an active verb when the
subject is causing or doing the verb.
Passive Voice
In the passive voice, the subject is no longer the doer or causer of the verb.
In the passive voice the verb becomes passive when you use
 a combination of the verb to be
Is
Am
Are
Was
Were
Being
Been
Be
 and the past participle.
(to be) (past participle)
The audience was horrified by the cruel and needless deaths. (The
audience wasn’t causing the horror; the deaths were causing the
horror.)
(to be) (past participle)
Cigarettes are considered dangerous. (Cigarettes can’t consider
anything; someone else is considering them dangerous.)
Remember: The passive voice consists of a subject, some form of the verb to be, and the
past participle.
When you are deciding whether to use the present or the past participle of the verb following
some form of the verb to be, you have to decide if the subject is the doer or the causer of
the verb or not.
If the subject is the doer or causer, use an active verb.
If the subject is not the doer or the cause, use a passive verb.
.
Adjectives Formed From Participles
Rule: Present and past participles can become adjectives. To decide whether you need to use
the present or past participle, decide if the noun you are describing is the causer of the
adjective or not. Use the present participle to describe nouns that are causing
the qualities:
My embarrassing brother made me reluctant to go back.
(The brother causes the embarrassment)
Use the past participle to describe nouns when something or someone else is
causing or doing the thing the adjective describes.
The bored audiences left the theater long before the movie was over. (The audience
didn’t cause the boredom; the movie did.
Exercise:
Correct all errors of past tense and past participles that should be in the following
paragraph (Adjectives formed from passive verbs, passive verbs, and forms of verbs
following "have."
Stereotypes are form all over the world even though people don't think they are
prejudice. People have learn to stereotype since the time they were borned. Martin Luther
King Jr. fight for his whole life for his oppress people as he practice non-violent resistance to
the consistently practice racism in the United States. After he was ordain, he achieve national
fame because he leads the Montgomery, Alabama bus boycott in 1955. His "I Have A
Dream" speech was deliver in 1963 to an audience who had assemble in Washington, D.C.
The speech was intend to win the support of Congress and the president for civil rights
legislation. It was King's most carefully craft speech which he had work on and worry about
for days and weeks before he finish. It is consider one of the most move speeches of all times.
Martin Luther King, Jr. was award the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 for his outstand work.
Verb Forms
Infinitive
Present
Past
Past
I
am
I
was
He/She/It
is
He/She/It
was
We/They/You
are
They
were
I/ We/They/You
have
He/She/It
has
I/ We/They/You
walk
to be
to have
to walk
He/She/It
to throw
to steal
I/ We/They/You
He/She/It
Part.
been
being
had
having
walked
walked
walking
threw
thrown
throwing
stole
stolen
stealing
had
walks
I/ We/They/You throw
He/She/It
Pres.
Part.
throws
steal
steals
Run-together Sentences and Sentence Joining
Run-together Sentences occur when you punctuate two or more sentences as if they
were one sentence. When you put a comma between them, there is still an error because
commas do not grammatically separate two complete sentences. Why do run-together
sentences occur? Because people think that two closely related ideas must be the same
sentence.
Ex. I rebelled against my mother, my family got very angry with me.
This is a run-together sentence because there are two grammatically complete ideas here,
with two subjects and two verbs. This is a also sometimes called a comma-splice error.
Ex. I rebelled against my mother, my family got very angry with me.
Here is a run-together sentence (sometimes called a run-on sentence) that does not have a
comma:
Ex: I did not join the gang I was afraid of getting into trouble in
school.
Ways to correct run-together sentences.
1. Put a period between the sentences and capitalize the first letter of the second sentence.
I rebelled against my mother. My family got very angry with me.
2. Put a semi-colon between the two sentences. The first letter of the second sentence is
always lower case after a semi-colon.
I rebelled against my mother; my family got very angry with me.
3. The third and the best way to correct run-together sentences is to use a logical joining
word in between them. Why is it the best way? It is the best way because you are then
helping the readers by showing them what you think the relationship between the sentences
is. You are telling the readers what you mean rather than leaving it up to them to supply the
relationship. It is also the best because you don't end up with a lot of short and choppy
sentences.
There are two kinds of logical joining words that will correct run-together sentences.
Coordinating conjunctions:
There are only seven coordinating conjunctions. The easiest way to remember them is with
the silly word that is made up of the first letter of each, FANBOYS.
FOR
shows a cause relationship.
AND
shows an addition relationship.
NOR
shows the addition of negatives.
BUT
shows a contrast relationship.
OR
shows an alternative relationship.
YET
shows a contrast relationship.
SO
shows a result relationship.
Punctuate sentences joined by coordinating conjunctions with a comma before the
coordinating conjunction.
I rebelled against my mother, and my family got very angry with me.
It is acceptable to leave out the commas if the sentences you are joining are short. It is also
acceptable to separate the two sentences and begin the second with the coordinating
conjunction. Do this only rarely--for effect.
Subordinating Conjunctions
Time:
As Before After When Whenever As soon as
Since Until As long as By the time While
Contrast:
Although
Whereas
Condition:
If
Cause/Effect
Though
Even though
Even if
Unless
Because
Other common subordinators:
Since
As
So that
Whether Wherever As if
As though
The next time
Subordinating conjunctions can join two sentences at the beginning of the ideas:
When I rebelled against my mother, my family got very angry with
me.
Put a comma after the first idea when the subordinating conjunction joins two ideas at the
beginning.
Or subordinating conjunctions can join two sentences between the two ideas:
I rebelled against my mother even though my family got very angry
with me.
There is no comma if the subordinating conjunction joins between the two ideas.
**The following words are subordinators but they do not join sentences in the same way. If
you find these words between sentences, you have not found a run-together sentence.
Who
Which
Where
That
*** The following words are not conjunctions and do not join sentences. They are also overused.
Also
As a result
Hence
On the other hand
Besides
However
Otherwise
Consequently
In addition
Similarly
Finally
Moreover
Then
For example
Nevertheless
Therefore
Furthermore
Next
Thus
We often have to tell students to stop using them so often in their writing. Consider the
following paragraph.
I have two fathers; however, they are very different. My stepfather has always had a
steady job. Thus he is always able to pay the bills and buy the groceries. On the other hand,
my father doesn’t care for steady jobs. He is a singer; moreover, he only works three to four
nights a week in clubs. Consequently, he only sends us ten dollars a month. However, he
only does this when he is out of state. Discipline is another difference between my two dads.
For example, my stepfather believes that children should always obey their parents. On the
other hand, my father has very different views; therefore, he always encourages my brother
and me to rebel against the rules.
The paragraph sounds silly because the sentences are so short and choppy. Transition
words should only be used very rarely--when there is a big transition between ideas.
Do not use them to join sentences.
Exercise #1
Find the following run-together sentences. You will need to find them by underlining
subjects and verbs. When you find a new subject and verb, if no subordinator or coordinator
has been used, that indicates that a new sentence is beginning. Put a little mark or star in
between the sentences that are run-togethers. The first two are done for you.
Alienation is when someone is left out of a group because of their race or religion or
age,* five years ago I felt alienated. I went looking for a job at a city mall *I went in for an
interview at five o'clock. I introduced myself to the office manager, he looked me over
coldly, he just told me to sit down and take a test, he left the office he asked me where I was
from. I said I was from Central America he left me alone for about 15 minutes, I finished
the test and waited for him. He came back, he picked up the test without reading it, he threw
it back on his desk I never felt so humiliated in my life. I didn't get the job, I'm glad of it I
found out that I would have been totally discriminated against. That's one bad experience I
had, I don't want to go through again.
I wish that no one ever had to experience discrimination, we can stop this from
happening our children don't have to go through it. Being alienated because of your color,
religion, race, or nationality is completely unfair, there's simply no place for it in the present.
I think I was alienated for my ethnicity, I was discriminated against because of the way I
look, I didn’t get a job that I deserved.
Exercise #2
Now that you have found all of the run-together sentences in exercise #1, you will
notice that if you correct them all using periods or semi-colons that you have a lot of short
and choppy sentences. The sentences are grouped here for you. Use a subordinating and a
coordinating conjunction to join as indicated. **Use correct punctuation or and only if
another coordinating conjunction will not work.
1. Alienation is when someone is left out of a group because of their race or religion or age
five years ago I felt alienated.
2. ___________I went looking for a job at a city mall, I went in for an interview at five o'clock.
3.
I introduced myself to the office manager, he looked me over coldly
he just told me to sit down and take a test.
4.
5.
he left the office, he asked me where I was from.
I said I was from Central America, he left me alone for about 15 minutes
I finished the test and waited for him.
6.
he came back, he picked up the test without reading it
7.
he threw it back on his desk, I never felt so humiliated in my life.
8.
I didn't get the job, I'm glad of it
I found out that I
would have been totally discriminated against.
9. That's one bad experience I had
I don't want to go through
again.
10. I wish that no one ever had to experience discrimination
from happening
we can stop this
our children don't have to go through it.
11. Being alienated because of your color, religion, race, or nationality is completely unfair
there's simply no place for it in the present.
12. I think I was alienated for my ethnicity
because of the way I look
I was discriminated against
I didn’t get a job that I deserved.
Run-together sentences and sentence joining
Exercise #3
Read the following paragraph. Find all the run-together sentences. Then, correct the
choppiness by using coordinating and subordinating conjunctions.
I was 10 years old, I moved to the U.S. from Taiwan. I arrived in the United States our plane
first stopped in New York. The cars, the buildings, and the people looked very different, my
family and I felt like we just didn't belong. We had to stay in New York for one night our
plane was delayed because of a problem. My family and I went out into the busy streets of
New York, we had to find something to eat, we felt alienated, no one in my family knew how
to speak English we felt lost, different and strange. It felt like I had died and gone to hell.
The next day we went to San Jose my aunt lived there, we at least knew her family. I started
school in San Jose I felt left out no one spoke my language no one wanted to be my friend. I
didn't want to go back, I had no choice, my dad made me go. At school kids made fun of me,
I didn't speak English well I was always getting into fights and trouble. Dr. Millbard says
that people make other feel left out because they look different and act different, she was
right in my case, I was alienated because of my race and because of my language. She also
said that the effect is humiliation, she was right about that too. I will never forget how
humiliated I felt, I was treated like an alien from another planet, I should have been treated
like a new friend.
Fragments
Sentence Fragments are groups of words that are punctuated like sentences, but are not
really complete sentences. They are errors that need to be fixed.
There are two kinds of sentence fragments:
1. A group of words that is missing either a subject and/or a verb is called a phrase:
Examples of sentence fragments that are phrases:
A. He apologized over and over. Hoping for a second chance. (no
an "-ing" verb can't be a subject by itself.
B. It was then that my father met my mother. A young quiet woman
a much more conservative family. (no verb)
subject and
with
2. A group of words that is introduced by a subordinator with only one idea following: (The
list of subordinators follows.)
Examples of sentence fragments that are subordinator fragments:
A. Because the cost of living is so high. Many people have to work
to survive.
B. Families need two incomes to survive. Which makes it very hard for
spend necessary time with their children.
Subordinators
After
Although
As
Because
Before
By the time
Even though
If
Since
So that
That
Unless
Until
When
Whether
Where
Which
While
Who
hard
parents to
Exercise
Find and underline the fragments in the following exercise and identify whether they
are phrases or subordinator fragments:
Born in 1944, in San Francisco. The son of Mexican-American, Spanish-speaking
parents. Richard Rodriguez first learned English in grade school. He received a B. A. in
English from Stanford University. And a Ph.D. from the University of California at Berkeley.
He writes about his regret at losing his Latino heritage. Because he was assimilated into the
English-speaking world of public education. Although he disapproves of bilingual
education. Which he feels causes reverse discrimination.
Jesse Jackson, was born in South Carolina in 1941. He received a B.A. in sociology
from North Carolina State University. And later became a Baptist minister. Following his
studies at the Chicago Theological Seminary. Jackson believes in bilingual education. Since
he feels that bilingual programs have been tested and proven. He feels that this is the only
way to help immigrant children. Who suffer when they are forced to sit in confusing and
unfriendly classrooms. Where they not only do not understand what is being said. But also
are ignored and forgotten. As the regular work of the classroom goes on without them.
Now correct the sentences in the exercise by joining them to the sentences that they are
logically connected to. Remember to change punctuation and capitalization.
Common Error Correction Rules
A. Present Tense: We use present tense for the following:
1. Activities or events that occur in the present.
2. Summarizing pieces of writing, films, plays.
3. Stating ongoing opinions, beliefs, habits, and facts
• Singular verbs require an s ending. Plural verbs take no ending.
B. Past: We use it to indicate experiences and events that are over and done with in the past.
• Regular past tense verbs have an -ed ending.
C. Any form of the verb have
have/has/had/having
must be followed by the past participle of a verb. (See verb chart on back)
D. Any form of to be
Am/is/are/was/were/been/being
must be followed by the past participle if you can add a (by someone or something) to the
sentence to show that it is passive
Passive sentence:
past
To be participle
The house was built in 1960. (by the building company)
past
To be participle
My friend was surprised (by his friends and family) when he walked in on his
birthday party.
E. Present and past participles can become adjectives. To decide whether you need to use the
present or past participle, decide if the noun you are describing is the causer of the adjective
or not.
Use the present participle to describe nouns that are causing the qualities:
My embarrassing brother made me reluctant to go back.
(The brother causes the embarrassment)
Use the past participle to describe nouns when something or someone else is causing or
doing the thing the adjective describes.
The bored audiences left the theater long before the movie was over.
(The audience didn’t cause the boredom; the movie did.
Other Rules:
When you have an auxiliary (helping) verb, the verb following the main verb
does not show time or agreement. It will always be in the base form.
Auxiliary verbs:
can
could
may
might
will
would do
did
should
(_____ + not)
Correct:
Incorrect:
I didn't have a problem with stereotypes.
I didn't had a problem
with stereotypes.
I do think I could be in trouble
I do thinks I could being in
trouble.
Rule:
When you are using the conditional in the present or future, use will, can, or
might in the main clause:
Example: If I make a mistake in the future, I will remember to learn from it.
When you are using the conditional in the past, use would, could, or should have in
the main clause:
Example: If I never made a mistake, I would never learn how to correct my errors.
