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BLACKRECONSTRUCTIONINAMERICA
bythesameauthor
DARKWATER'.
VOICESFROMWITHINTHEVEIL
DARKPRINCESS
AdVirginiamVitaeSalvatorem
DigitizedbytheInternetArchivein2013
http://archive.org/details/blackreconstrucOOdubo
TOTHEREADER
ThestoryoftransplantingmillionsofAfricanstothenewworld,andoftheirbondageforfour
centuries,isafascinatingone.Particularlyinterestingforstudentsofhumancultureisthe
suddenfreeingoftheseblackfolkintheNineteenthCenturyandtheattempt,throughthem,
toreconstructthebasisofAmericandemocracyfrom1860-1880.
Thisbookseekstotellandinterpretthesetwentyyearsoffatefulhistorywithespecial
referencetotheeffortsandexperiencesoftheNegroesthemselves.
Fortheopportunityofmakingthisstudy,IhavetothanktheTrusteesoftheRosenwald
Fund,whomademeagrantcoveringtwoyears;theDirectorsoftheNationalAssociationfor
theAdvancementofColoredPeople,whoallowedmetimeforthewriting;thePresidentof
AtlantaUniversity,whogavemehelpandasylumduringthecompletionofthework;andthe
TrusteesoftheCarnegieFundwhocontributedtowardthefinishingofthemanuscript.I
needhardlyaddthatnoneofthesepersonsareinanywayresponsiblefortheviewsherein
expressed.
Itwouldbeonlyfairtothereadertosayfranklyinadvancethattheattitudeofanyperson
towardthisstorywillbedistinctlyinfluencedbyhistheoriesoftheNegrorace.Ifhebelieves
thattheNegroinAmericaandingeneralisanaverageandordinaryhumanbeing,whounder
givenenvironmentdevelopslikeotherhumanbeings,thenhewillreadthisstoryandjudgeit
bythefactsadduced.If,however,heregardstheNegroasadistinctlyinferiorcreation,who
canneversuccessfullytakepartinmoderncivilizationandwhoseemancipationand
enfranchisementweregesturesagainstnature,thenhewillneedsomethingmorethanthe
sortoffactsthatIhavesetdown.Butthislatterperson,Iamnottryingtoconvince.Iam
simplypointingoutthesetwopointsofview,soobvioustoAmericans,andthenwithout
furtherado,Iamassumingthetruthofthefirst.Infine,Iamgoingtotellthisstoryas
thoughNegroeswereordinaryhumanbeings,realizingthatthisattitudewillfromthefirst
seriouslycurtailmyaudience.
W.E.BURGHARDTDUBOIS
Atlanta,December,1934
BLACKRECONSTRUCTIONINAMERICA
I.THEBLACKWORKER
Howblackmen,comingtoAmericainthesixteenth,seventeenth,eighteenthandnineteenth
centuries,becameacentralthreadinthehistoryoftheUnitedStates,atonceachallengeto
itsdemocracyandalwaysanimportantpartofitseconomichistoryand
socialdevelopment
EasilythemostdramaticepisodeinAmericanhistorywasthesuddenmovetofreefour
millionblackslavesinanefforttostopagreatcivilwar,toendfortyyearsofbitter
controversy,andtoappeasethemoralsenseofcivilization.
Fromthedayofitsbirth,theanomalyofslaveryplaguedanationwhichassertedtheequality
ofallmen,andsoughttoderivepowersofgovernmentfromtheconsentofthegoverned.
Withinsoundofthevoicesofthosewhosaidthislivedmorethanhalfamillionblackslaves,
formingnearlyone-fifthofthepopulationofanewnation.
Theblackpopulationatthetimeofthefirstcensushadrisentothree-quartersofamillion,
andtherewereoveramillionatthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury.Before1830,the
blackshadpassedthetwomillionmark,helpedbytheincreasedimportationsjustbefore
1808,andtheillicitsmugglingupuntil1820.Bytheirownreproduction,theNegroesreached
3,638,808in1850,andbeforetheCivilWar,stoodat4,441,830.Theywere10%ofthewhole
populationofthenationin1700,22%in1750,18.9%in1800and1.1.6%in1900.
TheseworkerswerenotallblackandnotallAfricansandnotallslaves.Ini860,atleast90%
werebornintheUnitedStates,13%werevisiblyofwhiteaswellasNegrodescentand
actuallymorethanone-fourthwereprobablyofwhite,IndianandNegroblood.Ini860,11%
ofthesedarkfolkwerefreeworkers.
Inorigin,theslavesrepresentedeverythingAfrican,althoughmostofthemoriginatedonor
neartheWestCoast.YetamongthemappearedthegreatBantutribesfromSierraLeoneto
SouthAfrica;theSudanese,straightacrossthecenterofthecontinent,fromtheAtlanticto
theValleyoftheNile;theNiloticNegroesandtheblackandbrownHamites,alliedwith
Egypt;thetribesofthegreatlakes;thePygmiesandtheHottentots;andinadditiontothese,
distincttracesofbothBerberandArabblood.Thereisnodoubtofthepresenceofallthese
variouselementsinthemassof10,000,000ormoreNegroes
transportedfromAfricatothevariousAmericas,fromthefifteenthtothenineteenth
centuries.
MostofthemthatcametothecontinentwentthroughWestIndiantutelage,andthusfinally
appearedintheUnitedStates.Theybroughtwiththemtheirreligionandrhythmicsong,and
sometracesoftheirartandtribalcustoms.Andafteralapseoftwoandone-halfcenturies,
theNegroesbecameasettledworkingpopulation,speakingEnglishorFrench,professing
Christianity,andusedprincipallyinagriculturaltoil.Moreover,theysomingledtheirblood
withwhiteandredAmericathattodaylessthan25%oftheNegroAmericansareofunmixed
Africandescent.
Solongasslaverywasamatterofraceandcolor,itmadetheconscienceofthenationuneasy
andcontinuallyaffronteditsideals.ThemenwhowrotetheConstitutionsoughtbyevery
evasion,andalmostbysubterfuge,tokeeprecognitionofslaveryoutofthebasicformofthe
newgovernment.Theyfoundedtheirhopesontheprohibitionoftheslavetrade,beingsure
thatwithoutcontinualadditionsfromabroad,thistropicalpeoplewouldnotlongsurvive,
andthustheproblemofslaverywoulddisappearindeath.Theymiscalculated,ordidnot
foreseethechangingeconomicworld.ItmightbemoreprofitableintheWestIndiestokill
theslavesbyoverworkandimportcheapAfricans;butinAmericawithoutaslavetrade,it
paidtoconservetheslaveandlethimmultiply.When,therefore,manifestlytheNegroes
werenotdyingout,therecamequitenaturallynewexcusesandexplanations.Itwasamatter
ofsocialcondition.Graduallythesepeoplewouldbefree;butfreedomcouldonlycometothe
bulkasthefreedweretransplantedtotheirownlandandcountry,sincethelivingtogetherof
blackandwhiteinAmericawasunthinkable.Soagainthenationwaited,anditsconscience
sanktosleep.
Butinarichandeagerland,wealthandworkmultiplied.Theytwistednewandintricate
patternsaroundtheearth.Slowlybutmightilytheseblackworkerswereintegratedinto
modernindustry.OnfreeandfertilelandAmericansraised,notsimplysugarasacheap
sweetening,riceforfoodandtobaccoasanewandticklingluxury;buttheybegantogrowa
fiberthatclothedthemassesofaraggedworld.Cottongrewsoswiftlythatthe9,000balesof
cottonwhichthenewnationscarcelynoticedin1791became79,000in1800;andwiththis
increase,walkedeconomicrevolutioninadozendifferentlines.Thecottoncropreachedonehalfmillionbalesin1822,amillionbalesin1831,twomillionin1840,threemillionin1852,
andintheyearofsecession,stoodatthethenenormoustotaloffivemillionbales.
Suchfactsandothers,coupledwiththeincreaseoftheslavestowhichtheywererelatedas
bothcauseandeffect,meantanew
world;andallthemoresobecausewithincreaseinAmericancottonandNegroslaves,came
bothbychanceandingenuitynewmiraclesformanufacturing,andparticularlyforthe
spinningandweavingofcloth.
Thegiantforcesofwaterandofsteamwereharnessedtodotheworld'swork,andtheblack
workersofAmericabentatthebottomofagrowingpyramidofcommerceandindustry;and
theynotonlycouldnotbespared,ifthisneweconomicorganizationwastoexpand,but
rathertheybecamethecauseofnewpoliticaldemandsandalignments,ofnewdreamsof
powerandvisionsofempire.
Firstofall,theirworkcalledforwideningstretchesofnew,rich,blacksoil—inFlorida,in
Louisiana,inMexico;eveninKansas.Thisland,addedtocheaplabor,andlaboreasily
regulatedanddistributed,madeprofitssohighthatawholesystemofculturearoseinthe
South,withanewleisureandsocialphilosophy.Blacklaborbecamethefoundationstonenot
onlyoftheSouthernsocialstructure,butofNorthernmanufactureandcommerce,ofthe
Englishfactorysystem,ofEuropeancommerce,ofbuyingandsellingonaworld-widescale;
newcitieswerebuiltontheresultsofblacklabor,andanewlaborproblem,involvingall
whitelabor,arosebothinEuropeandAmerica.
Thus,theolddifficultiesandparadoxesappearedinnewdress.Itbecameeasytosayand
easiertoprovethattheseblackmenwerenotmeninthesensethatwhitemenwere,and
couldneverbe,inthesamesense,free.Theirslaverywasamatterofbothraceandsocial
condition,buttheconditionwaslimitedanddeterminedbyrace.Theywerecongenitalwards
andchildren,tobewell-treatedandcaredfor,butfarhappierandsaferherethanintheirown
land.AstheRichmond,Virginia,Examinerputitin1854:
"LetusnotbotherourbrainsaboutwhatProvidenceintendstodowithourNegroesinthe
distantfuture,butgloryinandprofittotheutmostbywhatHehasdoneforthemin
transplantingthemhere,andsettingthemtoworkonourplantations....Truephilanthropy
totheNegro,begins,likecharity,athome;andifSouthernmenwouldactasifthecanopyof
heavenwereinscribedwithacovenant,inlettersoffire,thattheNegroishere,andhere
forever;isourproperty,andoursforever;...theywouldaccomplishmoregoodfortherace
infiveyearsthantheyboasttheinstitutionitselftohaveaccomplishedintwocenturies...."
Ontheotherhand,thegrowingexploitationofwhitelaborinEurope,theriseofthefactory
system,theincreasedmonopolyofland,andtheproblemofthedistributionofpolitical
power,begantosendwaveafterwaveofimmigrantstoAmerica,lookingfornewfreedom,
newopportunityandnewdemocracy.
TheopportunityforrealandnewdemocracyinAmericawasbroad.Politicalpoweratfirst
was,asusual,confinedtopropertyholdersandanaristocracyofbirthandlearning.Butitwas
neversecurelybasedonland.Landwasfreeandbothlandandpropertywerepossibleto
nearlyeverythriftyworker.Schoolsbeganearlytomultiplyandopentheirdoorseventothe
poorlaborer.BirthbegantocountforlessandlessandAmericabecametotheworldalandof
economicopportunity.SotheworldcametoAmerica,evenbeforetheRevolution,and
afterwardsduringthenineteenthcentury,nineteenmillionimmigrantsenteredtheUnited
States.
Whenwecomparethesefigureswiththecottoncropandtheincreaseofblackworkers,we
seehowtheeconomicproblemincreasedinintricacy.Thisintricacyisshownbythepersons
inthedramaandtheirdifferingandopposinginterests.Therewerethenative-born
Americans,largelyofEnglishdescent,whowerethepropertyholdersandemployers;and
evensofarastheywerepoor,theylookedforwardtothetimewhentheywouldaccumulate
capitalandbecome,astheyputit,economically"independent."Thentherewerethenew
immigrants,tornwithacertainviolencefromtheiroldersocialandeconomicsurroundings;
strangersinanewland,withvisionsofrisinginthesocialandeconomicworldbymeansof
labor.Theydifferedinlanguageandsocialstatus,varyingfromthehalf-starvedIrishpeasant
totheeducatedGermanandEnglishartisan.TherewerethefreeNegroes:thoseoftheNorth
freeinsomecasesformanygenerations,andvoters;andinothercases,fugitives,newcome
fromtheSouth,withlittleskillandsmallknowledgeoflifeandlaborintheirnew
environment.TherewerethefreeNegroesoftheSouth,anunstable,harriedclass,livingon
sufferanceofthelaw,andthegoodwillofwhitepatrons,andyetrisingtobeworkersand
sometimesownersofpropertyandevenofslaves,andculturedcitizens.Therewasthegreat
massofpoorwhites,disinheritedoftheireconomicportionbycompetitionwiththeslave
system,andlandmonopoly.
IntheearlierhistoryoftheSouth,freeNegroeshadtherighttovote.Indeed,sofarasthe
letterofthelawwasconcerned,therewasnotasingleSoutherncolonyinwhichablackman
whoownedtherequisiteamountofproperty,andcompliedwithotherconditions,didnotat
someperiodhavethelegalrighttovote.
NegroesvotedinVirginiaaslateas1723,whentheassemblyenactedthatnofreeNegro,
mulattoorIndian"shallhereafterhaveanyvoteattheelectionsofburgessesoranyelection
whatsoever."InNorthCarolina,bytheActof1734,aformerdiscriminationagainstNegro
voterswaslaidasideandnotreenacteduntil1835.
AcomplaintinSouthCarolina,in1701,said:
"SeveralfreeNegroeswerereceiv'd,&takenforasgoodElectorsasthebestFreeholdersin
theProvince.SothatweleaveitwithYourLordshipstojudgewhetheradmittingAliens,
Strangers,Servants,Negroes,&c,asgoodandqualifiedVoters,canbethoughtanyways
agreeabletoKingCharles'PatenttoYourLordships,ortheEnglishConstitutionof
Government."Againin1716,JewsandNegroes,whohadbeenvoting,wereexpressly
excluded.InGeorgia,therewasatfirstnocolordiscrimination,althoughonlyownersoffifty
acresoflandcouldvote.In1761,votingwasexpresslyconfinedtowhitemen.1
InthestatescarvedoutoftheSouthwest,theyweredisfranchisedassoonasthestatecame
intotheUnion,althoughinKentuckytheyvotedbetween1792and1799,andTennessee
allowedfreeNegroestovoteinherconstitutionof1796.
InNorthCarolina,whereevendisfranchisement,in1835,didnotapplytoNegroeswho
alreadyhadtherighttovote,itwassaidthattheseveralhundredNegroeswhohadbeen
votingbeforethenusuallyvotedprudentlyandjudiciously.
InDelawareandMarylandtheyvotedinthelatterpartoftheeighteenthcentury.In
Louisiana,Negroeswhohadhadtherighttovoteduringterritorialstatuswerenot
disfranchised.
Tosumup,incolonialtimes,thefreeNegrowasexcludedfromthesuffrageonlyinGeorgia,
SouthCarolinaandVirginia.IntheBorderStates,DelawaredisfranchisedtheNegroin1792;
Marylandin1783and1810.
IntheSoutheast,FloridadisfranchisedNegroesin1845;andintheSouthwest,Louisiana
disfranchisedthemin1812;Mississippiin1817;Alabamain1819;Missouri,1821;Arkansas
in1836;Texas,1845.Georgiainherconstitutionof1777confinedvoterstowhitemales;but
thiswasomittedintheconstitutionsof1789and1798.
AsslaverygrewtoasystemandtheCottonKingdombegantoexpandintoimperialwhite
domination,afreeNegrowasacontradiction,athreatandamenace.Asathiefanda
vagabond,hethreatenedsociety;butasaneducatedpropertyholder,asuccessfulmechanic
orevenprofessionalman,hemorethanthreatenedslavery.Hecontradictedandundermined
it.Hemustnotbe.Hemustbesuppressed,enslaved,colonized.Andnothingsobadcouldbe
saidabouthimthatdidnoteasilyappearastruetoslaveholders.
IntheNorth,Negroes,forthemostpart,receivedpoliticalenfranchisementwiththewhite
laboringclasses.In1778,theCongressoftheConfederationtwicerefusedtoinserttheword
"white"intheArticlesofConfederationinassertingthatfreeinhabitantsineachstateshould
beentitledtoalltheprivilegesandimmunitiesoffreecitizensoftheseveralstates.Inthelaw
of1783,freeNegroeswere
recognizedasabasisoftaxation,andin1784,theywererecognizedasvotersinthe
territories.IntheNorthwestOrdinanceof1787,"freemaleinhabitantsoffullage"were
recognizedasvoters.
ThefewNegroesthatwereinMaine,NewHampshireandVermontcouldvoteiftheyhadthe
propertyqualifications.InConnecticuttheyweredisfranchisedin1814;in1865this
restrictionwasretained,andNegroesdidnotregaintherightuntilaftertheCivilWar.InNew
Jersey,theyweredisfranchisedin1807,butregainedtherightin1820andlostitagainin
1847.NegroesvotedinNewYorkintheeighteenthcentury,thenweredisfranchised,butin
1821werepermittedtovotewithadiscriminatorypropertyqualificationof$250.Noproperty
qualificationwasrequiredofwhites.Attemptsweremadeatvarioustimestoremovethis
qualificationbutitwasnotremoveduntil1870.InRhodeIslandtheyweredisfranchisedin
theconstitutionwhichfollowedDorr'sRebellion,butfinallyallowedtovotein1842.In
Pennsylvania,theywereallowedtovoteuntil1838whenthe"reform"conventionrestricted
thesuffragetowhites.
TheWesternStatesasterritoriesdidnotusuallyrestrictthesuffrage,butastheywere
admittedtotheUniontheydisfranchisedtheNegroes:Ohioin1803;Indianain1816;Illinois
in1818;Michiganin1837;Iowain1846;Wisconsinin1848;Minnesotain1858;andKansas
in1861.
TheNorthwestOrdinanceandeventheLouisianaPurchasehadmadenocolordiscrimination
inlegalandpoliticalrights.Butthestatesadmittedfromthisterritory,specificallyandfrom
thefirst,deniedfreeblackmentherighttovoteandpassedcodesofblacklawsinOhio,
Indianaandelsewhere,instigatedlargelybytheattitudeandfearsoftheimmigrantpoor
whitesfromtheSouth.Thus,atfirst,inKansasandtheWest,theproblemoftheblack
workerwasnarrowandspecific.NeithertheNorthnortheWestaskedthatblacklaborinthe
UnitedStatesbefreeandenfranchised.Onthecontrary,theyacceptedslavelaborasafact;
buttheyweredeterminedthatitshouldbeterritoriallyrestricted,andshouldnotcompete
withfreewhitelabor.
WhatwasthisindustrialsystemforwhichtheSouthfoughtandriskedlife,reputationand
wealthandwhichagrowingelementintheNorthviewedfirstwithhesitatingtolerance,then
withdistasteandfinallywitheconomicfearandmoralhorror?Whatdiditmeantobea
slave?Itishardtoimagineittoday.Wethinkofoppressionbeyondallconception:cruelty,
degradation,whippingandstarvation,theabsolutenegationofhumanrights;oronthe
contrary,wemaythinkoftheordinaryworkertheworldovertoday,slavingten,twelve,or
fourteenhoursaday,withnotenoughtoeat,compelledby
hisphysicalnecessitiestodothisandnottodothat,curtailedinhismovementsandhis
possibilities;andwesay,here,too,isaslavecalleda"freeworker,"andslaveryismerelya
matterofname.
Buttherewasin1863arealmeaningtoslaverydifferentfromthatwemayapplytothe
laborertoday.Itwasinpartpsychological,theenforcedpersonalfeelingofinferiority,the
callingofanotherMaster;thestandingwithhatinhand.Itwasthehelplessness.Itwasthe
de-fenselessnessoffamilylife.Itwasthesubmergencebelowthearbitrarywillofanysortof
individual.Itwaswithoutdoubtworseinthesevitalrespectsthanthatwhichexiststodayin
EuropeorAmerica.Itsanaloguetodayistheyellow,brownandblacklaborerinChinaand
India,inAfrica,intheforestsoftheAmazon;anditwasthisslaverythatfellinAmerica.
TheslaveryofNegroesintheSouthwasnotusuallyadeliberatelycruelandoppressive
system.Itdidnotmeansystematicstarvationormurder.Ontheotherhand,itisjustas
difficulttoconceiveasquitetruetheidyllicpictureofapatriarchalstatewithculturedand
humanemastersunderwhomslaveswereaschildren,guidedandtrainedinworkandplay,
givenevensuchmentaltrainingaswasfortheirgood,andforthewell-beingofthe
surroundingworld.
ThevictimsofSouthernslaverywereoftenhappy;hadusuallyadequatefoodfortheirhealth,
andsheltersufficientforamildclimate.TheSouthernerscouldsaywithsomejustification
thatwhenthemassoftheirfieldhandswerecomparedwiththeworstclassoflaborersinthe
slumsofNewYorkandPhiladelphia,andthefactorytownsofNewEngland,theblackslaves
wereaswelloffandinsomeparticularsbetteroff.Slaveslivedlargelyinthecountrywhere
healthconditionswerebetter;theyworkedintheopenair,andtheirhourswereaboutthe
currenthoursforpeasantsthroughoutEurope.Theyreceivednoformaleducation,and
neitherdidtheIrishpeasant,theEnglishfactory-laborer,northeGermanBauer;andin
contrastwiththesefreewhitelaborers,theNegroeswereprotectedbyacertainprimitivesort
ofold-agepension,jobinsurance,andsicknessinsurance;thatis,theymustbesupportedin
somefashion,whentheyweretoooldtowork;theymusthaveattentioninsickness,forthey
representedinvestedcapital;andtheycouldneverbeamongtheunemployed.
Ontheotherhand,itisjustastruethatNegroslavesinAmericarepresentedtheworstand
lowestconditionsamongmodernlaborers.Oneestimateisthatthemaintenanceofaslavein
theSouthcostthemasterabout$19ayear,whichmeansthattheywereamongthepoorest
paidlaborersinthemodernworld.Theyrepresentedinaveryrealsensetheultimate
degradationofman.Indeed,thesystemwassore^e
actionary,soutterlyinconsistentwithmodernprogress,thatwesimplycannotgraspittoday.
Nomatterhowdegradedthefactoryhand,heisnotrealestate.Thetragedyoftheblack
slave'spositionwaspreciselythis;hisabsolutesubjectiontotheindividualwillofanowner
andto"thecrueltyandinjusticewhicharetheinvariableconsequencesoftheexerciseof
irresponsiblepower,especiallywhereauthoritymustbesometimesdelegatedbytheplanter
toagentsofinferioreducationandcoarserfeelings."
Theproofofthisliesclearlywrittenintheslavecodes.Slaveswerenotconsideredmen.They
hadnorightofpetition.Theywere"devisablelikeanyotherchattel."Theycouldown
nothing;theycouldmakenocontracts;theycouldholdnoproperty,nortrafficinproperty;
theycouldnothireout;theycouldnotlegallymarrynorconstitutefamilies;theycouldnot
controltheirchildren;theycouldnotappealfromtheirmaster;theycouldbepunishedat
will.Theycouldnottestifyincourt;theycouldbeimprisonedbytheirowners,andthe
criminaloffenseofassaultandbatterycouldnotbecommittedonthepersonofaslave.The
"willful,maliciousanddeliberatemurder"ofaslavewaspunishablebydeath,butsucha
crimewaspracticallyimpossibleofproof.Theslaveowedtohismasterandallhisfamilya
respect"withoutbounds,andanabsoluteobedience."Thisauthoritycouldbetransmittedto
others.Aslavecouldnotsuehismaster;hadnorightofredemption;norighttoeducationor
religion;apromisemadetoaslavebyhismasterhadnoforcenorvalidity.Childrenfollowed
theconditionoftheslavemother.Theslavecouldhavenoaccesstothejudiciary.Aslave
mightbecondemnedtodeathforstrikinganywhiteperson.
Lookingattheseaccounts,"itissafetosaythatthelawregardsaNegroslave,sofarashis
civilstatusisconcerned,purelyandabsolutelyproperty,tobeboughtandsoldandpassand
descendasatractofland,ahorse,oranox."2
ThewholelegalstatusofslaverywasenunciatedintheextraordinarystatementofaChief
JusticeoftheUnitedStatesthatNegroeshadalwaysbeenregardedinAmerica"ashavingno
rightswhichawhitemanwasboundtorespect."
Itmaybesaidwithtruththatthelawwasoftenharsherthanthepractice.Nevertheless,these
lawsanddecisionsrepresentthelegallypermissiblepossibilities,andtheonlycurbuponthe
powerofthemasterwashissenseofhumanityanddecency,ontheonehand,andthe
conservingofhisinvestmentontheother.OfthehumanityoflargenumbersofSouthern
masterstherecanbenodoubt.Insomecases,theygavetheirslavesafatherlycare.Andyet
eveninsuchcasesthestrainupontheirabilitytocareforlargenumbersofpeopleand
THEBLACKWORKERn
thenecessityofentrustingthecareoftheslavestootherhandsthantheirown,ledtomuch
sufferingandcruelty.
Thematterofhisinvestmentinlandandslavesgreatlycurtailedtheowner'sfreedomof
action.Underthecompetitionofgrowingindustrialorganization,theslavesystemwas
indeedthesourceofimmenseprofits.Butfortheslaveownerandlandlordtokeepalargeor
evenreasonableshareoftheseprofitswasincreasinglydifficult.Thepriceoftheslave
produceintheopenmarketcouldbehammereddownbymerchantsandtradersactingwith
knowledgeandcollusion.Andtheslaveownerwas,therefore,continuallyforcedtofindhis
profitnotinthehighpriceofcottonandsugar,butinbeatingevenfurtherdownthecostof
hisslavelabor.Thismadetheslaveownersinearlydayskilltheslavebyoverworkandrenew
theirworkingstock;itledtothewidelyorganizedinterstateslavetradebetweentheBorder
StatesandtheCottonKingdomoftheSouthernSouth;itledtoneglectandthebreakingupof
families,anditcouldnotprotecttheslaveagainstthecruelty,lustandneglectofcertain
owners.
ThushumanslaveryintheSouthpointedandledintwosingularlycontradictoryand
paradoxicaldirections—towardthedeliberatecommercialbreedingandsaleofhumanlabor
forprofitandtowardtheinterminglingofblackandwhiteblood.Theslaveholdersshrank
fromacknowledgingeithersetoffactsbuttheywereclearandundeniable.
Inthisvitalrespect,theslavelaborerdifferedfromallothersofhisday:hecouldbesold;he
could,atthewillofasingleindividual,betransferredforlifeathousandmilesormore.His
family,wifeandchildrencouldbelegallyandabsolutelytakenfromhim.Freelaborerstoday
arecompelledtowanderinsearchforworkandfood;theirfamiliesaredesertedforwantof
wages;butinallthisthereisnosuchdirectbarterinhumanflesh.Itwasasharp
accentuationofcontrolovermenbeyondthemodernlaborreserveorthecontractcoolie
system.
Negroescouldbesold—actuallysoldaswesellcattlewithnoreferencetocalvesorbulls,or
recognitionoffamily.Itwasanastybusiness.ThewhiteSouthwasproperlyashamedofit
andcontinuallybelittledandalmostdeniedit.Butitwasastarkandbitterfact.Southern
papersoftheBorderStateswerefilledwithadvertisements:—"Iwishtopurchasefifty
Negroesofbothsexesfrom6to30yearsofageforwhichIwillgivethehighestcashprices."
"Wantedtopurchase—Negroesofeverydescription,ageandsex."
Theconsequentdisruptionoffamiliesisprovenbeyonddoubt:
"FiftyDollarsreward.—Ranawayfromthesubscriber,aNegro
girl,namedMaria.Sheisofacoppercolor,between13and14yearsofage—bareheadedand
barefooted.Sheissmallforherage—verysprightlyandverylikely.Shestatedshewasgoing
toseehermotheratMaysville.SanfordTomson."
