Download «Of course, the operant rides on the respondent»

«OF COURSE, THE OPERANT RIDES ON THE
RESPONDENT»
• Eller:
• Hvordan og hvorfor
Pavlov gjør det så
vanskelig for oss.
•
Jon Arne Farsethås
•
Nafo 2015
HVORFOR TÅLER ATFERDSANALYTIKERE SÅ INDERLIG VEL NOE SÅ
FORUNDERLIG SOM AT DET IKKE FINNES NOEN ENIGHET OM
HVERKEN GRUNNLEGGENDE FENOMNER ELLER
KONSEPTUALISERINGER?
1. Snakke om ting som har forundret meg.
2. Sette et spørsmålstegn ved den hellige
tretermskontingensen.
3. Og komme trekkende med noe så gammeldags
som klassisk betinging.
4. Og lure litt på hva det er som foregår og hvorfor
det er blitt sånn.
PAVLOV + SKINNER = PREMACK ?
SÅ DET SKAL DREIE SEG OM:
• Stimuluskontroll- begrepet
• Forsterkningsbegrepet
• Og Pavloviansk betinging
• Alt fra et perspektiv som
interessert, men litt undrende turist
IT IS INEVITABLE THAT BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
WILL BE INTEGRATED INTO EVOLUTIONARY
BIOLOGY; THE QUESTION IS HOW THIS WILL
OCCUR.
THE DANGER HERE IS NOT OF BEING WRONG,
BUT OF BECOMING IRRELEVANT.
EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY WILL PUSH AHEAD
BECAUSE IT HAS THE WEIGHT OF DARWINIAN
REVOLUTION BEHIND IT. TO REMAIN RELEVANT,
BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS MUST DISCARD
ANTROPOCENTRISM AND EMBRACE
EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY.
(W. M. BAUM, 1995, P. 1 -2 )
FUNKSJONELL ATFERDSORGANISERING - ET KONTINUUM
Variasjon og seleksjon
S
S
O
R
Reflekser
FAM
Seleksjon av:
Sensoriske systemer
Motoriske systemer
Motivasjonelle systemer
Seksuell seleksjon
R
Arbitrære
relasjoner
LITT OM
• Pavlov
• Skinner
• Premack
KLASSISK BETINGING
MORO MED SIKLING (1)
MORO MED SIKLING (2)
MORO MED SIKLING (3)
MORO MED SIKLING – ELLER OVERFØRING AV
STIMULUSFUNKSJONER?
DA KLOKKEN KLANG
FORGIFTET STIMULUSKONTROLL
SIKLING I PRAKSIS – PAVLOVS HUNDER
SIKLING I PRAKSIS (3)
SIKLING I PRAKSIS - 2
FRA KILLEEN, 2014:
• Pavlov’s dogs did more than salivate when he
conditioned them; when untethered they
approached the CS+ and then the US sites, and
«showed individually distinctive action patterns to
the CS+, in some cases suggestive of soliciting, in
another of sight-pointing»
• (Jenkins, Barrera, Ireland, & Woodside,
1978,p.272).
SITATER
SITATER
• Reflexes, conditioned or otherwise are mainly
concerned with the internal physiology of the
organism.
• Skinner, SHB, 1953, s.59.
SITATER
SITATER
VIRKELIG BERØMMELSE
OG I ANVENDT ATFERDSANALYSE
• Klasssisk eller pavloviansk betinging forkommer ikke i
indeksen.
• Heller ikke autoshaping eller «sign tracking»
• De siterer Skinner, og lar det bli med det.
DAVID PREMACK:
• Har gitt opphav til tre ulike forskningstradisjoner:
• Forsterkningsteori, atferdsanalytisk
grunnforskning
• Symbolforståelse og symbolbruk hos
chinpanser. (Gavagai!)
• Theory of mind. En utvidelse av
sjimpanseforskningen, som nå er blitt en
selvfølgelig del av hele autismefeltet.
PREMACK?
DOES THE CHIMPANZEE HAVE A THEORY OF MIND?
FELLES:
•Control your conditions,
and you shall see :
•order
THE PREMACK REVOLUTION
The Premack principle took the scientific community by storm. It
was a radical departure from previous ways of thinking about
reinforcers. For the first time, scientists started thinking seriously
about reinforcers as responses rather than as special stimuli.