Articles
Examples of countable nouns:
(nouns you can make plural)
person/ (3) people
story/ (4) stories
computer/(30) computers
woman/ (12) women
Examples of uncountable nouns
(nouns you cannot make plural)
happiness
homework
advice
air
Use of Articles (A, An, The and ∅)
A/An: Use in front of singular, unspecified, general countable nouns. A precedes consonant
sounds; an precedes vowel sounds.
Example: I went to a concert at an amphitheatre.
(Concert is a singular countable noun; in this case you do not specify which
concert, is not mentioned before and it begins with a consonant sound)
(Amphitheatre is a singular countable noun; in this case you do not specify
which amphitheatre, is also not mentioned before and it begins with a vowel
sound.)
Example: When you have a headache, take an aspirin.
(Headache is a singular general countable noun that begins with a consonant
sound.)
The: Use in front of specified, known, or identified singular or plural countable nouns or in
front of specified, known, or identified uncountable nouns.
Example: The concert I went to last night was sold out.
(Concert is identified; it was the one from last night.)
Example: The happiness she felt about her scholarship was contagious.
(Happiness is uncountable and is identified as the feeling that came from the
scholarship.)
∅: Use no article in front of plural countable or uncountable nouns that are unspecified,
unidentified or general.
Example: People who experience anxiety should ask for advice.
(People: general, not identified or specified people. Anxiety: not previously
mentioned or identified. Advice: not specified or previously mentioned
advice.
Contrast with this sentence.
The people (identified) who went to Dr. Brown appreciated the advice (identified) she gave
them about the anxiety (identified) they felt.
Contractions
Contractions: Apostrophes indicate where letters have been left out
when two words are joined. Some common contractions
Long Form
I am
I have
You have
It is
You are
They are
Who is
That is
There is
Can not
Do not
Contraction
I'm
I've
You've
It’s
You're
They're
who's
That's
There's
Can't
Don't
Does not
Doesn't
Will not
Won't
Should not
Shouldn't
Exercise:
Find the contraction errors in the following paragraph and correct them.
People think school uniforms reduce gang activity and raise academic
performance. People think that kids arent concerned about how they look, but thats
ridiculous. Uniforms dont make a difference in attitude and behavior, but kids shouldnt
have to all look the same. Theres a way to teach kids that its wrong to be in gangs and
its important to do well in school that doesn't require that theyre all clones. Kids cant
learn how to distinguish right from wrong if they arent allowed to make decisions for
themselves. The freedom to wear what youve bought is your right!
Homonyms
Homonyms are words that sound alike and are spelled differently and mean different things. Often,
because people spell according to how things sound, they put the wrong form of the word down and
don't catch that it's misspelled because they have used the wrong form. It's important to make sure
to use the right form in writing because you want people to understand what you're saying and you
don't want them to feel that you don't know the right form or don't care what it is. Make sure you
are clear about these different forms:
Your
shows ownership
You're
is the contraction of you are
Write in the correct form of Your / You're in the following blanks:
1. ____________reading homework assignment is due before ____________ essay is
finished.
2. ____________going to be 10 points behind if ____________not finished
before_____________ next assignment is due.
3. ____________ hoping that the teacher will forget that ____________missing one of
the previous assignments and that it won't affect ____________grade.
4. ____________teacher knows that ____________doomed to disappointment.
5. I imagine that ____________weekend will be a little busier than
____________previous one was.
6. Don't be surprised that ____________going to get a quiz on Monday as well
as____________ essay being due.
Its
shows ownership
It's
is the contraction of it is or it has
Write in the correct form of Its / It's in the following blanks:
1. ____________been two weeks since the car has had ____________ tune up.
2. ____________a good car for the most part but it has _____________ small quirks.
3. ____________ one of the first Hondas that was ever made and
____________ hard to find all of ____________ outdated parts.
4. ____________mechanic knows all about ____________ mechanical history.
5. But I know all about ____________ real history. ____________ the first car I ever
owned so I quizzed the owner about ____________ past.
6. ____________ broken down on numerous occasions. ____________ a genius at
knowing how to tell just when I have a final exam. _________ always breaking down
just in time for me to avoid getting to a test I haven't studied for.
Their shows ownership
They're
is the contraction of they are
Thereshows direction or introduces a thought
Write in the correct form of Their/ They're/ There in the following blanks:
1. Television commercials for kids manipulate kids into buying ____________ products
even if ____________ isn't any need for the products.
2. ____________a good example of how kids want to have anything _____________
exposed to.
3. My cousins keep bothering ____________ mother all the time because
____________ so excited about the latest toy they have seen on ____________ favorite
show.
4. ____________is a Burger King on Saratoga Ave. that advertises Pokeman cards with
all ____________ "Happy Meals."
5. My aunt isn't very happy about ____________ advertising ploy. ____________
not only getting the kids addicted to Pokeman. ____________ also getting the kids
addicted to junk food, which is the last thing ____________ bodies need.
6. I've been to ____________ house a number of times when the kids are rejecting
____________ healthy dinners and demanding pizza or burgers instead. I feel bad for
my aunt when I go ____________ because she's trying to be a good mom.
____________ just too influenced by _________ "friend", the TV.
Too
means also or very
To
is direction or part of a verb
Two
is the number 2
Write in the correct form of Too/ To/ Two in the following blanks:
1. Peers in high school place____________ much emphasis on going ____________
parties and being ____________ cool.
2. ____________ be popular and accepted it's important ____________ wear the right
clothes and know the right people _____________ talk ____________.
3. ____________ of the people who made me the most miserable in high school were
____________ insensitive ____________ understand they exposed me ____________
.
4. They didn't know that I wanted____________ date someone who was
____________ nerdy ____________ fit into the crowd I was in.
5. They spent ____________ much time avoiding thinking about feelings
____________ wonder if their best friend had a feeling or ____________.
6. They realized ____________ late that putting other people in categories, put them in
a category ____________. I realized that I had ___________ hang out with the nerds
or I would be known as one of the losers ____________ .
Other homonyms or near homonyms that cause problems for people:
past/passed
quiet/quite
then/than
conscious/conscience
presence/presents
where/were
woman/women
through/threw
advice/advise
A good website for practice with these and other homonym errors:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/interact/g_spelhomoEX1.html
Apostrophes and Possession
Possession: Add 's to a noun to show that it possesses* the noun that follows.
You can check to see if the noun in front of another noun is possessive by asking Whose
+ 2nd Noun? If the answer is the 1st noun, that noun is possessive.
Noun Noun
Example: Bill Cosby's television shows are always very popular.
Question: Whose television shows?
Answer: Bill Cosby + 's (possessive)
If the noun already has an s on the end of it or if it is a plural noun, (a plural formed
with an s on the end of it) delete the second s after the apostrophe if you don't
pronounce it.
The princess's life was very difficult.. (One princess, princess is
possessive)
The 3 princesses lived with their father in a castle. (plural
possession)
princesses, no
The princesses' talents are all very different. (3 princesses; all 3
"possess" different talents.
Three different meanings but princess's, princesses, and princesses' are all pronounced
the same. We leave the "possessive" S off of princesses' because we would never
pronounce it princesseses.
*Possess here is a grammatical term. Of course, a person can't possess or own another
person. And a thing can't possess a thing. Grammatical "possession" indicates the
relationship between two nouns.
The handbook's purpose is to help you with grammar.
(A handbook can't "own" a purpose."
The story's ending made the school officials reluctant to let the
children
read it.
(The possessive 's shows the relationship between the story and the ending.)
Common Apostrophe Errors
1. Do not use apostrophes to show pluralization only.
Wrong: Television show's give kids the wrong message.
2. Do not put the apostrophe after the s of a possessive noun that is made plural without
an s.
Wrong: The childrens' advertisements make them crave things that
are bad for them.
3. Do not use a possessive apostrophe on a verb that ends in s. Only nouns can show
grammatical possession.
Wrong: An educator stresses' that children should receive rewards.
4. Do not use apostrophes with possessive pronouns.
Possessive Forms
its
your
their
whose
Contractions
it's
=
you're
=
they're
=
who's
=
it is
you are
they are
who is
Wrong: You're decision is a very hard one to make.
Correct the apostrophe errors in the following sentences. Take out, add, or move
apostrophes.
1. Television commercials play on a kids need to be like other kids'.
2. Would'nt any little girl rather have the beautiful doll that cost's $50 than the less
expensive one?
3. Many children are afraid of they're fathers anger when their misbehaving.
4. In the ad, we see a childs car seat with a child in it but no one is in the drivers seat of
the car.
5. Its hard to say that theres something wrong with the messages in the ads'.
6. Male children don't like to have to go into the womens room with they're mothers.
7. Mothers' are as important as fathers in a childs life.
8. Advertising is everywhere in todays society.
9. Your going to have to do more research to discover the effects' of a mothers job on a
child.
10. The three fable's messages had to do with an animals right to a pampered life.
11. Whats the problem with studying fairy tales to learn about childrens behavior?
12. Lois Lowrys book about a future society show's that we might all benefit from our
differences.
13. The advertiser's use not only innocent kids but also adults.
14. The girls faces showed their happiness about the beginning of summer.
15. If theres any work involving power tools to do, the men usually do it.
16. The mans' clothes in the ad look like new because of the miracle soap.
17. Its the wrong time of the year to try to plant a garden.
18. The three prisoner's crimes were so serious that they all got life sentences.
Correct all the errors you find in the following paragraph.
Pokemon is an animation cartoon, they're are 150 little creatures. They all fighting each other.
At first Pokemon was just a cartoon in Japan then in 1998 the cards is brought over to the United States
to and all of a sudden, their everywhere. Now there are hand-held games and more and more
merchandise that is being manufacture for children, who is becoming obsess with these toys as a
money-making scheme. Because the cards are all of a sudden collector items for these greedy kids.
They tries to get the cards that arent in there friends collections, then they bargain for them. At very
much increase prices. When the kids get to upset. There parents' says that its just a fad and theyll get
over it in time. Although the toys may just be a fad thats temporary, kids are becoming more and more
addict all the time. Three or four years ago, my little brothers collection is his whole life. He cries if
he cant take it to school. If my parents try and teach him the value of saving his money. He just point
out that the cards are a great investment. Hes to young to understand that hes a victim of advertisers
method's of manipulation, he doesn't understand that we are all being program to buy.
Appositives
Exercise 1
Read the following two paragraphs. Which one do you like better? Why?
“Save the Last Dance” stars Julia Stiles and Sean Patrick Thomas. Sara Johnson is on
her way to a promising ballet career when her mother is killed in a car accident while rushing
to attend her daughter's audition to Juilliard. Sara blames herself for the death of her mother
and has given up ballet dancing. Sara moves from her Midwestern childhood home to live
with her father who lives in a run-down area of Chicago. Transferred to a new mostly
African American high school, the white teenage girl is very uncertain of her future.
She quickly befriends Chenille Reynolds. Initially, Sara has conflicts with Chenille's
brother. Sara finds herself becoming deeply attracted to Derek. The two characters connect
and Sara regains her love for dancing. Supported by Derek and her formerly alienated father,
Sara starts to follow her dream again. She tries out a second time in a dance audition for the
school that will become critical for her future.
“Save the Last Dance” features a notable lineup of R&B and hip hop performers. Fredro
Starr performs the main theme on the soundtrack.
“Save the Last Dance” stars Julia Stiles and Sean Patrick Thomas, a teenage
interracial couple in Chicago who work together to help the main character train for a dance
audition. Sara Johnson, the character Julia Stiles plays, is on her way to a promising ballet
career when her mother is killed in a car accident while rushing to attend her daughter's
audition to Juilliard. Sara blames herself for the death of her mother and has given up ballet
dancing. Sara moves from her Midwestern childhood home to live with her father, a
musician, Roy, who lives in a run-down area of Chicago. Transferred to a new mostly African
American high school, the white teenage girl is very uncertain of her future.
She quickly befriends Chenille Reynolds, Kerry Washington, a black single mom
struggling with her child's absentee father. Initially, Sara has conflicts with Chenille's brother,
Derek, a smart and thoughtful future college student who wants to become a doctor at
Georgetown University in order to get out of the ghetto gangster lifestyle embodied by his
best friend, Malakai. Sara finds herself becoming deeply attracted to Derek. The two
characters connect and Sara regains her love for dancing. Supported by Derek and her
formerly alienated father, Sara starts to follow her dream again. She tries out a second time in
a dance audition for the school that will become critical for her future.
“Save the Last Dance” features a notable lineup of R&B and hip hop performers: Snoop
Dogg, Ice Cube, Pink and the late Notorious B.I.G. on the harder end of the spectrum as well
as K-Ci & Jo-Jo, Donnell Jones, and Soulbone for the quieter and romantic moments of the
movie. Fredro Starr, a part of hip hop group Onyx, and also appears in the film in a
supporting role, performs the main theme on the soundtrack.
Appositives
Exercise 2
A. Most people like the second one better because it is detailed and specific. Now go back
and underline all of the things that have been added to the second one that are not in the first
one. What do all the phrases you underlined have in common:
B. You probably all found that they are descriptive words that add more information about
nouns, that they follow the nouns and that the underlined words and phrases contain no
main verbs. What you underlined are appositives. What are they?
Appositives are nouns/noun phrases that go next to other nouns/noun phrases to re-name,
re-state, add further information, describe, and define. They have no main verb and are
set off by commas or dashes, or introduced by a colon.
The most common appositive is a name or a title.
My greatest hero, my mother, is not famous in the usual sense of the word.
Appositives can also be place names when you are writing about a place and the name is not
the most significant thing you are writing about the place.
We lived in a number of places but the place I remember most clearly--the same place where I
discovered that I was adopted--is a small town in New Jersey.
Appositives can also be a series or a list of nouns.
My mother loved old movies, especially musicals: Camelot, The Sound of Music, West Side
Story, Oklahoma, and Carousel.
Appositives
Add Appositives to the underlined nouns in the following sentences:
1. “Save the Last Dance” stars Julia Stiles as Sara Johnson
2. She falls in love with Derek Reynolds
who helps her restore her desire to dance.
3. Derek’s sister, Chenille Reynolds,
, is an important part of the movie.