"CommittedtojailofMadisonCounty,aNegrowoman,whocallshernameFanny,andsays
shebelongstoWilliamMiller,ofMobile.SheformerlybelongedtoJohnGivins,ofthis
county,whonowownsseveralofherchildren.DavidShropshire,Jailer."
"FiftyDollarreward.—Ranawayfromthesubscriber,hisNegromanPauladore,commonly
calledPaul.IunderstandGen.R.Y.HaynehaspurchasedhiswifeandchildrenfromH.L.
Pinckney,Esq.,andhasthemonhisplantationatGoosecreek,where,nodoubt,thefellowis
frequentlylurking.T.Davis."OnecanseePauladore"lurking"abouthiswifeandchildren.3
Thesystemofslaverydemandedaspecialpoliceforceandsuchaforcewasmadepossible
andunusuallyeffectivebythepresenceofthepoorwhites.Thisexplainsthedifference
betweentheslaverevoltsintheWestIndies,andthelackofeffectiverevoltintheSouthern
UnitedStates.IntheWestIndies,thepowerovertheslavewasheldbythewhitesandcarried
outbythemandsuchNegroesastheycouldtrust.IntheSouth,ontheotherhand,thegreat
plantersformedproportionatelyquiteassmallaclassbuttheyhadsingularlyenoughattheir
commandsomefivemillionpoorwhites;thatis,therewereactuallymorewhitepeopleto
policetheslavesthantherewereslaves.Consideringtheeconomicrivalryoftheblackand
whiteworkerintheNorth,itwouldhaveseemednaturalthatthepoorwhitewouldhave
refusedtopolicetheslaves.Buttwoconsiderationsledhimintheoppositedirection.Firstof
all,itgavehimworkandsomeauthorityasoverseer,slavedriver,andmemberofthepatrol
system.Butaboveandbeyondthis,itfedhisvanitybecauseitassociatedhimwiththe
masters.SlaverybredinthepoorwhiteadislikeofNegrotoilofallsorts.Heneverregarded
himselfasalaborer,oraspartofanylabormovement.Ifhehadanyambitionatallitwasto
becomeaplanterandtoown"niggers."TotheseNegroeshetransferredallthedislikeand
hatredwhichhehadforthewholeslavesystem.Theresultwasthatthesystemwasheld
stableandintactbythepoorwhite.EvenwiththelateruinofHaitibeforetheireyes,the
planters,stirredastheywere,wereneverthelessabletostampoutslaverevolt.Thedozen
revoltsoftheeighteenthcenturyhaddwindledtotheplotofGabrielin1800,Veseyin1822,
ofNatTurnerin1831andcrewsoftheAmistadandCreolein1839and1841.Graduallythe
wholewhiteSouthbecameanarmedandcommissionedcamptokeepNegroesinslaveryand
tokilltheblackrebel.
Buteventhepoorwhite,ledbytheplanter,wouldnothavekepttheblackslaveinnearlyso
completecontrolhaditnotbeenforwhatmaybecalledtheSafetyValveofSlavery;andthat
wasthechancewhichavigorousanddeterminedslavehadtorunawaytofreedom.
Underthesituationasitdevelopedbetween1830andi860thereweregravelossestothe
capitalinvestedinblackworkers.EncouragedbytheidealismofthoseNorthernthinkerswho
insistedthatNegroeswerehuman,theblackworkersoughtfreedombyrunningawayfrom
slavery.ThephysicalgeographyofAmericawithitspathsnorth,byswamp,riverand
mountainrange;thedaringofblackrevolutionistslikeHensonandTubman;andtheextralegaleffortsofabolitionistsmadethismoreandmoreeasy.
Onecannotknowtherealfactsconcerningthenumberoffugitives,butdespitethefearof
advertisingthelosses,theemphasisputuponfugitiveslavesbytheSouthshowsthatitwas
animportanteconomicitem.Itiscertainfromthebitterefforttoincreasetheefficiencyof
thefugitiveslavelawthatthelossesfromrunawayswerewidespreadandcontinuous;and
theincreaseintheinterstateslavetradefromBorderStatestothedeepSouth,togetherwith
theincreaseinthepriceofslaves,showedagrowingpressure.Atthebeginningofthe
nineteenthcentury,oneboughtanaverageslavefor$200;whileini860thepriceranged
from$1,400to$2,000.
Notonlywasthefugitiveslaveimportantbecauseoftheactuallossinvolved,butfor
potentialitiesinthefuture.ThesefreeNegroeswerefurnishingaleadershipforthemassof
theblackworkers,andespeciallytheywerefurnishingatextfortheabolitionidealists.
Fugitiveslaves,likeFrederickDouglassandothershumblerandlessgifted,increasedthe
numberofabolitionistsbythousandsandspelledthedoomofslavery.
ThetruesignificanceofslaveryintheUnitedStatestothewholesocialdevelopmentof
Americalayintheultimaterelationofslavestodemocracy.Whatweretobethelimitsof
democraticcontrolintheUnitedStates?Ifalllabor,blackaswellaswhite,becamefree—
weregivenschoolsandtherighttovote—whatcontrolcouldorshouldbesettothepower
andactionoftheselaborers?WastheruleofthemassofAmericanstobeunlimited,andthe
righttoruleextendedtoallmenregardlessofraceandcolor,orifnot,whatpowerof
dictatorshipandcontrol;andhowwouldpropertyandprivilegebeprotected?Thiswasthe
greatandprimaryquestionwhichwasinthemindsofthemenwhowrotetheConstitutionof
theUnitedStatesandcontinuedinthemindsofthinkersdownthroughtheslavery
controversy.Itstillremainswiththeworldastheproblemofdemocracyexpandsandtouches
allracesandnations.
Andofallhumandevelopment,ancientandmodern,nottheleastsingularandsignificantis
thephilosophyoflifeandactionwhichslaverybredinthesoulsofblackfolk.Inmost
respectsitsexpressionwasstiltedandconfused;therollingperiodsofHebrewprophecyand
biblicallegendfurnishedinaccuratebutsplendidwords.Thesubtlefolk-loreofAfrica,with
whimsyandparable,veiledwishandwisdom;andaboveallfelltheanointingchrismofthe
slavemusic,theonlygiftofpureartinAmerica.
BeneaththeVeillayrightandwrong,vengeanceandlove,andsometimesthrowingasidethe
veil,asoulofsweetBeautyandTruthstoodrevealed.Nothingelseofartorreligiondidthe
slaveSouthgivetotheworld,excepttheNegrosongandstory.Andevenafterslavery,down
toourday,ithasaddedbutlittletothisgift.Onehasbuttorememberassymbolofitall,still
unspoiledbypettyartisans,thelegendofJohnHenry,themightyblack,whobrokehisheart
workingagainstthemachine,anddied"withhisHammerinHisHand."
UpfromthisslaverygraduallyclimbedtheFreeNegrowithclearer,modernexpressionand
moredefiniteaimlongbeforetheemancipationof1863.Hisgreatesteffortlayinhis
cooperationwiththeAbolitionmovement.HeknewhewasnotfreeuntilallNegroeswere
free.IndividualNegroesbecameexhibitsofthepossibilitiesoftheNegrorace,ifonceitwas
raisedabovethestatusofslavery.Evenwhen,assooften,theNegrobecameCourtJesterto
theignorantAmericanmob,hemadehispleainhissongsandantics.
Thusspoke"thenoblestslavethateverGodsetfree,"FrederickDouglassin1852,inhis4th
ofJulyorationatRochester,voicingthefrankandfearlesscriticismoftheblackworker:
"What,totheAmericanslave,isyour4thofJuly?Ianswer:adaythatrevealstohim,more
thanallotherdaysintheyear,thegrossinjusticeandcrueltytowhichheistheconstant
victim.Tohimyourcelebrationisasham;yourboastedliberty,anunholylicense;your
nationalgreatness,swellingvanity;yoursoundsofrejoicingareemptyandheartless;your
denunciationoftyrants,brass-frontedimpudence;yourshoutsoflibertyandequality,hollow
mockery;yourprayersandhymns,yoursermonsandthanksgivings,withallyourreligious
paradeandsolemnity,are,tohim,merebombast,fraud,deception,impietyandhypocrisy—a
thinveiltocoverupcrimeswhichwoulddisgraceanationofsavages....
"Youboastofyourloveofliberty,yoursuperiorcivilization,andyourpureChristianity,while
thewholepoliticalpowerofthenation(asembodiedinthetwogreatpoliticalparties)is
solemnlypledgedtosupportandperpetuatetheenslavementofthreemillionsofyour
countrymen.Youhurlyouranathemasatthecrown-headedtyrants
ofRussiaandAustriaandprideyourselvesonyourdemocraticinstitutions,whileyou
yourselvesconsenttobethemeretoolsandbodyguardsofthetyrantsofVirginiaand
Carolina.Youinvitetoyourshoresfugitivesofoppressionfromabroad,honorthemwith
banquets,greetthemwithovations,cheerthem,toastthem,salutethem,protectthem,and
pouroutyourmoneytothemlikewater;butthefugitivesfromyourownlandyouadvertise,
hunt,arrest,shoot,andkill.Yougloryinyourrefinementandyouruniversaleducation;yet
youmaintainasystemasbarbarousanddreadfulaseverstainedthecharacterofanation—a
systembeguninavarice,supportedinpride,andperpetuatedincruelty.Youshedtearsover
fallenHungary,andmakethesadstoryofherwrongsthethemeofyourpoets,statesmen,
andorators,tillyourgallantsonsarereadytoflytoarmstovindicatehercauseagainstthe
oppressor;but,inregardtothetenthousandwrongsoftheAmericanslave,youwould
enforcethestrictestsilence,andwouldhailhimasanenemyofthenationwhodaresto
makethosewrongsthesubjectofpublicdiscourse!"4
Aboveall,wemustremembertheblackworkerwastheultimateexploited;thatheformed
thatmassoflaborwhichhadneitherwishnorpowertoescapefromthelaborstatus,inorder
todirectlyexploitotherlaborers,orindirectly,byalliancewithcapital,toshareintheir
exploitation.Tobesure,theblackmass,developedagainandagain,hereandthere,
capitalisticgroupsinNewOrleans,inCharlestonandinPhiladelphia;groupswillingtojoin
whitecapitalinexploitinglabor;buttheyweredrivenbackintothemassbyracialprejudice
beforetheyhadreachedapermanentfoothold;andthusbecameallthemorebitteragainst
allorganizationwhichbymeansofraceprejudice,orthemonopolyofwealth,soughtto
excludemenfrommakingaliving.
Itwasthustheblackworker,asfoundingstoneofaneweconomicsysteminthenineteenth
centuryandforthemodernworld,whobroughtcivilwarinAmerica.Hewasitsunderlying
cause,inspiteofeveryefforttobasethestrifeuponunionandnationalpower.
ThatdarkandvastseaofhumanlaborinChinaandIndia,theSouthSeasandallAfrica;in
theWestIndiesandCentralAmericaandintheUnitedStates—thatgreatmajorityof
mankind,onwhosebentandbrokenbacksresttodaythefoundingstonesofmodernindustry
—sharesacommondestiny;itisdespisedandrejectedbyraceandcolor;paidawagebelow
thelevelofdecentliving;driven,beaten,prisonedandenslavedinallbutname;spawningthe
world'srawmaterialandluxury—cotton,wool,coffee,tea,cocoa,palmoil,fibers,spices,
rubber,silks,lumber,copper,gold,diamonds,leather—howshallweendthelistandwhere?
Allthesearegatheredupat
priceslowestofthelow,manufactured,transformedandtransportedatfabulousgain;and
theresultantwealthisdistributedanddisplayedandmadethebasisofworldpowerand
universaldominionandarmedarroganceinLondonandParis,BerlinandRome,NewYork
andRiodeJaneiro.
Hereistherealmodernlaborproblem.HereisthekerneloftheproblemofReligionand
Democracy,ofHumanity.Wordsandfutilegesturesavailnothing.Outoftheexploitationof
thedarkproletariatcomestheSurplusValuefilchedfromhumanbeastswhich,incultured
lands,theMachineandharnessedPowerveilandconceal.Theemancipationofmanisthe
emancipationoflaborandtheemancipationoflaboristhefreeingofthatbasicmajorityof
workerswhoareyellow,brownandblack.
Dark,shackledknightsoflabor,clingingstillAmidstauniversalwreckoffaithTo
cheerfulness,andforeignerstohate.Theseknowyenot,thesehaveyenotreceived,Butthese
shallspeaktoyouBeatitudes.Aroundthemsurgethetidesofallyourstrife,Abovethemrise
theaugustmonumentsOfallyouroutwardsplendor,buttheystandUnenviousinthought,
andbidetheirtime.
LeslieP.Hill
i.CompareA.E.McKinley,TheSuffrageFranchiseintheThirteenEnglishColoniesin
America,p.137.
2.APictureofSlaveryDrawnfromtheDecisionsofSouthernCourts,p.5.
3.CompareBancroft,Slave-TradingintheOldSouth;Weld,AmericanSlaveryasItIs.
4.Woodson,NegroOratorsandTheirOrations,pp.218-19.
HowAmericabecamethelaborer'sPromisedLand;andflockingherefromalltheworldthe
whiteworkerscompetedwithblackslaves,withnewfloodsofforeigners,andwithgrowing
exploitation,untiltheyfoughtslaverytosavedemocracyandthenlostdemocracyinanew
andvasterslavery
TheopportunityforrealandnewdemocracyinAmericawasbroad.Politicalpowerwasat
firstasusualconfinedtopropertyholdersandanaristocracyofbirthandlearning.Butitwas
neversecurelybasedonland.Landwasfreeandbothlandandpropertywerepossibleto
nearlyeverythriftyworker.Schoolsbeganearlytomultiplyandopentheirdoorseventothe
poorlaborer.BirthbegantocountforlessandlessandAmericabecametotheworldalandof
opportunity.SotheworldcametoAmerica,evenbeforetheRevolution,andafterwardduring
thenineteenthcentury,nineteenmillionimmigrantsenteredtheUnitedStates.
ThenewlaborthatcametotheUnitedStates,whileitwaspoor,usedtooppressionand
accustomedtoalowstandardofliving,wasnotwilling,afteritreachedAmerica,toregard
itselfasapermanentlaboringclassanditisinthelightofthisfactthatthelabormovement
amongwhiteAmericansmustbestudied.Thesuccessful,well-paidAmericanlaboringclass
formed,becauseofitspropertyandideals,apettybourgeoisiereadyalwaystojoincapitalin
exploitingcommonlabor,whiteandblack,foreignandnative.Themoreenergeticandthrifty
amongtheimmigrantscaughttheprevalentAmericanideathatherelaborcouldbecome
emancipatedfromthenecessityofcontinuoustoilandthatanincreasingproportioncould
jointheclassofexploiters,thatisofthosewhomadetheirincomechieflybyprofitderived
throughthehiringoflabor.
AbrahamLincolnexpressedthisideafranklyatHartford,inMarch,i860.Hesaid:
"Iamnotashamedtoconfessthattwenty-fiveyearsagoIwasahiredlaborer,maulingrails,
atworkonaflatboat—justwhatmighthappentoanypoorman'sson."Thenfollowedthe
characteristicphilosophyofthetime:"Iwanteverymantohavehischance—andIbelievea
blackmanisentitledtoit—inwhichhecanbetterhiscondition—whenhemaylookforward
andhopetobeahiredlaborerthis
17
yearandthenext,workforhimselfafterward,andfinallytohirementoworkforhim.Thatis
thetruesystem."
HewasenunciatingthewidespreadAmericanideaofthesonrisingtoahighereconomic
levelthanthefather;ofthechanceforthepoormantoaccumulatewealthandpower,which
madetheEuropeandoctrineofaworkingclassfightingfortheelevationofallworkersseem
notonlylessdesirablebutevenlesspossibleforaverageworkersthantheyhadformerly
consideredit.
Theseworkerscametoopposeslaverynotsomuchfrommoralasfromtheeconomicfearof
beingreducedbycompetitiontothelevelofslaves.Theywantedachancetobecome
capitalists;andtheyfoundthatchancethreatenedbythecompetitionofaworkingclass
whosestatusatthebottomoftheeconomicstructureseemedpermanentandinescapable.At
first,blackslaveryjarreduponthem,andasearlyastheseventeenthcenturyGerman
immigrantstoPennsylvaniaaskedtheQuakersinnocentlyifslaverywasinaccordwiththe
GoldenRule.Then,gradually,assucceedingimmigrantswerethrownindifficultand
exasperatingcompetitionwithblackworkers,theirattitudechanged.Thesewerethevery
yearswhenthewhiteworkerwasbeginningtounderstandtheearlyAmericandoctrineof
wealthandproperty;toescapetheliabilityofimprisonmentfordebt,andeventogainthe
rightofuniversalsuffrage.HefoundpouringintocitieslikeNewYorkandPhiladelphia
emancipatedNegroeswithlowstandardsofliving,competingforthejobswhichthelower
classofunskilledwhitelaborerswanted.
Fortheimmediateavailablejobs,theIrishparticularlycompetedandtheemployersbecause
ofraceantipathyandsympathywiththeSouthdidnotwishtoincreasethenumberofNegro
workers,solongastheforeignersworkedjustascheaply.Theforeignersinturnblamed
blacksforthecheappriceoflabor.Theresultwasracewar;riotstookplacewhichwereat
firstsimplytheflaminghostilityofgroupsoflaborersfightingforbreadandbutter;thenthey
turnedintoraceriots.ForthreedaysinCincinnatiin1829,amobofwhiteswoundedand
killedfreeNegroesandfugitiveslavesanddestroyedproperty.Mostoftheblackpopulation,
numberingovertwothousand,leftthecityandtrekkedtoCanada.InPhiladelphia,18281840,aseriesofriotstookplacewhichthereafterextendeduntilaftertheCivilWar.Theriot
of1834tookthedimensionsofapitchedbattleandlastedforthreedays.Thirty-onehouses
andtwochurchesweredestroyed.Otherriotstookplacein1835and1838andatwodays'riot
in1842causedthecallingoutofthemilitiawithartillery.
Inthefortiescamequiteadifferentclass,theEnglishandGermanworkers,whohadtriedby
organizationtofightthemachineandin
theendhadtosomedegreeenvisagedtheMarxianreorganizationofindustrythroughtrade
unionsandclassstruggle.TheattitudeofthesepeopletowardtheNegrowasvariedand
contradictory.Atfirsttheyblurtedouttheirdisapprobationofslaveryonprinciple.Itwasa
phaseofallwageslavery.ThentheybegantoseeawayoutfortheworkerinAmerica
throughthefreelandoftheWest.HerewasasolutionsuchaswasimpossibleinEurope:
plentyofland,richland,landcomingdailyneareritsownmarkets,towhichtheworkercould
retreatandrestoretheindustrialbalanceruinedinEuropebytheexpropriationoftheworker
fromthesoil.Orinotherwords,theworkerinAmericasawachancetoincreasehiswageand
regulatehisconditionsofemploymentmuchgreaterthaninEurope.Thetradeunionscould
haveamaterialbackingthattheycouldnothaveinGermany,FranceorEngland.This
thought,curiouslyenough,insteadofincreasingthesympathyfortheslaveturneditdirectly
intorivalryandenmity.
Thewisestoftheleaderscouldnotclearlyenvisagejusthowslavelaborinconjunctionand
competitionwithfreelabortendedtoreducealllabortowardslavery.Forthisreason,the
unionandlaborleadersgravitatedtowardthepoliticalpartywhichopposedtariffbounties
andwelcomedimmigrants,quiteforgettingthatthissameDemocraticpartyhadasits
backbonetheplanteroligarchyoftheSouthwithitsslavelabor.
Thenewimmigrantsintheircompetitionwiththisgroupreflectednotsimplythegeneral
attitudeofAmericatowardcoloredpeople,butparticularlytheyfeltathreatofslave
competitionwhichtheseNegroesforeshadowed.TheNegroesworkedcheaply,partlyfrom
custom,partlyastheironlydefenseagainstcompetition.Thewhitelaborersrealizedthat
Negroeswerepartofagroupofmillionsofworkerswhowereslavesbylaw,andwhose
competitionkeptwhitelaboroutoftheworkoftheSouthandthreateneditswagesand
stabilityintheNorth.WhennowthelaborquestionmovedWest,andbecameapartofthe
landquestion,thecompetitionofblackmenbecameofincreasedimportance.Foreign
laborerssawmoreclearlythanmostAmericansthetremendoussignificanceoffreelandin
abundance,suchasAmericapossessed,inopencontrasttothelandmonopolyofEurope.But
hereonthisfreeland,theymetnotonlyafewfreeNegroworkers,butthethreatofamassof
slaves.TheattitudeoftheWesttowardNegroes,therefore,becamesternerthanthatofthe
East.Herewasthepossibilityofdirectcompetitionwithslaves,andtheabsorptionof
Westernlandintotheslavesystem.Thismustberesistedatallcosts,butbeyondthis,even
freeNegroesmustbediscouraged.OnthistheSouthernpoorwhiteimmigrantsinsisted.
Inthemeantime,theproblemoftheblackworkerhadnotceased
totroubletheconscienceandtheeconomicphilosophyofAmerica.Thattheworkershould
beabondslavewasfundamentallyatvariancewiththeAmericandoctrine,andthedemand
fortheabolitionofslaveryhadbeencontinuoussincetheRevolution.IntheNorth,ithad
resultedinfreeinggraduallyalloftheNegroes.Butthecomparativelysmallnumberofthose
thusfreedwasbeingaugmentednowbyfugitiveslavesfromtheSouth,andmanifestlythe
ultimateplightoftheblackworkerdependeduponthecourseofSouthernslavery.There
arose,then,inthethirties,andamongthinkersandworkers,ademandthatslaveryinthe
UnitedStatesbeimmediatelyabolished.
ThisdemandbecameepitomizedinthecrusadeofWilliamLloydGarrison,himselfapoor
printer,butamanofeducation,thoughtandindomitablecourage.Thismovementwasnot
primarilyalabormovementoramatterofprofitandwage.Itsimplysaidthatunderany
conditionoflife,thereductionofahumanbeingtorealestatewasacrimeagainsthumanity
ofsuchenormitythatitsexistencemustbeimmediatelyended.Afteremancipationthere
wouldcomequestionsoflabor,wageandpoliticalpower.Butnow,first,mustbedemanded
thatordinaryhumanfreedomandrecognitionofessentialmanhoodwhichslavery
blasphemouslydenied.Thisphilosophyoffreedomwasalogicalcontinuationofthefreedom
philosophyoftheeighteenthcenturywhichinsistedthatFreedomwasnotanEndbutan
indispensablemeanstothebeginningofhumanprogressandthatdemocracycouldfunction
onlyafterthedroppingoffeudalprivileges,monopolyandchains.
ThepropagandawhichmadetheabolitionmovementterriblyrealwastheFugitiveSlave—the
pieceofintelligenthumanitywhocouldsay:Ihavebeenownedlikeanox.Istolemyown
bodyandnowIamhuntedbylawandlashtobemadeanoxagain.Bynoconceptionof
justicecouldsuchlogicbeanswered.Nevertheless,atthesametimewhitelabor,whileit
attemptednodenialbutevenexpressedfaintsympathy,sawinthisfugitiveslaveandinthe
millionsofslavesbehindhim,willingandeagertoworkforlessthancurrentwage,
competitionfortheirownjobs.Whattheyfailedtocomprehendwasthattheblackman
enslavedwasanevenmoreformidableandfatalcompetitorthantheblackmanfree.
Here,then,weretwolabormovements:themovementtogivetheblackworkeraminimum
legalstatuswhichwouldenablehimtosellhisownlabor,andanothermovementwhich
proposedtoincreasethewageandbettertheconditionoftheworkingclassinAmerica,now
largelycomposedofforeignimmigrants,anddisputewiththenewAmericancapitalismthe
basisuponwhichthenewwealthwastobedivided.Broadphilanthropyandawide
knowledgeoftheelementsofhumanprogresswouldhaveledthesetwomovementstouniteandintheirunionto
becomeirresistible.Itwasdifficult,almostimpossible,forthistobecleartothewhitelabor
leadersofthethirties.Theyhadtheirparticularisticgrievancesandoneofthesewasthe
competitionoffreeNegrolabor.Beyondthistheycouldeasilyvisionanewandtremendous
competitionofblackworkersafteralltheslavesbecamefree.Whattheydidnotseenor
understandwasthatthiscompetitionwaspresentandwouldcontinueandwouldbe
emphasizediftheNegrocontinuedasaslaveworker.Ontheotherhand,theAbolitionistsdid
notrealizetheplightofthewhitelaborer,especiallythesemi-skilledandunskilledworker.
WhiletheEvansbrothers,whocameaslaboragitatorsin1825,hadamongtheirtwelve
demands"theabolitionofchattelslavery,"nevertheless,Georgewassoonconvincedthat
freedomwithoutlandwasofnoimportance.HewrotetoGerritSmith,whowasgivingland
toNegroes,andsaid:
"Iwasformerly,likeyourself,sir,averywarmadvocateoftheabolitionofslavery.Thiswas
beforeIsawthattherewaswhiteslavery.SinceIsawthis,Ihavemateriallychangedmy
viewsastothemeansofabolishingNegroslavery.Inowsee,clearly,Ithink,thattogivethe
landlessblacktheprivilegeofchangingmastersnowpossessedbythelandlesswhitewould
hardlybeabenefittohiminexchangeforhissuretyofsupportinsicknessandoldage,
althoughheisinafavorableclimate.IftheSouthernformofslaveryexistedattheNorth,I
shouldsaytheblackwouldbeagreatloserbysuchachange."1
AttheconventionoftheNewEnglandanti-slaverysocietyin1845,RobertOwen,thegreat
championofcooperation,saidhewasopposedtoNegroslavery,butthathehadseenworse
slaveryinEnglandthanamongtheNegroes.HoraceGreeleysaidthesameyear:"IfIamless
troubledconcerningtheslaveryprevalentinCharlestonorNewOrleans,itisbecauseIseeso
muchslaveryinNewYorkwhichappearstoclaimmyfirstefforts."
Thusdespiteallinfluences,reformandsocialupliftveeredawayfromtheNegro.Brisbane,
Channing,OwenandotherleaderscalledaNationalReformAssociationtomeetinNewYork
inMay,1845.InOctober,Owen's"WorldConference"met.Buttheyhardlymentioned
slavery.TheAbolitionistsdidjoinaNationalIndustrialCongresswhichmetaround18451846.Otherlaborleaderswereopenlyhostiletowardtheabolitionistmovement,whilethe
movementforfreelandincreased.
Thustwomovements—Labor-FreeSoil,andAbolition,exhibitedfundamentaldivergence
insteadofbecomingonegreatpartyoffree
laborandfreeland.TheFreeSoilersstressedthedifficultiesofeventhefreelaborergetting
holdofthelandandgettingworkinthegreatcongestionwhichimmigrationhadbrought;
andtheabolitionistsstressedthemoralwrongofslavery.Thesetwomovementsmighteasily
havecooperatedanddifferedonlyinmattersofemphasis;butthetroublewasthatblackand
whitelaborerswerecompetingforthesamejobsjustofcourseasalllaborersalwaysare.The
immediatecompetitionbecameopenandvisiblebecauseofraciallinesandracialphilosophy
andparticularlyinNorthernstateswherefreeNegroesandfugitiveslaveshadestablished
themselvesasworkers,whiletheultimateandovershadowingcompetitionoffreeandslave
laborwasobscuredandpushedintothebackground.Thissituation,too,madeextraordinary
reaction,ledbytheignorantmobandfomentedbyauthorityandprivilege;abolitionistswere
attackedandtheirmeetingplacesburned;womensuffragistswerehooted;lawswere
proposedmakingthekidnapingofNegroeseasieranddisfranchisingNegrovotersin
conventionscalledforpurposesof"reform."