And, for the first time, the distinction between conditioned and
unconditioned reinforcers became irrelevant. Whether a
reinforcer reduced a drive state or only provided sensory
stimulation was also irrelevant. Premack was unconcerned with
how one response might have come to be more likely than
another. For him, the only thing that mattered was that the
reinforcer response be more likely than the instrumental
response.
Domjan, 2005
PREMACK:
THE DIFFERENTIAL PROBABILITY PRINCIPLE
• Given two responses of different likelihood, H and L,
the opportunity to perform the higher probability
response (H) after the lower probability response (L)
will result in reinforcement of response L. (L - H
reinforces L) . The opportunity to perform the lower
probability response (L) after the higher probability
response (H) will not result in reinforcement of
response H. ( H - L does not reinforce H ).
•
Domjan’s formulering
PREMACKS FULLE FORMULERING
• These results indicate how a generalization that
was stated originally for positive reinforcement
may now be broadened to include negative
reinforcement as well. Originally, the generaliztion
read: for any pair of responses, the more probable
one will reinforce the less probable one. But this
fails to distinguish between the onset and offset of
an event.
• 1965,s.164.
PREMACK’ FULLE FORMULERING:
• The generalization should now read: if the onset or
offset of one response is more probable than the
onset or offset of another, the former will reinforce
the latter – positively if the superiority is for «on»
probability and negatively if for the «off»
probability.
• 1965, s. 164
• Behavior is a sequence of actions. Premackian conditioning
occurs when one of those actions permits an animal to engage
in more biologically potent positive responses—reinforcement—
or forces them to engage in less positive (or negative)
responses —punishment. Signals of the transition from one
class of actions to another focus the instrumental responses in
the first class and inform the contingent responses in the
second class. The signals may be innate (Uss) or learned (signleaming); excitatory (leading to more positive actions) or
inhibitory (leading to less positive actions).
STULUSKONTROLL
FORUTGÅENDE STIMULI
The discriminative stimulus … shares its control with
other variables, so that the inevitability of its effect
cannot be easily demonstrated. But when all relevant
variables have been taken into account, it is not
difficult to guarantee the result – to force the
discriminated operant as inexorably as the eliciting
stimulus forces its response. (p. 112)
Skinner,1953.
FORUTGÅENDE STIMULI
• Behavior analysts have historically used the phrase stimulus
control to refer to the discriminative relation, but that does not
adequately encompass relations between EOs and behavior.
• The relation between operant behavior and its antecedent
controlling variables is similar to the one between respondent
behavior and its antecedent controlling variables.
• Schlinger & Blakely, 1994,s.45.
FORUTGÅENDE STIMULI
• [A]n event may occur without any observed antecedent event
and still be dealt with adequately in a descriptive science. I do
not mean that there are no originating forces in spontaneous
behavior but simply that they are not located in the environment.
We are not in a position to see them, and we have no need to.
This kind of behavior might be said to be emitted by the
organism, and there are appro- priate techniques for dealing
with it in that form. (P. 20)
• Skinner, 1938
MOTIVASJONELLE VARIABLER OG
STIMULUSKONTROLL
• I ”B of O” la Skinner avgjørende vekt på å skille mellom
operant og respondent atferd, i hovedsak ved å
identitifisere operant atferd med konsekvenskontroll og
respondent atferd med stimuluskontroll
• Det var to grunner 1) demonstrere avstand til
”mekanistisk S-R –teori,og 2) fremme forskning på
operant atferd ved å vektlegge den prisipielle
forskjellen fra respondent atferd.
MOTIVASJONELLE VARIABLER OG
STIMULUSKONTROLL
• Konsekvensene har vært betydelige:
• Stimuluskontroll har måttet friste en tilværelse som
atferdsanalysens fattige fetter
• Motivasjon har, ganske paradoksalt, blitt tatt som gitt, og
identifisert med forsterkningskontroll
• Motivasjonelle effekter av forutgående stimuli er i stor grad blitt
neglisjert, eller rent ut benektet.