4. Derek has to figure out who the best person for him to show his loyalty to, either Sara or
Malakai,
.
5. At first, we are not sure what to think about Roy Johnson,
.
6. Nikki,
, complicates Derek’s and
Sara’s lives.
7. Snookie,
, and Kenny,
, are two other important characters in the film.
Appositives. Add appositives in the blanks following the italicized nouns by writing in a
noun that renames or re-states the noun. Remember-- it has to be another noun giving the
synonym for the noun. If you need to turn a verb into a noun, remember to add –ing to form
a noun (gerund) And sometimes an appositive simply repeats a noun and then adds a
phrase. Remember that an appositive has no main verb.
Ironman is the story of a young man
who does not know how
to fight his own demons.
. He meets several kind teachers
who help him to learn coping
strategies
.
The Harringtons’s daughter
chooses an unfortunate end
after a terrible tragedy,
Brent Staples,
learns some survival skills
in Nightwalker.
In Eggs Twinkies, and Ethnic Stereotypes, we learn about some terms for people who
don’t stay strictly within their own ethnic groups:
.
Write down three sentences with appositives here about any of the stories we have read.
Verbal Phrases
Exercise 1
Underline what has been added to the second paragraph below after you read both
paragraphs.
My daughter Sarah is seven years old now and watches TV for at least four hours a
day. I turn the TV off whenever I can. She protests and cries. As a mom I have started to
watch Sarah. Some experts say that kids will be influenced by everything on TV and will
watch anything, even though they may not understand it. Sarah is a very careful viewer. I
can say that she was always an eager viewer of Mr. Rogers and Sesame Street. These shows
have been popular for 30 years. Experts worry about TV violence. There is some evidence of
this. Teenagers in Boston and Miami fatally burned two people. Apparently the solution to
the bad effects of TV lies in parents who discourage violent behavior.
My daughter Sarah is seven years old now and watches TV for at least four hours a
day. To try to be a good mother, I turn the TV off whenever I can, encouraging Sarah to go
out to play. Frustrated by my attempts to be a good mom, she protests and cries. As a mom,
influenced by what the experts say about the effects of television on kids, I have started to
watch Sarah, to determine the effect that TV has on her. Some experts say that kids will be
influenced by everything on TV and will watch anything, even though they may not
understand it. Sarah is a very careful viewer, insisting that shows with "yucky" sex and
violence be turned off. To further demonstrate that TV is having a positive effect, I can say
that she was always an eager viewer of Mr. Rogers and Sesame Street. These shows have
been popular for 30 years, helping children learn about reading, writing, and how to deal
with emotions and self control. Experts worry about TV violence, suggesting that TV has a
role in producing in kids aggressive play and real life violence. There is some evidence of
this. Reenacting scenes in which youths set homeless people on fire, teenagers in Boston and
Miami fatally burned two people. Apparently the solution to the bad effects of TV lies in
parents who discourage violent behavior.
What you underlined in paragraph #2 are verbal phrases. These verbal phrases can also
help you to write more sophisticated sentences. What are verbal phrases?
Verbal Phrases
A verbal phrase is a group of words that has no subject of its own but shares the main
subject of the sentence it modifies. A verbal phrase does not carry time, so it cannot
function as the main verb in a sentence. Verbal phrases can go into a sentence in the
beginning, the middle or the end. They are set off by commas or dashes. There are three
kinds of verbal phrases:
verb + ed = (past participle) works as an adjective and describes the subject of the
sentence. ** This can never work like a verb and change time. There is a difference between a
verb + ed verbal and a verb that is in the past tense.
verb + ing = (present participle) shows simultaneous action with
verb in the sentence.
the main
to + verb = (infinitive) shows the cause or reason for the main
sentence.
Verb + ed example: Angered by their son's grades, the frustrated parents told him he
could no longer play football.
Verb + ing example: The son left for school the next day, hoping they would change their
minds.
To + verb example: To show that they wanted to be fair, the parents said he could play as
long as he raised his grades.
Underline the main subject of each of the sentences above.
Exercise 3
Join the following sentences making them into one sentence with verbal phrases.
1. Emilio is a five year old boy. He hopes to be a mighty warrior when he grows up.
2. He watches lots of action adventure cartoons on TV. He wants to learn how to become a
stronger and braver fighter.
3. He turns the TV off when Aladdin or Bambi come on the screen. He is bored by the lack
of action.
4. When he plays with his friends, he is always the "Chief Ninja Warrior". He needs to prove
his strength and superiority.
5. His friends have stopped playing with him. They are tired of always being the losers.
They want to show him that he can't always be the winner.
6. Emilio acts as if he doesn't care. He wants to show that he's too tough to have feelings. He
is trying to prove that he is a true "warrior."
Verbal Phrases Revisited
There are many ways that words can end in –ing:
1. Snowboarding is a dangerous sport.
Snowboarding is functioning as a noun, the subject of this sentence. An –ing noun is also
called a gerund.
2. She gave a bloodcurdling scream.
Bloodcurdling is functioning as an adjective, describing the noun scream. An –ing adjective
is also called a present participle.
3. Lance Armstrong isn’t marrying Sheryl Crow.
Isn’t marrying is called the present progressive. A progressive verb will always have the
present participle in it.
4. Dick Cheney accidentally shot at a covey of birds, wounding his 70 year old friend in
the face and heart.
Wounding his 70 year old friend in the face and heart is a verbal phrase. Dick Cheney did two
things simultaneously; he shot and wounded. In a sentence with a verbal phrase, you will
actually find two verbs with the same subject. One of the verbs is an -ing verbal and the
subject is not repeated. Most of the time these verbs happen simultaneously, but
sometimes they will show cause and effect.
The Beginning Of Snowboarding
There were some people who built snowboard like sleds years before. One of them,
M.J. "Jack" Burchett, cut out a plank of plywood in 1929, trying to secure his feet with some
clothesline and horse reins. In 1965, Sherman Poppen, a chemical engineer in Muskegon,
invented "The Snurfer" as a toy for his daughter, making the Snurfer by binding two skis
together and putting a rope at the nose, so the rider could hold it and keep it more stable.
Poppen organized competitions with this new board. Jake Burton took part in those
competitions, becoming really interested in the snurfer. For him it was a cool thing to do, not
having the opportunity to go surfing. But Burton was really serious about skiing. After
breaking his collarbone in a car accident, he was not able to take part in skiing competitions
anymore. While Burton was into riding the Snurfer, Dimitrije Milovich started to make
snowboards in 1969, coming up with the idea while sliding down some hills on a cafeteria
plate in College. His boards were based on surfboards combined with the way skis work.
Verbal Phrases
Write down a list of things that you have done so far today.
2. Put parentheses around two things that you did at the same time. Join one of the sentences
to the other by crossing out one of your subjects and adding an –ing to the verb.
3. Put parentheses around two things that happened one after the other. Make a verbal out
of the one that happened first by following the steps above and adding “after” in front of the
–ing verbal.
4. Write a sentence with an –ing verbal phrase that shows two things you did simultaneously
yesterday.
Conciseness
Excess words and phrases can clog up your writing and make it less clear. Generally,
there are two ways to eliminate wordiness:
• Compress what you mean into the fewest possible words.
• Don't tell your readers what they already know, don't need to know, or can infer.
Unfortunately, we can inflate our prose in so many ways that it is impossible to list them all,
but the following suggestions should help you find the most common types of wordiness.
Redundant Pairs
Many pairs of words imply each other. Finish implies complete, so completely finish is
redundant. So are many other pairs of words:
past memories
sudden crisis
various differences
terrible tragedy
each individual
end result
basic fundamentals
final outcome
true facts
free gift
important essentials
past history
future plans
unexpected surprise
Example: Before the travel agent was completely able to finish explaining the various
differences between all of the many vacation packages her travel agency was offering, the
customer changed his future plans.
Revised: Before the travel agent finished explaining the differences between the vacation
packages her travel agency was offering, the customer changed his plans.
Redundant Categories
Specific words imply their general categories, so we usually don't have to state both. We
know that time is a period, that pink is a color, that shiny is an appearance. Some
redundant categories are included in the following phrases which, in every case, can drop
the more general word:
large in size
of an uncertain condition
of a bright color
in a confused state
heavy in weight
unusual in nature
round in shape
extreme in degree
at an early time
of a strange type
of a cheap quality
economics field
honest in character
area of mathematics
Example: During that time period, many car buyers tended to prefer cars that were pink in
color and shiny in appearance.
Revised: During that time, many car buyers tended to prefer pink, shiny cars.
Meaningless Modifiers
Some modifiers are delaying tactics that we use almost unconsciously. These words and
phrases can be pruned away to make sentences clearer:
kind of
sort of
really
basically
for all intents and purposes
definitely
actually
generally
individual
specific
Example: For all intents and purposes, American industrial productivity generally depends
on certain factors that are really more psychological in kind than of any given
technological aspect.
Revision: American industrial productivity depends on factors that are more psychological
than technological.
Stating the Obvious
Often we needlessly state what everyone knows or can infer from what we are writing.
Example: Imagine a mental picture of someone engaged in the intellectual activity of
trying to learn what the rules are for how to play the game of chess.
Revised: Imagine someone trying to learn the rules of chess.
Excessive Detail
Sometimes we provide irrelevant details or more information than readers need to know.
Example: Baseball, one of our oldest and most popular outdoor summer sports in terms
of total attendance at ball parks and viewing on television, has the kind of rhythm of play
on the field that alternates between the players' passively waiting with no action taking
place between the pitches to the batter and exploding into action when the batter hits a
pitched ball to one of the players and he fields it.
Revised: Baseball has a rhythm that alternates between waiting and explosive action.
Phrases for Words
Another kind of redundancy results from using phrases when a well chosen word or two
will substitute.
Example: As you carefully read what you have written to improve your wording and catch
small errors of spelling, punctuation, and so on, the thing to do before you do anything
else is to try to see where sequences of subjects and verbs could replace the same ideas
expressed in nouns rather than verbs.
Revised: As you edit, first find nominalizations you can replace with clauses.
Verbs Smothered in Nouns
Try to use a verb instead of a noun phrase.
Example: The committee made the decision to....
Revised: The committee decided to....
Example: They entered into an agreement to....
Revised: They agreed to....
Common Phrases
Some common phrases that you can compress are the following:
Instead of
the reason for
for the reason that
due to the fact that
owing to the fact that
in light of the fact that
considering the fact that
on the grounds that
this is why
on the occasion of
in a situation in which
under circumstances in which
as regards
in reference to
with regard to
where ________ is concerned
concerning the matter of
it is crucial that
it is necessary that
there is a need/necessity for
it is important that,
cannot be avoided
is able to,
is in a position to
has the opportunity to
has the capacity for
has the ability to
it is possible that
there is a chance that
it could happen that
the possibility exists for
Use
because, since, why
when
about
must, should
can
may, might, can, could
Example: It is possible that nothing will come of these preparations.
Revised: Nothing may come of these preparations.
Other Unnecessary Words
There are many unneeded words that can simply be omitted, including the following:
•
unnecessary articles (a, an, the)
Example: The evidence we have....
Revised: Evidence we have....
•
unnecessary that, who, and which clauses
Example: All applicants who are interested in the job must....
Revised: All applicants interested in the job must....
-orAll interested job applicants must....
•
unnecessary there is and there are sentence beginnings
Example: There are four rules to observe....
Revised: Four rules to observe are....
•
unnecessary passives
Example: An account was opened by Mrs. Sims.
Revised: Mrs. Sims opened an account.
•
unnecessary infinitive phrases (infinitive phrase= to + verb)
Example: The duty of a clerk is to check all incoming mail and to record it.
Revised: A clerk checks and records all incoming mail.
Analysis: Responding to
What You Read
166
Critical Thinking: Analyzing the Text
Analyzing the text involves:
Questioning, evaluating, and responding to both the author’s ideas and the writing. Here are
some questions of a nonfiction reading:
1. What is the author’s purpose in writing the article? (Why did the author write this article?)
2. Who do you think is the author’s audience?
3. What is the author’s tone?
4. What questions do I have about some of the ideas or points in the article?
5. How successful is the piece? Do I agree as a reader or do I take issue with some of the
writer’s ideas? For example, how do my life experiences support or refute the author’s points
(try to differentiate between statistics and ideas)?
167
The Reading Comprehension Process
The Complex Task of Reading
Comprehension
Critical Thinking
Comprehension
Analyzing, Applying, Synthesizing,
Evaluating
Interpretive Comprehension
Understanding why and how the author
said something
Tone and Author’s purpose
Literal Comprehension
Who, What, Where, When
The author’s main idea
168
Levels of Questioning
Background:
In class you’ve been learning about how important questions are to active reading and learning.
Questions help you discover and clarify information (such as on the first day of class when you worked
on asking specific questions to get specific information from your partners). As well, we’ve also talked
about how questions help you reflect on your processes as a reader and a writer so that you can
improve your reading and writing skills.
Procedure:
Though many times in class I have asked you questions to help get discussions started or to help you
reflect on the assignments, you are going to work on creating your own questions, so that you can
become more independent readers and writers. Of course, most of you already ask questions all the
time; we, however, will be working on a specific type of questions.
Types of Questions: On a basic level, questions fall into three different categories: factual, inferential
and interpretive, and critical and evaluative. Don’t worry too much about these names right now; we
will be discussing them further throughout the quarter.
Level 1
Factual
Exact Words:
Skim the Text for the
Answer.
Who?
Level 2
Inferential and Interpretive
Reader & Text:
Skim and searching can help,
but the reader needs to
interpret the text to get the
answer.
Level 3
Critical and Evaluative
Reader Moves Beyond The
Text:
The text can help, but the
reader also uses past
experiences to find the answer.
What?
Why?
Agree/Disagree & Why
Where?
How?
Critique
When?
Summarize
What if...
Compare
169
Levels of Questions Practice
LEVEL 1: FACTUAL
Write Your factual question here:
Write the answer, cite the page number, explain its importance below.
LEVEL 2: INTERPRETIVE
Write your interpretative/inferential question here:
Write the answer, provide examples, and explain its importance below.
LEVEL 3: EVALUATIVE
Write your critical and evaluative question here:
Write the answer, provide examples, and explain its importance here:
170
Levels of Questions Practice
LEVEL 1: FACTUAL
Write Your factual question here:
Write the answer, cite the page number, explain its importance below.