Thehumanitarianreformmovementreacheditsheightin1847-1849amidfallingprices,and
tradeunionismwasatalowebb.Thestrikesfrom1849-1852wonthesupportofHorace
Greeley,andincreasedthelabororganizations.Laborineasterncitiesrefusedtotouchthe
slaverycontroversy,andthecontrolwhichtheDemocratshadoverthelaborvoteinNew
YorkandelsewhereincreasedthistendencytoignoretheNegro,andincreasedthedivision
betweenwhiteandcoloredlabor.In1850,aCongressofTradeUnionswasheldwithno
delegates.Theystressedlandreformbutsaidnothingaboutslaveryandtheorganization
eventuallywascapturedbyTammanyHall.After1850unionscomposedofskilledlaborers
begantoseparatefromcommonlaborersandadoptapolicyofclosedshopsandaminimum
wageandexcludedfarmersandNegroes.Althoughthismovementwaskilledbythepanicof
1857,iteventuallybecametriumphantintheeightiesandculminatedintheAmerican
FederationofLaborwhichtodayallowsanylocalornationaluniontoexcludeNegroesonany
pretext.
Otherlaborleadersbecamemoreexplicitandemphasizedraceratherthanclass.John
Campbellsaidin1851:"Willthewhiteraceeveragreethatblacksshallstandbesideuson
electionday,upontherostrum,intheranksofthearmy,inourplacesofamusement,in
placesofpublicworship,rideinthesamecoaches,railwaycars,orsteamships?Never!Never!
orisitnatural,orjust,thatthiskindofequalityshouldexist?Godneverintendedit;hadhe
sowilledit,hewouldhavemadeallonecolor."2
Newlaborleadersarrivedinthefifties.HermannKriegeandWilhelmWeitlinglefttheirworkinGermany,andtheirfriendsMarxandEngels,andcameto
America,andatthesametimecametensofthousandsofrevolutionaryGermans.The
SocialistandCommunistpapersincreased.Tradeunionsincreasedinpowerandnumbers
andheldpublicmeetings.Immediately,thequestionofslaveryinjecteditself,andthatof
abolition.
Kriegebegantopreachlandreformandfreesoilin1846,andby1850sixhundredAmerican
papersweresupportinghisprogram.ButKriegewentbeyondEvansandformerleadersand
openlyrepudiatedabolition.Hedeclaredin1846:
"Thatweseeintheslaveryquestionapropertyquestionwhichcannotbesettledbyitself
alone.Thatweshoulddeclareourselvesinfavoroftheabolitionistmovementifitwereour
intentiontothrowtheRepublicintoastateofanarchy,toextendthecompetitionof'free
workingmen'beyondallmeasure,andtodepresslaboritselftothelastextremity.Thatwe
couldnotimprovethelotofour'blackbrothers'byabolitionundertheconditionsprevailing
inmodernsociety,butmakeinfinitelyworsethelotofour'whitebrothers.'Thatwebelieve
inthepeaceabledevelopmentofsocietyintheUnitedStatesanddonot,therefore,hereat
leastseeouronlyhopeinconditionoftheextremestdegradation.Thatwefeelconstrained,
therefore,toopposeAbolitionwithallourmight,despitealltheimportunitiesofsentimental
philistinesanddespiteallthepoeticaleffusionsofliberty-intoxicatedladies."3
WilhelmWeitling,whocametoAmericathefollowingyear,1847,startedmuchagitationbut
gavelittleattentiontoslavery.Hedidnotopenlysidewiththeslaveholder,asKriegedid;
nevertheless,therewasnocondemnationofslaveryinhispaper.InthefirstGermanlabor
conferenceinPhiladelphia,underWeitlingin1850,aseriesofresolutionswerepassedwhich
didnotmentionslavery.BothKriegeandWeitlingjoinedtheDemocraticpartyandnumbers
ofotherimmigrantGermansdidthesamething,andtheseworkers,therefore,became
practicaldefendersofslavery.Doubtless,the"Know-Nothing"movementagainsttheforeignbornforcedmanyworkersintotheDemocraticparty,despiteslavery.
Theyear1853sawtheformationoftheArbeiterbund,underJosephWeydemeyer,afriendof
KarlMarx.ThisorganizationadvocatedMarxiansocialismbutnevergotaclearattitude
towardslavery.In1854,itopposedtheKansas-Nebraskabillbecause"Capitalismandland
speculationhaveagainbeenfavoredattheexpenseofthemassofthepeople,"and"Thisbill
withdrawsfromormakesunavailableinafuturehomesteadbillvasttractsofterritory,"and
"authorizesthefurtherextensionofslavery;butwehave,donow,andshallcontinuetoprotestmostemphaticallyagainstbothwhiteandblackslavery."
Nevertheless,whentheArbeiterbundwasreorganizedinDecember,1857,slaverywasnot
mentioned.WhenitsneworganappearedinApril,1858,itsaidthatthequestionofthe
presentmomentwasnottheabolitionofslavery,butthepreventionofitsfurtherextension
iandthatNegroslaverywasfirmlyrootedinAmerica.Onesmalldivisionofthisorganization
in1857calledforabolitionoftheslavetradeandcolonizationofNegroes,butdefendedthe
Southernslaveholders.
In1859,however,aconferenceoftheArbeiterbundcondemnedallslaveryinwhateverform
itmightappear,anddemandedtherepealoftheFugitiveSlaveLaw.TheDemocraticandproslaveryNewYorkStaats-Zeitungcounseledthepeopletoabstainfromagitationagainstthe
extensionofslavery,butalloftheGermanpopulationdidnotagree.
AstheChartistmovementincreasedinEngland,thepresswasfilledwithattacksagainstthe
UnitedStatesanditsinstitutions,andtheChartistswereclearonthematterofslavery.Their
chieforganin1844said:"ThatdamningstainupontheAmericanescutcheonisonethathas
causedtheRepublicansofEuropetoweepforveryshameandmortification;andthepeople
oftheUnitedStateshavemuchtoanswerforatthebarofhumanityforthisindecent,cruel,
revoltingandfiendishviolationoftheirboastedprinciple—that'Allmenarebornfreeand
equal.'"
ThelabormovementinEnglandcontinuedtoemphasizetheimportanceofattackingslavery;
andtheagitation,startedbytheworkofFrederickDouglassandothers,increasedin
importanceandactivity.In1857,GeorgeI.Holyoakesentananti-slaveryaddresstoAmerica,
signedby1,800Englishworkingmen,whomKarlMarxhimselfwasguidinginEngland,and
thismadetheblackAmericanworkeracentraltext.Theypointedoutthefactthattheblack
workerwasfurnishingtherawmaterialwhichtheEnglishcapitalistwasexploitingtogether
withtheEnglishworker.Thissameyear,theUnitedStatesSupremeCourtsentdownthe
DredScottdecisionthatNegroeswerenotcitizens.
ThisEnglishinitiativehadatfirstbutlimitedinfluenceinAmerica.Thetradeunionswere
willingtoadmitthattheNegroesoughttobefreesometime;butatthepresent,selfpreservationcalledfortheirslavery;andafterall,whiteswereadifferentgradeofworkers
fromblacks.EvenwhentheMarxianideasarrived,therewasasplit;theearlier
representativesoftheMarxianphilosophyinAmericaagreedwiththeolderUnionmovement
indeprecatinganyentanglement
withtheabolitioncontroversy.Afterall,abolitionrepresentedcapital.Thewholemovement
wasbasedonmawkishsentimentality,andnotonthedemandsoftheworkers,atleastofthe
whiteworkers.AndsotheearlyAmericanMarxistssimplygaveuptheideaofintrudingthe
blackworkerintothesocialistcommonwealthatthattime.
Tothislogictheabolitionistswereincreasinglyopposed.Itseemedtothemthatthecrucial
pointwasthematteroffreedom;thatafreelaborerinAmericahadanevenchancetomake
hisfortuneasaworkerorafarmer;but,ontheotherhand,ifthelaborerwasnotfree,asin
thecaseoftheNegro,hehadnoopportunity,andheinevitablydegradedwhitelabor.The
abolitionistdidnotsensethenewsubordinationintowhichtheworkerwasbeingforcedby
organizedcapital,whilethelaborersdidnotrealizethattheexclusionoffourmillionworkers
fromthelaborprogramwasafatalomission.WendellPhillipsalonesuggestedaboycotton
Southerngoods,andsaidthatthegreatcauseoflaborwasparamountandincludedmill
operativesinNewEngland,peasantsinIreland,andlaborersinSouthAmericawhooughtnot
tobelostsightofinsympathyfortheSouthernslave.
IntheUnitedStatesshortlybeforetheoutbreakoftheCivilWarthereweretwenty-sixtrades
withnationalorganizations,includingtheironandsteelworkers,machinists,blacksmiths,
etc.Theemployersformedanationalleagueandplannedtoimportmoreworkmenfrom
foreigncountries.TheironmoldersstartedanationalstrikeJuly5,1859,andsaid:"Wealthis
power,andpracticalexperienceteachesusthatitisapowerbuttoooftenusedtooppressand
degradethedailylaborer.Yearafteryearthecapitalofthecountrybecomesmoreandmore
concentratedinthehandsofafew,and,inproportionasthewealthofthecountrybecomes
centralized,itspowerincreases,andthelaboringclassesareimpoverished.Ittherefore
becomesus,asmenwhohavetobattlewiththesternrealitiesoflife,tolookthismatterfair
intheface;thereisnododgingthequestion;leteverymangiveitafair,fullandcandid
consideration,andthenactaccordingtohishonestconvictions.Whatpositionarewe,the
mechanicsofAmerica,toholdinSociety?"
TherewasnotawordinthisaddressaboutslaveryandonewouldnotdreamthattheUnited
Stateswasonthevergeofthegreatestlaborrevolutionithadseen.Otherconferencesofthe
molders,machinistsandblacksmithsandotherswereheldinthesixties,andalabormass
meetingatFaneuilHallinBostonin1861said:"Thetruthisthattheworkingmencarelittle
forthestrifeofpoliticalpartiesandtheintriguesofoffice-seekers.Weregardthemwiththe
contempttheydeserve.Wearewearyofthisquestionofslavery;itisamatterwhichdoesnot
concernus;andwewishonlytoattendtoourbusiness,
andleavetheSouthtoattendtotheirownaffairs,withoutanyinterferencefromtheNorth."
4
Inallthisconsideration,wehavesofarignoredthewhiteworkersoftheSouthandwehave
donethisbecausethelabormovementignoredthemandtheabolitionistsignoredthem;and
aboveall,theywereignoredbyNortherncapitalistsandSouthernplanters.Theywerein
manyrespectsalmostaforgottenmassofmen.CairnesdescribestheslaveSouth,theperiod
justbeforethewar:
"Itresolvesitselfintothreeclasses,broadlydistinguishedfromeachother,andconnectedby
nocommoninterest—theslavesonwhomdevolvesalltheregularindustry,theslaveholders
whoreapallitsfruits,andanidleandlawlessrabblewholivedispersedovervastplainsina
conditionlittleremovedfromabsolutebarbarism."
Fromallthathasbeenwrittenandsaidabouttheante-bellumSouth,onealmostlosessight
ofabout5,000,000whitepeopleini860wholivedintheSouthandheldnoslaves.Even
amongthetwomillionslaveholders,anoligarchyof8,000reallyruledtheSouth,whileasan
observersaid:"Fortwentyyears,IdonotrecollectevertohaveseenorheardthesenonslaveholdingwhitesreferredtobytheSoutherngentlemanasconstitutinganypartofwhat
theycalledtheSouth."5Theywerelargelyignorantanddegraded;only25%couldreadand
write.
Theconditionofthepoorwhiteshasbeenmanytimesdescribed:
"Awretchedloghutortwoaretheonlyhabitationsinsight.Herereside,orrathertake
shelter,themiserablecultivatorsoftheground,orastillmoredestituteclasswhomakea
precariouslivingbypeddling'lightwood'inthecity....
"Thesecabins...aredensoffilth.Thebediftherebeabedisalayerofsomethinginthe
cornerthatdefiesscenting.Ifthebedisnasty,whatofthefloor?Whatofthewholeenclosed
space?Whatofthecreaturesthemselves?Pough!Waterinuseasapurifierisunknown.
Theirfacesarebedaubedwiththemuddyaccumulationofweeks.Theyjustgivethemawipe
whentheyseeastrangertotakeofftheblackestdirt....Thepoorwretchesseemstartled
whenyouaddressthem,andansweryourquestionscoweringlikeculprits."6
Olmstedsaid:"Isawasmuchclosepacking,filthandsqualor,incertainblocksinhabitedby
laboringwhitesinCharleston,asIhavewitnessedinanyNortherntownofitssize;and
greaterevidencesofbrutalityandruffianlycharacter,thanIhaveeverhappenedtosee,
amonganequalpopulationofthisclass,before."7
Twoclassesofpoorwhiteshavebeendifferentiated:themountainwhitesandthepoor
whitesofthelowlands."Belowadirtyandill-favoredhouse,downunderthebankonthe
shingleneartheriver,sitsafamilyoffivepeople,allill-clothedandunclean;ablear-eyedold
woman,ayoungerwomanwithamassoftangledredhairhangingabouthershoulders,
indubitablysucklingababy;alittlegirlwiththesameauburnevidenceofScotchancestry;a
boy,andayoungerchildallgatheredaboutafiremadeamongsomebricks,surroundinga
coupleofironsaucepans,inwhichisadirtymixturelookinglikemud,butprobablywarmedupsorghumsyrup,whichwithafewpiecesofcornpone,makestheirbreakfast.
"Mostofthemareilliterateandmorethancorrespondinglyignorant.Someofthemhad
IndianancestorsandafewbearevidencesofNegroblood.Theso-called'mountainboomer,'
saysanobserver,'haslittleself-respectandnoself-reliance....Solongashiscornpilelasts
the"cracker"livesincontentment,feastingonasortofhoecakemadeofgratedcornmeal
mixedwithsaltandwaterandbakedbeforethehotcoals,withadditionofwhatgamethe
forestfurnisheshimwhenhecangetuptheenergytogooutandshootortrapit....The
irregularitiesoftheirmorallivescausethemnosenseofshame....But,notwithstanding
theselowmoralconceptions,theyareofanintensereligiousexcitability.'"8
Abovethislowestmassroseamiddleclassofpoorwhitesinthemaking.Thereweresome
smallfarmerswhohadmorethanameresustenanceandyetwerenotlargeplanters.There
wereoverseers.Therewasagrowingclassofmerchantswhotradedwiththeslavesandfree
Negroesandbecameinmanycaseslargertraders,dealingwiththeplantersforthestaple
crops.Somepoorwhitesrosetotheprofessionalclass,sothattheriftbetweentheplanters
andthemassofthewhiteswaspartiallybridgedbythissmallerintermediateclass.
Whilerevoltagainstthedominationoftheplantersoverthepoorwhiteswasvoicedbymen
likeHelper,whocalledforaclassstruggletodestroytheplanters,thiswasnullifiedbydeeprootedantagonismtotheNegro,whetherslaveorfree.Ifblacklaborcouldbeexpelledfrom
theUnitedStatesoreventuallyexterminated,thenthefightagainsttheplantercouldtake
place.Butthepoorwhitesandtheirleaderscouldnotforamomentcontemplateafightof
unitedwhiteandblacklaboragainsttheexploiters.Indeed,thenaturalleadersofthepoor
whites,thesmallfarmer,themerchant,theprofessionalman,thewhitemechanicandslave
overseer,wereboundtotheplantersandrepelledfromtheslavesandevenfromthemassof
thewhitelaborersintwoways:first,theyconstitutedthepolicepatrolwhocouldridewith
plantersandnowandthenexerciseunlimitedforceuponrecalcitrantorrunawayslaves;and
then,too,therewasalwaysachancethattheythemselvesmightalsobecomeplantersby
savingmoney,byinvestment,bythepowerofgoodluck;andtheonlyheaventhatattracted
themwasthelifeofthegreatSouthernplanter.
Therewereafewweakassociationsofwhitemechanics,suchasprintersandshipwrightsand
ironmolders,in1850-1860,butpracticallynolabormovementintheSouth.
CharlesNordhoffstatesthathewastoldbyawealthyAlabaman,ini860,thattheplantersin
hisregionweredeterminedtodiscontinuealtogethertheemploymentoffreemechanics."On
myownplace,"hesaid,"Ihaveslavecarpenters,slaveblacksmiths,andslavewheelwrights,
andthusIamindependentoffreemechanics."AndacertainAlfredE.Mathewsremarks:"I
haveseenfreewhitemechanicsobligedtostandasidewhiletheirfamiliesweresufferingfor
thenecessariesoflife,whentheslavemechanics,ownedbyrichandinfluentialmen,could
getplentyofwork;andIhaveheardthesesamewhitemechanicsbreathethemostbitter
cursesagainsttheinstitutionofslaveryandtheslavearistocracy."
Theresultantrevoltofthepoorwhites,justastherevoltoftheslaves,camethrough
migration.Andtheirmigration,insteadofbeingrestricted,wasfreelyencouraged.Asaresult,
thepoorwhiteslefttheSouthinlargenumbers.Ini860,399,700Virginianswerelivingout
oftheirnativestate.FromTennessee,344,765emigrated;fromNorthCarolina,272,606,and
fromSouthCarolina,256,868.ThemajorityofthesehadcometotheMiddleWestanditis
quitepossiblethattheSouthernstatessentasmanysettlerstotheWestastheNortheastern
states,andwhiletheNortheastdemandedfreesoil,theSouthernersdemandednotonlyfree
soilbuttheexclusionofNegroesfromworkandthefranchise.Theyhadaveryvividfearof
theNegroasacompetitorinlabor,whetherslaveorfree.
ItwasthusthepresenceofthepoorwhiteSouthernerintheWestthatcomplicatedthewhole
FreeSoilmovementinitsrelationtothelabormovement.WhiletheWesternpioneerwasan
advocateofextremedemocracyandequalitarianisminhispoliticalandeconomicphilosophy,
hisvoteandinfluencedidnotgotostrengthentheabolition-democracy,before,during,or
evenafterthewar.Onthecontrary,itwasstoppedandinhibitedbythedoctrineofrace,and
theWest,therefore,longstoodagainstthatdemocracyinindustrywhichmighthave
emancipatedlaborintheUnitedStates,becauseitdidnotadmittothatdemocracythe
AmericancitizenofNegrodescent.
ThusNorthernworkerswereorganizingandfightingindustrialintegrationinordertogain
higherwageandshorterhours,andmoreandmoretheysaweconomicsalvationintherich
landoftheWest.AWesternmovementofwhiteworkersandpioneersbeganandwas
paralleledbyaWesternmovementofplantersandblackworkersintheSouth.Landand
morelandbecamethecryoftheSouthernpoliticalleader,withfinallyagrowingdemandfor
reopeningoftheAfrican
slavetrade.Land,moreland,becamethecryofthepeasantfarmerintheNorth.Thetwo
forcesmetinKansas,andinKansascivilwarbegan.
TheSouthwasfightingfortheprotectionandexpansionofitsagrarianfeudalism.Forthe
sheerexistenceofslavery,theremustbeacontinualsupplyoffertileland,cheaperslaves,
andsuchpoliticalpoweraswouldgivetheslavestatusfulllegalrecognitionandprotection,
andannihilatethefreeNegro.TheLouisianaPurchasehadfurnishedslavesandland,but
mostofthelandwasintheNorthwest.TheforayintoMexicohadopenedanempire,butthe
availabilityofthislandwaspartlyspoiledbythelossofCaliforniatofreelabor.This
suggestedaproposedexpansionofslaverytowardKansas,whereitinvolvedtheSouthin
competitionwithwhitelabor:acompetitionwhichendangeredtheslavestatus,encouraged
slaverevolt,andincreasedthepossibilityoffugitiveslaves.
ItwasawartodeterminehowfarindustryintheUnitedStatesshouldbecarriedonundera
systemwherethecapitalistownsnotonlythenation'srawmaterial,notonlytheland,but
alsothelaborerhimself;orwhetherthelaborerwasgoingtomaintainhispersonalfreedom,
andenforceitbygrowingpoliticalandeconomicindependencebasedonwidespread
ownershipofland.
ThisbringsusdowntotheperiodoftheCivilWar.Uptothetimethatthewaractuallybroke
out,Americanlaborsimplyrefused,inthemain,toenvisageblacklaborasapartofits
problem.Rightuptotheedgeofthewar,itwastalkingabouttheemancipationofwhitelabor
andtheorganizationofstrongerunionswithoutsayingaword,orapparentlygivinga
thought,tofourmillionblackslaves.Duringthewar,laborwasresentful.Workerswere
forcedtofightinastrifebetweencapitalistsinwhichtheyhadnointerestandtheyshowed
theirresentmentinthepeculiarlyhumanwayofbeatingandmurderingtheinnocentvictims
ofitall,theblackfreeNegroesofNewYorkandotherNortherncities;whileintheSouth,five
millionnon-slaveholdingpoorwhitefarmersandlaborerssenttheirmanhoodbythe
thousandstofightanddieforasystemthathaddegradedthemequallywiththeblackslave.
Couldoneimagineanythingmoreparadoxicalthanthiswholesituation?
AmericathussteppedforwardinthefirstblossomingofthemodernageandaddedtotheArt
ofBeauty,giftoftheRenaissance,andtoFreedomofBelief,giftofMartinLutherandLeoX,
avisionofdemocraticself-government:thedominationofpoliticallifebytheintelligent
decisionoffreeandself-sustainingmen.Whatanideaandwhatanareaforitsrealization—
endlesslandofrichestfertility,naturalresourcessuchasEarthseldomexhibitedbefore,a
population
infiniteinvariety,ofuniversalgift,burnedinthefiresofpovertyandcaste,yearningtoward
theUnknownGod;andself-reliantpioneers,unafraidofmanordevil.ItwastheSupreme
Adventure,inthelastGreatBatdeoftheWest,forthathumanfreedomwhichwouldrelease
thehumanspiritfromlowerlustformeremeat,andsetitfreetodreamandsing.
AndthensomeunjustGodleaned,laughing,overtherampartsofheavenanddroppedablack
maninthemidst.
Ittransformedtheworld.ItturneddemocracybacktoRomanImperialismandFascism;it
restoredcasteandoligarchy;itreplacedfreedomwithslaveryandwithdrewthenameof
humanityfromthevastmajorityofhumanbeings.
Butnotwithoutstruggle.Notwithoutwrithingandrendingofspiritandpitiablewailoflost
souls.Theysaid:Slaverywaswrongbutnotallwrong;slaverymustperishandnotsimply
move;Godmadeblackmen;Godmadeslavery;thewillofGodbedone;slaverytotheglory
ofGodandblackmenashisservantsandours;slaveryasawaytofreedom—thefreedomof
blacks,thefreedomofwhites;whitefreedomasthegoaloftheworldandblackslaveryasthe
paththereto.Upwiththewhiteworld,downwiththeblack!
ThencamethisbattlecalledCivilWar,beginninginKansasin1854,andendinginthe
presidentialelectionof1876—twentyawfulyears.Theslavewentfree;stoodabriefmoment
inthesun;thenmovedbackagaintowardslavery.ThewholeweightofAmericawasthrown
tocolorcaste.ThecoloredworldwentdownbeforeEngland,France,Germany,Russia,Italy
andAmerica.Anewslaveryarose.Theupwardmovingofwhitelaborwasbetrayedintowars
forprofitbasedoncolorcaste.Democracydiedsaveintheheartsofblackfolk.
Indeed,theplightofthewhiteworkingclassthroughouttheworldtodayisdirectlytraceable
toNegroslaveryinAmerica,onwhichmoderncommerceandindustrywasfounded,and
whichpersistedtothreatenfreelaboruntilitwaspartiallyoverthrownin1863.Theresulting
colorcastefoundedandretainedbycapitalismwasadopted,forwardedandapprovedbywhite
labor,andresultedinsubordinationofcoloredlabortowhiteprofitstheworldover.Thusthe
majorityoftheworld'slaborers,bytheinsistenceofwhitelabor,becamethebasisofa
systemofindustrywhichruineddemocracyandshoweditsperfectfruitinWorldWarand
Depression.Andthisbookseekstotellthatstory.
Haveyeleisure,comfort,calm,Shelter,food,love'sgentlebalm?
Orwhatisityebuysodear
Withyourpainandwithyourfear?
Theseedyesow,anotherreaps;Thewealthyefind,anotherkeeps;Therobesyeweave,
anotherwears;Thearmsyeforge,anotherbears.PercyByssheShelley
1.Schliiter,Lincoln,LaborandSlavery,p.66.
2.Campbell,Negromania,p.545.
3.Schliiter,Lincoln,LaborandSlavery,pp.72,73.
4.Schliiter,Lincoln,LaborandSlavery,p.135.
5.Schliiter,Lincoln,LaborandSlavery,p.86.
6.SimkinsandWoody,SouthCarolinaDuringReconstruction,p.326.
7.Olmsted,SeaboardSlaveStates,p.404.
8.Hart,TheSouthernSouth,pp.34,35.
Howsevenpercentofasectionwithinanationruledfivemillion
whitepeopleandownedfourmillionblackpeopleandsoughtto
makeagricultureequaltoindustrythroughtheruleofproperty
withoutyieldingpoliticalpoweroreducationtolabor
SevenpercentofthetotalpopulationoftheSouthini860ownednearly3millionofthe
3,953,696slaves.Therewasnearlyasgreataconcentrationofownershipinthebest
agriculturalland.Thismeantthatinacountrypredominantlyagricultural,theownershipof
labor,landandcapitalwasextraordinarilyconcentrated.Suchpeculiarorganizationof
industrywouldhavetobecarefullyreconciledwiththenewindustrialandpolitical
democracyofthenineteenthcenturyifitweretosurvive.
Ofthefivemillionwhiteswhoownednoslavessomewereunitedininterestwiththeslave
owners.Thesewereoverseers,driversanddealersinslaves.Otherswerehirersofwhiteand
blacklabor,andstillothersweremerchantsandprofessionalmen,formingapettybourgeois
class,andclimbinguptotheplanterclassorfallingdownfromit.Themassofthepoor
whites,aswehaveshown,wereeconomicoutcasts.
ColonialVirginiadeclareditsbeliefinnaturalandinalienablerights,popularsovereignty,and
governmentforthecommongood,evenbeforetheDeclarationofIndependence.Butitsoon
becamethebeliefofdoctrinaires,andnotasingleotherSouthernstateenactedthese
doctrinesofequalityuntilaftertheCivilWar.TheReconstructionconstitutionsincorporated
them;butquitelogically,SouthCarolinarepudiateditsdeclarationin1895.
Thedominationofpropertywasshowninthequalificationsforofficeandvotinginthe
South.SouthernersandothersintheConstitutionalConventionaskedforproperty
qualificationsforthePresidentoftheUnitedStates,thefederaljudges,andSenators.Most
SouthernstategovernmentsrequiredapropertyqualificationfortheGovernor,andinSouth
Carolina,hemustbeworthtenthousandpounds.Membersofthelegislaturemustusuallybe
landholders.
Pluralvotingwasallowedaslateas1832.Therequirementoftheownershipoffreeholdland
forofficeholdersoperatedtothedisadvantageofmerchantsandmechanics.InNorth
Carolina,amanmust
32
own50acrestovoteforSenator,andin1828,outof250votersatWilmington,only48had
thequalificationstovoteforSenator.TowardthetimeoftheCivilWarmanyofthese
propertyqualificationsdisappeared.
IntothehandsoftheslaveholdersthepoliticalpoweroftheSouthwasconcentrated,bytheir
socialprestige,bypropertyownershipandalsobytheirextraordinaryruleofthecountingof
alloratleastthree-fifthsoftheNegroesaspartofthebasisofrepresentationinthe
legislature.Itissingularhowthis"three-fifths"compromisewasused,notonlytodegrade
Negroesintheory,butinpracticetodisfranchisethewhiteSouth.NearlyalloftheSouthern
statesbeganwithrecognizingthewhitepopulationasabasisofrepresentation;they
afterwardfavoredtheblackbeltbydirectlegislationorbycountingthree-fifthsoftheslave
population,andthenfinallybycountingthewholeblackpopulation;ortheyestablished,as
inVirginiaandSouthCarolina,a"mixed"basisofrepresentation,basedonwhitepopulation
andonproperty;thatis,onlandandslaves.