• I den grad de har kommet i betraktning har det ikke vært i form
av evokative effekter av spesifikke stimuli,men som mer globale
”operasjoner” (MO – jfr. ”deprivasjon”)
OPERANT OG RESPONDENT
• The kind of behavior that is correlated with specific
eliciting stimuli may be called respondent behavior. …
The term is intended to carry the sense of a relation to
a prior event. Such behavior as is not under this kind of
control I shall call operant…. The term refers to a
posterior event. (p. 20)
THE PRACTITIONER OF OPERANT
CONDITIONING SCARCELY MENTIONS
MOTIVATION, SINCE IT HAS COME TO REFER
ONLY TO THOSE CONDITIONS THAT RENDER
A GIVEN EVENT REINFORCING AT A GIVEN
TIME. SINCE THE EMPHASIS IN OPERANT
CONDITIONING IS ON THE EFFECTS OF
REINFORCE- MENT, THESE MOTIVATIONAL
CONDITIONS HAVE BECOME MERE
TECHNOLOGICAL DETAILS. (PP. 139-140)
REYNOLDS,1975.
•
ONE IMPLICATION OF MICHAEL’S
DISTINCTION BETWEEN EOS AND SDS IS
THAT CERTAIN ANTECEDENT EVENTS (E.G.,
THOSE CALLED AVERSIVE STIMULI) THAT
HAVE PREVIOUSLY BEEN MISCLASSIFIED AS
SDS WILL NOW HAVE TO BE RECLASSIFIED
AS EOS.
A SECOND IMPLICATION OF THE
DISTINCTION BETWEEN EOS AND SDS, IS
THAT BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS WILL NOW HAVE
TO RETHINK THE BASIC UNITS OF BEHAVIOR.
SCHLINGER,1993,S.207.
Språket er en hud. Jeg stryker mitt
språk mot den andres. Som om jeg
hadde ord i stedet for fingre, eller
fingre på ordtuppene. Mitt språk
skjelver av begjær.
Roland Barthes
OPERANT OG RESPONDENT
• Pavlovian and operant conditioning procedures
can be thoutht of as techniques that use
learning to organize and engage the expression
of a behavior system.
•
Timberlake.
RESPONDENT OG OPERANT
• The expression of a behavior
system is based on both
preorganized and learned relations
among stimuli, responses and
states
• Domjan,2005
OPERANT OG RESPONDENT
• The behavior systems approach attempts to
make explicit the perceptual-motor and
motivational structures and processes that the
subject brings to any circumstances.
•
Timberlake.
OPERANT OG RESPONDENT
• Pavlovian conditioning is the result
of the interaction of Pavlovian
procedures with a functional
system of behavior.
• Domjan, 2005
• The potency of an action has phylogenetic origins, but may be
conditioned by proximity to more potent responses, such as
consummation of a reinforcer. With practice instrumental
responses may take on Increased strength, and in some cases
become motivationally autonomous—become habits. Stimuli or
responses that signal the availability of more positive actiotions
may become incentive motivators that animals will approach.
Discriminative stimuli do not have intrinsic value as reinforcers,
but only the value derived from the responses that they release.
• Domjan
• These forces bend an animal’s trajectory through its
stimulus-action-time context into a path that leads more
directly to positive actions. The association of actions
(conditioned responses, operants, and observing
responses) with actions of different potency (ultimately
unconditioned responses or consummatory behavior) is
the primary association in Premackian conditioning. All
Other types of conditioning may be interpreted as
instances of such Premackian conditioning.
DID YOU KNOW THAT:
Learning is constrained by the organism’s unconditioned behavior
Unconditioned behavior is organized in complex and systematic ways.
Organized elicited behavior can result in well coordinated social
interactions.
Behavior in a complex environment can be governed by small, isolated
stimulus features.
Species-typical or instinctive behavior is not invariant but modulated by the
animal’s motivational state.
DID YOU KNOW THAT:
•
Avoidance is a form of instrumental conditioning in which the instrumental response prevents
the delivery of an aversive stimulus.
•
No major theory assumes that avoidance behavior is reinforced by the absence of the
avoided aversive stimulus.
•
Although avoidance is a form of instrumental behavior. Theories of avoidance learning rely
heavily on concepts from Pavlovian conditioning. In many situations, avoidance learning is
assumed to involve learning about internal temporal cues and proprioceptive or feedback
cues.