LEVEL 2: INTERPRETIVE
Write your interpretative/inferential question here:
Write the answer, provide examples, and explain its importance below.
LEVEL 3: EVALUATIVE
Write your critical and evaluative question here:
Write the answer, provide examples, and explain its importance here:
171
Tone3
SERIOUS OR NEUTRAL
Straightforward and objective.
Typically in textbooks, news
stories and magazine articles.
SOLEMN
Formal language. Dignified and
grave. Used in eulogies and
important government facts.
CRTICAL
Judges what is good or
bad about a subject.
Can be positive or
negative. Typical in
editorials.
HUMOROUS
Amusing or comical
(Witty=sophisticated,
clever)
TONE
The manner in which the writer expresses his or her
feelings or attitude. Writers often combine a few
tones. Determining the main tone can help you
identify purpose and main idea.
CYNICAL
Believes humans are
selfish and corrupt.
Words are angry and
pessimistic; no hope.
IRONIC
Says the opposite of
what is really meant.
Maybe in the language
or the situation. Often
added to other tones.
SARCASTIC
A direct personal attack to
hurt or belittle. Words are
harsh and bitter.
3
SATIRIC
Does not state directly
what is meant. Often
uses exaggeration.
Ridicules to show
disapproval. Seeks
change in actions and
attitudes. May include
ironcy, sarcasm, wit,
humor.
Many thanks to Natalie Panifili
172
Types of Bias in Writing
Bias is when someone or something is viewed or shown in a consistently inaccurate way. (Bias is usually
negative, though one can have a positive bias as well.)
o
Bias by selection changes how the subject is shown by giving only part of the picture. (Imagine if all we
ever saw of you was the time you spend in front of the mirror; we’d assume you were very vain, because we
never see you doing anything else.)
o
Bias by omission changes how the subject is shown by leaving out important things. (Imagine if we never
saw you working; we’d assume you were lazy.)
o
Bias by placement changes how the subject is shown by deciding what to show first. We assume that the
first thing we’re shown is the most important. (Imagine that the first thing we heard about you was that you
once slipped and fell in the cafeteria; we’d assume you were clumsy, even if that only happened once.)
o
Bias by image changes how the subject is shown by choosing a particular picture or image. (Imagine that a
story about you was accompanied by a picture of you dressed as a clown; we probably wouldn’t take you
seriously.)
o
Bias by naming changes how the subject is shown by choosing a name or a title. (Imagine how we’d see
you differently if you were called Tim or Timmy; imagine how we’d see you differently if you were called
Dr. Smith or Mrs. Smith; imagine how we’d see you differently if you were described as a mechanic or as an
engineer.)
o
Bias by word choice changes how the subject is shown by using words with a positive or negative
connotation. (Imagine someone’s hair described as being chestnut, brown or mousy. They all mean the same
thing, but which sounds better and which sounds worse?)
o
Bias through statistics and crowd counts: To make a disaster seem more spectacular (and therefore
worthy of reading about), numbers can be inflated. "A hundred injured in aircrash" can be the same as "only
minor injuries in air crash," reflecting the opinion of the person doing the counting.
o Bias by source control: To detect bias, always consider where the news item "comes from." Is the
information supplied by a reporter, an eyewitness, police or fire officials, executives, or elected or appointed
government officials? Each may have a particular bias that is introduced into the story. Companies and
public relations directors supply news outlets with puff-pieces through news releases, photos or videos.
Often news outlets depend on pseudo-events (demonstrations, sit-ins, ribbon cuttings, speeches and
ceremonies) that take place mainly to gain news coverage.
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Analysis of Text for Bias
Read the article and make
a) What information is the article trying to tell us?
b) What other info is not being presented?
c) What audience do you think the article is trying to reach?
DIRECTIONS: Please write the quote and page number where you think bias has occurred in the article.
Bias by selection
Bias by placement
.
Bias by image
Bias by naming
Bias by word choice
Bias by omission
Bias by Stat and Crowd Counts
Bias by Source Control
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Literary Analysis
175
Literary Terms
1. Allegory: A narrative in verse or prose, in which abstract qualities (death, pride, greed, for
example) are personified as characters.
2. Alliteration: Repetition of an initial consonant or cluster sound in two or more words in a line
or in lines in close proximity.
3. Allusion: A figure of speech that makes an indirect or casual reference to a historical or literary
figure, event, or object.
4. Ambiguity: A phrase, statement, or situation that may be understood in two or more ways. In
literature ambiguity is used to enrich meaning or achieve irony by forcing readers to consider
alternative possibilities.
5. Antagonist: A character who rivals or opposes the protagonist.
6. Archetype: Themes, images, and narrative patterns that are universal and thus embody some
enduring aspects of human experience. Some of these themes are the death and rebirth of the
hero, the underground journey, and the search for the father.
7. Central Intelligence: Another variation on the third person point of view, where narrative
elements are limited to what a single character sees, thinks, and hears.
8. Characterization: The portrayal of a character by direct description, by his or her actions, or
by other characters’ revelations about him or her.
9. Climax: The highest point of interest and excitement in a narrative or story.
10. Conflict: A source of anxiety, frustration, or opposition that motivates a character into action;
conflict may come from another character, and antagonist, a society or political or social group,
nature, or the individual’s personality.
11. Diction: Appropriate selection of words and their appropriate usage; a level of speech that may
be high (formal), middle, or low (informal, colloquial, or slang).
12. Forshadowing: Subtle indication of future events.
13. Irony: A figure of speech, often humorous or sarcastic, in which the intended meaning of the
words contrasts directly with the usual meaning, also called verbal irony; dramatic irony refers
to a situation in which a character’s speech or actions have an unintended meaning known to
the audience but not the character.
14. Imagery: Descriptive language used to convey a mental picture that calls into action one of the
five senses or kinesthesia; imagery may be literal or figurative.
15. Metaphor: A figure of speech showing the similarity of dissimilar things; a contrast in which
an object is identified with another wholly different object by analogy.
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16. Narrator (or Point of View): The teller of a story, who may be first–person, third-person,
central intelligence, omniscient, objective, or intrusive.
17. Non-linear Narration: The manner of telling the events of a story with the use of flashbacks
and meditations; the opposite of a chronological story.
18. Omniscient Narrator: An all-knowing narrator; a third-person narration in which the narrator
describes all of the action and characterization.
19. Pathetic Fallacy: A kind of personification that attributes human feelings or animate qualities
to inanimate things; false emotionalism.
20. Persona: A second self created by an author to tell a story.
21. Plot: The action of a story; the narration of events employing the use of character, conflict,
rising action, climax, falling action, a resolution or denouement.
22. Protagonist: The main character in a story, novel, or play.
23. Rising Action: Intensification of action based on the protagonist’s attempts to resolve conflict;
the action leading up to the climax.
24. Round Character: A term coined by E.M. Forester meaning a complex character; the opposite
of a flat character or stereotype.
25. Setting: The place, time, and social context in which a work occurs. Often the setting
contributes significantly to the story.
26. Simile: The direct comparison of two unlike objects or ideas joined by like, as, or seems.
27. Stream of Consciousness: The thoughts, feelings, emotions of a character presented as he or
she thinks them.
28. Symbol: An object, idea, person, or place that means more that what it is literally; figurative
levels of meaning that accrue to any object.
29. Symbolism: The use of one object to suggest or represent another object.
30. Theme: The main or underlying idea of a work, the point or message of the work.
31. Tone: An attitude or quality of voice that conveys a sense of feeling or emotion.
32. Unreliable narrator: The speaker or voice of a work who is not able to accurately or
objectively report events.
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Thinking Critically About Literature:
An Introduction to Literary Theory and Schools of
Criticism
Psychoanalytic Criticism (1930s-present)
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/722/04/)
Sigmund Freud
Psychoanalytic criticism builds on Freudian theories of psychology. While we don't have the room here to
discuss all of Freud's work, a general overview is necessary to explain psychoanalytic literary criticism.
The Unconscious, the Desires, and the Defenses
Freud began his psychoanalytic work in the 1880s while attempting to treat behavioral disorders in his
Viennese patients. He dubbed the disorders 'hysteria' and began treating them by listening to his patients
talk through their problems. Based on this work, Freud asserted that people's behavior is affected by their
unconscious: "...the notion that human beings are motivated, even driven, by desires, fears, needs, and
conflicts of which they are unaware..." (Tyson 14-15).
Freud believed that our unconscious was influenced by childhood events. Freud organized these events into
developmental stages involving relationships with parents and drives of desire and pleasure where children
focus "...on different parts of the body...starting with the mouth...shifting to the oral, anal, and phallic
phases..." (Richter 1015). These stages reflect base levels of desire, but they also involve fear of loss (loss
of genitals, loss of affection from parents, loss of life) and repression: "...the expunging from consciousness
of these unhappy psychological events" (Tyson 15).
Tyson reminds us, however, that "...repression doesn't eliminate our painful experiences and emotions...we
unconsciously behave in ways that will allow us to 'play out'...our conflicted feelings about the painful
experiences and emotions we repress" (15). To keep all of this conflict buried in our unconscious, Freud
argued that we develop defenses: selective perception, selective memory, denial, displacement, projection,
regression, fear of intimacy, and fear of death, among others.
Id, Ego, and Superego
Freud maintained that our desires and our unconscious conflicts give rise to three areas of the mind that
wrestle for dominance as we grow from infancy, to childhood, to adulthood:
•
•
•
id - "...the location of the drives" or libido
ego - "...one of the major defenses against the power of the drives..." and home of the defenses
listed above
superego - the area of the unconscious that houses judgement (of self and others) and "...which
begins to form during childhood as a result of the Oedipus complex" (Richter 1015-1016)
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Oedipus Complex
Freud believed that the Oedipus complex was "...one of the most powerfully determinative elements in the
growth of the child" (Richter 1016). Essentially, the Oedipus complex involves children's need for their
parents and the conflict that arises as children mature and realize they are not the absolute focus of their
mother's attention: "the Oedipus complex begins in a late phase of infantile sexuality, between the child's
third and sixth year, and it takes a different form in males than it does in females" (Richter 1016).
Freud argued that both boys and girls wish to possess their mothers, but as they grow older "...they begin to
sense that their claim to exclusive attention is thwarted by the mother's attention to the father..." (1016).
Children, Freud maintained, connect this conflict of attention to the intimate relations between mother and
father, relations from which the children are excluded. Freud believed that "the result is a murderous rage
against the father...and a desire to possess the mother" (1016).
Freud pointed out, however, that "...the Oedipus complex differs in boys and girls...the functioning of the
related castration complex" (1016). In short, Freud thought that "...during the Oedipal rivalry [between boys
and their fathers], boys fantasized that punishment for their rage will take the form of..." castration (1016).
When boys effectively work through this anxiety, Freud argued, "...the boy learns to identify with the father
in the hope of someday possessing a woman like his mother. In girls, the castration complex does not take
the form of anxiety...the result is a frustrated rage in which the girl shifts her sexual desire from the mother
to the father" (1016).
Freud believed that eventually, the girl's spurned advanced toward the father give way to a desire to possess
a man like her father later in life. Freud believed that the impact of the unconscious, id, ego, superego, the
defenses, and the Oedipus complexes was inescapable and that these elements of the mind influence all our
behavior (and even our dreams) as adults - of course this behavior involves what we write.
Freud and Literature
So what does all of this psychological business have to do with literature and the study of literature? Put
simply, some critics believe that we can "...read psychoanalytically...to see which concepts are operating in
the text in such a way as to enrich our understanding of the work and, if we plan to write a paper about it,
to yield a meaningful, coherent psychoanalytic interpretation" (Tyson 29). Tyson provides some insightful
and applicable questions to help guide our understanding of psychoanalytic criticism.
Typical questions:
•
•
•
•
•
•
How do the operations of repression structure or inform the work?
Are there any oedipal dynamics - or any other family dynamics - are work here?
How can characters' behavior, narrative events, and/or images be explained in terms of
psychoanalytic concepts of any kind (for example...fear or fascination with death, sexuality - which
includes love and romance as well as sexual behavior - as a primary indicator of psychological
identity or the operations of ego-id-superego)?
What does the work suggest about the psychological being of its author?
What might a given interpretation of a literary work suggest about the psychological motives of the
reader?
Are there prominent words in the piece that could have different or hidden meanings? Could there be
Marxist Criticism (1930s-present)
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/722/05/)
Whom Does it Benefit?
Based on the theories of Karl Marx (and so influenced by philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel), this
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school concerns itself with class differences, economic and otherwise, as well as the implications and
complications of the capitalist system: "Marxism attempts to reveal the ways in which our socioeconomic
system is the ultimate source of our experience" (Tyson 277).
Theorists working in the Marxist tradition, therefore, are interested in answering the overarching question,
whom does it [the work, the effort, the policy, the road, etc.] benefit? The elite? The middle class? And
Marxists critics are also interested in how the lower or working classes are oppressed - in everyday life and
in literature.
The Material Dialectic
The Marxist school follows a process of thinking called the material dialectic. This belief system maintains
that "...what drives historical change are the material realities of the economic base of society, rather than
the ideological superstructure of politics, law, philosophy, religion, and art that is built upon that economic
base" (Richter 1088).
Marx asserts that "...stable societies develop sites of resistance: contradictions build into the social system
that ultimately lead to social revolution and the development of a new society upon the old" (1088). This
cycle of contradiction, tension, and revolution must continue: there will always be conflict between the
upper, middle, and lower (working) classes and this conflict will be reflected in literature and other forms of
expression - art, music, movies, etc.
The Revolution
The continuing conflict between the classes will lead to upheaval and revolution by oppressed peoples and
form the groundwork for a new order of society and economics where capitalism is abolished. According to
Marx, the revolution will be led by the working class (others think peasants will lead the uprising) under the
guidance of intellectuals. Once the elite and middle class are overthrown, the intellectuals will compose an
equal society where everyone owns everything (socialism - not to be confused with Soviet or Maoist
Communism).
Though a staggering number of different nuances exist within this school of literary theory, Marxist critics
generally work in areas covered by the following questions.