Inthedistributionofseatsinthelegislature,thismanipulationofpoliticalpowerappears.In
theolderstatesrepresentativeswereassignedarbitrarilytocounties,districtsandtowns,
withlittleregardtopopulation.Thiswasforthepurposeofputtingthecontrolinthehands
ofwealthyplanters.Variationsfromthiswerethebasingofrepresentationonthewhite
populationinoneHouse,andtaxationintheother,ortheuseoftheFederalproportion;that
is,freepersonsandthree-fifthsoftheslaves,orFederalproportionandtaxationcombined.
Thesewereallmanipulatedsoastofavorthewealthyplanters.Thecommercialclasssecured
scantrepresentationascomparedwithagriculture.,
"Itisafactthatthepoliticalworkingofthestate[ofSouthCarolina]isinthehandsofone
hundredandfiftytoonehundredandeightymen.Ithastakenmesixmonthstoappreciate
theentirenessofthefact,thoughofcourseIhadhearditstated."*
Inallcases,theslaveholderpracticallyvotedbothforhimselfandhisslavesanditwasnot
until1850andparticularlyafterthewarthatthereweresignsofself-assertiononthepartof
thepoorwhitestobreakthismonopolyofpower.Alabama,forinstance,in1850,based
representationinthegeneralassemblyuponthewhiteinhabitants,afterthirtyyearsof
countingthewholewhiteandblackpopulation.ThustheSouthernplantershadintheir
handsfrom1820totheCivilWarpoliticalpowerequivalenttooneortwomillionfreemenin
theNorth.
TheyfoughtbitterlyduringtheearlystagesofReconstructiontoretainthispowerforthe
whites,whileatthesametimegrantingnopoliticalpowertotheblacks.Finallyanduptothis
day,bymakinggoodtheireffortstodisfranchisetheblacks,thepoliticalheirsoftheplantersstillretain
forthemselvesthisaddedpoliticalrepresentationasalegacyfromslavery,andapowerto
frustrateallthirdpartymovements.
Thus,theplanterswhoownedfromfiftytoonethousandslavesandfromonethousandto
tenthousandacresoflandcametofillthewholepictureintheSouth,andliteratureandthe
propagandawhichisusuallycalledhistoryhavesinceexaggeratedthatpicture.Theplanter
certainlydominatedpoliticsandsociallife—heboastedofhiseducation,butonthewhole,
theseSouthernleadersweremensingularlyignorantofmodernconditionsandtrendsandof
theirhistoricalbackground.Alltheirideasofgentilityandeducationwentbacktothedaysof
Europeanprivilegeandcaste.Theycultivatedasurfaceacquaintancewithliteratureandthey
threwLatinquotationsevenintoCongress.SomefewhadaculturaleducationatPrinceton
andatYale,andtothisdayPrincetonrefusestoreceiveNegrostudents,andYalehas
admittedafewwithreluctance,asacuriouslegacyfromslavery.
ManySouthernerstraveledabroadandthefashionableEuropeanworldmetalmost
exclusivelyAmericansfromtheSouthandwerefavorablyimpressedbytheirmannerswhich
contrastedwiththegaucherieoftheaverageNortherner.ASoutherneroftheupperclass
couldenteradrawingroomandcarryonalightconversationandeataccordingtotherules,
ontablescoveredwithsilverandfinelinen.Theywere"gentlemen"accordingtotheolder
andmoremeagerconnotationoftheword.
Southernwomenoftheplanterclasshadlittleformaleducation;theyweretrainedin
dependence,withasmatteringofFrenchandmusic;theyaffectedthelatestEuropeanstyles;
werealwaysdescribedas"beautiful"andofcoursemustdonoworkforalivingexceptinthe
organizationoftheirhouseholds.Inthislatterwork,theywereassistedandevenimpededby
moreservantsthantheyneeded.Thetemptationsofthisshelteredexoticpositioncalledthe
finerpossibilitiesofwomanhoodintoexerciseonlyinexceptionalcases.Itwasthewomanon
theedgeoftheinnercirclesandthoseofthestrugglingpoorwhiteswhosoughttoenterthe
ranksoftheprivilegedwhoshowedsuperiorcharacter.
Mostoftheplanters,likemostAmericans,wereofhumbledescent,twoorthreegenerations
removed.JeffersonDaviswasagrandsonofapoorWelshimmigrant.YettheSoutherner's
assumptionsimpressedtheNorthandalthoughmostofthemweredescendedfromthesame
socialclassesastheYankees,yettheYankeeshadmorerecentlybeenreenforcedby
immigrationandwerestrenuous,hard-working
men,ruthlesslypushingthemselvesintotheleadershipofthenewindustry.Suchfolknot
only"lovealord,"buteventhefairimitationofone.
TheleadersoftheSouthhadleisureforgoodbreedingandhighliving,andbeforethem
Northernsocietyabaseditselfandflatteredandfawnedoverthem.Perhapsthis,morethan
ethicalreasons,oreveneconomicadvantage,madethewayoftheabolitionisthard.InNew
York,Saratoga,PhiladelphiaandCincinnati,aslavebaron,withhisfineraiment,gorgeous
anddoll-likewomenandblackflunkies,quiteturnedtheheadsofNorthernsociety.Their
habitsofextravaganceimpressedthenationforalongperiod.Muchofthewastecharged
againstReconstructionarosefromtheattemptofthepost-warpopulation,whiteandblack,
toimitatethemannersofaslave-nurturedgentility,andthisbroughtfuriousprotestfrom
formerplanters;becausewhileplantersspentmoneyfilchedfromthelaborofblackslaves,
thepoorwhiteandblackleadersofReconstructionspenttaxesdrawnfromrecently
impoverishedplanters.
Fromaneconomicpointofview,thisplanterclasshadinterestinconsumptionratherthan
production.Theyexploitedlaborinorderthattheythemselvesshouldlivemoregrandlyand
notmainlyforincreasingproduction.Theirtastewenttoelaboratehouseholds,wellfurnishedandhospitable;theyhadmuchtoeatanddrink;theyconsumedlargequantitiesof
liquor;theygambledandcarousedandkeptupthehabitofduelingwelldownintothe
nineteenthcentury.Sexuallytheywerelawless,protectingelaboratelyandflatteringthe
virginityofasmallclassofwomenoftheirsocialclan,andkeepingatcommandmillionsof
poorwomenofthetwolaboringgroupsoftheSouth.
Sexualchaoswasalwaysthepossibilityofslavery,notalwaysrealizedbutalwayspossible:
polygamythroughtheconcubinageofblackwomentowhitemen;polyandrybetweenblack
womenandselectedmenonplantationsinordertoimprovethehumanstockofstrongand
ableworkers.Thecensusofi860counted588,352personsobviouslyofmixedblood—a
figureadmittedlybelowthetruth.
"Everymanwhoresidesonhisplantationmayhavehisharem,andhaseveryinducementof
custom,andofpecuniarygain[Thelawdeclaresthatthechildrenofslavesaretofollowthe
fortunesofthemother.Hencethepracticeofplanterssellingandbequeathingtheirown
children.],totempthimtothecommonpractice.Thosewho,notwithstanding,keeptheir
homesundefiledmaybeconsideredasofincorruptiblepurity."1
Mrs.TrollopespeaksofthesituationofNewOrleans'mulattoes:
"OfalltheprejudicesIhaveeverwitnessed,thisappearstousthe
mostviolent,andthemostinveterate.Quadroongirls,theacknowledgeddaughtersof
wealthyAmericanorCreolefathers,educatedwithallthestyleandaccomplishmentswhich
moneycanprocureatNewOrleans,andwithallthedecorumthatcareandaffectioncangive
—exquisitelybeautiful,graceful,gentle,andamiable,arenotadmitted,nay,arenotonany
termsadmissible,intothesocietyoftheCreolefamiliesofLouisiana.Theycannotmarry;
thatistosay,noceremonycanrenderanyunionwiththemlegalorbinding."2
"Itisknownbyalmosteverybodywhohasheardoftheman,RichardM.Johnson,a
DemocraticVice-PresidentoftheUnitedStates,thathehadcoloreddaughtersofwhomhe
wasproud;andhiswasnotanexceptionalcase."3SeveralPresidentsoftheUnitedStates
havebeenaccusedofracialcatholicityinsex.
Andfinally,onecannotforgetthatbitterwordattributedtoasisterofaPresidentofthe
UnitedStates:"WeSouthernladiesarecomplimentedwithnamesofwives;butweareonly
mistressesofseraglios."4
Whattheplanterswantedwasincomelargeenoughtomaintaintheleveloflivingwhichwas
theirideal.Naturally,onlyafewofthemhadenoughforthis,andtherest,strivingtowardit,
wereperpetuallyindebtandquerulouslyseekingareasonforthisindebtednessoutside
themselves.Sinceitwasbeneaththedignityofa"gentleman"toencumberhimselfwiththe
detailsofhisfinances,thislordlyexcuseenabledtheplantertoplacebetweenhimselfand
theblackslaveaseriesofintermediariesthroughwhombitterpressureandexploitation
couldbeexercisedandlargecropsraised.Fortheveryreasonthattheplantersdidnotgive
attentiontodetails,therewaswidetendencytocommercializetheirgrowingbusinessof
supplyingrawmaterialsforanexpandingmodernindustry.Theywerethelastto
comprehendtherevolutionthroughwhichthatindustrywaspassingandtheireffortsto
increaseincomesucceededonlyatthecostofrapingthelandanddegradingthelaborers.
Theoreticallythereweremanywaysofincreasingtheincomeoftheplanter;practicallythere
wasbutone.Theplantermightsellhiscropsathigherprices;hemightincreasehiscropby
intensivefarming,orhemightreducethecostofhandlingandtransportinghiscrops;he
mightincreasehiscropsbymakinghislaborersworkharderandgivingthemsmallerwages.
Inpractice,theplanter,sofaraspriceswereconcerned,wasatthemercyofthemarket.
Merchantsandmanufacturersbyintelligenceandclosecombinationsetthecurrentpricesof
rawmaterial.Theirpowerthusexercisedoveragriculturewasnotunlimitedbutitwasso
large,socontinuousandsosteadilyandintelligentlyexertedthatitgraduallyreducedagriculturetoasubsidiaryindustrywhosereturnsscarcelysupportedthefarmerandhislabor.
TheSouthernplanterinthefiftieswasinakeypositiontoattempttobreakandarrestthe
growthofthisdominationofallindustrybytradeandmanufacture.Buthewastoolazyand
self-indulgenttodothisandhewouldnotapplyhisintelligencetotheproblem.His
capitalisticrivalsoftheNorthwerehard-working,simple-livingzealotsdevotingtheirwhole
energyandintelligencetobuildingupanindustrialsystem.Theyquicklymonopolized
transportandminesandfactoriesandtheyweremorethanwillingtoincludethebig
plantations.Buttheplanterwantedresultswithouteffort.Hewantedlargeincomewithout
correspondinginvestmentandheinsistedfuriouslyuponasystemofproductionwhich
excludedintelligentlabor,machinery,andmodernmethods.Hetoyedwiththeideaoflocal
manufacturesandshipsandrailroads.Butthisentailedtoomuchworkandsacrifice.
TheresultwasthatNorthernandEuropeanindustrysetpricesforSoutherncotton,tobacco
andsugarwhichleftanarrowmarginofprofitfortheplanter.Hecouldretaliateonlyby
moreruthlesslyexploitinghisslavelaborsoastogetthelargestcropsattheleastexpense.
Hewasthereforenotdeliberatelycrueltohisslaves,buthehadtoraisecottonenoughto
satisfyhispretensionsandself-indulgence,evenifitbrutalizedandcommercializedhisslave
labor.
Thusslaverywastheeconomiclagofthe16thcenturycarriedoverintothe19thcenturyand
bringingbycontrastandbyfrictionmorallapsesandpoliticaldifficulties.Ithasbeen
estimatedthattheSouthernstateshadini860threebilliondollarsinvestedinslaves,which
meantthatslavesandlandrepresentedthemassoftheircapital.Beinggenerallyconvinced
thatNegroescouldonlylaborasslaves,itwaseasyforthemtobecomefurtherpersuaded
thatslaveswerebetterof!thanwhiteworkersandthattheSouthhadabetterlaborsystem
thantheNorth,withextraordinarypossibilitiesinindustrialandsocialdevelopment.
Theargumentwentlikethis:rawmateriallikecotton,tobacco,sugar,rice,togetherwith
otherfoodstuffsformedtherealwealthoftheUnitedStates,andwereproducedbythe
Southernstates.Thesecropsweresoldallovertheworldandwereinsuchdemandthatthe
industryofEuropedependeduponthem.ThetradewithEuropemustbekeptopensothat
theSouthmightbuyatthelowestpricessuchmanufacturedgoodsasshewanted,andshe
mustopposeallNorthernattemptstoexaltindustryattheexpenseofagriculture.
TheNorthmightarguecogentlythatindustryandmanufacturecouldbuildupintheUnited
Statesanationaleconomy.Writerson
economicsbeganinGermanyandAmericatoelaborateandinsistupontheadvantagesof
suchasystem;buttheSouthwouldhavenoneo£it.ItmeantnotonlygivingtheNorthanew
industrialprosperity,butdoingthisattheexpenseofEnglandandFrance;andtheSouthern
planterspreferredEuropetoNorthernAmerica.TheynotonlypreferredEuropeforsocial
reasonsandforeconomicadvantages,buttheysensedthatthenewpowerofmonopolizing
anddistributingcapitalthroughanationalbankingsystem,ifpermittedintheNorthinan
expandingindustry,wouldmaketheNorthanevengreaterfinancialdictatoroftheSouth
thanitwasatthetime.
TheSouthvoicedfortheSouthernfarmer,in1850,wordsalmostidenticalwiththoseofthe
Westernfarmer,seventy-fiveyearslater."Allindustry,"declaredoneSoutherner,"isgetting
legislativesupportagainstagriculture,andthustheprofitsaregoingtomanufactureand
trade,andtheseconcentratedintheNorthstandagainsttheinterestsoftheSouth."
Itcouldnot,perhaps,beproventhattheSouthernplanter,hadhebeeneducatedin
economicsandhistory,andhadheknowntheessentialtrendsofthemodernworld,could
havekepttheIndustrialRevolutionfromsubordinatingagricultureandreducingittoits
presentvasssalagetomanufacturing.Butitiscertainthatanenlightenedandfar-seeing
agrarianismunderthepeculiareconomiccircumstancesoftheUnitedStatesduringthefirst
halfofthenineteenthcenturycouldhaveessentiallymodifiedtheeconomictrendofthe
world.
TheSouthwithfreerichlandandcheaplaborhadthemonopolyofcotton,amaterialin
universaldemand.IftheleadersoftheSouth,whilekeepingtheconsumerinmind,had
turnedmorethoughtfullytotheproblemoftheAmericanproducer,andhadguidedthe
productionofcottonandfoodsoastotakeeveryadvantageofnewmachineryandmodern
methodsinagriculture,theymighthavemovedforwardwithmanufactureandbeenableto
secureanapproximatelylargeamountofprofit.Butthiswouldhaveinvolvedyieldingtothe
demandsofmodernlabor:opportunityforeducation,legalprotectionofwomenandchildren,
regulationofthehoursofwork,steadilyincreasingwagesandtherighttosomevoiceinthe
administrationofthestateifnotintheconductofindustry.
TheSouthhadbutoneargument'againstfollowingmoderncivilizationinthisyieldingtothe
demandoflaboringhumanity:itinsistedontheefficiencyofNegrolaborforordinarytoiland
onitsessentialequalityinphysicalconditionwiththeaveragelaborofEuropeandAmerica.
Butinordertomaintainitsincomewithoutsacrificeorexertion,theSouthfellbackona
doctrineofracialdifferenceswhichitassertedmadehigherintelligenceandincreased
efficiencyimpossibleforNegrolabor.Wishingsuchanexcuseforlazyindulgence,theplantereasilyfound,
inventedandprovedit.Hissubservientreligiousleadersrevertedtothe"CurseofCanaan";
hispseudo-scientistsgatheredandsupplementedallavailabledoctrinesofraceinferiority;
hisscatteredschoolsandpedanticperiodicalsrepeatedtheselegends,untilfortheaverage
planterbornafter1840itwasimpossiblenottobelievethatallvalidlawsinpsychology,
economicsandpoliticsstoppedwiththeNegrorace.
TheespousalofthedoctrineofNegroinferioritybytheSouthwasprimarilybecauseof
economicmotivesandtheinter-connectedpoliticalurgenecessarytosupportslaveindustry;
buttothewatchingworlditsoundedlikethecarefullythoughtoutresultofexperienceand
reason;andbecauseofthisitwassingularlydisastrousformoderncivilizationinscienceand
religion,inartandgovernment,aswellasinindustry.TheSouthcouldsaythattheNegro,
evenwhenbroughtintomoderncivilization,couldnotbecivilized,andthat,therefore,heand
theothercoloredpeoplesoftheworldweresofarinferiortothewhitesthatthewhiteworld
hadarighttorulemankindfortheirownselfishinterests.
Neverinmoderntimeshasalargesectionofanationsouseditscombinedenergiestothe
degradationofmankind.ThehurttotheNegrointhiserawasnotonlyhistreatmentin
slavery;itwasthewounddealttohisreputationasahumanbeing.Nothingwasleft;nothing
wassacred;andwhilethebestandmorecultivatedandmorehumaneoftheplantersdidnot
themselvesalwaysrepeatthecalumny,theystoodby,consentingbysilence,while
blatherskitessaidthingsaboutNegroestoocruellyuntruetobethewordofcivilizedmen.
NotonlytheninthefortiesandfiftiesdidthewordNegroloseitscapitalletter,butAfrican
historybecamethetaleofdegradedanimalsandsub-humansavages,wherenovestigeof
humanculturefoundfoothold.
Thusabasisinreason,philanthropyandsciencewasbuiltupforNegroslavery.Judgeson
thebenchdeclaredthatNegroservitudewastolast,"iftheapocalypsebenotinerror,until
theendoftime."TheAtlantaDailyIntelligencerofJanuary9,i860,said,"Wecan'tseeforthe
lifeofushowanyoneunderstandingfullythegreatprinciplethatunderliesoursystemof
involuntaryservitude,candiscoveranymonstrosityinsubjectingaNegrotoslaveryofa
whiteman.Wecontendonthecontrarythatthemonstrosity,or,atleast,theun-naturalness
inthismatter,consistsinfindingNegroesanywhereinwhitecommunitiesnotunderthe
controlofthewhites.WheneverweseeaNegro,wepresupposeamaster,andifweseehim
inwhatiscommonlycalleda'freestate,'weconsiderhimoutofhisplace.
Thismatterofmanumission,oremancipation'now,thankheaven,lesspracticedthan
formerly,'isaspeciesoffalsephilanthropy,whichwelookuponasacousin-Germanto
Abolitionism—badforthemaster,worsefortheslave."
Beneaththiseducationalandsocialpropagandalaytheundoubtedevidenceoftheplanter's
ownexpenses.Hesawignorantandsullenlabordeliberatelyreducinghisprofits.Infact,he
alwaysfacedthenegativeattitudeofthegeneralstrike.Openrevoltofslaves—refusaltowork
—couldbemetbybeatingandsellingtotheharshermethodsofthedeepSouthand
Southwestaspunishment.Runningawaycouldbecurbedbylawandpolice.Butnothing
couldstopthedoggedslavefromdoingjustaslittleandaspoorworkaspossible.All
observersspokeofthefactthattheslaveswereslowandchurlish;thattheywastedmaterial
andmalingeredattheirwork.Ofcourse,theydid.Thiswasnotracialbuteconomic.Itwas
theanswerofanygroupoflaborersforceddowntothelastditch.Theymightbemadeto
workcontinuouslybutnopowercouldmakethemworkwell.
IftheEuropeanorNorthernlaborerdidnotdohisworkproperlyandfastenough,hewould
losethejob.Theblackslavecouldnotlosehisjob.IftheNorthernlaborergotsickorinjured,
hewasdischarged,usuallywithoutcompensation;theblackslavecouldnotbedischarged
andhadtobegivensomecareinsicknesses,particularlyifherepresentedavaluable
investment.TheNorthernandEnglishemployercouldselectworkersintheprimeoflifeand
didnothavetopaychildrentooyoungtoworkoradultstooold.Theslaveownerhadtotake
careofchildrenandoldfolk,andwhilethisdidnotcostmuchonafarmorentailanygreat
care,itdidseriouslycutdowntheproportionofhiseffectivelaborers,whichcouldonlybe
balancedbythesystematiclaborofwomenandchildren.Thechildrenranloosewithonlythe
mostgeneralcontrol,gettingtheirfoodwiththeotherslaves.Theoldfolkforagedfor
themselves.Nowandthentheywerefounddeadofneglect,butusuallytherewasnotrouble
intheirgettingatleastfoodenoughtoliveandsomerudeshelter.
Theeconomicdifficultiesthatthusfacedtheplanterinexploitingtheblackslavewere
curious.Contrarytothetrendofhisage,hecouldnotusehigherwagetoinducebetterwork
oralargersupplyoflabor.Hecouldnotallowhislabortobecomeintelligent,although
intelligentlaborwouldgreatlyincreasetheproductionofwealth.Hecouldnotdependon
voluntaryimmigrationunlesstheimmigrantsbeslaves,andhemustbeartheburdenofthe
oldandsickandcouldonlybalancethisbychildlaborandthelaborofwomen.
Theuseofslavewomenasdayworkersnaturallybrokeupormadeimpossiblethenormal
Negrohomeandthisandtheslavecodeled
toadevelopmentofwhichtheSouthwasreallyashamedandwhichitoftendenied,andyet
perfectlyevident:theraisingofslavesintheBorderslavestatesforsystematicsaleonthe
commercializedcottonplantations.
Theabilityoftheslaveholderandlandlordtosequesteralargeshareoftheprofitsofslave
labordependeduponhisexploitationofthatlabor,ratherthanuponhighpricesforhis
productinthemarket.Intheworldmarket,themerchantsandmanufacturershadallthe
advantageofunity,knowledgeandpurpose,andcouldhammerdownthepriceofraw
material.Theslaveholder,therefore,sawNorthernmerchantsandmanufacturersenrich
themselvesfromtheresultsofSouthernagriculture.Hewasangryandusedallofhisgreat
politicalpowertocircumventit.Hisonlyeffectiveeconomicmovement,however,couldtake
placeagainsttheslave.Hewasforced,unlesswillingtotakelowerprofits,continuallytobeat
downthecostofhisslavelabor.
Buttherewasanothermotivewhichmoreandmorestronglyastimewentoncompelledthe
plantertoclingtoslavery.Hispoliticalpowerwasbasedonslavery.Withfourmillionslaves
hecouldbalancethevotesof2,400,000Northernvoters,whileintheinconceivableeventof
theirbecomingfree,theirvoteswouldoutnumberthoseofhisNorthernopponents,which
waspreciselywhathappenedin1868.
Astheeconomicpoweroftheplanterwaned,hispoliticalpowerbecamemoreandmore
indispensabletothemaintenanceofhisincomeandprofits.Holdinghisindustrialsystem
securebythispoliticaldomination,theplanterturnedtothemoresystematicexploitationof
hisblacklabor.Onemethodcalledformorelandandtheotherformoreslaves.Bothmeant
notonlyincreasedcropsbutincreasedpoliticalpower.Itwasatemptationthatsweptgreed,
religion,militaryprideanddreamsofempiretoitsdefense.Thereweretwopossibilities.He
mightfollowtheoldmethodoftheearlyWestIndiansugarplantations:workhisslaves
withoutregardtotheirphysicalcondition,untiltheydiedofover-workorexposure,andthen
buynewones.Thedifficultyofthis,however,wasthatthepriceofslaves,sincetheattempt
toabolishtheslavetrade,wasgraduallyrising.ThisinthedeepSouthledtoastrongand
graduallyincreasingdemandforthereopeningoftheAfricanslavetrade,justasmodern
industrydemandscheaperandcheapercoolielaborinAsiaandhalf-slavelaborinAfrican
mines.
Theotherpossibilitywastofindcontinualincrementsofnew,richlanduponwhichordinary
slavelaborwouldbringadequatereturn.ThislandtheSouthsoughtintheSoutheast;then
beyondtheMississippiinLouisianaandTexas,theninMexico,andfinally,itturned
itsfaceintwodirections:towardtheNorthwesternterritoriesoftheUnitedStatesandtoward
theWestIndianislandsandSouthAmerica.TheSouthwasdrawntowardtheWestbytwo
motives:firstthepossibilitythatslaveryinKansas,Colorado,UtahandNevadawouldbeat
leastasprofitableasinMissouri,andsecondlytopreventtheexpansionoffreelaborthere
anditsthreattoslavery.Thischallengewasacounselofdespairinthefaceofmodern
industrialdevelopmentandprobablytheradicalSouthexpecteddefeatintheWestandhoped
theconsequentresentmentamongtheslaveholderswouldsettheSouthtowardagreatslave
empireintheCaribbean.JeffersonDaviswasreadytoreopentheAfricanslavetradetoany
futureacquisitionsouthoftheRioGrande.
ThisbroughttheSouthtowarwiththefarmersandlaborersintheNorthandWest,who
wantedfreesoilbutdidnotwanttocompetewithslavelabor.Thefugitiveslavelawof1850
vastlyextendedFederalpowersoastonullifystaterightsintheNorth.TheCompromiseof
1850permittedtheextensionofslaveryintotheterritories,andtheKansas-NebraskaBill,
1854,deprivedCongressoftherighttoprohibitslaveryanywhere.Thisopenedtheentire
Westtoslavery.WarfollowedinKansas.SlaveholderswentboldlyintoKansas,armedand
organized:
"Theinvaderswentinsuchforcethatthescatteredandunorganizedcitizenscouldmakeno
resistanceandinmanyplacestheydidnotattempttovote,seeingthepollssurroundedby
crowdsofarmedmenwhotheyknewcamefromMissouritocontroltheelectionandthe
leadersoftheinvaderskepttheirmenundercontrol,beinganxioustopreventneedless
violence,asanyseriousoutbreakwouldattracttheattentionofthecountry.Insomedistricts
theactualcitizensprotestedagainsttheelectionandpetitionedthegovernortosetitaside
andorderanother.
"WecantelltheimpertinentscoundrelsoftheTribunethatwewillcontinuetolynchand
hang,totarandfeatheranddrowneverywhite-liveredAbolitionistwhodarestopolluteour
soil."5ShutoutfromtheUnitedStatesterritoriesbytheFreeSoilmovement,the'South
determineduponsecessionwiththedistinctideaofeventuallyexpandingintotheCaribbean.
Therewas,however,theoppositionintheBorderStates.Theemployersoflaborinthe
BorderStateshadfoundanewsourceofrevenue.Theydidnotliketoadmitit.They
surroundeditwithacertainsecrecy,anditwasexceedinglybadtasteforanyVirginiaplanter
tohaveitindicatedthathewasdeliberatelyraisingslavesforsale;andyetthatwasafact.
Innorespectarethepeculiarpsychologicaldifficultiesoftheplantersbetterillustratedthanwithregardtotheinterstateslavetrade.Thetheorywasclearand
lofty;slaveswereapartofthefamily—"mypeople,"GeorgeWashingtoncalledthem.Under
ordinarycircumstancestheywerenevertobealienated,butsupportedduringgoodbehavior
andbad,punishedandcorrectedforcrimeandmisdemeanor,rewardedforgoodconduct.It
wasthepatriarchalclantranslatedintomodernlife,withsocial,religious,economicandeven
bloodties.