•
Avoidance behavior is strongly determined by the preexisting defensive behavior of the
organism.
DID YOU KNOW THAT:
• Pavlov viewed classical conditioning as a technique t for studying
the brain.
• Classical conditioning is not limited to glandular and visceral
responses.
• ‘ The conditioned response is not always like the unconditioned
response.
• Conditioned stimuli become part of the behavior system activated
by the unconditioned stimulus.
DID YOU KNOW THAT:
• Pavlovian conditioning often involves S-S learning rather than S-R
learning.
• Which stimulus can serve as a conditioned stimulus in classical
conditioning depends on the unconditioned stimulus that is used.
• Associative learning is possible in the random control procedure.
• Pavlovian conditioning is involved in a wide range of behaviors
including preferences and aversions, fears and phobias, drug
tolerance and addiction, and maternal and sexual behavior.
DID YOU KNOW THAT:
•
According to the Rescorla-Wagner model, learning about one stimulus depends on the
associative value of other concurrently present stimuli.
•
A CS can lose associative strength even though it is paired with a US.
•
Contrary to evidence, the Rescorla-Wagner model predicts that presentations of a
conditioned inhibitor by itself will result in loss or extinction of the inhibition.
FORSTERKNING?
PARADIGMER
• And so many rival formulations are proposed in all the branches
of science thatinvestigators have become accustomed to the
notion that no theory is absolutely a transcript of reality, but that
any one of them may from some point of view be useful. Their
great use is to summarize old facts and to lead to new ones.
They are only a man-made language, a conceptual shorthand,..
In which we write our reports of nature … (1907, pp. 48—49).
• William James
The concept of reinforcement is at least incomplete and almost certainly incorrect. An alternative way of
organizing our understanding of behavior may be built around three concepts: allocation, induction, and
correlation. Allocation is the measure of behavior and captures the centrality of choice: All behavior entails
choice and consists of choice. Allocation changes as a result of induction and correlation. The term induction
covers phenomena such as adjunctive, interim, and terminal behavior—behavior induced in a situation by
occurrence of food or another Phylogenetically Important Event (PIE) in that situation. Induction resembles
stimulus control in that no one-to-one relation exists between induced behavior and the inducing event. If one
allowed that some stimulus control were the result of phylogeny, then induction and stimulus control would be
identical, and a PIE would resemble a discriminative stimulus. Much evidence supports the idea that a PIE
induces all PIE-related activities. Research also supports the idea that stimuli correlated with PIEs become PIErelated conditional inducers. Contingencies create correlations between “operant” activity (e.g., lever pressing)
and PIEs (e.g., food). Once an activity has become PIE-related, the PIE induces it along with other PIE-related
activities. Contingencies also constrain possible performances. These constraints specify feedback functions,
which explain phenomena such as the higher response rates on ratio schedules in comparison with interval
schedules. Allocations that include a lot of operant activity are “selected” only in the sense that they generate
more frequent occurrence of the PIE within the constraints of the situation; contingency and induction do the
“selecting.”
Baum, W.M. (2012). Rethinking reinforcement: Allocation, induction, and contingency. Journal of the
Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 97, 101-124.
RUTH ANNE REHFELDT AND LINDA J. HAYES (FORTS)
• Hence, every instance of an operant contains an
embedded respondent, which operant thinkers would
do well to consider (Rescorla, 1988; Rescorla &
Holland, 1976).
• Our job, then. Is to distinguish one from the other in a
given stream of behavior.
• However, this has not proven to be an easy task.
MER OM KLASSISK BETINGING
HABITUERING OG SENSITISERING
HEBB SOM KLASSISK BETINGING
HVOR HAR DET VÆRT FORSKET MEST OG MED
BEST RESULTATER?
• Fysiologi og kroppsinterne prosesser (alt tenkelig)
• Inkludert placeboeffekter
• Inkludert immunsystemet (f.eks allergier)
• Amming
• Spising og mataversjoner
• Sex
• Stoffmisbruk
• Frykt
• Responsallokering (matching)
PAVLOVIANSKE PROSEDYRER
SIGN TRACKING
BETINGING AV BLUNKEREFLEKSEN
BETINGING AV FRYKTRESPONSER
BETINGING AV FRYKTRESPONSER
FOR KJØDET BEGJÆRER IMOT ÅNDEN, OG
ÅNDEN IMOT KJØDET; DE STÅR HVERANDRE
IMOT, SÅ I IKKE SKAL GJØRE DET I VIL.