Typical questions:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Whom does it benefit if the work or effort is accepted/successful/believed, etc.?
What is the social class of the author?
Which class does the work claim to represent?
What values does it reinforce?
What values does it subvert?
What conflict can be seen between the values the work champions and those it portrays?
What social classes do the characters represent?
How do characters from different classes interact or conflict?
Reader-Response Criticism (1960s-present)
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(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/722/06/)
What Do You Think?
At its most basic level, reader response criticism considers readers' reactions to literature as vital to
interpreting the meaning of the text. However, reader-response criticism can take a number of different
approaches. A critic deploying reader-response theory can use a psychoanalytic lens, a feminists lens, or
even a structuralist lens. What these different lenses have in common when using a reader response
approach is they maintain "...that what a text is cannot be separated from what it does" (Tyson 154).
Tyson explains that "...reader-response theorists share two beliefs: 1) that the role of the reader cannot be
omitted from our understanding of literature and 2) that readers do not passively consume the meaning
presented to them by an objective literary text; rather they actively make the meaning they find in
literature" (154). In this way, reader-response theory shares common ground with some of the
deconstructionists discussed in the Post-structural area when they talk about "the death of the author," or
her displacement as the (author)itarian figure in the text.
Typical questions:
•
•
•
•
•
How does the interaction of text and reader create meaning?
What does a phrase-by-phrase analysis of a short literary text, or a key portion of a longer text, tell
us about the reading experience prestructured by (built into) that text?
Do the sounds/shapes of the words as they appear on the page or how they are spoken by the
reader enhance or change the meaning of the word/work?
How might we interpret a literary text to show that the reader's response is, or is analogous to, the
topic of the story?
What does the body of criticism published about a literary text suggest about the critics who
interpreted that text and/or about the reading experience produced by that text? (Tyson 191)
Post-Structuralism, Deconstruction, Postmodernism
(1966-present)
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/722/08/)
Note: Structuralism, semiotics, and post-structuralism are some of the most complex literary theories to
understand.
The Center Cannot Hold
This approach concerns itself with the ways and places where systems, frameworks, definitions, and
certainties break down. Post-structuralism maintains that frameworks and systems, for example the
structuralist systems explained in the Structuralist area, are merely fictitious constructs and that they cannot
be trusted to develop meaning or to give order. In fact, the very act of seeking order or a singular Truth is
absurd because there exists no unified truth.
Post-structuralism holds that there are many truths, that frameworks must bleed, and that structures must
become unstable or decentered. Moreover, post-structuralism is also concerned with the power structures or
hegemonies and power and how these elements contribute to and/or maintain structures to enforce
hierarchy. Therefore, post-structural theory carries implications far beyond literary criticism.
What Does Your Meaning Mean?
181
By questioning the process of developing meaning, post-structural theory strikes at the very heart of
philosophy and reality and throws knowledge making into what Jacques Derrida called "freeplay": "The
concept of centered structure...is contradictorily coherent...the concept of centered structure is in fact the
concept of a freeplay which is constituted upon a fundamental immobility and a reassuring certitude, which
is itself beyond the reach of the freeplay" (qtd. in Richter, 878-879).
Derrida first posited these ideas in 1966 at Johns Hopkins University, when he delivered “Structure, Sign,
and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences”: "Perhaps something has occurred in the history of the
concept of structure that could be called an 'event,' if this loaded word did not entail a meaning which it is
precisely the function of structural-or structuralist-thought to reduce or to suspect. But let me use the term
“event” anyway, employing it with caution and as if in quotation marks. In this sense, this event will have
the exterior form of a rupture and a redoubling” (qtd. in Richter, 878). In his presentation, Derrida
challenged structuralism's most basic ideas.
Can Language Do That?
Post-structural theory can be tied to a move against Modernist/Enlightenment ideas (philosophers:
Immanuel Kant, Réne Descartes, John Locke, etc.) and Western religious beliefs (neo-Platonism,
Catholicism, etc.). An early pioneer of this resistance was philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. In his essay, “On
Truth and Lies in an Extra-moral Sense” (1873), Nietzsche rejects even the very basis of our knowledge
making, language, as a reliable system of communication: “The various languages, juxtaposed, show that
words are never concerned with truth, never with adequate expression...” (248).
Below is an example, adapted from the Tyson text, of some language freeplay and a simple form of
deconstruction:
Time (noun) flies (verb) like an arrow (adverb clause) = Time passes quickly.
Time (verb) flies (object) like an arrow (adverb clause) = Get out your stopwatch and time
the speed of flies as you would time an arrow's flight.
Time flies (noun) like (verb) an arrow (object) = Time flies are fond of arrows (or at
least of one particular arrow).
So, post-structuralists assert that if we cannot trust language systems to convey truth, the very bases of
truth are unreliable and the universe - or at least the universe we have constructed - becomes unraveled or
de-centered. Nietzsche uses language slip as a base to move into the slip and shift of truth as a whole:
“What is truth? …truths are an illusion about which it has been forgotten that they are illusions...” (On Truth
and Lies 250).
This returns us to the discussion in the Structuralist area regarding signs, signifiers, and signified.
Essentially, post-structuralism holds that we cannot trust the sign = signifier + signified formula, that there
is a breakdown of certainty between sign/signifier, which leaves language systems hopelessly inadequate for
relaying meaning so that we are (returning to Derrida) in eternal freeplay or instability.
What's Left?
Important to note, however, is that deconstruction is not just about tearing down - this is a common
misconception. Derrida, in "Signature Event Context," addressed this limited view of post-structural theory:
"Deconstruction cannot limit or proceed immediately to a neutralization: it must…practice an overturning of
the classical opposition and a general displacement of the system. It is only on this condition that
deconstruction will provide itself the means with which to intervene in the field of oppositions that it
criticizes, which is also a field of nondiscursive forces" (328). Derrida reminds us that through
deconstruction we can identify the in-betweens and the marginalized to begin interstitial knowledge building.
Modernism vs Postmodernism
182
With the resistance to traditional forms of knowledge making (science, religion, language), inquiry,
communication, and building meaning take on different forms to the post-structuralist. We can look at this
difference as a split between Modernism and Postmodernism. The table below, excerpted from theorist Ihab
Hassan's The Dismemberment of Orpheus (1998), offers us a way to make sense of some differences
between modernism, dominated by Enlightenment ideas, and postmodernism, a space of freeplay and
discourse.
Keep in mind that even the author, Hassan, "...is quick to point out how the dichotomies are themselves
insecure, equivocal" (Harvey 42). Though post-structuralism is uncomfortable with binaries, Hassan provides
us with some interesting contrasts to consider:
Modernism vs Postmodernism
Modernism
Postmodernism
romanticism/symbolism
paraphysics/Dadaism
form (conjunctive, closed)
antiform (disjunctive, open)
purpose
play
design
chance
hierarchy
anarchy
mastery/logos
exhaustion/silence
art object/finished work/logos process/performance/antithesis
centering
absence
genre/boundary
text/intertext
semantics
rhetoric
metaphor
metonymy
root/depth
rhizome/surface
signified
signifier
narrative/grande histoire
anti-narrative/petite histoire
genital/phallic
polymorphous/androgynous
paranoia
schizophrenia
origin/cause
difference-difference/trace
God the Father
The Holy Ghost
determinacy
interdeterminacy
transcendence
immanence
Post-Structuralism and Literature
If we are questioning/resisting the methods we use to build knowledge (science, religion, language), then
traditional literary notions are also thrown into freeplay. These include the narrative and the author:
Narrative
The narrative is a fiction that locks readers into interpreting text in a single, chronological manner that does
not reflect our experiences. Postmodern texts may not adhere to traditional notions of narrative. For
example, in his seminal work, Naked Lunch, William S. Burroughs explodes the traditional narrative structure
and critiques almost everything Modern: modern government, modern medicine, modern law-enforcement.
Other examples of authors playing with narrative include John Fowles; in the final sections of The French
Lieutenant's Woman, Fowles steps outside his narrative to speak with the reader directly.
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Moreover, grand narratives are resisted. For example, the belief that through science the human race will
improve is questioned. In addition, metaphysics is questioned. Instead, postmodern knowledge building is
local, situated, slippery, and self-critical (i.e. it questions itself and its role). Because post-structural work is
self-critical, post-structural critics even look for ways texts contradict themselves (see typical questions
below).
Author
The author is displaced as absolute author(ity), and the reader plays a role in interpreting the text and
developing meaning (as best as possible) from the text. In “The Death of the Author,” Roland Barthes
argues that the idea of singular authorship is a recent phenomenon. Barthes explains that the death of the
author shatters Modernist notions of authority and knowledge building (145).
Lastly, he states that once the author is dead and the Modernist idea of singular narrative (and thus
authority) is overturned, texts become plural, and the interpretation of texts becomes a collaborative
process between author and audience: “...a text is made of multiple writings, drawn from many cultures and
entering into mutual relations of dialogue...but there is one place where this multiplicity is focused and that
place is the reader” (148). Barthes ends his essay by empowering the reader: “Classical criticism has never
paid any attention to the reader...the writer is the only person in literature…it is necessary to overthrow the
myth: the birth of the reader must be at the cost of the death of the Author” (148).
Typical questions:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
How is language thrown into freeplay or questioned in the work? For example, note how Anthony
Burgess plays with language (Russian vs English) in A Clockwork Orange, or how Burroughs plays
with names and language in Naked Lunch.
How does the work undermine or contradict generally accepted truths?
How does the author (or a character) omit, change, or reconstruct memory and identity?
How does a work fulfill or move outside the established conventions of its genre?
How does the work deal with the separation (or lack thereof) between writer, work, and reader?
What ideology does the text seem to promote?
What is left out of the text that if included might undermine the goal of the work?
If we changed the point of view of the text - say from one character to another, or multiple
characters - how would the story change? Whose story is not told in the text? Who is left out and
why might the author have omitted this character's tale?
New Historicism, Cultural Studies (1980s-present)
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/722/09/)
It's All Relative...
This school, influenced by structuralist and post-structuralist theories, seeks to reconnect a work with the
time period in which it was produced and identify it with the cultural and political movements of the time
(Michel Foucault's concept of épistème). New Historicism assumes that every work is a product of the
historic moment that created it. Specifically, New Criticism is "...a practice that has developed out of
contemporary theory, particularly the structuralist realization that all human systems are symbolic and
subject to the rules of language, and the deconstructive realization that there is no way of positioning
oneself as an observer outside the closed circle of textuality" (Richter 1205).
A helpful way of considering New Historical theory, Tyson explains, is to think about the retelling of history
itself: "...questions asked by traditional historians and by new historicists are quite different...traditional
historians ask, 'What happened?' and 'What does the event tell us about history?' In contrast, new
historicists ask, 'How has the event been interpreted?' and 'What do the interpretations tell us about the
184
interpreters?'" (278). So New Historicism resists the notion that "...history is a series of events that have a
linear, causal relationship: event A caused event B; event B caused event C; and so on" (Tyson 278).
New historicists do not believe that we can look at history objectively, but rather that we interpret events as
products of our time and culture and that "...we don't have clear access to any but the most basic facts of
history...our understanding of what such facts mean...is...strictly a matter of interpretation, not fact" (279).
Moreover, New Historicism holds that we are hopelessly subjective interpreters of what we observe.
Typical questions:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
What language/characters/events present in the work reflect the current events of the author’s day?
Are there words in the text that have changed their meaning from the time of the writing?
How are such events interpreted and presented?
How are events' interpretation and presentation a product of the culture of the author?
Does the work's presentation support or condemn the event?
Can it be seen to do both?
How does this portrayal criticize the leading political figures or movements of the day?
How does the literary text function as part of a continuum with other historical/cultural texts from
the same period...?
How can we use a literary work to "map" the interplay of both traditional and subversive discourses
circulating in the culture in which that work emerged and/or the cultures in which the work has been
interpreted?
How does the work consider traditionally marginalized populations?
Post-Colonial Criticism (1990s-present)
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/722/10/)
History is Written by the Victors
Post-colonial criticism is similar to cultural studies, but it assumes a unique perspective on literature and
politics that warrants a separate discussion. Specifically, post-colonial critics are concerned with literature
produced by colonial powers and works produced by those who were/are colonized. Post-colonial theory
looks at issues of power, economics, politics, religion, and culture and how these elements work in relation
to colonial hegemony (western colonizers controlling the colonized).
Therefore, a post-colonial critic might be interested in works such as Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe where
colonial "...ideology [is] manifest in Crusoe's colonialist attitude toward the land upon which he's
shipwrecked and toward the black man he 'colonizes' and names Friday" (Tyson 377). In addition, postcolonial theory might point out that "...despite Heart of Darkness's (Joseph Conrad) obvious anti-colonist
agenda, the novel points to the colonized population as the standard of savagery to which Europeans are
contrasted" (Tyson 375). Post-colonial criticism also takes the form of literature composed by authors that
critique Euro-centric hegemony.
A Unique Perspective on Empire
Seminal post-colonial writers such as Nigerian author Chinua Achebe and Kenyan author Ngugi wa Thiong'o
have written a number of stories recounting the suffering of colonized people. For example, in Things Fall
185
Apart, Achebe details the strife and devastation that occurred when British colonists began moving inland
from the Nigerian coast.
Rather than glorifying the exploratory nature of European colonists as they expanded their sphere of
influence, Achebe narrates the destructive events that led to the death and enslavement of thousands of
Nigerians when the British imposed their Imperial government. In turn, Achebe points out the negative
effects (and shifting ideas of identity and culture) caused by the imposition of western religion and
economics on Nigerians during colonial rule.
Power, Hegemony, and Literature
Post-colonial criticism also questions the role of the western literary canon and western history as dominant
forms of knowledge making. The terms "first-world," "second world," "third world" and "fourth world" nations
are critiqued by post-colonial critics because they reinforce the dominant positions of western cultures
populating first world status. This critique includes the literary canon and histories written from the
perspective of first-world cultures. So, for example, a post-colonial critic might question the works included
in "the canon" because the canon does not contain works by authors outside western culture.