Thiswasthetheory;butasamatteroffact,thecottonplantersweresuppliedwithlaborers
bytheBorderStates.Alaboringstockwasdeliberatelybredforlegalsale.Alargenumberof
personsfollowedtheprofessionofpromotingthissaleofslaves.Thereweremarketsand
quotations,andthestreamofblacklabor,movingcontinuouslyintotheSouth,reached
yearlyintothethousands.
Notwithstandingtheseperfectlyclearandauthenticatedfacts,theplanterpersistentlydenied
them.Hedeniedthattherewasanyconsiderableinterstatesaleofslaves;hedeniedthat
familieswerebrokenup;heinsistedthatslaveauctionswereduetodeathormischance,and
particularlydidheinsistthattheslavetradersweretheleastofhumanbeingsandmost
despised.
Thisdeliberatecontradictionofplainfactsconstitutesitselfamajorchargeagainstslavery
andshowshowthesystemoftensoaffrontedthemoralsenseoftheplantersthemselvesthat
theytriedtohidefromit.TheycouldnotfacethefactofNegrowomenasbroodmaresandof
blackchildrenaspuppies.
Indeed,whilewespeakoftheplantersasoneessentiallyunvaryinggroup,thereisevidence
thatthenecessitiesoftheireconomicorganizationwerecontinuallychangingand
deterioratingtheirmoraleandpushingforwardruder,noisier,lesscultivatedelementsthan
characterizedtheSoutherngentlemanofearlierdays.Certainly,thecursing,brawling,
whoringgamblerswholargelyrepresentedtheSouthinthelatefifties,evidencedthe
inevitabledeteriorationthatovertakesmenwhentheirdesireforincomeandextravagance
overwhelmstheirrespectforhumanbeings.Thustheinterstateslavetradegrewand
flourishedandthedemandfortheAfricanslavetradewasrapidlybecomingirresistibleinthe
latefifties.
FromfiftytoeightythousandslaveswentfromtheBorderStatestothelowerSouthinthe
lastdecadeofslavery.Oneplanterfranklysaidthathe"calculatedthatthemomentacolored
babywasborn,itwasworthtohim$300."Sofaraspossible,theplantersinsellingofltheir
slavesavoidedthebreakingupoffamilies.Buttheywerefacingflateconomicfacts.The
personswhowerebuyingslavesinthecottonbeltwerenotbuyingfamilies,theywerebuying
workers,andthusbyeconomicdemandfamilieswerecontinuallyandregularlybroken
up;thefatherwassoldaway;themotherandthehalf-grownchildrenseparated,and
sometimessmallerchildrenweresold.Oneofthesubsequenttragediesofthesystemwasthe
franticefforts,beforeandafteremancipation,ofNegroeshuntingfortheirrelatives
throughouttheUnitedStates.
ASouthernerwrotetoOlmsted:"InthestatesofMaryland,Virginia,NorthCarolina,
Kentucky,TennesseeandMissouri,asmuchattentionispaidtothebreedingandgrowthof
Negroesastothatofhorsesandmules.Furthersouth,weraisethembothforuseandfor
market.Planterscommandtheirgirlsandwomen(marriedorunmarried)tohavechildren;
andIhaveknownagreatmanyNegrogirlstobesoldoffbecausetheydidnothavechildren.
Abreedingwomanisworthfromone-sixthtoone-fourthmorethanonethatdoesnotbreed."
Sexualchaosarosefromeconomicmotives.Thedeliberatebreedingofastrong,bigfieldhandstockcouldbecarriedoutbyselectingpropermales,andgivingthemtherunofthe
likeliestfemales.ThisinmanyBorderStatesbecamearegularpolicyandfedtheslavetrade.
Child-bearingwasaprofitableoccupation,whichreceivedeverypossibleencouragement,and
therewasnotonlynobartoillegitimacy,butanactualpremiumputuponit.Indeed,the
wordwasimpossibleofmeaningundertheslavesystem.
MoncureD.Conway,whosefatherwasaslaveholdernearFredericksburg,Virginia,wrote:
"Asageneralthing,thechiefpecuniaryresourceintheBorderStatesisthebreedingof
slaves;andIgrievetosaythatthereistoomuchgroundforthechargesthatgeneral
licentiousnessamongtheslaves,forthepurposeofalargeincrease,iscompelledbysome
mastersandencouragedbymany.Theperiodofmaternityishastened,theaverageyouthof
Negromothersbeingnearlythreeyearsearlierthanthatofanyfreerace,andanoldmaidis
utterlyunknownamongthewomen."
J.E.Cairnes,theEnglisheconomist,inhispassagewithMr.Mc-Henryonthissubject,
computedfromreliabledatathatVirginia,hadbredandexportedtothecottonstatesbetween
theyearsof1840and1850nolessthan100,000slaves,whichat$500perheadwouldhave
yieldedher$50,000,000.
Thelawsometimesforbadethebreakingupofslavefamiliesbut:
"Notoneoftheseprohibitions,savethoseofLouisiana,andtheybutslightly,inanyway
referredtoorhamperedtheownerofunencumberedslaveproperty:hemightsellorpawnor
mortgageorgiveitawayaccordingtoprofitorwhim,regardlessofageorkinship.
"ElsewhereinthetypicalSouth—inVirginia,NorthCarolina,SouthCarolina,Tennessee,
ArkansasandTexas—thereseemstohavebeen
norestrictionofanysortagainstseparatingmothersandchildrenorhusbandsandwivesor
sellingchildrenofanyage.Slaverywas,indeed,a'peculiarinstitution.'"6
Theslave-tradingBorderStates,therefore,intheirowneconomicinterest,frantically
defendedslavery,yetopposedthereopeningoftheAfricanslavetradetowhichtheSouthern
Southwasbecomingmoreandmoreattracted.Thisslavetradehadcuriouspsychological
effectsupontheplanter.WhenGeorgeWashingtonsoldaslavetotheWestIndiesforone
hogshead"ofbestrum"andmolassesandsweetmeats,itwasbecause"thisfellowisbotha
rogueandarun-away.
Thustraditiongrewupthatthesaleofaslavefromagentleman'splantationwasforspecial
cause.Astimewentonandslaverybecamesystematizedandcommercializedunderthe
CottonKingdom,thiswasabsolutelyuntrue.The"buyingorsellingofslaveswasnotviewed
ashavinganytaintof'hated'slave-trading;yetitearlybecameafullycreditedtradition,
implicitlyacceptedgenerationaftergeneration,that'alltraderswerehated.'"8
Thesacrificesnecessaryforeconomicadvance,Southernplanterswereonthewholetoo
selfishandtooprovincialtomake.Theywouldnotinanydegreecurtailconsumptionin
ordertofurnishatleastpartofthenecessaryincreaseofcapitalandmakedependenceupon
debttotheNorthandtoEuropelessnecessary.Theydidnotsocializetheownershipofthe
slaveonanylargescaleoreducatehimintechnique;theydidnotencouragelocaland
auxiliaryindustryormanufacture,andthusmakeitpossiblefortheirownprofittoexploit
whitelaborandgiveitaneconomicfoothold.Thiswouldhaveinvolved,tobesure,increased
recognitionofdemocracy,andfarfromyieldingtoanysuchinevitabledevelopment,the
Souththrewitselfintothearmsofareactionatleasttwocenturiesoutofdate.Governor
McDufrleofSouthCarolinacalledthelaboringclass,bleachedorunbleached,a"dangerous"
elementinthepopulation.
AcuriousargumentappearedintheCharlestonMercuryof1861:
"Withintenyearspastasmanyastenthousandslaveshavebeendrawnawayfrom
CharlestonbytheattractivepricesoftheWest,and[white]laborersfromabroadhavecome
totaketheirplaces.Theselaborershaveeverydispositiontoworkabovetheslave,andif
therewereopportunity,wouldbegladtodoso;butwithoutsuchopportunitytheycomeinto
competitionwithhim;theyarenecessarilyrestivetothecontact.Alreadythereisdisposition
toexcludehimfromthetrades,frompublicworks,fromdrays,andthetablesofthehotels;
heisevennowexcludedtoagreatextent,and...whenmorelaborers...shallcomein
greaternumberstotheSouth,
theywillstillmoreincreasethetendencytoexclusion;theywillquestiontherightofmasters
toemploytheirslavesinanyworkthattheymaywishfor;theywillinvoketheaidof
legislation;theywillusetheelectivefranchisetothatend;theywillacquirethepowerto
determinemunicipalelections;theywillinexorablyuseit;andthusthetownofCharleston,
attheveryheartofslavery,maybecomeafortressofdemocraticpoweragainstit."
Theplantersentirelymisconceivedtheextenttowhichdemocracywasspreadinginthe
North.TheythoughtitmeantthatthelaboringclasswasgoingtoruletheNorthforlabor's
owneconomicinterests.Eventhosewhosawtheseamysideofslaverywereconvincedofthe
TightnessofthesystembecausetheybelievedthattherewereseedsofdisasterintheNorth
againstwhichslaverywouldbetheirprotection;"indicationsthatthesearealreadybeginning
tobefeltoranticipatedbypropheticminds,theythinktheyseeinthedemandsfor'Land
Limitation,'intheanti-renttroubles,instrikesofworkmen,inthedistressofemigrantsat
theeddiesoftheircurrent,indiseasedphilanthropy,inradicaldemocracy,andinthe
progressofsocialisticideasingeneral.'TheNorth,'saythey,'hasprogressedunderthehigh
pressureofunlimitedcompetition;asthepopulationgrowsdenser,therewillbeterrific
explosions,disaster,andruin,whiletheywillridequietlyandsafelyattheanchorofslavery.'"
9
ThustheplantersoftheSouthwalkedstraightintothefaceofmoderneconomicprogress.
TheNorthhadyieldedtodemocracy,butonlybecausedemocracywascurbedbya
dictatorshipofpropertyandinvestmentwhichleftinthehandsoftheleadersofindustry
sucheconomicpowerasinsuredtheirmasteryandtheirprofits.Lessthanthistheyknew
perfectlywelltheycouldnotyield,andmorethanthistheywouldnot.Theyremained
mastersoftheeconomicdestinyofAmerica.
IntheSouth,ontheotherhand,theplanterswalkedinquitetheoppositedirection,
excludingthepoorwhitesfromnearlyeveryeconomicfootholdwithapparentlyno
conceptionofthedangerofthesefivemillionworkerswho,intime,overthrewtheplanters
andutterlysubmergedthemaftertheCivilWar;andtheSouthwasequallydeterminedto
regarditsfourmillionslavesasaclassofsubmergedworkersandtothisidealtheyandtheir
successorsstillcling.
Calhounoncesaidwithperfecttruth:Therehasneveryetexisted"awealthyandcivilized
societyinwhichoneportionofthecommunitydidnot,inpointoffact,liveonthelaborof
theother."GovernorMcDufneofSouthCarolinasaid:"Godforbidthatmydescendants,in
theremotestgenerations,shouldliveinanyotherthanacommunityhavingtheinstitutionof
domesticslavery."10
TheSouthelectedtomakeitsfightthroughthepoliticalpowerwhichitpossessedbecauseof
slaveryandthedisfranchisementofthepoorwhites.IthadinAmericanhistorychosen
elevenoutofsixteenPresidents,seventeenoutoftwenty-eightJudgesoftheSupremeCourt,
fourteenoutofnineteenAttorneys-General,twenty-oneoutofthirty-threeSpeakersofthe
House,eightyoutofonehundredthirty-fourForeignMinisters.Itdemandedafugitiveslave
lawasstrongaswordscouldmakeitanditwasofferedconstitutionalguaranteeswhich
wouldhavemadeitimpossiblefortheNorthtomeddle•withtheorganizationoftheslave
empire.
TheSouthwasassuredofalltheterritorysouthwestofMissouriandasfarasCalifornia.It
mightevenhaveextendeditsimperialisticswaytowardtheCaribbeanwithouteffective
oppositionfromtheNorthorEurope.TheSouthhadconqueredMexicowithouthelpand
beyondlaytherestofMexico,theWestIndiesandSouthAmerica,opentoSouthern
imperialisticenterprise.TheSouthdominatedtheArmyandNavy.Itarguedthatamuch
largerproportionofthepopulationcouldgotowarintheSouththanintheNorth.There
might,ofcourse,bedangerofslaveinsurrectioninalongwarwithactualinvasion,butthe
possibilityofalongwaroranywaratallSouthernersdiscounted,andtheylookedconfidently
forwardtobeingeitheranindependentsectionoftheUnitedStatesoranindependent
countrywithastableeconomicfoundationwhichcoulddictateitstermstothemodernworld
onthebasisofamonopolyofcotton,andalargeproductionofotheressentialrawmaterials.
TheSouthwastooignoranttoknowthattheironlychancetoestablishsucheconomic
dictatorshipandplacethemselvesinakeyeconomicpositionwasthroughanational
economy,inalargenationwhereahomemarketwouldabsorbalargeproportionofthe
production,andwhereagriculture,ledbymenofvision,coulddemandafairshareofprofit
fromindustry.
When,therefore,theplanterssurrenderedthischanceandwenttowarwiththemachineto
establishagriculturalindependence,theylostbecauseoftheirinternalweakness.Theirwhole
laborclass,blackandwhite,wentintoeconomicrevolt.Thebreachcouldonlyhavebeen
healedbymakingthesameconcessionstolaborthatFrance,England,Germanyandthe
Northhadmade.Therewasnotimeforsuchchangeinthemidstofwar.Northernindustry
must,therefore,afterthewar,maketheadjustmentwithlaborwhichSouthernagriculture
refusedtomake.Butthelosswhichagriculturesustainedthroughthestubbornnessofthe
plantersledtothedegradationofagriculturethroughoutthemodernworld.
DuetothestubbornnessoftheSouthandthecapitalismofthe
West,wehavehadbuiltupintheworldanagriculturewithaminimumofmachinesandnew
methods,conductedbyignorantlaborandproducingrawmaterialsusedbyindustry
equippedwithmachinesandintelligentlabor,andconductedbyshrewdbusinessmen.The
resulthasbeenthatadisproportionatepartoftheprofitoforganizedworkhasgoneto
industry,whiletheagriculturallaborerhasdescendedtowardslavery.TheWest,insteadof
becomingacountryofpeasantproprietorswhomighthavecounteractedthisresult,
surrendereditselfhandandfoottocapitalismandspeculationinland.
TheabolitionofAmericanslaverystartedthetransportationofcapitalfromwhitetoblack
countrieswhereslaveryprevailed,withthesametremendousandawfulconsequencesupon
thelaboringclassesoftheworldwhichweseeaboutustoday.Whenrawmaterialcouldnot
beraisedinacountryliketheUnitedStates,itcouldberaisedinthetropicsandsemi-tropics
underadictatorshipofindustry,commerceandmanufactureandwithnofreefarmingclass.
Thecompetitionofaslave-directedagricultureintheWestIndiesandSouthAmerica,in
AfricaandAsia,eventuallyruinedtheeconomicefficiencyofagricultureintheUnitedStates
andinEuropeandprecipitatedthemoderneconomicdegradationofthewhitefarmer,while
itputintothehandsoftheownersofthemachinesuchamonopolyofrawmaterialthattheir
dominationofwhitelaborwasmoreandmorecomplete.
Thecrisiscameini860,notsomuchbecauseAbrahamLincolnwaselectedPresidentona
platformwhichrefusedfurtherlandfortheexpansionofslavery,butbecausethecottoncrop
of1859reachedthephenomenalheightoffivemillionbalesascomparedwiththreemillion
in1850.TothiswasaddedthethreatofradicalabolitionasrepresentedbyJohnBrown.The
Southfearedthesesocialupheavalsbutitwasspurredtoimmediateactionbythegreat
cottoncrop.StartingwithSouthCarolina,theSoutherncotton-raisingandslave-consuming
stateswereforcedoutoftheUnion.
Theirreasonfordoingthiswasclearlystatedandreiterated.Forageneration,beliefin
slaverywastheSouthernshibboleth:
"Asuspicionofheresyonthesubjectofthe'peculiarinstitution'wassufficienttodeclarethe
ineligibilityofanycandidateforoffice;nay,more,orthodoxybegantodependuponthe
correctattitudetowardthedoctrineof'SquatterSovereignty'andtheextremeviewheldasto
Federalprotectionofslaveryintheterritories."n
JeffersonDavissaidthattheNorthwas"impairingthesecurityofpropertyandslavesand
reducingthosestateswhichheldslavestoaconditionofinferiority."
SenatorToombssaidthatpropertyandslavesmustbeentitledto
thesameprotectionfromthegovernmentasanyotherproperty.TheSouthCarolina
conventionarraignedtheNorthforincreasinghostility"totheinstitutionofslavery,"and
declaredforsecessionbecausetheNorthhadassumedtherightofdecidinguponthe
proprietyofSoutherndomesticinstitutions.
GovernorR.C.WickliffeinhismessageattheextrasessionofthelegislatureofLouisiana
expressedhisbeliefthattheelectionwas"adeliberatedesigntopervertthepowersofthe
Governmenttotheimmediateinjuryandultimatedestructionofthepeculiarinstitutionof
theSouth."12
SlidePsfarewellspeechintheCongressionalGlobeofFebruary5,1861:
"Weseparate,"hesaid,"becauseofthehostilityofLincolntoourinstitutions....Ifhewere
inauguratedwithoutourconsenttherewouldbeslaveinsurrectionsintheSouth."13
TheAlabamaCommissionertoMarylandarraignedtheLincolngovernmentasproposingnot
"torecognizetherightoftheSoutherncitizenstopropertyinthelaborofAfricanslaves."The
GovernorofAlabamaarraignedtheRepublicansfordesiring"thedestructionofthe
institutionofslavery."
IntheSouthernCongress,atMontgomeryonthe2dofFebruary,1861,SenatorWigfall,from
Texas,saidthathewasfightingforslavery,andfornothingelse.Thepatentofnobilityisin
thecoloroftheskin.Hewantedtoliveinnocountryinwhichamanwhoblackedhisboots
andcurriedhishorsewashisequal.GiveNegroesmusketsandmakethemsoldiers,andthe
nextsubjectintroducedfordiscussionwillbemiscegenation.14Andfinally,AlexanderH.
Stephens,VicePresidentoftheConfederacy,statedfullythephilosophyofthenew
Confederategovernment:"ThenewConstitutionhasputatrestforeveralltheagitating
questionsrelatingtoourpeculiarinstitutions—Africanslaveryasitexistsamongus—the
properstatusoftheNegroinourformofcivilization.Thiswastheimmediatecauseofthe
lateruptureandpresentrevolution.Jefferson,inhisforecast,hadanticipatedthisasthe'roc\
uponwhichtheoldunionwouldsplit!Hewasright.Whatwasconjecturewithhimisnowa
realizedfact.Butwhetherhefullycomprehendedthegreattruthuponwhichthatrockstood
andstandsmaybedoubted.Theprevailingideasentertainedbyhimandmostoftheleading
statesmenatthetimeoftheformationoftheoldConstitution,werethattheenslavementof
theAfricanwasinviolationofthelawsofnature;thatitwaswronginprinciple,socially,
morallyandpolitically.Itwasaneviltheyknewnotwellhowtodealwith,butthegeneral
opinionofthemenofthatdaywasthat,somehoworother,intheorderofProvidence,the
institutionwouldbe
evanescentandpassaway....Thoseideas,however,werefundamentallywrong.Theyrested
upontheassumptionoftheequalityofraces.Thiswasanerror.Itwasasandyfoundation,
andtheideaofagovernmentbuiltuponit;whenthe'stormcameandthewindsblew,itfell.'
"Ournewgovernmentisfoundeduponexactlytheoppositeidea,itsfoundationsarelaid,its
corner-stonerestsuponthegreattruththattheNegroisnotequaltothewhiteman.That
slavery—subordinationtothesuperiorrace—ishisnaturalandnormalcondition.This,our
newgovernment,isthefirstinthehistoryoftheworld,baseduponthisgreatphysicaland
moraltruth.Thistruthhasbeenslowintheprocessofitsdevelopment,likeallothertruths
inthevariousdepartmentsofscience.Ithasbeensoevenamongstus.Manywhohearme,
perhaps,canrecollectwell,thatthistruthwasnotgenerallyadmitted,evenwithintheirday..
..
"Nowtheyareuniversallyacknowledged.Maywenot,therefore,lookwithconfidencetothe
ultimateuniversalacknowledgmentofthetruthsuponwhichoursystemrests.Itisthefirst
governmenteverinstituteduponprinciplesofstrictconformitytonature,andtheordination
ofProvidence,infurnishingthematerialsofhumansociety.Manygovernmentshavebeen
foundedupontheprincipleofcertainclasses;buttheclassesthusenslaved,wereofthesame
race,andinviolationofthelawsofnature.Oursystemcommitsnosuchviolationofnature's
laws.TheNegro,bynature,orbythecurseagainstCanaan,isfittedforthatconditionwhich
heoccupiesinoursystem.Thearchitect,intheconstructionofbuildings,laysthefoundation
withthepropermaterials,thegranite;thencomesthebrickorthemarble.Thesubstratumof
oursocietyismadeofthematerialfittedbynatureforit,andbyexperienceweknowthatitis
best,notonlyforthesuperior,butfortheinferiorracethatitshouldbeso.Itis,indeed,in
conformitywiththeordinanceoftheCreator.Itisnotforustoinquireintothewisdomof
Hisordinances,ortoquestionthem.ForHisownpurposesHehasmadeoneracetodiffer
fromanother,asHehashad'onestartodifferfromanotherstaringlory.'"»
TheriftbetweentheSouthernSouthandtheBorderStateswasbridgedbyomissionofall
referencetothereopeningoftheslavetradeandstressingtherealityoftheNorthernattack
upontheinstitutionofslaveryitself.
ThemovementagainsttheslavetradelawsintheSouthernSouthwasstrongandgrowing.In
1854,agrandjuryintheWilliamsburgdistrictofSouthCarolinadeclared:"Asour
unanimousopinion,thattheFederallawabolishingtheAfricanSlaveTradeisapublicgrievance.Weholdthistradehasbeenandwouldbe,ifreestablished,ablessingtotheAmerican
peopleandabenefittotheAfricanhimself."
Twoyearslater,theGovernorofthestateinhisannualmessagearguedforareopeningof
thetradeanddeclared:"Ifwecannotsupplythedemandforslavelabor,thenwemustexpect
tobesuppliedwithaspeciesoflaborwedonotwant"(i.e.,freewhitelabor).Themovement
wasforwardedbythecommercialconventions.In1855,atNewOrleans,aresolutionforthe
repealoftheslavetradelawswasintroducedbutnotreportedbycommittee.In1856,at
Savannah,theconventionrefusedtodebatethematteroftherepealoftheslavetradelaws
butappointedacommittee.AttheconventionatKnoxville,in1857,aresolutiondeclaringit
inexpedienttoreopenthetradewasvoteddown.AtMontgomery,in1858,acommittee
presentedanelaboratemajorityreportdeclaringit"expedientandproperthattheforeign
slavetradeshouldbereopened."Afterdebate,itwasdecidedthatitwasinexpedientforany
singlestatetoattempttoreopentheAfricanslavetradewhilethatstateisoneoftheUnited
StatesofAmerica.Finally,atVicksburgin1859,itwasvoted40-19,"thatalllaws,stateor
Federal,prohibitingtheAfricanslavetrade,oughttoberepealed."
BoththeprovisionalandpermanentconstitutionsoftheConfederatestatesforbadethe
importationofNegroesfromforeigncountries,exceptthe"slave-holdingstatesorterritories
oftheUnitedStatesofAmerica."Nevertheless,theforeignministersoftheConfederate
stateswereassuredthatwhiletheConfederategovernmenthadnopowertoreopentheslave
trade,thestatescould,iftheywantedto,andthattheministerswerenottodiscussany
treatiestoprohibitthetrade.16
ThustheplantersledtheSouthintowar,carryingthefivemillionpoorwhitesblindlywith
themandstandinguponacreedwhichopposedthefreedistributionofgovernmentland;
whichaskedfortheexpansionofslaveterritory,forrestrictedfunctionsofthenational
government,andfortheperpetuityofNegroslavery.
WhatirritatedtheplanterandmadehimchargetheNorthandliberalEuropewithhypocrisy,
wastheethicalimplicationsofslavery.Hewaskeptexplainingasystemofworkwhichhe
insistedwasnodifferentinessencefromthatinvogueinEuropeandtheNorth.Theyandhe
wereallexploitinglabor.Hediditbyindividualright;theybystatelaw.Theycalledtheir
laborfree,butafterall,thelaborerwasonlyfreetostarve,ifhedidnotworkontheirterms.
Theycalledhislaboreraslavewhenhismasterwasresponsibleforhimfrombirthtodeath.
TheSouthernargumenthadstrongbackinginthecommercialNorth.LawyerO'Connerof
NewYorkexpressedamidapplausethat
calmreasonedestimateoftheNegroin1859,whichpervadedtheNorth:
"Now,Gentlemen,natureitselfhasassigned,hisconditionofservitudetotheNegro.Hehas
thestrengthandisfittowork;butnature,whichgavehimthisstrength,deniedhimboththe
intelligencetoruleandthewilltowork.Botharedeniedtohim.Andthesamenaturewhich
deniedhimthewilltowork,gavehimamaster,whoshouldenforcethiswill,andmakea
usefulservantofhiminaclimatetowhichheiswelladaptedforhisownbenefitandthatof
themasterwhoruleshim.IassertthatitisnoinjusticetoleavetheNegrointheposition
intowhichnatureplacedhim;toputamasteroverhim;andheisnotrobbedofanyright,if
heiscompelledtolaborinreturnforthis,andtosupplyajustcompensationforhismasterin
returnforthelaborandthetalentsdevotedtorulinghimandtomakinghimusefulto
himselfandtosociety."
WhattheplanterandhisNorthernapologistdidnotreadilyadmitwasthatthisexploitation
oflaborreducedittoawagesolowandastandardoflivingsopitiablethatnomodern
industryinagricultureortradeormanufacturecouldbuilduponit;thatitmadeignorance
compulsoryandhadtodosoinself-defense;andthatitautomaticallywaskeepingtheSouth
fromenteringthegreatstreamofmodernindustrywheregrowingintelligenceamong
workers,arisingstandardoflivingamongthemasses,increasedpersonalfreedomand
politicalpower,wererecognizedasabsolutelynecessary.
Theethicalproblemherepresentedwaslessimportantthanthepoliticalandfarlessthanthe
economic.TheSouthernerswereaslittleconsciousofthehurttheywereinflictingonhuman
beingsastheNorthernerswereoftheirtreatmentoftheinsane.Itiseasyformentodiscount
andmisunderstandthesufferingorharmdoneothers.Onceaccustomedtopoverty,tothe
sightoftoilanddegradation,iteasilyseemsnormalandnatural;onceitishiddenbeneatha
differentcolorofskin,adifferentstatureoradifferenthabitofactionandspeech,andall
consciousnessofinflictingilldisappears.
TheSouthernplantersuffered,notsimplyforhiseconomicmistakes—thepsychological
effectofslaveryuponhimwasfatal.Themerefactthatamancouldbe,underthelaw,the
actualmasterofthemindandbodyofhumanbeingshadtohavedisastrouseffects.Ittended
toinflatetheegoofmostplantersbeyondallreason;theybecamearrogant,strutting,
quarrelsomekinglets;theyissuedcommands;theymadelaws;theyshoutedtheirorders;
theyexpecteddeferenceandself-abasement;theywerecholericandeasilyinsulted.Their
"honor"becameavastandawfulthing,requiringwideandinsistentdeference.Suchofthem
aswereinherentlyweakandin
efficientwereallthemoreeasilyangered,jealousandresentful;whilethefewwhowere
superior,physicallyormentally,conceivednoboundstotheirpowerandpersonalprestige.
Astheworldhadlonglearned,nothingissocalculatedtoruinhumannatureasabsolute
poweroverhumanbeings.