PAULUS’ BREV TIL GALATERNE, 5.17
FRYKTBANER
AMYGDALAKJERNER
AMYGDALA – BETINGING
SEKUNDÆR SPRÅKLIG BETINGING
EMOTION CONSISTS OF PATTERNS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL
RESPONSES AND SPECIES-TYPICAL BEHAVIORS. IN
HUMANS THESE RESPONSES ARE ACCOMPANIED BY
FEELINGS.
...MOST OF US USE THE WORD EMOTION TO REFER TO
THE FEELINGS, NOT TO THE BEHAVIORS. BUT IT IS
BEHAVIOR, AND NOT PRIVATE EXPERIENCE, THAT HAS
CONSEQUENCES FOR SURVIVAL AND REPRODUCTION.
THUS THE USEFUL PURPOSES SERVED BY EMOTIONAL
BEHAVIORS ARE WHAT GUIDED THE EVOLUTION OF OUR
BRAIN. THE FEELINGS THAT ACCOMPANY THESE
BEHAVIORS CAME RATHER LATE IN THE GAME.
• Carlson, 2004, s. 343
HVA ER VIKTIG?
Ikke viktig:
• Antall trials
• US varighet/intensitet
• CS intensitet
• CS – US Kontiguitet
Viktig:
• Kontingens (Jfr. Rescorla-Wagner modellen)
OPPSUMMERING GOTTLIEB:
• Pavlovian learing can be very quick
• Conditioned responding can be of very
large magnitudes
• There are a great variety of Pavlovian CS,
and not all of them are amenable to
intervention.
• Once a relationship is established, it is very
hard to get rid of.
FRA KILLEEN, 2014:
• Animals may hunt when satiated (Morgan, 1974),
work for food when work is unnecessary
(Neuringer, 1970b), work for it in the presence of
free food (Mason, Bateson, & Bean, 1999;
Neuringer, 1970a; Osborne, 1978) and misbehave
in general (Boakes, Poli, Lockwood, & Goodall,
1978; Timberlake et al., 1982). (Some of these
phenomena has been shown to be reversible by
Premackian constraint.
FRA KILLEEN, 2014:
• Such «misbehavior» should not happen if the
response were instrumental – goal directed –
rather than released by the CS. But that may be
due to a misperception of the animal’s goals by the
experimenter. The categories of elicited, acquired,
emitted/operant are neither exclusive nor fixed.
The intrinsic attractiveness of links on the action
chain may wax and wane.
Definisjon av forsterkning.
 The proposed principle of selection by reinforcement
holds that whenever a behavioral discrepancy occurs,
an environment-behavior relation is selected that
consists – other things being equal – of all those
stimuli occurring immediately before the discrepancy
and those responses occurring immediately before and
at the same time as the elicited response.
 (Donahoe & Palmer, 1994, s.49)
OPERANT / RESPONDENT
Sign tracking
SELEKSJON, OPERANTER OG RESPONDENTER
• The environment is always present and the organism
is always behaving. Thus while the respondent and
operant procedures may appear quite different from
the
experi-menter’s
perspective,
they
are
fundamentally similar from the organism’s perspective
---- and it is the organism’s perspective upon which
selection must be based.
• Donehoe, The Selectionist Account of Verbal Behavior, 1991,
p. 119.
SELEKSJON, OPERANT OG RESPONDENT
• Since both environmental and behavioral events
necessarily precede every elicitation process, the
respondent and operant procedures are best viewed --- not
as two types of conditioning --- but as simply two laboratory
techniques that differ with respect to which relationship with
the elicitation process that is manipulated by the
experimenter and which is left relatively free to vary.
• Donehoe, The Selectionist Account of Verbal Behavior, 1991, p. 223.