Moreover, the authors included in the canon often reinforce colonial hegemonic ideology, such as Joseph
Conrad's Heart of Darkness. Western critics might consider Heart of Darkness an effective critique of colonial
behavior. But post-colonial theorists and authors might disagree with this perspective: "...as Chinua Achebe
observes, the novel's condemnation of European is based on a definition of Africans as savages: beneath
their veneer of civilization, the Europeans are, the novel tells us, as barbaric as the Africans. And indeed,
Achebe notes, the novel portrays Africans as a pre-historic mass of frenzied, howling, incomprehensible
barbarians..." (Tyson 374-375).
Typical questions:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
How does the literary text, explicitly or allegorically, represent various aspects of colonial
oppression?
What does the text reveal about the problematics of post-colonial identity, including the relationship
between personal and cultural identity and such issues as double consciousness and hybridity?
What person(s) or groups does the work identify as "other" or stranger? How are such
persons/groups described and treated?
What does the text reveal about the politics and/or psychology of anti-colonialist resistance?
What does the text reveal about the operations of cultural difference - the ways in which race,
religion, class, gender, sexual orientation, cultural beliefs, and customs combine to form individual
identity - in shaping our perceptions of ourselves, others, and the world in which we live?
How does the text respond to or comment upon the characters, themes, or assumptions of a
canonized (colonialist) work?
Are there meaningful similarities among the literatures of different post-colonial populations?
How does a literary text in the Western canon reinforce or undermine colonialist ideology through its
representation of colonialization and/or its inappropriate silence about colonized peoples? (Tyson
378-379)
186
Feminist Criticism (1960s-present)
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/722/11/)
S/he
Feminist criticism is concerned with "...the ways in which literature (and other cultural productions) reinforce
or undermine the economic, political, social, and psychological oppression of women" (Tyson). This school of
theory looks at how aspects of our culture are inherently patriarchal (male dominated) and "...this critique
strives to expose the explicit and implicit misogyny in male writing about women" (Richter 1346). This
misogyny, Tyson reminds us, can extend into diverse areas of our culture: "Perhaps the most chilling
example...is found in the world of modern medicine, where drugs prescribed for both sexes often have been
tested on male subjects only" (83).
Feminist criticism is also concerned with less obvious forms of marginalization such as the exclusion of
women writers from the traditional literary canon: "...unless the critical or historical point of view is feminist,
there is a tendency to under-represent the contribution of women writers" (Tyson 82-83).
Common Space in Feminist Theories
Though a number of different approaches exist in feminist criticism, there exist some areas of commonality.
This list is excerpted from Tyson:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Women are oppressed by patriarchy economically, politically, socially, and psychologically;
patriarchal ideology is the primary means by which they are kept so
In every domain where patriarchy reigns, woman is other: she is marginalized, defined only by
her difference from male norms and values
All of western (Anglo-European) civilization is deeply rooted in patriarchal ideology, for
example, in the biblical portrayal of Eve as the origin of sin and death in the world
While biology determines our sex (male or female), culture determines our gender (masculine
or feminine)
All feminist activity, including feminist theory and literary criticism, has as its ultimate goal to
change the world by prompting gender equality
Gender issues play a part in every aspect of human production and experience, including the
production and experience of literature, whether we are consciously aware of these issues or
not (91).
Feminist criticism has, in many ways, followed what some theorists call the three waves of feminism:
1.
2.
3.
First Wave Feminism - late 1700s-early 1900's: writers like Mary Wollstonecraft (A
Vindication of the Rights of Women, 1792) highlight the inequalities between the sexes.
Activists like Susan B. Anthony and Victoria Woodhull contribute to the women's suffrage
movement, which leads to National Universal Suffrage in 1920 with the passing of the
Nineteenth Amendment
Second Wave Feminism - early 1960s-late 1970s: building on more equal working conditions
necessary in America during World War II, movements such as the National Organization for
Women (NOW), formed in 1966, cohere feminist political activism. Writers like Simone de
Beauvoir (Le deuxième sexe, 1972) and Elaine Showalter established the groundwork for the
dissemination of feminist theories dove-tailed with the American Civil Rights movement
Third Wave Feminism - early 1990s-present: resisting the perceived essentialist (over
generalized, over simplified) ideologies and a white, heterosexual, middle class focus of second
wave feminism, third wave feminism borrows from post-structural and contemporary gender
187
and race theories (see below) to expand on marginalized populations' experiences. Writers like
Alice Walker work to "...reconcile it [feminism] with the concerns of the black
community...[and] the survival and wholeness of her people, men and women both, and for the
promotion of dialog and community as well as for the valorization of women and of all the
varieties of work women perform" (Tyson 97).
Typical questions:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
How is the relationship between men and women portrayed?
What are the power relationships between men and women (or characters assuming male/female
roles)?
How are male and female roles defined?
What constitutes masculinity and femininity?
How do characters embody these traits?
Do characters take on traits from opposite genders? How so? How does this change others’ reactions
to them?
What does the work reveal about the operations (economically, politically, socially, or
psychologically) of patriarchy?
What does the work imply about the possibilities of sisterhood as a mode of resisting patriarchy?
What does the work say about women's creativity?
What does the history of the work's reception by the public and by the critics tell us about the
operation of patriarchy?
What role the work play in terms of women's literary history and literary tradition? (Tyson)
Gender Studies and Queer Theory (1970s-present)
188
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/722/12/)
Gender(s), Power, and Marginalization
Gender studies and queer theory explore issues of sexuality, power, and marginalized populations (woman
as other) in literature and culture. Much of the work in gender studies and queer theory, while influenced by
feminist criticism, emerges from post-structural interest in fragmented, de-centered knowledge building
(Nietzsche, Derrida, Foucault), language (the breakdown of sign-signifier), and psychoanalysis (Lacan).
A primary concern in gender studies and queer theory is the manner in which gender and sexuality is
discussed: "Effective as this work [feminism] was in changing what teachers taught and what the students
read, there was a sense on the part of some feminist critics that...it was still the old game that was being
played, when what it needed was a new game entirely. The argument posed was that in order to counter
patriarchy, it was necessary not merely to think about new texts, but to think about them in radically new
ways" (Richter 1432).
Therefore, a critic working in gender studies and queer theory might even be uncomfortable with the binary
established by many feminist scholars between masculine and feminine: "Cixous (following Derrida in Of
Grammatology) sets up a series of binary oppositions (active/passive, sun/moon...father/mother,
logos/pathos). Each pair can be analyzed as a hierarchy in which the former term represents the positive
and masculine and the latter the negative and feminine principle" (Richter 1433-1434).
In-Betweens
Many critics working with gender and queer theory are interested in the breakdown of binaries such as male
and female, the in-betweens (also following Derrida's interstitial knowledge building). For example, gender
studies and queer theory maintains that cultural definitions of sexuality and what it means to be male and
female are in flux: "...the distinction between "masculine" and "feminine" activities and behavior is
constantly changing, so that women who wear baseball caps and fatigues...can be perceived as more
piquantly sexy by some heterosexual men than those women who wear white frocks and gloves and look
down demurely" (Richter 1437).
Moreover, Richter reminds us that as we learn more about our genetic structure, the biology of male/female
becomes increasingly complex and murky: "even the physical dualism of sexual genetic structures and
bodily parts breaks down when one considers those instances - XXY syndromes, natural sexual bimorphisms,
as well as surgical transsexuals - that defy attempts at binary classification" (1437).
Typical questions:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
What elements of the text can be perceived as being masculine (active, powerful) and feminine
(passive, marginalized) and how do the characters support these traditional roles?
What sort of support (if any) is given to elements or characters who question the masculine/feminine
binary? What happens to those elements/characters?
What elements in the text exist in the middle, between the perceived masculine/feminine binary? In
other words, what elements exhibit traits of both (bisexual)?
How does the author present the text? Is it a traditional narrative? Is it secure and forceful? Or is it
more hesitant or even collaborative?
What are the politics (ideological agendas) of specific gay, lesbian, or queer works, and how are
those politics revealed in...the work's thematic content or portrayals of its characters?
What are the poetics (literary devices and strategies) of a specific lesbian, gay, or queer works?
What does the work contribute to our knowledge of queer, gay, or lesbian experience and history,
including literary history?
How is queer, gay, or lesbian experience coded in texts that are by writers who are apparently
homosexual?
What does the work reveal about the operations (socially, politically, psychologically) homophobic?
How does the literary text illustrate the problematics of sexuality and sexual "identity," that is the
ways in which human sexuality does not fall neatly into the separate categories defined by the
words homosexual and heterosexual?
189
Denotation vs. Connotation4
•
Denotation refers to the literal meaning of a word, the "dictionary definition."¨ For
example, if you look up the word snake in a dictionary, you will discover that one of its
denotative meanings is "any of numerous scaly, legless, sometimes venomous
reptiles; having a long, tapering, cylindrical body and found in most tropical and
temperate regions."
•
Connotation, on the other hand, refers to the associations that are connected to a
certain word or the emotional suggestions related to that word. The connotative
meanings of a word exist together with the denotative meanings. The connotations for
the word snake could include evil or danger. Connotations can be negative or
positive.
Consider the following sentence: I am firm; you are stubborn; he is pig-headed! While all
three underlined words have similar denotations, their connotations are clearly quite different,
progressing from positive to negative to insulting!
Example:
Word
Stop Sign
Denotation
Stop (even without words, we recognize the
meaning from the shape and color)
Connotation
Risk (accident or ticket)
Exercises:
Neutral Word
Denotation (dictionary
definition)
Positive Connotation
Negative
Connotation
1. Home
The place where one lives
Mansion
Shack
2. Prison
A place where criminals
are confined.
Correctional facility
3. Talk
4. Frugal
Exchange ideas by spoken
words
Not wasteful; living simply
5. Eat
Consume food
4
gossip
Thrifty
Inspired by Natalie Panifili!
190
Figures of Speech
Literal vs. Figurative Language
Writers often deviate from the denotative meanings of words to create fresher ideas and
images. Such deviations from the literal meanings are called figures of speech or figurative
language. If you say that your car is your best friend, you are using a figure of speech.
There are many different kinds of figures of speech, such as metaphors, similes,
personification, hyperbole, understatement, paradox, and pun. It's important that you
understand several kinds of figures of speech.
Figures of Speech 1
A simile is a comparison between two dissimilar objects using a word like as or like to
connect them. For example, if you say, "my boyfriend is like a watermelon in the summer,"¨
you are creating a simile that compares your boyfriend with a watermelon. If on the other
hand you are mad at your boyfriend and say, "he's like a typhoon in the house," you're
comparing your boyfriend with a typhoon.
A metaphor is similar to a simile, except that a metaphor compares two dissimilar objects
without using a word like as or like. If you write, "my boyfriend is an angel" or "my motorcycle
is a bomb on wheels," you are creating metaphors.
If you present an inanimate object, animal, or abstraction with human qualities and
characteristics, as though it were a person, you are using personification. If you tell yourself
that you have to put your new pencil back in the pencil box because it's lonely and wants to
go home, you are personifying your pencil. If you say that you have to talk sweetly to your
computer because it is temperamental, you are personifying your pencil.
Figures of Speech 2:
Irony. Irony involves a contradiction. "In general, irony is the perception of a clash between
appearance and reality, between seems and is, or between ought and is" (Harper
Handbook).
Verbal irony--"Saying something contrary to what it means" (Harper Handbook). In daily
language, being ironic means that you say something but mean the opposite to what you
say. "Oh, how lucky we are to have SO MANY online materials offered by the Introduction to
Literature class!" you said, and you might mean it, or you might be just ironic. If you are
ironic, there is a contradiction between your literal meaning and your actual meaning--and
this is what we call verbal (rhetoric) irony. When the narrator in Shirley Jackson's "The
Lottery" says, "Although the villagers had forgotten the ritual and lost the original black box,
they still remembered to use stones," the tone is ironic because the villagers seem civilized,
but they are actually barbaric.
Besides verbal irony, we have two other kinds of irony: dramatic irony and situational
irony. "Dramatic irony"--"saying or doing something while unaware of its ironic contrast
with the whole truth. Dramatic irony, named for its frequency in Drama, is a verbal irony with
the speaker's awareness erased" -- so that the irony is on the speaker him/herself, but not
what s/he talks about.
191
There are a lot of examples in Dramatic Monologues. For instance, when the duke in "My
Last Duchess" says of the late duchess, "There she is, as if alilve," the irony is on him
because the duchess IS dead (though seems alive). Here the irony is not the duke's; it is on
him because he thought he posesses her, though he cannot -- alive or dead.
Situational irony-- "events turning to the opposite of what is expected or what should be.
The ironic situation --the "ought" upended by the is -- is integral to dramatic irony"(Harper
Handbook). In Alanis Morissete's "Ironic," we can see a lot of situational ironies -- or ironies
of fate.
Figures of Speech 3
Hyperbole (sometimes called overstatement) occurs when you exaggerate a point that you
are trying to make. If you say that the lights in our classroom are too bright because they are
brighter than ten thousand suns, you are using an example of hyperbole. Or if you say that
you're so hungry you could eat a million cookies and six gallon of ice cream, you're using
hyperbole.
Others:
Understatement is related to hyperbole in that understatement is the opposite of hyperbole:
understatement implies more than is actually stated. Let's say on the exam over short
stories, you receive a grade of 100 when the class average is 71. If one of your classmates
ask you how you did on the test and you reply, "I did okay," that is understatement.
A sentence that contains a paradox seems initially to have contradictory elements in it but
after some reflection those elements later make sense. To say, for example, that morning is
the darkest time for me is paradoxical since mornings are bright and full of light but they
seem mentally "dark" to me because I'm a night-person.
A pun is a play on words that occurs when one word is used that reminds you of another
word or words. You can, for example, use a word that looks like or sounds like another word.
For example, if my dad says, "he is the son and all the world to me," there is a pun on the
words son and sun.
192
Figures of Speech Definition Sheet
TERM
DEFINITION
Simile
Metaphor
Personification
Irony
Dramatic Irony
Situational Irony
Hyperbole
Understatement
Paradox
Pun
193
EXAMPLE
LITERARY TERMS Continued
Directions: Below each term, in the space on the right, please rewrite this term and its definition in
your words. In the space on the left, please illustrate your definition.
PLOT: The primary sequence of events that setup or tell a story
TYPES OF PLOT
1. Human vs. Human: the sequence of events sets up a conflict between two or more
characters.