Ontheotherhand,thepossessionofsuchpowerdidnotandcouldnotleadtoitscontinued
tyrannicalexercise.Thetyrantcouldbekindandcongenial.Hecouldcareforhischattelslike
afather;hecouldgrantindulgenceandlargess;hecouldplaywithpowerandfind
tremendoussatisfactioninitsbenevolentuse.
Thus,economicallyandmorally,thesituationoftheplanterbecameintolerable.Whatwas
neededwastheforceofgreatpublicopiniontomakehimseehiseconomicmistakesandthe
moraldebaucherythatthreatenedhim.Buthereagainintheplanterclassnoroomwasmade
forthereformer,therecalcitrant.Themenwhodaredsuchthoughtandactweredrivenout
orsuppressedwithavirulenttyrannyreminiscentoftheInquisitionandtheReformation.
Forthesetherewasthesamepeculiarwayofescapethatlaybeforetheslave.Theplanter
whocouldnotstandslaveryfollowedthepoorwhiteswhocouldnotstandNegroes,they
followedtheNegrowhoalsocouldnotstandslavery,intotheNorth;andthere,removedfrom
immediatecontactwiththeevilsofslavery,theplanteroftenbecamethe"copperhead,"and
theoreticalchampionofasystemwhichhecouldnothimselfendure.
FrederickDouglassthussummeduptheobjectsofthewhiteplanter:
"Iunderstandthispolicytocomprehendfivecardinalobjects.Theyarethese:1st,The
completesuppressionofallanti-slaverydiscussion.2d,Theexpatriationoftheentirefree
peopleofcolorfromtheUnitedStates.3d,Theunendingperpetuationofslaveryinthis
republic.4th,Thenationalizationofslaverytotheextentofmakingslaveryrespectedinevery
stateoftheUnion.5th,TheextensionofslaveryoverMexicoandtheentireSouthAmerican
states."17
Thiswholesystemandplanofdevelopmentfailed,andfailedofitsownweakness.Unending
efforthasgoneintopaintingtheclaimsoftheOldSouth,itsidyllicbeautyandsocialcharm.
Butthetruthisinexorable.Withallitsfinemenandsacrificingwomen,itshospitablehomes
andgracefulmanners,theSouthturnedthemostbeautifulsectionofthenationintoacenter
ofpovertyandsuffering,ofdrinking,gamblingandbrawling;anabodeofignoranceamong
blackandwhitemoreabysmalthaninanymodernland;andasystemofindustrysohumanly
unjustandeconomicallyinefficientthatifithadnotcommittedsuicideincivilwar,itwould
havedisintegratedofitsownweight.
WiththeCivilWar,theplantersdiedasaclass.Westilltalkasthoughthedominantsocial
classintheSouthpersistedafterthewar.Butitdidnot.Itdisappeared.Justhowquicklyand
inwhatmannerthetransformationwasmade,wedonotknow.Noscientificstudyofthe
submergenceoftheremainderoftheplanterclassintotheranksofthepoorwhites,andthe
correspondingriseofaportionofthepoorwhitesintothedominantportionoflandholders
andcapitalists,hasbeenmade.OfthenamesofprominentSouthernfamiliesinCongressin
i860,onlytwoappearin1870,fivein1880.Of90prominentnamesin1870,onlyfour
survivedin1880.MentalktodayasthoughtheupperclassinthewhiteSouthisdescended
fromtheslaveholders;yetweknowbyplainmathematicsthattheancestorsofmostofthe
presentSouthernersneverownedaslavenorhadanyrealeconomicpartinslavery.The
disasterofwardecimatedtheplanters;thebitterdisappointmentandfrustrationledtoa
tremendousmortalityafterthewar,andfrom1870ontheplanterclassmergedtheirbloodso
completelywiththerisingpoorwhitesthattheydisappearedasaseparatearistocracy.Itis
thisthatexplainssomanycharacteristicsofthepost-warSouth:itslynchingandmoblaw,its
murdersandcruelty,itsinsensibilitytothefinerthingsofcivilization.
Notspring;fromusnoagonyofbirthIsaskedorneeded;inacrimsontideUponthedownslopeoftheworldWe,theelect,arehurledInfearfulpowerandbriefprideBurningatlastto
silenceanddarkearth.NotSpring.JamesRorty
*QuotedinspeechofCharlesSumner,intheUnitedStatesSenate,December20,1865,from
"aprivateletterwhichIhavereceivedfromagovernmentofficer."CongressionalGlobe,39th
Congress,1stSession,p.93,Column2.
1.Nevin,AmericanSocialHistoryasRecordedbyBritishTravellers,p.209.
2.Trollope,Frances,DomesticMannersoftheAmericans,p.10.
3.AnAppealofaColoredMantoHisFellow-CitizensofaFairerHue,intheUnited
States,1877,pp.33,34.
4.Goodell,AmericanSlaveCode,p.in.
5.Brewster,SketchesofSouthernMystery,TreasonandMurder,pp.48,51.
6.Bancroft,Slave-TradingintheOldSouth,p.199.
7.Mazyck,GeorgeWashingtonandtheNegro,p.13.
8.Bancroft,Slave-TradingintheOldSouth,p.381.
9.Olmsted,AJourneyintheSeaboardSlaveStates,pp.183-184.
10.StudiesinSouthernHistoryandPolitics,footnote,pp.329,346.
11.Ficklen,HistoryofReconstructioninLouisiana,p.12.
12.Ficklen,ReconstructioninLouisiana,p.15.
13.Ficklen,ReconstructioninLouisiana,p.27.
14.NewOrleansTribune,February15,1865.
15.Stewart,TheRewardofPatriotism,pp.41-43.
16.CompareDuBois,SuppressionofSlave-Trade,ChapterXI.
17.Woodson,NegroOratorsandTheirOrations,p.224.
IV.THEGENERALSTRIKE
HowtheCivilWarmeantemancipationandhowtheblackworker
wonthewarbyageneralstrikewhichtransferredhislaborfrom
theConfederateplantertotheNortherninvader,inwhosearmy
linesworkersbegantobeorganizedasanewlaborforce
WhenEdwinRuffin,white-hairedandmad,firedthefirstgunatFortSumter,hefreedthe
slaves.Itwasthelastthinghemeanttodobutthatwasbecausehewassotypicallya
Southernoligarch.Hedidnotknowtherealworldabouthim.Hewasprovincialandlived
apartonhisplantationwithhisservants,hisbooksandhisthoughts.Outsideofagriculture,
hejumpedatconclusionsinsteadoftestingthembycarefulresearch.Heknew,forinstance,
thattheNorthwouldnotfight.HeknewthatNegroeswouldneverrevolt.
Andsowarcame.Warismurder,force,anarchyanddebt.Itsendisevil,despiteallincidental
good.NeitherNorthnorSouthhadbefore1861theslightestintentionofgoingtowar.The
thoughtwasinmanyrespectsridiculous.Theywerenotpreparedforwar.Thenationalarmy
wassmall,poorlyequippedandwithoutexperience.Therewasnofilefromwhichsomeone
mightdrawplansofsubjugation.
WhenNorthernarmiesenteredtheSouththeybecamearmiesofemancipation.Itwasthe
lastthingtheyplannedtobe.TheNorthdidnotproposetoattackproperty.Itdidnotpropose
tofreeslaves.Thiswastobeawhiteman'swartopreservetheUnion,andtheUnionmustbe
preserved.
NothingthatconcernedtheameliorationoftheNegrotouchedtheheartofthemassof
AmericansnorcouldthecommonrunofmenrealizethepoliticalandeconomiccostofNegro
slavery.When,therefore,theSouthernradicals,backedbypoliticaloligarchyandeconomic
dictatorshipinthemostextremeforminwhichtheworldhadseenitforfivehundredyears,
precipitatedsecession,thatpartoftheNorththatopposedtheplanhadtohuntforarallying
slogantounitethemajorityintheNorthandintheWest,andifpossible,bringtheBorder
Statesintoanopposingphalanx.
Freedomforslavesfurnishednosuchslogan.Notone-tenthoftheNorthernwhite
populationwouldhavefoughtforanysuchpurpose.Freesoilwasamuchstrongermotive,
butithadnocogencyinthis
contestbecausetheFreeSoilersdidnotdreamofaskingfreesoilintheSouth,sincethat
involvedthecompetitionofslaves,orwhatseemedworsethanthat,offreeNegroes.Onthe
otherhand,thetremendouseconomicidealofkeepingthisgreatmarketforgoods,the
UnitedStates,togetherwithallitspossibilitiesofagriculture,manufacture,tradeandprofit,
appealedtoboththeWestandtheNorth;andwhatwasthenmuchmoresignificant,it
appealedtotheBorderStates.
"Totheflagwearepledged,allitsfoesweabhor,Andweain'tforthenigger,butwearefor
thewar."
TheBorderStateswantedthecottonbeltintheUnionsothattheycouldsellittheirsurplus
slaves;buttheyalsowantedtobeinthesameunionwiththeNorthandWest,wherethe
profitoftradewaslargeandincreasing.ThedutythenofsavingtheUnionbecamethegreat
rallyingcryofawarwhichforalongtimemadetheBorderStateshesitateandconfine
secessiontothefarSouth.Andyettheyallknewthattheonlythingthatreallythreatenedthe
UnionwasslaveryandtheonlyremedywasAbolition.
If,now,thefarSouthhadhadtrainedandastuteleadership,acompromisecouldhavebeen
madewhich,sofarasslaverywasconcerned,wouldhaveheldtheabnormalpoliticalpower
oftheSouthintact,madetheslavesystemimpregnableforgenerations,andevengiven
slaverypracticalrightsthroughoutthenation.
BothNorthandSouthignoredindifferingdegreestheinterestsofthelaboringclasses.The
Northexpectedpatriotismanduniontomakewhitelaborfight;theSouthexpectedallwhite
mentodefendtheslaveholders'property.BothNorthandSouthexpectedatmostasharp,
quickfightandvictory;moreprobablytheSouthexpectedtosecedepeaceably,andthen
outsidetheUnion,toimposetermswhichwouldincludenationalrecognitionofslavery,new
slaveterritoryandnewcheapslaves.TheNorthexpectedthatafterathreatand
demonstrationtoappeaseits"honor,"theSouthwouldreturnwiththerightofslaveproperty
recognizedandprotectedbutgeographicallylimited.
BothsectionsignoredtheNegro.TotheNorthernmassestheNegrowasacuriosity,asubhumanminstrel,willinglyandnaturallyaslave,andtreatedaswellashedeservedtobe.He
hadnotsenseenoughtorevoltandhelpNorthernarmies,evenifNorthernarmieswere
tryingtoemancipatehim,whichtheywerenot.TheNorthshrankattheverythoughtof
encouragingservileinsurrectionagainstthewhites.Aboveallitdidnotproposetointerfere
withproperty.Negroesonthewholewereconsideredcowardsandinferiorbeingswhosevery
presenceinAmericawasunfortunate.Theabolitionists,itwastrue,
expectedactiononthepartoftheNegro,buthowmuch,theycouldnotsay.OnlyJohnBrown
knewjusthowrevolthadcomeandwouldcomeandhewasdead.
ThustheNegrohimselfwasnotseriouslyconsideredbythemajorityofmen,NorthorSouth.
Andyetfromtheverybeginning,theNegrooccupiedthecenterofthestagebecauseofvery
simplephysicalreasons:thewarwasintheSouthandintheSouthwere3,953,740black
slavesand261,918freeNegroes.Whatwastobetherelationofthismassofworkerstothe
war?WhatdidthewarmeantotheNegroes,andwhatdidtheNegroesmeantothewar?
Therearetwotheories,bothratherover-elaborated:theonethattheNegrodidnothingbut
faithfullyservehismasteruntilemancipationwasthrustuponhim;theotherthattheNegro
immediately,justasquicklyasthepresenceofNorthernsoldiersmadeitpossible,left
serfdomandtookhisstandwiththearmyoffreedom.
Itmustbeborneinmindthatnine-tenthsofthefourmillionblackslavescouldneitherread
norwrite,andthattheoverwhelmingmajorityofthemwereisolatedoncountryplantations.
Anymassmovementundersuchcircumstancesmustmaterializeslowlyandpainfully.What
theNegrodidwastowait,lookandlistenandtrytoseewherehisinterestlay.Therewasno
useinseekingrefugeinanarmywhichwasnotanarmyoffreedom;andtherewasnosense
inrevoltingagainstarmedmasterswhowereconqueringtheworld.Assoon,however,asit
becameclearthattheUnionarmieswouldnotorcouldnotreturnfugitiveslaves,andthat
themasterswithalltheirfumeandfurywereuncertainofvictory,theslaveenteredupona
generalstrikeagainstslaverybythesamemethodsthathehadusedduringtheperiodofthe
fugitiveslave.HeranawaytothefirstplaceofsafetyandofferedhisservicestotheFederal
Army.Sothatinthiswayitwasreallytruethatheservedhisformermasterandservedthe
emancipatingarmy;anditwasalsotruethatthiswithdrawalandbestowalofhislabor
decidedthewar.
TheSouthcountedonNegroesaslaborerstoraisefoodandmoneycropsforciviliansandfor
thearmy,andeveninacrisis,tobeusedformilitarypurposes.Slaverevoltwasaneverpresentrisk,buttherewasnoreasontothinkthatashortwarwiththeNorthwouldgreatly
increasethisdanger.Publicly,theSouthrepudiatedthethoughtofitsslavesevenwantingto
berescued.TheNewOrleansCrescentshowed"theabsurdityoftheassertionofageneral
stampedeofourNegroes."TheLondonDispatchwasconvincedthatNegroesdidnotwantto
befree."Asfortheslavesthemselves,crushedwiththewrongsofDredScottandUncleTom
—mostprovoking—theycannotbebroughtto'burnwithrevenge.'Theyarespiesfortheir
masters.Theyobstinately
refusetorunawaytoliberty,outrageandstarvation.Theyworkinthefieldsasusualwhen
theplanterandoverseerareawayandonlythewhitewomenareleftathome."
Earlyinthewar,theSouthhadmadecarefulcalculationofthemilitaryvalueofslaves.The
AlabamaAdvertiserin1861discussedtheslavesasa"MilitaryElementintheSouth."Itsaid
that"ThetotalwhitepopulationoftheelevenstatesnowcomprisingtheConfederacyis
5,000,000,and,therefore,tofilluptheranksoftheproposedarmy,600,000,abouttenper
centoftheentirewhitepopulation,willberequired.Inanyothercountrythanourownsuch
adraftcouldnotbemet,buttheSouthernstatescanfurnishthatnumberofmen,andstill
notleavethematerialinterestofthecountryinasufferingcondition."
Theeditor,withfatuousfaith,didnotforamomentcontemplateanymassmovementagainst
thisprogramonthepartoftheslaves."Thosewhoareincapacitatedforbearingarmscan
overseetheplantations,andtheNegroescangoonundisturbedintheirusuallabors.Inthe
North,thecaseisdifferent;themenwhojointhearmyofsubjugationarethelaborers,the
producersandthefactoryoperatives.Nearlyeverymanfromthatsection,especiallythose
fromtheruraldistricts,leavessomebranchofindustrytosufferduringhisabsence.The
institutionofslaveryintheSouthaloneenableshertoplaceinthefieldaforcemuchlarger
inproportiontoherwhitepopulationthantheNorth,orindeedanycountrywhichis
dependententirelyonfreelabor.TheinstitutionisatowerofstrengthtotheSouth,
particularlyatthepresentcrisis,andourenemieswillbelikelytofindthatthe'MoralCancer'
aboutwhichtheiroratorsaresofondofprating,isreallyoneofthemosteffectiveweapons
employedagainsttheUnionbytheSouth."x
SoontheSouthofnecessitywasmovingoutbeyondthisplan.Itwasnolongersimplya
questionofusingtheNegroesathomeontheplantationtoraisefood.Theycouldbeofeven
moreimmediateuse,asmilitarylabor,tothrowupbreastworks,transportandpreparefood
andactasservantsincamp.IntheCharlestonCourierofNovember22,able-bodiedhands
wereaskedtobesentbytheirmasterstoworkuponthedefenses."Theywouldbefedand
properlycaredfor."
In1862,inCharleston,afteraproclamationofmartiallaw,thegovernorandcounsel
authorizedtheprocuringofNegroslaveseitherbytheplanter'sconsentorbyimpressment
"toworkonthefortificationsanddefensesofCharlestonharbor."
InMississippiin1862,permissionwasgrantedtheGovernortoimpressslavestoworkin
NewIberiaforsalt,whichwasbecomingtheConfederacy'smostpressingnecessity.InTexas,
athousandNegroeswereofferedbyplantersforworkonthepublicdefenses.
By1864,thematterhadpassedbeyondthedemandforslavesasmilitarylaborersandhad
cometotheplacewheretheSouthwasseriouslyconsideringandopenlydemandingtheuse
ofNegroesassoldiers.Distinctlyandinevitably,therigoroftheslavesystemintheSouth
softenedaswarproceeded.Slaveryshowedinmanyifnotallrespectsitsbestside.The
harshnessandthecruelty,inpart,hadtodisappear,sincetherewereleftontheplantations
mainlywomenandchildren,withonlyafewmen,andtherewasacertainfeelingand
apprehensionintheaironthepartofthewhiteswhichledthemtocapitalizeallthe
friendshipandkindnesswhichhadexistedbetweenthemandtheslaves.Noracecouldhave
respondedtothissoquicklyandthoroughlyastheNegroes.Theyfeltpityandresponsibility
andalsoacertainnewundercurrentofindependence.Negroeswerestillbeingsoldrather
ostentatiouslyinCharlestonandNewOrleans,butthelonglinesofVirginiaNegroeswere
notmarchingtotheSouthwest.Inacertainsense,afterthefirstfewmonthseverybodyknew
thatslaverywasdonewith;thatnomatterwhowon,theconditionoftheslavecouldneverbe
thesameafterthisdisasterofwar.Anditwas,perhaps,theseconsiderations,morethan
anythingelse,thatheldthepoisedarmoftheblackman;fornooneknewbetterthanthe
SouthwhataNegrocrazedwithcrueltyandoppressionandbeatenbacktothelaststand
coulddotohisoppressor.
TheSoutherners,therefore,werecareful.Thosewhohadbeenkindtotheirslavesassured
themofthebadcharacteroftheYankeeandoftheirowngoodintentions.
ThuswhiletheNegroesknewtherewereAbolitionistsintheNorth,theydidnotknowtheir
growth,theirpowerortheirintentionsandtheydidhearoneverysidethattheSouthwas
overwhelminglyvictoriousonthebattlefield.Ontheotherhand,someoftheNegroessensed
whatwasbeginningtohappen.TheNegroesofthecities,theNegroeswhowerebeinghired
out,theNegroesofintelligencewhocouldreadandwrite,allbegancarefullytowatchthe
unfoldingofthesituation.AtthefirstgunofSumter,theblackmassbegannottomovebut
toheavewithnervoustensionandwatchfulwaiting.Evenbeforewarwasdeclared,a
movementbeganacrosstheborder.Justbeforethewarlargenumbersoffugitiveslavesand
freeNegroesrushedintotheNorth.ItwasestimatedthattwothousandleftNorthCarolina
alonebecauseofrumorsofwar.
WhenW.T.ShermanoccupiedPortRoyalinOctober,1861,hehadnoideathathewas
beginningemancipationatoneofitsstrategicpoints.Onthecontrary,hewasverypoliteand
saidthathehadnoideaofinterferingwithslaves.Inthesameway,MajorGeneralDix,on
seizingtwocountiesofVirginia,wascarefultoorderthatslavery
wasnottobeinterferedwithorslavestobereceivedintotheline.Burnsidewentfurther,and
ashebroughthisRhodeIslandregimentthroughBaltimoreinJune,hecourteouslyreturned
twoNegroeswhotriedtorunawaywithhim.Theywere"supposedtobeslaves,"although
theymayhavebeenfreeNegroes.Onthe4thofJuly,ColonelPryorofOhiodeliveredan
addresstothepeopleofVirginiainwhichherepudiatedtheaccusationthattheNorthern
armywereAbolitionists.
"Idesiretoassureyouthattherelationofmasterandservantasrecognizedinyourstate
shallberespected.Yourauthorityoverthatspeciesofpropertyshallnotintheleastbe
interferedwith.Tothisend,Iassureyouthatthoseundermycommandhaveperemptory
orderstotakeupandholdanyNegroesfoundrunningaboutthecampwithoutpassesfrom
theirmasters."HalleckinMissouriin1862refusedtoletfugitiveslavesenterhislines.Burnside,Buell,
Hooker,ThomasWilliamsandMcClellanhimself,allwarnedtheirsoldiersagainstreceiving
slavesandmostofthempermittedmasterstocomeandremoveslavesfoundwithinthe
lines.
TheconstantchargeofSouthernnewspapers,SouthernpoliticiansandtheirNorthern
sympathizers,thatthewarwasanabolitionwar,metwithconstantandindignantdenial.
Loyalnewspapers,oratorsandpreachers,withfewexceptions,whileadvocatingstringent
measuresforputtingdowntheRebellion,carefullydisclaimedanyintentionofdisturbingthe
"peculiarinstitution"oftheSouth.TheSecretaryofStateinformedforeigngovernments,
throughourministersabroad,thatthiswasnotourpurpose.PresidentLincoln,inhisearlier
messages,substantiallyreiteratedthestatement.Leadinggenerals,onenteringSouthern
territory,issuedproclamationstothesameeffect.Oneevenpromisedtoputdownanyslave
insurrection"withanironhand,"whileotherstookvigorousmeasurestosendbackthe
fugitiveswhosoughtrefugewithintheirlines.
"Intheearlyyearsofthewar,ifaccountsdonoterr,duringtheentireperiodMcClellan
commandedtheArmyofthePotomac,'JohnBrown'sBody'wasaforbiddenairamongthe
regimentalbands.TheHutchinsonsweredrivenfromUnioncampsforsingingabolition
songs,andinsofarastheNorthernarmyinteresteditselfatallintheslaveryquestion,itwas
bytheuseofforcetoreturntotheirSouthernmastersfugitivesseekingshelterintheUnion
lines.Whiletheinformationtheypossessed,especiallyrespectingtheroadsandmeansof
communication,shouldhavebeenofinestimableservicetotheFederals,theywerenottobe
employedaslaborersorarmedassoldiers.TheNorthavoidedtheappearanceofadesireto
raisetheNegroesfromtheplaneofchattelstotherankofhumanbeings."3
HerewasnobidforthecooperationofeitherslavesorfreeNegroes.IntheNorth,Negroes
werenotallowedtoenlistandoftenrefusedwithindignation."Thustheweaknessofthe
Southtemporarilybecameherstrength.Herservilepopulation,repulsedbyNorthernproslaverysentiment,remainedathomeengagedinagriculture,thusreleasingherentirewhite
populationforactiveserviceinthefield;while,ontheotherhand,themilitaryresourcesof
theNorthwerenecessarilydiminishedbythedemandsoflabor."4
ItwasasFrederickDouglasssaidinBostonin1865,thattheCivilWarwasbegun"inthe
interestsofslaveryonbothsides.TheSouthwasfightingtotakeslaveryoutoftheUnion,
andtheNorthfightingtokeepitintheUnion;theSouthfightingtogetitbeyondthelimitsof
theUnitedStatesConstitution,andtheNorthfightingfortheoldguarantees;—bothdespising
theNegro,bothinsultingtheNegro."
Itwas,therefore,atfirstbynomeanscleartomostofthefourmillionNegroesinslavery
whatthiswarmightmeantothem.Theycrouchedconsciouslyandmovedsilently,listening,
hopingandhesitating.ThewatchfulnessoftheSouthwasredoubled.Theyspread
propaganda:theYankeeswerenotonlynotthinkingofsettingthemfree,butiftheydid
anything,theywouldsellthemintoworseslaveryintheWestIndies.Theywoulddrivethem
fromeventhescantcomfortoftheplantationsintothehighwaysandpurlieus.Moreover,if
theytriedtoemancipatetheslaves,theywouldfailbecausetheycouldnotdothiswithout
conquestoftheSouth.TheSouthwasunconquerable.
TheSouthwasnotslowtospreadpropagandaandpointtothewretchedconditionoffugitive
Negroesinordertokeeptheloyaltyofitsindispensablelaborforce.TheCharlestonDaily
CouriersaidFebruary18,1863:"AcompanyofvolunteershavingleftFayetteCountyforthe
fieldofaction,Mr.NancesenttwoNegroboysalongtoaidthecompany.Theirimaginations
becamedazzledwiththevisionsofElysianfieldsinYankeedomandtheywenttofindthem.
ButParadisewasnowherethere,andtheyagainsighedforhome.TheYanks,however,
detainedthemandcutofftheirearsclosetotheirheads.TheseNegroesfinallymadetheir
escapeandarenowathomewithMr.NanceinPickens.TheyareviolenthatersofYankees
andtheiradventuresandexperiencesareaterrortoNegroesoftheregion,wholearneda
lessonfromtheirbrethrenwhoseearsareleftinLincolndom!"
TheCharlestonMercury,May8,1862,said:"TheYankeesarefortifyingFernandina(Florida)
andhavealargenumberofNegroesengagedontheirworks.WhenevertheNegroeshavean
opportunity,
theyescapefromtheiroppressors.Theyreportthattheyareworkedhard,getlittlerestand
foodandnopay."
TheSavannahDailyNewsreportsin1862thatmanystolenNegroeshadbeenrecaptured:
"TheYankeeshadmarriedanumberofthewomenandweretakingthemhomewiththem.I
haveseensomewhorefusedtogoandotherswhohadbeenforcedoffatothertimeswhohad
returned."
ItwasalovelydressparadeofAlphonseandGastonuntiltheNegrospoileditandina
perfectlylogicalway.SolongastheUnionstoodstillandtalked,theNegrokeptquietand
worked.ThemomenttheUnionarmymovedintoslaveterritory,theNegrojoinedit.Despite
allargumentandcalculationandinthefaceofrefusalsandcommands,wherevertheUnion
armiesmarched,appearedthefugitiveslaves.Itmadenodifferencewhattheobstacleswere,
ortheattitudesofthecommanders.Itwas"likethrustingawalkingstickintoananthill,"
saysonewriter.Andyetthearmychiefsatfirsttriedtoregarditasanexceptionaland
temporarymatter,athingwhichtheycouldcontrol,whenasamatteroffactitwasthemeat
andkernelofthewar.
Thusasthewarwentonandtheinvadingarmiescameon,thewaysuddenlyclearedforthe
onlookingNegro,forhisspokesmenintheNorth,andforhissilentlistenersintheSouth.
Eachstep,thereafter,camewithcurious,logicalandinevitablefate.Firsttherewerethe
fugitiveslaves.SlaveshadalwaysbeenrunningawaytotheNorth,andwhentheNorthgrew
hostile,ontoCanada.Itwasthesafetyvalvethatkeptdownthechanceofinsurrectioninthe
Southtothelowestpoint.Suddenly,now,thechancetorunawaynotonlyincreased,but
afterpreliminaryrepulseandhesitation,therewasactualencouragement.
Notthatthegovernmentplannedorforesawthiseventuality;onthecontrary,having
repeatedlydeclaredtheobjectofthewarasthepreservationoftheUnionandthatitdidnot
proposetofightforslavesortouchslavery,itfacedastampedeoffugitiveslaves.
EverysteptheNorthernarmiestookthenmeantfugitiveslaves.TheycrossedthePotomac,
andtheslavesofnorthernVirginiabegantopourintothearmyandintoWashington.They
capturedFortressMonroe,andslavesfromVirginiaandevenNorthCarolinapouredintothe
army.TheycapturedPortRoyal,andthemastersranaway,leavingdrovesofblackfugitives
inthehandsoftheNorthernarmy.TheymoveddowntheMississippiValley,andiftheslaves
didnotrushtothearmy,thearmymarchedtotheslaves.TheycapturedNewOrleans,and
capturedagreatblackcityandastatefullofslaves.