•
The distinction between operant and respondent behavior classes has received
considerable attention throughout the history of behavior analysis. Some have contended
that because operant and respondent processes share a number of similarities, the
distinction should be dropped. Others, for lack of a better theoretical alternative, have
supported the continued distinction. It is suggested that the failure of behavlor analysts to
recognize the ever-present role of respondent relations in operant conditioning
experiments may be impeding the formulation of an effective explanation for stimulus
equivalence, which has been investigated primarily as an operant phenomenon.
Conceptual issues historically relevant to the operant-respondent distinction are
discussed, and equivalence researchers are urged to consider the involvement of both
classes of behavior in their analyses.
•
RUTH ANNE REHFELDT and LINDA J. HAYES , 1998
RUTH ANNE REHFELDT AND LINDA J. HAYES (FORTS.)
The problem, as Schoenfeld (1976) explains, is that behavior as it
naturally occurs Is not partitionable Into separate instances,
although we may choose to record it that way. Behavior does not
occur on a trial-to-trial basis, but rather occurs as alontinuous
«stream» {Schoenfeld ,1976). Conceptualized this way, it is
apparent that behavior streams of both operants and respondents
involve stimuli and responses. Donahoe, Burgos, and Palmer
(1993) assert that in operant preparations, organisms are always in
contact with some source of stimulation prior to reinforcer
deliveries, such that respondent relations between stimuli may also
be established along with operant relations between reinforcers
and responses.
KLASSISK/ OPERANT OVERFØRING
BIOLOGISK TILORDNING
THE EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM
• New data on conditionioning processes
favor an eclecticism between the traditional
nativist and environmentalist extremes in
the analysis of behavior. .. The theory of
behavior based on conditioning processes
can be reconciled with the new data, but
only by revising certain tacit assumptions
about the parameters of the conditioning
processes, particularly instrumental or
operant conditioning.
• Herrnstein, 1977
THE EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM
• Operant conditioning specifies how stimuli, responses, reinforcers,
and drive states are woven into relationships that shape and
sustain an organism’s behavior. The new data undermine
traditional assumptions about each of those elements rather than
about the form of their relationship. Because some of the
assumptions fall under the heading of motivation, it is concluded
that behaviorism is at last reflecting motivation’s subtleties, after
several decades of failing to do so. Thus refined, behaviorism
appears to merge with the main lines of ethology as a more
complete science of behavior than either one alone has been.
• R. J. Herrnstein
• American Psychologist, 1977.
TYPISK:
• «Neurophysiology may be omitted because it reveals only
mechanism»
• Skinner:
• I am not overlooking the advance that is made in the unification
of knowledge when terms on one level of analysis are
defined(«explained at a lower level…..What is generally not
understood by those interested in establishing neurological
bases is that a rigorous description at the level of behavior is
necessary for the demonstartion of a neurological correlate.
(1938)
TEORIER OM FORSTERKNING
• Thorndike (SR – O)
• Drivreduksjon (Hull) Primær/sekundær – forsterkere +
sensorisk forsterkning
• Premack
• Responsdeprivasjonshypotesen
• Behavioral Bliss Point (en slags variant av Premack)
• Skinner (i prinsippet ikke interessert)
• Donahoe & Palmer (the biobehavioral unified approach)
SKINNER 1937
• There are two fundamental cases: in one the
reinforcing stimulus is correlated temporally with a
response and in the other with a stimulus.
• Han aksepterer uten kommentar Hilgard påstand om at
«reinforcement is essentially the same process in both
[procedyres].
• Og siterer Mowrer på at «the two processes may
eventually be reduced to a single formulation.
• Disciminative stimuliare practically inevitable after
conditioning.
OG SOM ALLTID:
• Alt var mye bedre før
• Det er nok endra bedre nå:
• Men bekymring:
• Ideologisk og akademisk akseptans
FEM FARER FOR ATFERDSANALYSENS FRAMTID
(HAYES 2001):
• Redskapspussing
• Gleden over presis irrelevans
• Heltedyrkelse
• Selvrettferdighets- og
selvgratulasjonskulturen
• Manglende rekruttering og akademisk
fotfeste.
• Certainly, no current formulation will seem
right fifty years hence.
• B.F. Skinner.
Tretermskontingensen : Revisited
Sd - Or - Sr
SOM ALLTID:
There is a crack in everything
that is how the light gets in