2. Human vs. Nature: the primary conflict in this sequence of events is
between a character (or characters) and natural environment.
3. Human vs. Society: one or more of the characters experiences a
sequence of events that places him (or them) at odds with the larger
community.
4. Human vs. Self: in this sequence of events, a character struggles with
him or herself.
Your Illustration/Symbol
Human vs.
Human
Human vs.
Nature
Human vs.
Society
Human vs. Self
194
Your Words/Example
CHARACTERS: A person, persona, or identity within a fiction story
TYPES OF CHARACTERS
1. Protagonist: Typically the main character, the protagonist is usually the
character highlighted in the story, the character whom the plot revolves
around.
2. Antagonist: The source of conflict for the protagonist.
3. Minor Character: Often provides support and illuminates the protagonist.
4. Static Character: A character that remains the same.
5. Dynamic character: A character that changes in some important way.
6. Characterization: The choices an author makes to reveal a character’s personality,
such as appearance, actions, dialogue, and motivations.
Your Illustration/Symbol
Protagonist
Antagonist
Minor
Static
Dynamic
Characterization
195
Your Words/Example
POINT OF VIEW (POV): Pertains to who tells the story and how it is told. The perspective from
which the story is told.
1. Narrator: The person telling the story who may or may not be a character in the story.
2. First Person: The narrator speaks from an “I” perspective. Narrator participates in
the action but sometimes has limited knowledge/vision.
3. Second Person: Narrator addresses the reader directly as though she is part of the
story. (I.e. “You walk into your bedroom. You see clutter everywhere…”)
4. Third Person (Objective): Narrator is unnamed/unidentified (a detached observer).
Does not assume character’s perspective and is not a character in the story. The narrator
reports on events and lets the reader make inferences about the meaning.
5. Omniscient: All-knowing narrator (multiple perspectives). The narrator knows what each
character is thinking and feeling, not just what they are doing throughout the story. This type of
narrator usually jumps around within the text, following one character for a few pages or
chapters, and then switching to another character for a few pages, chapters, etc. Omniscient
narrators also sometimes step out of a particular character’s mind to evaluate him or her in some
meaningful way.
Your Illustration/Symbol
Your Words/Example
Narrator
First Person
Second Person
Third
Person/Objective
Omnescient
Other Important Literary Terms:
SETTING: Where the events of the story take place.
CONFLICT: The tension, disagreement, or discord that occurs in a story.
196
RISING ACTION: The action or events in the story that stem from the primary conflict and
lead to the climax.
CLIMAX: The point of greatest intensity in a story, a culminating point, usually led up to by
rising action and followed by a resolution.
RESOLUTION: The final outcome to solve or address the conflict.
SYMBOL: An iconic representation that stands for something larger than itself.
THEME: A Thesis or emphasized aspect of a story.
FORESHADOWING: A moment in the story when the reader feels like something to happen
later in the story is alluded to or referenced to.
Your Illustration/Symbol
Setting
Conflict
Rising Action
Climax
Resolution
Symbol
Theme
Foreshadowing
197
Your Words/Example
Research Project/Paper
198
Part One: From Subject to Research Question
In deciding what to research, you will often find it effective to take your ideas through the
following stages, from a general subject you want to find out more about to a specific
question that can guide both your research and the eventual writing of your research paper.
The following pages will guide you through this process. Here are examples of how four
ideas look at each stage:1
Subject:
Your subject is a
broad area of
knowledge that you
are interested in
Topic:
Your topic should be a
particular area within
your subject that you
want to focus your
research on
Issue:
An issue is a point of
disagreement,
uncertainty, concern
or curiosity related to
your topic
Research Question:
This question will guide
your research. Your
research paper will
answer this question.
sports
Women in competitive
sports
Steroid use among
adolescent girls
involved in
competitive sports
Alternative energy
Wind-generated
electrical power
Best strategies for
increasing U.S. use of
wind-generated
electrical power
Music
Contemporary music
The War on Drugs
International effect of
war on drugs
Resurgence in
popularity of metal
music
Impact of U.S. War on
drugs on South
American coca farmers
What should be done
about steroid use by
adolescent girls
involved in competitive
sports?
What strategy, if any,
should Californians use
to encourage local, state,
and federal governments
to increase U.S. use of
wind-generated
electrical power?
What explains the
resurgence in popularity
of metal music?
How can we reduce the
economic impact of the
war on drugs on South
American Coca
farmers?
199
Narrowing Down Your Subject
Follow the steps below to identify a subject you are interested, narrow that subject into a topic,
identify an issue relating to that topic that you want to research, and finally write a research question
that will guide the rest of your research and writing.
1. Subject Brainstorm:
Ask yourself, “What are some subjects which I am interested in finding out more about?”
These subjects could be related to things we’ve read or discussed in this class, to other classes
you’ve taken, or to one of your self-selected books. Or they could be related to other aspects of
your life and interests, such as your hobbies, your travels, your cultural background or family
history. Really, it’s up to you! List at least ten such subjects below.
1)
6)
2)
7)
3)
8)
4)
9)
5)
10)
2. Narrowing Subject to Topic:
Read back over the subjects you listed above. Choose one to develop into a research topic.
Write it here________________________________
Now ask yourself “What Interests me personally about this subject?” Write at least five
statements in answer to that question below:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
200
3. Topic to Issue: Chose one of the topics stated above to focus on in your research. Write it here:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
If you know quite a bit about this topic already, you may already be familiar with some of the
issues people involved with this topic find important, interesting, or controversial. If you don’t
know much about the topic you have chosen, you will want to skim through some articles or
watch or listen to programs or documentaries related to the topic in order to familiarize yourself
with some of the issues that might surround it. Write at least five issues related to your topic
below:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
201
Issue to Question
Now brainstorm questions that you would be interested in researching. Consider the following
sorts of questions and write at least two questions of each kind in the space provided.
Question Type
Explanation
Information
Goals
What is known—and not known—about your issue?
What do you (and your readers) want to see happen or not happen regarding
your issue?
Policies
Questions that inquire about the best procedures or approaches for carrying out
actions related to your issue.
Evaluation
Asking about strengths and weaknesses
Problem/Solution Question focuses on identifying a problem and exploring possible solutions
Cause/Effect
Questions that inquire into causes and effects related to your issue
Questions:
Information
1)
Goals
1)
Policies
1)
Evaluation
1)
Problem/Solution 1)
Cause/Effect
1)
202
Research Question
Choose one question from your question brainstorm to act as your research question. Write it in the
box below.
My Research Question
203
Self-Directed Research Paper Part Two: Annotated Bibliography
DUE:
When doing research with multiple sources, an annotated bibliography can be a very useful way of
keeping track of what you’ve read and starting to work out how you will use these sources in your final
project. A well-done annotated bibliography becomes a guide to your sources as you begin to draft
(it’s sort of like Cliff Notes to your research).
An annotated bibliography consists of three parts:
1. First, it includes bibliographical references, just like a standard bibliography, that give
information about the sources you are planning to use. THIS MUST FOLLOW
MLA!! PLEASE SEE YOUR EVERDAY WRITER TEXTBOOK FOR MORE
INFO OR USE A CITATION MACHINE, SUCH AS EASY BIB.
2. Second, it provides a brief summary (5-6 sentences) of the main points of the source as
they relate to your topic.
3. Third, it includes a critique or commentary on the source (2-4 sentences). Here you
may choose to explain how the information or opinions you just summarized will be
useful to you as you begin to draft, how you feel about them, how accurate you think
they are, how reliable the sources is and so forth.
Requirements:
 Your annotated bibliography must have a minimum of __________ sources.
 Include a summary and critique for each source as described above
 To ensure that you get practice gathering information from a number of different kinds of
sources, your annotated bibliography must include at least ____ books, ____ internet sites, and
______journal articles.
 Follow standard MLA formatting
Please see the following page for an example.
204
Lamott, Anne. Bird by Bird: Some Instructions on Writing and Life. New York: Anchor Books,
1995.
Lamott's book offers honest advice on the nature of a writing life, complete with its insecurities
and failures. Taking a humorous approach to the realities of being a writer, the chapters in Lamott's
book are wry and anecdotal and offer advice on everything from plot development to jealousy, from
perfectionism to struggling with one's own internal critic. In the process, Lamott includes writing
exercises designed to be both productive and fun. Lamott offers sane advice for those struggling with
the anxieties of writing, but her main project seems to be offering the reader a reality check regarding
writing, publishing, and struggling with one's own imperfect humanity in the process. Rather than a
practical handbook to producing and/or publishing, this text is indispensable because of its honest
perspective, its down-to-earth humor, and its encouraging approach. Chapters in this text could easily
be included in the curriculum for a writing class. Several of the chapters in Part 1 address the writing
process and would serve to generate discussion on students' own drafting and revising processes. Some
of the writing exercises would also be appropriate for generating classroom writing exercises. Students
should find Lamott's style both engaging and enjoyable.
205
Source List: Evaluating Your Sources
DUE:
Once a researcher has settled on a research question, the next step is to begin finding sources of
information.
Often, you won’t find many sources that speak directly to your research question. Because only small
bits of most sources will be really useful—and some won’t be useful at all-- it’s good to start out with a
lot of sources. You don’t have to read all these but you should skim through them to get an idea of
how valuable each source is. This process of flipping quickly through a large number of sources is
called “evaluating sources” and is an important part of the research process.
******************************************************************************
YOUR TASK!
Find ____ to ____ and sources for your research project. List sources
alphabetically by author’s last name and also include the title of the work.
Evaluate each source according to the evaluation checklist and scoring guide.
Write a very brief note to help you remember what was good or not so good about
this source and any information you’ll need to find it again (see sample and
procedure on next page).
******************************************************************************
206
Sample Source List
Research Question: What factors at school contribute to the academic achievement gap between
Latino high school students and their white peers?
Baca, Jimmy Santiago. “Becoming a Poet.” Rating: 7 Note: I thought it would tell how Baca got through school but it’s not really about that. Barton, Paul. “Parsing the Achievement Gap.” Rating: 15 Note: This has great info about a lot of main factors contributing to the achievement gap, all based on studies and thoroughly cited. Only problem is that lots of the info is about children, not high school students and it’s a little old. Kozol, Jonathan. “A Tale of Two Schools.” Rating: 16 Note: Based on a study of two high schools Kozol did himself. This guy wrote lots of books and seems to know a lot about this subject. A little old. Zinko, Carolyn. “On Track to College.” Rating: 20 Not really based on studies but Slater does lots of interviews. Seems to give an idea of how to fix the academic achievement gap. Barber, LaShawn. “Self-­‐Regulation and the Academic Achievement Gap.” Rating: 13 Note: I think this is just this woman’s blog. It just gives her opinion. Her bio says she is a freelance writer and she’s been on a bunch of TV shows, but I don’t think she’s an expert in education or anything. She does talk about a very current study on the topic though so I could look that study up. (from www.lashawnbarber.com) 207
C.A.R.S. Evaluation of a Source
Source Name:
Source Author:
Credibility Questions:
1. Is the author credible or an expert in this field of
study?
Yes
No
Yes:
No:
2. Is the source an authoritative source that supplies
some good evidence that allows you to trust it or is
it bias?
3. Is there sufficient evidence presented to make the
argument persuasive?
4. Are there compelling arguments and reasons
given?
5. Are there enough details for a reasonable
conclusion about the information
Total:
Accuracy Questions
1. Is there a date on the document?
2. Does the author avoid making assertions that are
vague or otherwise lacking detail in the source?
3. Does the source avoid using sweeping rather than
qualified language (that is, the use of always,
never, every, completely rather than usually,
seldom, sometimes, tends, and so forth)?
4. Does the source avoid using old date on
information known to change rapidly?
5. Does the source avoid having a very one-sided view
that does not acknowledge opposing views or
respond to them?
Total: 208
Yes
Reasonableness Questions
1. Does the source avoid using intemperate tone or
language ("stupid jerks," "shrill cries of my
extremist opponents")?
No
2. Does the source avoid using overclaims
("Thousands of children are murdered every day
in the United States.")?
3. Does the source avoid using sweeping statements
of excessive significance ("This is the most
important idea ever conceived!")?
4. Does the source avoid having a conflict of interest
("Welcome to the Old Stogie Tobacco Company
Home Page. To read our report, 'Cigarettes Make
You
5. Live Longer,' click here." or "When you buy a
stereo, beware of other brands that lack our
patented circuitry.")?
Total:
Support Questions
1. Does the author list where did he/she got the
information from?
2. Throughout the source is it clear where
information is coming from?
3. Is there a bibliography or other documentation?
4. Does the author provide contact information in
case you wish to discuss an issue or request
further clarification?
5. What kind of support for the information is
given?
6. Does the writer include a rebuttal?
Total:
Total of all the “yes” answers: ______________
Total of all the “no” answers: ______________
Source Evaluation Scale:
Poor Source
0-10 yes answers
Moderate Source
11-15 yes answers
Your source’s Evaluation is: ______________________________
209
Excellent Source
16-20 yes answers
C.A.R.S. Evaluation of a Source
Source Name:
Source Author:
Credibility Questions:
6. Is the author credible or an expert in this field of
study?
Yes
No
Yes:
No:
7. Is the source an authoritative source that supplies
some good evidence that allows you to trust it or is
it bias?
8. Is there sufficient evidence presented to make the
argument persuasive?
9. Are there compelling arguments and reasons
given?
10. Are there enough details for a reasonable
conclusion about the information
Total:
Accuracy Questions
6. Is there a date on the document?
7. Does the author avoid making assertions that are
vague or otherwise lacking detail in the source?
8. Does the source avoid using sweeping rather than
qualified language (that is, the use of always,
never, every, completely rather than usually,
seldom, sometimes, tends, and so forth)?
9. Does the source avoid using old date on
information known to change rapidly?
10. Does the source avoid having a very one-sided view
that does not acknowledge opposing views or
respond to them?
Total: 210
Yes
Reasonableness Questions
6. Does the source avoid using intemperate tone or
language ("stupid jerks," "shrill cries of my
extremist opponents")?
No
7. Does the source avoid using overclaims
("Thousands of children are murdered every day
in the United States.")?
8. Does the source avoid using sweeping statements
of excessive significance ("This is the most
important idea ever conceived!")?