Whatwastobedone?Theytriedtosendtheslavesback,andeven
usedthesoldiersforrecapturingthem.Thiswasallwellenoughaslongasthewarwasa
dressparade.Butwhenitbecamerealwar,andslaveswerecapturedorreceived,theycould
beusedasmuch-neededlaborersandservantsbytheNorthernarmy.
Thisbutemphasizedandmadecleareratruthwhichought,tohavebeenrecognizedfromthe
verybeginning:TheSouthernworker,blackandwhite,heldthekeytothewar;andofthetwo
groups,theblackworkerraisingfoodandrawmaterialsheldanevenmorestrategicplace
thanthewhite.Thiswassoclearafactthatbothsidesshouldhaveknownit.Fremontin
Missouritookthelogicalactionoffreeingslavesoftheenemyroundabouthimby
proclamation,andPresidentLincolnjustaspromptlyrepudiatedwhathehaddone.Even
beforethat,GeneralButlerinVirginia,commanderoftheUnionforcesatFortressMonroe,
metthreeslaveswalkingintohiscampfromtheConfederatefortificationswheretheyhad
beenatwork.Butlerimmediatelydeclaredthesemen"contrabandofwar"andputthemto
workinhisowncamp.Moreslavesfollowed,accompaniedbytheirwivesandchildren.The
situationherewasnotquitesological.Nevertheless,Butlerkeptthefugitivesandfreedthem
andletthemdowhatworktheycould;andhisactionwasapprovedbytheSecretaryofWar.
"OnMaytwenty-sixth,onlytwodaysaftertheoneslaveappearedbeforeButler,eight
Negroesappeared;onthenextday,forty-seven,ofallagesandbothsexes.Eachdaythey
continuedtocomebytwenties,thirtiesandfortiesuntilbyJuly30ththenumberhadreached
ninehundred.Inaveryshortwhilethenumberranupintothethousands.Therenowned
Fortresstookthenameofthe'freedomfort'towhichtheblackscamebymeansofa
'mysteriousspiritualtelegraph.'"5
InDecember,1861,theSecretaryoftheTreasury,SimonCameron,hadwritten,printedand
putintothemailshisfirstreportasSecretaryofWarwithoutconsultationwiththe
President.Possiblyheknewthathisrecommendationswouldnotbeapproved,but"he
recommendedthegeneralarmingofNegroes,declaringthattheFederalshadascleararight
toemployslavestakenfromtheenemyastousecapturedgunpowder."Thisreportwas
recalledbythePresidentbytelegraphandthestatementsoftheSecretaryweremodified.The
incidentarousedsomeunpleasantnessinthecabinet.
Thepublishedreportfinallysaid:
"Personsheldbyrebels,undersuchlaws,toserviceasslaves,may,however,bejustly
liberatedfromtheirconstraint,andmademorevaluableinvariousemployments,through
voluntaryandcompensatedservice,thanifconfiscatedassubjectsofproperty."
Transformingitselfsuddenlyfromaproblemofabandonedplantationsandslavescapturedwhilebeingusedbytheenemyformilitarypurposes,the
movementbecameageneralstrikeagainsttheslavesystemonthepartofallwhocouldfind
opportunity.Thetricklingstreamsoffugitivesswelledtoaflood.Oncebegun,thegeneral
strikeofblackandwhitewentmadlyandrelentlesslyonlikesomegreatsaga.
"Imagine,ifyouwill,aslavepopulation,springingfromantecedentbarbarism,risingupand
leavingitsancientbondage,forsakingitslocaltraditionsandalltheassociationsand
attractionsoftheoldplantationlife,cominggarbedinragsorinsilks,withfeetshodor
bleeding,individuallyorinfamiliesandlargergroups,—anarmyofslavesandfugitives,
pushingitswayirresistiblytowardanarmyoffightingmen,perpetuallyonthedefensiveand
perpetuallyreadytoattack.Thearrivalamongusofthesehordeswasliketheoncomingof
cities.Therewasnoplaninthisexodus,noMosestoleadit.Unletteredreasonorthemere
inarticulatedecisionofinstinctbroughtthemtous.Oftentheslavesmetprejudicesagainst
theircolormorebitterthananytheyhadleftbehind.Buttheirowninterestswereidentical,
theyfelt,withtheobjectsofourarmies;ablindterrorstungthem,anequallyblindhope
alluredthem,andtoustheycome."6
"Evenbeforethecloseof1862,manythousandsofblacksofallages,ragged,withno
possessions,exceptthebundleswhichtheycarried,hadassembledatNorfolk,Hampton,
AlexandriaandWashington.Others,landless,homeless,helpless,infamiliesandin
multitudes,includingaconsiderablenumberofwretchedwhitepeople,flockedNorthfrom
Tennessee,Kentucky,ArkansasandMissouri.Allthesewererelievedinpartbyarmyrations,
irregularlyissued,andbyvolunteersocietiesoftheNorth,whichgainedtheirmoneyfrom
churchesandindividualsinthiscountryandabroad.Inthespringof1863,therewere
swarmingcrowdsofNegroesandwhiterefugeesalongthelineofdefensemadebetweenthe
armiesoftheNorthandSouthandreachingfromMarylandtoVirginia,alongthecoastfrom
NorfolktoNewOrleans.Soldiersandmissionariestoldoftheirvirtuesandvices,theirjoy
andextremesuffering.TheNorthwasmovedtoanextraordinarydegree,andendlessbodies
ofworkersandmissionarieswereorganizedandcollectedfundsformaterials.
"Rudebarrackswereerectedatdifferentpointsforthetemporaryshelterofthefreedmen;
butassoonaspossiblethecoloniesthusformedwerebrokenupandthepeopleencouraged
tom,akeindividualcontractsforlaboruponneighboringplantations.Inconnectionwiththe
colonies,farmswerecultivatedwhichaidedtomeettheexpenses.Hospitalswereestablished
atvariouspointsforthesick,ofwhomthereweregreatnumbers.Theseparationoffamilies
bythewar,and
illegitimatebirthinconsequenceofslavery,leftagreatnumberofchildrenpracticallyina
stateoforphanage."7
Thiswasthebeginningoftheswarmingoftheslaves,ofthequietbutunswerving
determinationofincreasingnumbersnolongertoworkonConfederateplantations,andto
seekthefreedomoftheNorthernarmies.Whereverthearmymarchedandinspiteofall
obstaclescametherisingtideofslavesseekingfreedom.Foralongtime,theirtreatmentwas
leftlargelytothediscretionofthedepartmentmanagers;somewelcomedthem,somedrove
themaway,someorganizedthemforwork.Gradually,thefugitivesbecameorganizedand
formedagreatlaborforceforthearmy.Severalthousandwereemployedaslaborers,
servants,andspies.
AspecialwarcorrespondentoftheNewYorkTribunewrites:"GodblesstheNegroes,'sayI,
withearnestlips.Duringourentirecaptivity,andafterourescape,theywereeverourfirm,
brave,unflinchingfriends.Wenevermadeanappealtothemtheydidnotanswer.Theynever
hesitatedtodousaserviceattheriskevenoflife,andunderthemosttryingcircumstances
revealedadevotionandaspiritofself-sacrificethatwasheroic.Themagicword'Yankee'
openedalltheirhearts,andelicitedtheloftiestvirtues.Theywereignorant,oppressed,
enslaved;buttheyalwayscherishedasimpleandabeautifulfaithinthecauseoftheUnion
anditsultimatetriumph,andneverabandonedorturnedasidefromamanwhosoughtfood
orshelteronhiswaytoFreedom."8
Thiswholemovewasnotdramaticorhysterical,ratheritwaslikethegreatunbrokenswellof
theoceanbeforeitdashesonthereefs.TheNegroesshowednodispositiontostriketheone
terribleblowwhichbroughtblackmenfreedominHaitiandwhichinallhistoryhasbeen
usedbyallslavesandjustified.ThereweresomeplansforinsurrectionmadebyUnion
officers:
"Theplanistoinducetheblackstomakeasimultaneousmovementofrising,onthenightof
the1stofAugustnext,overtheentireStatesinrebellion,toarmthemselveswithanyand
everykindofweaponthatmaycometohand,andcommenceoperationsbyburningallthe
railroadandcountrybridges,andtearuprailroadtracks,andtodestroytelegraphlines,etc.,
andthentaketothewoods,swamps,orthemountains,wheretheymayemergeasoccasion
mayofferforprovisionsandforfurtherdepredations.Nobloodistobeshedexceptinselfdefense.Thecornwillberipeaboutthe1stofAugustandwiththisandhogsrunninginthe
woods,andbyforagingupontheplantationsbynight,theycansubsist.Thisistheplanin
substance,andifwecanobtainaconcertedmovementatthetimenameditwilldoubtlessbe
successful."9
Suchplanscametonaughtforthesimplereasonthattherewasaneasierwayinvolving
freedomwithlessrisk.
TheSouthpreeneditselfontheabsenceofslaveviolence.GovernorWalkerofFloridasaidin
hisinauguralin1865:"Where,inalltherecordsofthepast,doeshistorypresentsuchan
instanceofsteadfastdevotion,unwaveringattachmentandconstancyaswasexhibitedbythe
slavesoftheSouththroughoutthefearfulcontestthathasjustended?Thecountryinvaded,
homesdesolated,themasterabsentinthearmyorforcedtoseeksafetyinflightandleave
themistressandherhelplessinfantsunprotected,witheveryincitementtoinsubordination
andinstigation,torapineandmurder,noinstanceofinsurrection,andscarcelyoneof
voluntarydesertionhasbeenrecorded."
ThechangesuponthisthemehavebeenrungbySouthernoratorsmanytimessince.The
statement,ofcourse,isnotquitetrue.Hundredsofthousandsofslaveswereveryevidently
leavingtheirmasters'homesandplantations.Theydidnotwreakvengeanceonunprotected
women.Theyfoundaneasier,moreeffectiveandmoredecentwaytofreedom.Mengowild
andfightforfreedomwithbestialferocitywhentheymust—wherethereisnootherway;but
humannaturedoesnotdeliberatelychooseblood—atleastnotblackhumannature.Onthe
otherhand,foreveryslavethatescapedtotheUnionarmy,thereweretenleftonthe
untouchedandinaccessibleplantations.
Anotherstepwaslogicalandinevitable.ThemenwhohandledaspadefortheNorthern
armies,themenwhofedthem,andasspiesbroughtininformation,couldalsohandleagun
andshoot.Withoutlegalauthorityandinspiteofit,suddenlytheNegrobecameasoldier.
Laterhisservicesassoldierwerenotonlypermittedbutweredemandedtoreplacethetired
andrebelliouswhitemenoftheNorth.Butasasoldier,theNegromustbefree.
TheNorthstartedoutwiththeideaoffightingthewarwithouttouchingslavery.Theyfaced
thefact,afterseverefighting,thatNegroesseemedavaluableassetaslaborers,andthey
thereforedeclaredthem"contrabandofwar."Itwasbutastepfromthattoattractandinduce
NegrolabortohelptheNorthernarmies.SlaveswereurgedandinvitedintotheNorthern
armies;theybecamemilitarylaborersandspies;notsimplymilitarylaborers,butlaborerson
theplantations,wherethecropswenttohelptheFederalarmyorweresoldNorth.Thus
whereverNorthernarmiesappeared,Negrolaborerscame,andtheNorthfounditselfactually
freeingslavesbeforeithadtheslightestintentionofdoingso,indeedwhenithadevery
intentionnotto.
TheexperienceofthearmywiththerefugeesandtheriseofthedepartmentsofNegroaffairs
wereamostinteresting,butunfortunatelylittlestudied,phaseofReconstruction.Yetit
containedina
sensethekeytotheunderstandingofthewholesituation.Atfirst,therushoftheNegroes
fromtheplantationscameasasurpriseandwasvariouslyinterpreted.Theeasiestthingto
saywasthatNegroesweretiredofworkandwantedtoliveattheexpenseofthegovernment;
wantedtotravelandseethingsandplaces.Butincontradictiontothiswastheextentofthe
movementandtheterriblesufferingoftherefugees.Iftheywereseekingpeaceandquiet,
theyweremuchbetteroffontheplantationsthantrailinginthefootstepsofthearmyor
squattingmiserablyinthecamps.Theyweremistreatedbythesoldiers;ridiculed;driven
away,andyettheycame.Theyincreasedwitheverycampaign,andasafinalgesture,they
marchedwithShermanfromAtlantatothesea,andmettherefugeesandabandonedhuman
propertyontheSeaIslandsandtheCarolinaCoast.
Thiswasnotmerelythedesiretostopwork.Itwasastrikeonawidebasisagainstthe
conditionsofwork.Itwasageneralstrikethatinvolveddirectlyintheendperhapsahalf
millionpeople.Theywantedtostoptheeconomyoftheplantationsystem,andtodothat
theylefttheplantations.Atfirst,thecommandersweredisposedtodrivethemaway,orto
givethemquasi-freedomandletthemdoastheypleasedwiththenothingthatthey
possessed.Thisdidnotwork.Thenthecommandersorganizedreliefandafterward,work.
ThiscametotheattentionofthecountryfirstinPierce's"TenThousandClients."Pierceof
BostonhadworkedwiththerefugeesinVirginiaunderButler,providedthemwithfoodand
placestolive,andgiventhemjobsandlandtocultivate.Hewassuccessful.Hecamefrom
there,and,inconjunctionwiththeTreasuryDepartment,begantheworkonavasterscaleat
PortRoyal.Herehefoundthekeytothesituation.TheNegroeswerewillingtoworkanddid
work,buttheywantedlandtowork,andtheywantedtoseeandowntheresultsoftheirtoil.
ItwashereandintheWestandtheSouththatanewvistaopened.Herewasachanceto
establishanagrariandemocracyintheSouth:peasantholdersofsmallproperties,eagerto
workandraisecrops,amenabletosuggestionandgeneraldirection.Alltheyneededwas
honestyintreatment,andeducation.Wherevertheseconditionswerefulfilled,theresultwas
littlelessthanphenomenal.ThiswastestifiedtobyPierceintheCarolinas,byButler'sagents
inNorthCarolina,bytheexperimentoftheSeaIslands,byGrant'sdepartmentofNegro
affairsunderEaton,andbyBanks'directionofNegrolaborinLouisiana.Itisastonishing
howthisarmyofstrikinglaborfurnishedintime200,000Federalsoldierswhoseevident
abilitytofightdecidedthewar.
GeneralButlerwentfromVirginiatoNewOrleanstotakechargeofthecitynewlycaptured
inApril,1862.Herewasawholecityhalffilledwithblacksandmulattoes,someofthemwealthyfreeNegroesandsoldierswhocame
overfromtheConfederatesideandjoinedtheFederals.
PerhapsthegreatestandmostsystematicorganizingoffugitivestookplaceinNewOrleans.
Atfirst,ButlerhadissuedordersthatnoslaveswouldbereceivedinNewOrleans.Many
planterswereunabletomakeslavesworkortosupportthem,andsentthembackofthe
Federallines,planningtoreclaimthemafterthewarwasover.Butleremancipatedthese
slavesinspiteofthefactthatheknewthiswasagainstLincoln'spolicy.Asthefloodkept
coming,heseizedabandonedsugarplantationsandbegantoworkthemwithNegrolaborfor
thebenefitofthegovernment.
BypermissionoftheWarDepartment,andundertheauthorityoftheConfiscationAct,
Butlerorganizedcoloniesoffugitives,andregulatedemployment.Hisbrother,Colonel
Butler,andothersworkedplantations,hiringtheNegrolabor.TheNegroesstoodatButler's
righthandduringthetryingtimeofhisadministration,andparticularlythewell-to-dofree
Negrogroupwerehisstrongestallies.Hewasentertainedattheirtablesandbroughtdown
onhimselfthewrathandcontempt,notsimplyoftheSouth,butevenoftheNorth.He
receivedtheblackregiment,andkepttheirblackofficers,whoneverforgothim.Whatever
elsehemighthavebeenbeforethewar,orprovedtobeafterwards,"thecoloredpeopleof
LouisianaunderthepropersenseofthegoodyouhavedonetotheAfricanraceintheUnited
States,begleavetoexpresstoyoutheirgratitude."
From1862to1865,manydifferentsystemsofcaringfortheescapedslavesandtheirfamilies
inthisareaweretried.Butlerandhissuccessor,Banks,eachsoughttoprovideforthe
thousandsofdestitutefreedmenwithmedicine,rationsandclothing.WhenGeneralBanks
tookcommand,therewassuffering,diseaseanddeathamongthe150,000Negroes.On
January30,1863,heissuedageneralordermakinglaboronpublicworksandelsewhere
compulsoryforNegroeswhohadnomeansofsupport.
Justassoon,however,asBankstriedtodrivethefreedmenbacktotheplantationsandhave
themworkunderahalf-militaryslaveregime,theplanfailed.Itfailed,notbecausethe
Negroesdidnotwanttowork,butbecausetheywerestrikingagainsttheseparticular
conditionsofwork.When,becauseofwideprotest,hebegantolookintothematter,hesawa
clearway.HeselectedNegroestogooutandlookintoconditionsandtoreportonwhatwas
needed,andtheymadeafaithfulsurvey.Hesetupalittlestatewithitsdepartmentof
education,withitslandholdingandorganizedwork,andafterexperimentitranitself.More
andmorehereanduptheMississippiValley,
underothercommandersandagents,experimentsextendedandweresuccessful.
FurtheruptheMississippi,adifferentsystemwasbegununderGeneralGrant.Grant'sarmy
intheWestoccupiedGrandJunction,Mississippi,byNovember,1862.Theusualirregular
hostofslavesthenswarmedinfromthesurroundingcountry.Theybeggedforprotection
againstrecapture,andthey,ofcourse,neededfood,clothingandshelter.Theycouldnotnow
bereenslavedthrougharmyaid,yetnoprovisionhadbeenmadebyanybodyfortheir
sustenance.Afewwereemployedasteamsters,servants,cooksandscouts,yetitseemedas
thoughthevastmajoritymustbelefttofreezeandstarve,forwhenthestormscamewiththe
wintermonths,theweatherwasofgreatseverity.
GrantdeterminedthatNegroesshouldperformmanyofthecampdutiesordinarilydoneby
soldiers;thattheyshouldserveasfatiguemeninthedepartmentsofthesurgeongeneral,
quartermaster,andcommissary,andthattheyshouldhelpinbuildingroadsandearthworks.
Thewomenworkedinthecampkitchensandasnursesinthehospitals.Grantsaid,"Itwasat
thispointwherethefirstideaoftheFreedmen'sBureautookitsorigin."
GrantselectedasheadofhisDepartmentofNegroAffairs,JohnEaton,chaplainofthe
Twenty-SeventhOhioVolunteers,whowassoonpromotedtothecolonelcyofacolored
regiment,andlaterformanyyearswasaCommissioneroftheUnitedStatesBureauof
Education.HewasthenconstitutedChiefofNegroAffairsfortheentiredistrictunder
Grant'sjurisdiction.
"IhopeImayneverbecalledonagaintowitnessthehorrriblescenesIsawinthosefirstdays
ofthehistoryofthefreedmenintheMississippiValley.Assistantswerehardtoget,
especiallythekindthatwoulddoanygoodinourcamps.Adetailedsoldierineachcampofa
thousandpeoplewasthebestthatcouldbedone.Hisdutiesweresoonerousthatheended
bydoingnothing....Inreviewingtheconditionofthepeopleatthattime,Iamnotsurprised
atthemarvelousstoriestoldbyvisitorswhocaughtanoccasionalglimpseofthemiseryand
wretchednessinthesecamps....Oureffortstodoanythingforthesepeople,astheyherded
togetherinmasses,whenfoundedonanyexpectationthattheywouldhelpthemselves,often
failed;theyhadbecomesocompletelybrokendowninspirit,throughsuffering,thatitwas
almostimpossibletoarousethem.
"Theirconditionwasappalling.Thereweremen,womenandchildrenineverystageof
diseaseordecrepitude,oftennearlynaked,withfleshtornbytheterribleexperiencesoftheir
escapes.Sometimestheywereintelligentandeagertohelpthemselves;oftentheywerebewilderedorstupidorpossessedbythewildestnotionsofwhatlibertymightmean—expecting
toexchangelabor,andobediencetothewillofanother,foridlenessandfreedomfrom
restraint.Suchignoranceandpervertednotionsproducedaveritablemoralchaos.Cringing
deceit,theft,licentiousness—alltheviceswhichslaveryinevitablyfosters—werehideous
companionsofnakedness,famine,anddisease.Afewhadprofitedbythemisfortunesofthe
masterandwerejubilantintheirunwontedeaseandluxury,butthesestoodinluridcontrast
tothegrimmeraspectsofthetragedy—thewomenintravail,thehelplessnessofchildhood
andofoldage,thehorrorsofsicknessandoffrequentdeath.Smallwonderthatmenpaused
inbewildermentandpanic,foreseeingthedemoralizationandinfectionoftheUnionsoldier
andthedownfalloftheUnioncause."10
Therewerenewandstrangeproblemsofsocialcontact.Thewhitesoldiers,forthemostpart,
wereopposedtoservingNegroesinanymanner,andwereevenunwillingtoguardthecamps
wheretheyweresegregatedorprotectthemagainstviolence."Toundertakeanyformofwork
forthecontrabands,atthattime,wastobeforsakenbyone'sfriendsandtopassundera
cloud."u
Therewas,however,acleareconomicbasisuponwhichthewholeworkofreliefandorder
andsubsistencecouldbeplaced.AllaroundGrandJunctionwerelargecropsofungathered
cornandcotton.ThesewereharvestedandsoldNorthandthereceiptswereplacedtothe
creditofthegovernment.Thearmyoffugitivesweresoonwillingtogotowork;men,women
andchildren.Woodwasneededbytheriversteamersandwoodcuttersweresetatwork.
Eatonfixedthewagesforthisindustryandkeptaccountswiththeworkers.Hesawto.itthat
allofthemhadsufficientfoodandclothing,androughshelterwasbuiltforthem.Citizens
roundaboutwhohadnotabandonedtheirplantationswereallowedtohirelaboronthesame
termsasthegovernmentwasusingit.Verysoonthefreedmenbecameself-sustainingand
gavelittletrouble.Theybegantobuildthemselvescomfortablecabins,andthegovernment
constructedhospitalsforthesick.Inthecaseofthesickanddependent,ataxwaslaidonthe
wagesofworkers.Atfirstitwasthoughtthelaborerswouldobject,but,onthecontrary,they
wereperfectlywillingandtheimpositionofthetaxcompelledthegovernmenttoseethat
wageswerepromptlypaid.Thefreedmenfreelyacknowledgedthattheyoughttoassistin
helpingbeartheburdenofthepoor,andwereflatteredbyhavingthegovernmentasktheir
help.Itwasthereactionofanewlaborgroup,who,forthefirsttimeintheirlives,were
receivingmoneyinpaymentfortheirwork.Fivethousanddollarswasraisedbythistaxfor
hospitals,andwiththismoneytoolsandpropertywerebought.Bywholesale
purchase,clothes,householdgoodsandotherarticlesweresecuredbythefreedmenatacost
ofone-thirdofwhattheymighthavepaidthestores.Therewasarigidsystemofaccounts
andmonthlyreportsthrougharmyofficials.
In1864,July5,Eatonreports:"Thesefreedmenarenowdisposedofasfollows:Inmilitary
serviceassoldiers,laundresses,cooks,officers'servants,andlaborersinthevariousstaff
departments,41,150;incitiesonplantationsandinfreedmen'svillagesandcaredfor,72,500.
Ofthese62,300areentirelyself-supporting—thesameasanyindustrialclassanywhereelse
—asplanters,mechanics,barbers,hack-men,draymen,etc.,conductingenterprisesontheir
ownresponsibilityorworkingashiredlaborers.Theremaining10,200receivesubsistence
fromthegovernment.3,000ofthemaremembersoffamilieswhoseheadsarecarryingon
plantationsandhaveundercultivation4,000acresofcotton.They,aretopaythegovernment
fortheirsustenancefromthefirstincomeofthecrop.Theother7,200includethepaupers—
thatistosay,allNegroesoverandundertheself-supportingage,thecrippledandsickin
hospital,ofthe113,650andthoseengagedintheircare.Insteadofbeingunproductive,this
classhasnowundercultivation500acresofcorn,790acresofvegetablesand1,500acresof
cotton,besidesworkingatwood-choppingandotherindustries.Therearereportedinthe
aggregateover100,000acresofcottonundercultivation.Oftheseabout7,000acresare
leasedandcultivatedbyblacks.SomeNegroesaremanagingashighas300or400acres."
TheexperimentatDavisBend,Mississippi,wasofespecialinterest.Theplacewasoccupied
inNovemberandDecember,1864,andprivateinterestsweredisplacedandaninteresting
socialisticeffortmadewithallthepropertyunderthecontrolofthegovernment.TheBend
wasdividedintodistrictswithNegrosheriffsandjudgeswhowereallowedtoexercise
authorityunderthegeneralcontrolofthemilitaryofficers.Pettytheftandidlenessweresoon
reducedtoaminimumand"thecommunitydistinctlydemonstratedthecapacityoftheNegro
totakecareofhimselfandexerciseunderhonestandcompetentdirectionthefunctionsof
self-government."12
WhenGeneralButlerreturnedfromLouisianaandresumedcommandinVirginiaandNorth
Carolina,heestablishedthereaDepartmentofNegroAffairs,withtheterritorydividedinto
districtsundersuperintendentsandassistants.Negroeswereencouragedtobuyland,build
cabinsandformsettlements,andasystemofeducationwasestablished.InNorthCarolina,
underChaplainHoraceJames,thepoor,bothblackandwhite,werehelped;therefugees
weregroupedinsmallvillagesandtheirworksystematized,andenlistedmentaughtinthe
schools,followedbywomenteachersfromtheNorth.Outside
ofNewBern,NorthCarolina,abouttwothousandfreedmenweresettledand800houses
erected.ThedepartmentatPortRoyalcontinued.TheNegroesshowedtheircapacityto
organizelaborandeventosaveandemployalittlecapital.Thegovernmentbuilt21houses
forthepeopleonEdistoIsland.ThecarpenterswereNegroesunderaNegroforeman.There
wasanothervillageofimprovedhousesnearHiltonHead.
"Nextastothedevelopmentofmanhood:thishasbeenshowninthefirstplaceinthe
prevalentdispositiontoacquireland.Itdidnotappearuponourfirstintroductiontothese
people,andtheydidnotseemtounderstanduswhenweusedtotellthemthatwewanted
themtoownland.Butitisnowanactivedesire.Attherecenttaxsales,sixoutofforty-seven
plantationssoldwereboughtbythem,comprisingtwothousandfivehundredandninety-five
acres,soldfortwenty-onehundredandforty-fivedollars.Inothercases,theNegroeshad
authorizedthesuperintendenttobidforthem,butthelandwasreservedbytheUnited
States.OneofthepurchaseswasthatmadebyHarry,notedabove.Theotherfiveweremade
bytheNegroesontheplantations,combiningthefundstheyhadsavedfromthesaleoftheir
pigs,chickensandeggs,andfromthepaymentsmadetothemforwork,—theythendividing
offthetractpeaceablyamongthemselves.Ononeofthese,whereKit,beforementioned,is
theleadingspirit,therearetwenty-threefieldhands.Theyhaveplantedandarecultivating
sixty-threeacresofcotton,fiftyofcorn,sixofpotatoes,withasmanymoretobeplanted,four
andahalfofcowpeas,threeofpeanuts,andoneandahalfofrice.Thesefactsaremost
significant."13
UnderGeneralSaxtoninSouthCarolina,theNegroesbegantobuylandwhichwassoldfor
non-paymentoftaxes.Saxtonestablishedregulationsforthecultivationofseveral
abandonedSeaIslandsandappointedlocalsuperintendents.