9. Does the source avoid having a conflict of interest
("Welcome to the Old Stogie Tobacco Company
Home Page. To read our report, 'Cigarettes Make
You
10. Live Longer,' click here." or "When you buy a
stereo, beware of other brands that lack our
patented circuitry.")?
Total:
Support Questions
7. Does the author list where did he/she got the
information from?
8. Throughout the source is it clear where
information is coming from?
9. Is there a bibliography or other documentation?
10. Does the author provide contact information in
case you wish to discuss an issue or request
further clarification?
11. What kind of support for the information is
given?
12. Does the writer include a rebuttal?
Total:
Total of all the “yes” answers: ______________
Total of all the “no” answers: ______________
Source Evaluation Scale:
Poor Source
0-10 yes answers
Moderate Source
11-15 yes answers
Your source’s Evaluation is: ______________________________
211
Excellent Source
16-20 yes answers
Writing Center Tutorial Session
Name: _______________________________________________ English __________
Assignment Topic: ___________________________ Assignment Title: _______________________
Directions: Answer question #1 on this sheet before going to the Writing Center. Then, after
your tutorial session, answer questions 2 & 3 and have your tutor sign and date the sheet. Don’t
forget to take the assignment sheet/handout with you to your tutorial session!!
1. What stage of the drafting process are you currently working on? (For example: “Prewriting,”
“Drafting,” “Revising,” “Editing,” etc.)
In the space below, please write the specific area of the assignment you would like to discuss with
your writing tutor:
2. What specific recommendations did your tutor make about the above area?
3. Based on your tutor’s recommendations, what will you work on next in your assignment? (Be
as detailed as possible to help you remember later.)
Tutor’s Printed Name: _________________________________________ Date: ______________
Tutor’s Signature:__________________________________________________________________
(By signing, you’re verifying that the above information accurately reflects your tutorial session)
212
Writing Center Tutorial Session
Name: _______________________________________________ English __________
Assignment Topic: ___________________________ Assignment Title: _______________________
Directions: Answer question #1 on this sheet before going to the Writing Center. Then, after
your tutorial session, answer questions 2 & 3 and have your tutor sign and date the sheet. Don’t
forget to take the assignment sheet/handout with you to your tutorial session!!
1. What stage of the drafting process are you currently working on? (For example: “Prewriting,”
“Drafting,” “Revising,” “Editing,” etc.)
In the space below, please write the specific area of the assignment you would like to discuss with
your writing tutor:
2. What specific recommendations did your tutor make about the above area?
3. Based on your tutor’s recommendations, what will you work on next in your assignment? (Be
as detailed as possible to help you remember later.)
Tutor’s Printed Name: _________________________________________ Date: ______________
Tutor’s Signature:__________________________________________________________________
(By signing, you’re verifying that the above information accurately reflects your tutorial session)
213
Writing Center Tutorial Session
Name: _______________________________________________ English __________
Assignment Topic: ___________________________ Assignment Title: _______________________
Directions: Answer question #1 on this sheet before going to the Writing Center. Then, after
your tutorial session, answer questions 2 & 3 and have your tutor sign and date the sheet. Don’t
forget to take the assignment sheet/handout with you to your tutorial session!!
1. What stage of the drafting process are you currently working on? (For example: “Prewriting,”
“Drafting,” “Revising,” “Editing,” etc.)
In the space below, please write the specific area of the assignment you would like to discuss with
your writing tutor:
2. What specific recommendations did your tutor make about the above area?
3. Based on your tutor’s recommendations, what will you work on next in your assignment? (Be
as detailed as possible to help you remember later.)
Tutor’s Printed Name: _________________________________________ Date: ______________
Tutor’s Signature:__________________________________________________________________
(By signing, you’re verifying that the above information accurately reflects your tutorial session)
214
Writing Center Tutorial Session
Name: _______________________________________________ English __________
Assignment Topic: ___________________________ Assignment Title: _______________________
Directions: Answer question #1 on this sheet before going to the Writing Center. Then, after
your tutorial session, answer questions 2 & 3 and have your tutor sign and date the sheet. Don’t
forget to take the assignment sheet/handout with you to your tutorial session!!
1. What stage of the drafting process are you currently working on? (For example: “Prewriting,”
“Drafting,” “Revising,” “Editing,” etc.)
In the space below, please write the specific area of the assignment you would like to discuss with
your writing tutor:
2. What specific recommendations did your tutor make about the above area?
3. Based on your tutor’s recommendations, what will you work on next in your assignment? (Be
as detailed as possible to help you remember later.)
Tutor’s Printed Name: _________________________________________ Date: ______________
Tutor’s Signature:__________________________________________________________________
(By signing, you’re verifying that the above information accurately reflects your tutorial session)
215
Writing Center Tutorial Session
Name: _______________________________________________ English __________
Assignment Topic: ___________________________ Assignment Title: _______________________
Directions: Answer question #1 on this sheet before going to the Writing Center. Then, after
your tutorial session, answer questions 2 & 3 and have your tutor sign and date the sheet. Don’t
forget to take the assignment sheet/handout with you to your tutorial session!!
1. What stage of the drafting process are you currently working on? (For example: “Prewriting,”
“Drafting,” “Revising,” “Editing,” etc.)
In the space below, please write the specific area of the assignment you would like to discuss with
your writing tutor:
2. What specific recommendations did your tutor make about the above area?
3. Based on your tutor’s recommendations, what will you work on next in your assignment? (Be
as detailed as possible to help you remember later.)
Tutor’s Printed Name: _________________________________________ Date: ______________
Tutor’s Signature:__________________________________________________________________
(By signing, you’re verifying that the above information accurately reflects your tutorial session)
216
GRADING RUBRICS
217
EWRT 2 Grade Sheet, ESSAY #___:
Name: _________________
INTRODUCTION:
o The introduction has a creative attention getter and gives excellent context to set up the topic.
o The introduction mostly provides what it needs, but needs a stronger attention grabber or more layers of context.
o The introduction does not have an attention getter or context for the topic, so it needs serious attention.
THESIS:
o The thesis is effective in that it is clear, engaging, argumentative, goes beyond fact, and presents a new idea.
o The thesis is clear, but does not present an engaging or new idea, and needs a stronger argument.
o The thesis needs some serious attention so that they fulfill what was discussed in class.
TRANSITIONS:
o The paper uses transitions expertly to create flow between paragraphs and ideas.
o The paper sometimes uses transitions between paragraphs and ideas, but needs more to be effective.
o The paper does not effectively use transitions between paragraphs and ideas.
POINTS / TOPIC SENTENCES
o The Points are effective in that they are clear, go beyond fact, are sophisticated and not obvious.
o The Points are clear, but they are obvious and need to go beyond fact to something that can be proven.
o The Points need some serious attention so that they fulfill what was discussed in class.
INFORMATION / SUPPORTING EXAMPLES:
o The writer fully supports the Point with multiple and sophisticated examples.
o The writer supports the Point somewhat, but the examples are not multiple and nor sophisticated.
o The writer needs to add much more because there is not enough support for the argument to hold.
EXPLANATION OF EXAMPLES IN BODY PARAGRAPHS
o The writer provides strong, innovative, and logical analysis or interpretation of the support examples given.
o The writer provides some analysis/interpretation but could go deeper here and/or lacks logic.
o The writer has little or none of this and needs to provide it and/or the write provides illogical analysis.
CONCLUSION:
o Looks backward and explains the Body P’s and forward to what the reader should do with the info
o The conclusion has some of the elements discussed in class, but it does not fully meet the requirements.
o The conclusion does not look backward or look forward and does not logically bring the essay to a close.
GRAMMAR/SENTENCE STRUCTURE:
o The writer shows excellent control of sentence structure and grammar.
o The writer shows good control of sentence structure and grammar.
o The writer needs to spend much more time on grammar and sentence structure.
QUOTE SANDWICHES
o The Writer uses quote sandwiches excellently with quotes.
o The writer attempts to use quote sandwiches but is not effective yet.
o The writer needs to spend much more time on quote sandwiches because there are multiple errors.
MLA FORMATTING AND CITATIONS
o The writer has excellent control of MLA citations and formatting
o The writer has good control of MLA citations and formatting with some errors.
o The writer needs to spend much more time on MLA because there are multiple errors.
Grade:
Points:
/100
THINGS THAT WORKED :
THINGS TO WORK ON:
218
EWRT 2 Grade Sheet, ESSAY #___:
Name: _________________
INTRODUCTION:
o The introduction has a creative attention getter and gives excellent context to set up the topic.
o The introduction mostly provides what it needs, but needs a stronger attention grabber or more layers of context.
o The introduction does not have an attention getter or context for the topic, so it needs serious attention.
THESIS:
o The thesis is effective in that it is clear, engaging, argumentative, goes beyond fact, and presents a new idea.
o The thesis is clear, but does not present an engaging or new idea, and needs a stronger argument.
o The thesis needs some serious attention so that they fulfill what was discussed in class.
TRANSITIONS:
o The paper uses transitions expertly to create flow between paragraphs and ideas.
o The paper sometimes uses transitions between paragraphs and ideas, but needs more to be effective.
o The paper does not effectively use transitions between paragraphs and ideas.
POINTS / TOPIC SENTENCES
o The Points are effective in that they are clear, go beyond fact, are sophisticated and not obvious.
o The Points are clear, but they are obvious and need to go beyond fact to something that can be proven.
o The Points need some serious attention so that they fulfill what was discussed in class.
INFORMATION / SUPPORTING EXAMPLES:
o The writer fully supports the Point with multiple and sophisticated examples.
o The writer supports the Point somewhat, but the examples are not multiple and nor sophisticated.
o The writer needs to add much more because there is not enough support for the argument to hold.
EXPLANATION OF EXAMPLES IN BODY PARAGRAPHS
o The writer provides strong, innovative, and logical analysis or interpretation of the support examples given.
o The writer provides some analysis/interpretation but could go deeper here and/or lacks logic.
o The writer has little or none of this and needs to provide it and/or the write provides illogical analysis.
CONCLUSION:
o Looks backward and explains the Body P’s and forward to what the reader should do with the info
o The conclusion has some of the elements discussed in class, but it does not fully meet the requirements.
o The conclusion does not look backward or look forward and does not logically bring the essay to a close.
GRAMMAR/SENTENCE STRUCTURE:
o The writer shows excellent control of sentence structure and grammar.
o The writer shows good control of sentence structure and grammar.
o The writer needs to spend much more time on grammar and sentence structure.
QUOTE SANDWICHES
o The Writer uses quote sandwiches excellently with quotes.
o The writer attempts to use quote sandwiches but is not effective yet.
o The writer needs to spend much more time on quote sandwiches because there are multiple errors.
MLA FORMATTING AND CITATIONS
o The writer has excellent control of MLA citations and formatting
o The writer has good control of MLA citations and formatting with some errors.
o The writer needs to spend much more time on MLA because there are multiple errors.
Grade:
Points:
/100
THINGS THAT WORKED :
THINGS TO WORK ON:
219
EWRT 2 Grade Sheet, ESSAY #___:
Name: _________________
INTRODUCTION:
o The introduction has a creative attention getter and gives excellent context to set up the topic.
o The introduction mostly provides what it needs, but needs a stronger attention grabber or more layers of context.
o The introduction does not have an attention getter or context for the topic, so it needs serious attention.
THESIS:
o The thesis is effective in that it is clear, engaging, argumentative, goes beyond fact, and presents a new idea.
o The thesis is clear, but does not present an engaging or new idea, and needs a stronger argument.
o The thesis needs some serious attention so that they fulfill what was discussed in class.
TRANSITIONS:
o The paper uses transitions expertly to create flow between paragraphs and ideas.
o The paper sometimes uses transitions between paragraphs and ideas, but needs more to be effective.
o The paper does not effectively use transitions between paragraphs and ideas.
POINTS / TOPIC SENTENCES
o The Points are effective in that they are clear, go beyond fact, are sophisticated and not obvious.
o The Points are clear, but they are obvious and need to go beyond fact to something that can be proven.
o The Points need some serious attention so that they fulfill what was discussed in class.
INFORMATION / SUPPORTING EXAMPLES:
o The writer fully supports the Point with multiple and sophisticated examples.
o The writer supports the Point somewhat, but the examples are not multiple and nor sophisticated.
o The writer needs to add much more because there is not enough support for the argument to hold.
EXPLANATION OF EXAMPLES IN BODY PARAGRAPHS
o The writer provides strong, innovative, and logical analysis or interpretation of the support examples given.
o The writer provides some analysis/interpretation but could go deeper here and/or lacks logic.
o The writer has little or none of this and needs to provide it and/or the write provides illogical analysis.
CONCLUSION:
o Looks backward and explains the Body P’s and forward to what the reader should do with the info
o The conclusion has some of the elements discussed in class, but it does not fully meet the requirements.
o The conclusion does not look backward or look forward and does not logically bring the essay to a close.
GRAMMAR/SENTENCE STRUCTURE:
o The writer shows excellent control of sentence structure and grammar.
o The writer shows good control of sentence structure and grammar.
o The writer needs to spend much more time on grammar and sentence structure.
QUOTE SANDWICHES
o The Writer uses quote sandwiches excellently with quotes.
o The writer attempts to use quote sandwiches but is not effective yet.
o The writer needs to spend much more time on quote sandwiches because there are multiple errors.
MLA FORMATTING AND CITATIONS
o The writer has excellent control of MLA citations and formatting
o The writer has good control of MLA citations and formatting with some errors.
o The writer needs to spend much more time on MLA because there are multiple errors.
Grade:
Points:
/200
THINGS THAT WORKED :
THINGS TO WORK ON:
220
Name:_____________
Group Member Names
BIAS PROJECT TEAM GRADE SHEET
Grade out of 25
221
Group Topic:
Reason for Grade
This reader would not be possible with out the
help of the following contributors:
Special Thanks to:
Bruce Avery
Dave Denny
Bob Dickerson
Judy Hubbard
Sarah Lisha
Marilyn Patton
Julie Pesano
Jill Quigley
De Anza College’s English Dept.
SFSU’s English Dept.
SJSU’s English Dept.
If you have any suggestions for adding to the reader, please let me know.
Thanks,
Amy
222