"Bythepaymentofmoderatewages,andjustandfairdealingwiththem,Iproducedforthe
governmentoverahalfmilliondollars'worthofcotton,besidesalargeamountoffood
beyondtheneedsofthelaborers.Theseislandlandswerecultivatedinthiswayfortwoyears,
1862and1863,undermysupervision,andduringthattimeIhadabout15,000colored
freedmenofallagesinmycharge.About9,000ofthesewereengagedonproductivelabor
whichrelievedthegovernmentofthesupportofallexceptnewly-arrivedrefugeesfromthe
enemy'slinesandtheoldandinfirmwhohadnorelationstodependupon.Theincreaseof
industryandthriftofthefreedmenwasillustratedbytheirconductinSouthCarolinabefore
theorganizationoftheFreedmen'sBureaubythedecreasinggovernmentexpenditurefor
theirsupport.TheexpenseinthedepartmentoftheSouthin1863was
$41,544,butthemonthlyexpenseofthatyearwassteadilyreduced,untilinDecemberitwas
lessthan$1,000."14
Intothisfairlysuccessfullandandlaborcontrolwasprecipitatedavastandunexpectedflood
ofrefugeesfrompreviouslyuntouchedstrongholdsofslavery.Shermanmadehismarchto
theseafromAtlanta,cuttingthecottonkingdomintwoasGranthadinvadeditalongthe
Mississippi.
"Thefirstintimationgivenmethatmanyofthefreedmenwouldbebroughthitherfrom
SavannahcameintheformofarequestfromtheGeneralthatIwould'callatoncetoplan
thereceptionofsevenhundredwhowouldbeatthewharfinanhour.'ThiswasChristmas
day,andat4p.m.,wehadsevenhundred—mainlywomen,oldmenandchildrenbeforeus.A
canvasssincemadeshowsthathalfofthemhadtraveledfromMacon,Atlantaandeven
Chattanooga.Theywereallutterlydestituteofblankets,stockingsorshoes;andamongthe
sevenhundredtherewerenotfiftyarticlesintheshapeofpotsorkettles,orotherutensils
forcooking,noaxes,veryfewcoveringsformanyheads,andchildrenwrappedintheonly
articlenotworninsomeformbytheparents."FranticappealswentoutforthemassofNegro
refugeeswhofollowedhim.
AfewdaysafterShermanenteredSavannah,SecretaryofWarStantoncameinpersonfrom
Washington.HeexaminedtheconditionoftheliberatedNegroesfoundinthatcity.He
assembledtwentyofthosewhoweredeemedtheirleaders.Amongthemwerebarbers,pilots
andsailors,someministers,andotherswhohadbeenoverseersoncottonandrice
plantations.Mr.StantonandGeneralShermangavethemahearing.
Asaresultofthisinvestigationintotheperplexingproblemsastowhattodowiththe
growingmassesofunemployedNegroesandtheirfamilies,GeneralShermanissuedhis
epoch-makingSeaIslandCircular,January18,1865.Inthispaper,theislandsfrom
Charlestonsouth,theabandonedricefieldsalongtheriversforthirtymilesbackfromthesea
andthecountryborderingtheSt.John'sRiver,Florida,werereservedforthesettlementof
theNegroesmadefreebytheactsofwarandtheproclamationofthePresident.
GeneralRufusSaxtonwasappointedInspectorofSettlementsandPlantationsandwas
requiredtomakeproperallotmentsandgivepossessorytitlesanddefendthemuntil
Congressshouldconfirmhisactions.Itwasaboldmove.ThousandsofNegrofamilieswere
distributedunderthiscircular,andthefreedpeopleregardedthemselvesformorethansix
monthsasinpermanentpossessionoftheseabandonedlands.Taxesonthefreedmen
furnishedmostofthefundstorunthesefirstexperiments.Onallplantations,whether
ownedor
leased,wherefreedmenwereemployed,ataxofonecentperpoundoncottonanda
proportionalamountonallotherproductswastobecollectedasacontributioninsupportof
thehelplessamongthefreedpeople.Asimilartax,varyingwiththevalueoftheproperty,was
leviedbythegovernmentuponallleasedplantationsinlieuofrent.
Saxtontestified:"GeneralSherman'sSpecialFieldOrderNo.15orderedtheircolonizationon
forty-acretracts,andinaccordancewithwhichitisestimatedsomefortythousandwere
providedwithhomes.Publicmeetingswereheld,andeveryexertionusedbythosewhose
dutyitwastoexecutethisordertoencourageemigrationtotheSeaIslands,andthefaithof
thegovernmentwassolemnlypledgedtomaintaintheminpossession.Thegreatestsuccess
attendedtheexperiment,andalthoughtheplantingseasonwasveryfaradvancedbeforethe
transportationtocarrythecoloniststotheSeaIslandscouldbeobtained,andthepeoplewere
destituteofanimalsandhadbutfewagriculturalimplementsandthegreatestdifficultyin
procuringseeds,yettheywentout,workedwithenergyanddiligencetoclearuptheground
runtowastebythreeyears'neglect;andthousandsofacreswereplantedandprovisions
enoughwereraisedforthosewhowerelocatedinseasontoplant,besidesalargeamountof
seaislandcottonformarket.Theseizureofsome549,000acresofabandonedland,in
accordancewiththeactofCongressandordersfromtheheadofthebureauforthefreedman
andrefugees,stillfurtherstrengthenedtheseignorantpeopleintheconvictionthattheywere
tohavethelandsoftheirlatemasters;and,withtheotherreasonsbeforestated,causeda
greatunwillingnessonthepartofthefreedmentomakeanycontractswhatever.Butthis
refusalarisesfromnodesireontheirparttoavoidlabor,butfromthecausesabovestated...
.
"Totestthequestionoftheirforethoughtandprovethatsomeoftheraceatleastthoughtof
thefuture,IestablishedinOctober,1864,asavingsbankforthefreedmenofBeaufortdistrict
andvicinity.Morethan$240,000hadbeendepositedinthisbankbyfreedmensinceits
establishment.IconsiderthattheindustrialproblemhasbeensatisfactorilysolvedatPort
Royal,andthat,incommonwithotherraces,theNegrohasindustry,prudence,forethought,
andabilitytocalculateresults.Manyofthemhavemanagedplantationsforthemselves,and
showanindustryandsagacitythatwillcomparefavorablyintheirresults—makingdue
allowances—withthoseofwhitemen."
Eventually,GeneralSaxtonsettlednearly30,000NegroesontheSeaIslandsandadjacent
plantationsand17,000wereself-supportingwithinayear.While12,000or13,000werestill
receivingrations,itwasdistinctlyunderstoodthattheyandtheirfarmswouldbeheld
responsibleforthepayment.Inothersuchcases,thegovernmenthadfoundthatsuchadebt
wasa"safeandshortone."
Negroesworkedfewerhoursandhadmoretimeforself-expression.Exportswerelessthan
duringslavery.AtthattimetheNegroesweremeremachinesrunwithaslittlelossas
possibletothesingleendofmakingmoneyfortheirmasters.Now,asitwasintheWest
Indies,emancipationhadenlargedtheNegro'spurchasingpower,butinsteadofproducing
solelyforexport,hewasproducingtoconsume.Hisstandardoflivingwasrising.
Alongwiththisworkofthearmy,theTreasuryDepartmentoftheUnitedStatesGovernment
wasbestirringitself.TheSecretaryoftheTreasury,SalmonP.Chase,earlyin1862,hadhis
attentioncalledtotheaccumulationofcottonontheabandonedSeaIslandsandplantations,
andwassuretherewasanopportunitytoraisemore.He,therefore,begantheorganizationof
freedmenforcottonraising,andhissuccessor,WilliamPittFessenden,inauguratedmore
extensiveplansforthefreedmeninallpartsoftheSouth,appointingagentsandorganizing
freedmen'shomecolonies.
OnJune7,1862,Congressheldportionsofthestatesinrebellionresponsibleforadirecttax
uponthelandsofthenation,andinadditionCongresspassedanactauthorizingthe
SecretaryoftheTreasurytoappointspecialagentstotakechargeofcapturedandabandoned
property.MilitaryofficersturnedovertotheTreasuryDepartmentsuchproperty,andthe
plantationsaroundPortRoyalandBeaufortweredisposedofattaxsales.Somewere
purchasedbyNegroes,butthegreaternumberwenttoNortherners.Inthesamewayin
NorthCarolina,someturpentinefarmswerelettoNegroes,whomanagedthem,ortowhites
whoemployedNegroes.In1863,September11,thewholeSouthernregionwasdividedbythe
TreasuryDepartmentintofivespecialagencies,eachwithasupervisingagentforthe
supervisionofabandonedpropertyandlabor.
Earlyin1863,GeneralLorenzoThomas,theadjutantgeneralofthearmy,wasorganizing
coloredtroopsalongtheMississippiRiver.Afterconsultingvarioustreasuryagentsand
departmentcommanders,includingGeneralGrant,andhavingalsotheapprovalofMr.
Lincoln,heissuedfromMilliken'sBend,Louisiana,April15th,alengthyseriesofinstruction
coveringtheterritoryborderingtheMississippiandincludingalltheinhabitants.
Heappointedthreecommissioners,Messrs.Field,ShickleandLiver-more,tolease
plantationsandcarefortheemployees.Hesoughttoencourageprivateenterprisesinsteadof
governmentcolonies;buthefixedthewagesofable-bodiedmenoverfifteenyearsofageat
$7permonth,forable-bodiedwomen$5permonth,forchildrentwelveto
fifteenyears,halfprice.Helaidataxforrevenueof$2per400poundsofcotton,andfive
centsperbusheloncornandpotatoes.
Thisplannaturallydidnotworkwell,forthelesseesofplantationsprovedtobeforthemost
partadventurersandspeculators.Ofcoursesuchmentookadvantageoftheignorantpeople.
Thecommissionersthemselvesseemtohavedonemoreforthelesseesthanforthelaborers;
and,infact,thewageswerefromthebeginningsofixedastobenefitandenrichthe
employer.Twodollarspermonthwaschargedagainsteachoftheemployed,ostensiblyfor
medicalattendance,buttomostplantationsthusleasednophysicianormedicineevercame,
andtherewereotherattendantcrueltieswhichavaricecontrived.
OnfifteenplantationsleasedbytheNegroesthemselvesinthisregiontherewasnotable
success,andalsoafewotherinstancesinwhichhumanityandgoodsensereigned;the
contractsweregenerallycarriedout.HeretheNegroeswerecontentedandgrateful,andwere
abletolaybysmallgains.ThisplantationarrangementalongtheMississippiunderthe
commissionersaswellasthemanagementofnumerousinfirmarycampspassed,aboutthe
closeof1863,fromtheWartotheTreasuryDepartment.Anewcommissionoragencywith
Mr.W.P.Mellonofthetreasuryattheheadestablishedmorecarefulandcomplete
regulationsthanthoseofGeneralThomas.Thistimeitwasdonedecidedlyintheinterestof
thelaborers.
July2,1864,anActofCongressauthorizedthetreasuryagentstoseizeandleaseforoneyear
allcapturedandabandonedestatesandtoprovideforthewelfareofformerslaves.Property
wasdeclaredabandonedwhenthelawfulownerwasopposedtopayingtherevenue.The
SecretaryoftheTreasury,Fessenden,thereforeissuedanewseriesofregulationsrelatingto
freedmenandabandonedproperty.TherebelliousStatesweredividedintosevendistricts,
withageneralagentandspecialagents.Certaintractsoflandineachdistrictweresetapart
fortheexclusiveuseandworkingofthefreedmen.ThesereservationswerecalledFreedmen
LaborColonies,andwereunderthedirectionofthesuperintendents.Schoolswere
established,bothintheHomeColoniesandinthelaborcolonies.Thisnewsystemwentinto
operationthewinterof1864-1865,andworkedwellalongtheAtlanticCoastandMississippi
Valley.IntheDepartmentoftheGulf,however,therewasdiscordbetweenthetreasury
agentsandthemilitaryauthorities,andamongthetreasuryofficialsthemselves.Thetreasury
agents,inmanycases,becamecorrupt,buttheseregulationsremainedinforceuntilthe
Freedmen'sBureauwasorganizedin1865.
By1865,therewasstrongtestimonyastotheefficiencyoftheNegroworker."Thequestion
ofthefreedmenbeingself-supportingnolongeragitatedthemindsofcarefulobservers."
CarlSchurzfeltwarrantedin1865inasserting:"Manyfreedmen—notsingleindividuals,but
whole'plantationgangs'—areworkingwell;othersarenot.Thedifferenceintheirefficiency
coincidesinagreatmeasurewithacertaindifferenceintheconditionsunderwhichtheylive.
Theconclusionliesnear,thatiftheconditionsunderwhichtheyworkwellbecomegeneral,
theirefficiencyasfreelaborerswillbecomegeneralalso,asidefromindividualexceptions.
Certainitis,thatbyfarthelargerportionoftheworkdoneintheSouthisdoneby
freedmen!"
WhitelawReidsaidin1865:"WhoeverhasreadwhatIhavewrittenaboutthecottonfieldsof
St.Helenawillneednoassurancethatanothercardinalsinoftheslave,hislaziness—'inborn
andineradicable,'aswewerealwaystoldbyhismasters—islikewisedisappearingunderthe
stimulusoffreedomandnecessity.Dishonestyandindolence,then,werethecreationof
slavery,notthenecessaryandconstitutionalfaultsoftheNegrocharacter."
"ReturningfromSt.Helenain1865,DoctorRichardFullerwasaskedwhathethoughtofthe
experimentoffreelabor,asexhibitedamonghisformerslaves,andhowitcontrastedwith
theoldorderofthings.'IneversawSt.Helenalooksowell,'washisinstantreply;'neversaw
asmuchlandthereundercultivation—neversawthesamegeneralevidencesofprosperity,
andneversawNegroesthemselvesappearingsowellorsocontented.'Othersnoticed,
however,thattheislandsaboutBeaufortwereinabetterconditionthanthosenearerthe
encampmentsoftheUnitedStatessoldiers.Whereverpoultrycouldbeprofitablypeddledin
thecamps,cottonhadnotbeengrown,norhadtheNegroesdeveloped,soreadily,into
industriousandorderlycommunities."15Similartestimonycamefromthe.Mississippi
ValleyandtheWest,andfromBorderStateslikeVirginiaandNorthCarolina.
Totheaidofthegovernment,andevenbeforethegovernmenttookdefiniteorganizedhold,
camereligiousandbenevolentorganizations.ThefirstwastheAmericanMissionary
Association,whichgrewoutoftheorganizationforthedefenseoftheNegroeswhorebelled
andcapturedtheslaveshipAmistadandbroughtitintoConnecticutin1837.Whenthis
associationheardfromButlerandPierce,itrespondedpromptlyandhadseveral
representativesatHamptonandSouthCarolinabeforetheendoftheyear1861.They
extendedtheirworkin1862-1863,establishingmissionsdowntheAtlanticCoast,andin
Missouri,andalongtheMississippi.By1864,theyhadreachedtheNegroesinnearlyallthe
SouthernStates.ThereportsofPierce,DupontandShermanarousedthewholeNorth.
Churchesandmissionarysocietiesresponded.TheFriendscontributed.Theworkof
theNorthernbenevolentsocietiesbegantobefelt,andmoney,clothingand,finally,menand
womenashelpersandteacherscametothevariouscenters.
"Thescopeofourworkwasgreatlyenlargedbythearrivalofwhiterefugees—amovement
whichlaterassumedverylargeproportions.AstimewentonCairo(Illinois)becamethe
centerofouractivitiesinthisdirection.Itwasthemostnortherlyofanyofourcamps,and
servedastheportalthroughwhichthousandsofpoorwhitesandNegroesweresentintothe
loyalstatesasfastasopportunitiesofferedforprovidingthemwithhomesandemployment.
Manyofthesebecamepermanentresidents;someweresenthomebyUnionsoldierstocarry
ontheworkintheshoporonthefarmwhichthewarhadinterrupted.Itbecamenecessaryto
haveasuperintendentatCairoandfacilitiesfororganizingthebandsofrefugeeswhowere
sentNorthbythearmy.Therewasanincreasingdemandforwork."16
Neworganizationsarose,andaneducationalcommissionwasorganizedinBoston,suggested
bythereportsofPierce,andworkedchieflyinSouthCarolina.Afterward,itbecametheNew
EnglandFreedmen'sAidSocietyandworkedinalltheSouthernStates.February22,1862,
theNationalFreedmen'sReliefAssociationwasformedinNewYorkCity.Duringthefirst
year,itworkedontheAtlanticCoast,andthenbroadenedtothewholeSouth.ThePortRoyal
ReliefCommitteeofPhiladelphia,laterknownasthePennsylvaniaFreedmen'sRelief
Association,theNationalFreedmen'sReliefAssociationoftheDistrictofColumbia,the
ContrabandReliefAssociationofCincinnati,afterwardcalledtheWesternFreedmen's
Commission,theWomen'sAidAssociationofPhiladelphiaandtheFriends'Associations,all
aroseandworked.ThenumberincreasedandextendedintotheNorthwest.TheChristian
Commission,organizedforthebenefitofsoldiers,turneditsattentiontoNegroes.In
England,atManchesterandLondon,wereFreedmen'sAidSocietieswhichraisedfunds;and
fundswerereceivedfromFranceandIreland.
Naturally,therewasmuchrivalryandduplicationofwork.Aunionofeffortwassuggestedin
1862bytheSecretaryoftheTreasuryandaccomplishedMarch22,1865,whentheAmerican
Freedmen'sUnionCommissionwasincorporated,withbranchesinthechiefcities.Amongits
officerswereChiefJusticeChaseandWilliamLloydGarrison.In1861,twolargevoluntary
organizationstoreducesufferingandmortalityamongthefreedmenwereformed.The
WesternSanitaryCommissionatSt.Louis,andtheUnitedStatesSanitaryCommissionat
Washington,withbranchesinleadingcities,thenbegantorelievethedistressofthe
freedmen.Hospitalswereimproved,suppliesdistributed,andYeatman'splanforlabor
devised.
Destitutewhiterefugeeswerehelpedtoalargeextent.Buteventhen,alloftheseefforts
reachedbutasmallportionofthemassofpeoplefreedfromslavery.
Latein1863,PresidentYeatmanoftheWesternSanitaryCommissionvisitedthefreedmenin
theMississippiValley.Hesawtheabusesoftheleasingsystemandsuggestedaplanfor
organizingfreelaborandleasingplantations.Itprovidedforabureauestablishedbythe
governmenttotakechargeofleasingland,tosecurejusticeandfreedomtothefreedmen;
hospitalfarmsandhomesfortheyoungandagedweretobeestablished;schoolswith
compulsoryattendanceweretobeopened.YeatmanaccompaniedMellon,theagentofthe
department,toVicksburginordertoinauguratetheplanandcarryitintoeffect.Hisplanwas
adoptedbyMellon,andwas,onthewhole,themostsatisfactory.
Thus,confusionandlackofsystemwerethenaturalresultofthegeneralstrike.Yet,the
NegroeshadaccomplishedtheirfirstaiminthosepartsoftheSouthdominatedbythe
Federalarmy.Theyhadlargelyescapedfromtheplantationdiscipline,werereceivingwages
asfreelaborers,andhadprotectionfromviolenceandjusticeinsomesortofcourt.
About20,000ofthemwereintheDistrictofColumbia;100,000inVirginia;50,000inNorth
Carolina;50,000inSouthCarolina,andasmanymoreeachinGeorgiaandLouisiana.The
ValleyoftheMississippiwasfilledwithsettlersundertheTreasuryDepartmentandthe
army.Herewerenearly500,000formerslaves.Buttherewere3,500,000more.These
Negroesneededonlytheassurancethattheywouldbefreedandtheopportunityofjoining
theNorthernarmy.Inlargerandlargernumbers,theyfilteredintothearmiesoftheNorth.
AndinjusttheproportionthattheNorthernarmiesbecameinearnest,andproposedactually
toforcetheSouthtostayintheUnion,andnottomakesimplyademonstration,injustsuch
proportiontheNegroesbecamevaluableaslaborers,anddoublyvaluableaswithdrawing
laborfromtheSouth.AfterthefirstfoolishyearwhentheSouthwokeuptothefactthat
therewasgoingtobeareal,longwar,andtheNorthrealizedjustwhatwarmeantinblood
andmoney,thewholerelationoftheNorthtotheNegroandtheNegrototheNorthchanged.
ThepositionoftheNegrowasstrategic.Hiswastheonlyappealwhichwouldbringsympathy
fromEurope,despitestrongeconomicbondswiththeSouth,andpreventrecognitionofa
Southernnationbuiltonslavery.ThefreeNegroesintheNorth,togetherwiththe
Abolitionists,wereclamoring.TothemawaragainsttheSouthsimplyhadtobeawaragainst
slavery.Gradually,Abolitionistsno
longerneedfearthemob.Disgruntledleadersofchurchandstatebegantotalkoffreedom.
Slowlybutsurelyaneconomicdisputeandapoliticaltestofstrengthtookontheaspectsofa
greatmoralcrusade.
TheNegrobecameinthefirstyearcontrabandofwar;thatis,propertybelongingtothe
enemyandvaluabletotheinvader.Andinadditiontothat,hebecame,astheSouthquickly
saw,thekeytoSouthernresistance.Eitherthesefourmillionlaborersremainedquietlyat
worktoraisefoodforthefighters,orthefighterstarved.Simultaneously,whenthedreamof
theNorthforman-powerproducedriots,theonlyadditionaltroopsthattheNorthcould
dependonwere200,000Negroes,forwithoutthem,asLincolnsaid,theNorthcouldnot
havewonthewar.
Butthisslow,stubbornmutinyoftheNegroslavewasnotmerelyamatterof200,000black
soldiersandperhaps300,000otherblacklaborers,servants,spiesandhelpers.Backofthis
halfmillionstood3V2millionmore.WithouttheirlabortheSouthwouldstarve.Witharms
intheirhands,Negroeswouldformafightingforcewhichcouldreplaceeverysingle
Northernwhitesoldierfightinglistlesslyandagainsthiswillwithablackmanfightingfor
freedom.
Thisactionoftheslaveswasfollowedbythedisaffectionofthepoorwhites.Solongasthe
planters'warseemedsuccessful,"therewaslittleactiveoppositionbythepoorerwhites;but
theconscriptionandotherburdenstosupportaslaveowners'warbecameverysevere;the
whitesnotinterestedinthatcausebecamerecalcitrant,somewentintoactiveopposition;
andatlastitwasmoredesertionanddisunionthananythingelsethatbroughtaboutthefinal
overthrow."17
Phillipssaysthatwhitemechanicsin1861demandedthatthepermanentConfederate
ConstitutionexcludeNegroesfromemployment"exceptagriculturaldomesticservice,soas
toreservethetradesforwhiteartisans."Beyondthis,ofcourse,wasamoresubtlereason
that,astheyearswenton,verycarefullydevelopedandencouragedforatimetheracial
aspectofslavery.Beforethewar,therehadbeeninterminglingofwhiteandblackbloodand
somewhiteplantersopenlyrecognizedtheircoloredsons,daughtersandcousinsandtook
themundertheirspecialprotection.Asslaveryhardened,theracialbasiswasemphasized;
butitwasnotuntilwartimethatitbecamethefashiontopatthedisfranchisedpoorwhite
manonthebackandtellhimafterallhewaswhiteandthatheandtheplantershada
commonobjectinkeepingthewhitemansuperior.Thisvirusincreasedbitternessand
relentlesshatred,andafterthewaritbecameachiefingredientinthedivisionoftheworking
classintheSouthernStates.
AtthesametimeduringthewareventheraceargumentdidnotkeeptheSouthernfighters
fromnoticingwithangerthatthebig
slaveholderswereescapingmilitaryservice;thatitwasa"richman'swarandthepoorman's
fight."TheexemptionofownersoftwentyNegroesfrommilitaryserviceespeciallyrankled;
andthewholesalewithdrawaloftheslaveholdingclassfromactualfightingwhichthisrule
madepossible,gaverisetointenseandgrowingdissatisfaction.
Itwasnecessaryduringthesecriticaltimestoinsistmorethanusualthatslaverywasafine
thingforthepoorwhite.Exceptforslavery,itwassaid:"'Thepoorwouldoccupytheposition
insocietythattheslavesdo—asthepoorintheNorthandinEuropedo,'fortheremustbea
menialclassinsocietyandin'everycivilizedcountryontheglobe,besidestheConfederate
states,thepooraretheinferiorsandmenialsoftherich.'Slaverywasagreaterblessingtothe
non-slaveholdingpoorthantotheownersofslaves,andsinceitgavethepoorastartin
societythatitwouldtakethemgenerationstoworkout,theyshouldthankGodforitand
fightanddieforitastheywouldfortheir'ownlibertyandthedearestbirthrightoffreemen.'"
18
Butthepoorwhiteswerelosingfaith.Theysawthatpovertywasfightingthewar,notwealth.
"Thosewhocouldstayoutofthearmyundercolorofthelawwerelikelytobeadvocatesofa
morenumerousandpowerfularmy....Notsowithmanyofthosewhowerenotfavoredwith
positionandwealth.Theygrudginglytookuparmsandcondemnedthelawwhichhad
snatchedthemfromtheirhomes....Theonlydifferencewasthecircumstanceofposition
andwealth,andperhapsthesewerejustthethingsthathadcausedheartburningsinmore
peacefultimes.
"Thesentimentsofthousandsintheuplandcountries,whohadlittleinterestinthewarand
whowerenotaccustomedtorigidcentralizedcontrol,wasprobablywellexpressedinthe
followingepistleaddressedtoPresidentDavisbyaconscript....
"...'Itiswithintenseandmultifariouslyproudsatisfactionthathe[theconscript]gazesfor
thelasttimeuponourholyflag—thatsymbolandsignofanadoredtrinity,cotton,niggers
andchivalry.'"19
Thisattitudeofthepoorwhiteshadinitasmuchfearandjealousy
ofNegroesasdisaffectionwithslavebarons.Economicrivalrywith
!blacksbecameanewandlivingthreatastheblacksbecamelaborers
IandsoldiersinaconqueringNorthernarmy.IftheNegrowastobe
jfreewherewouldthepoorwhitebe?Whyshouldhefightagainst
theblacksandhisvictoriousfriends?Thepoorwhitenotonlybegan
todesertandrunaway;butthousandsfollowedtheNegrointothe
Northerncamps.
Meantime,withperplexedandlaggardsteps,theUnitedStatesGovernmentfollowedthe
footstepsoftheblackslave.ItmadenodifferencehowmuchAbrahamLincolnmightprotest
thatthiswasnota
waragainstslavery,oraskGeneralMcDowell"ifitwouldnotbewelltoallowthearmiesto
bringbackthosefugitiveslaveswhichhavecrossedthePotomacwithourtroops"(a
communicationwhichwasmarked"secret").ItwasinvainthatLincolnrushedentreaties
andthencommandstoFremontinMissouri,nottoemancipatetheslavesofrebels,andthen
hadtohastensimilarorderstoHunterinSouthCarolina.Theslave,despiteeveryeffort,was
becomingthecenterofwar.Lincoln,withhisuncannyinsight,begantoseeit.Hebeganto
talkaboutcompensationforemancipatedslaves,andCongress,followingalmosttooquickly,
passedtheConfiscationActinAugust,1861,freeingslaveswhichwereactuallyusedinwarby
theenemy.Lincolnthensuggestedthatprovisionbemadeforcolonizationofsuchslaves.He
simplycouldnotenvisagefreeNegroesintheUnitedStates.Whatwouldbecomeofthem?
Whatwouldtheydo?Meantime,theslavekeptlooming.NewOrleanswascapturedandthe
wholeblackpopulationofLouisianabeganstreamingtowardit.WhenVicksburgfell,the
centerofperhapsthevastestNegropopulationinNorthAmericawastapped.Theyrushed
intotheUnionlines.StillLincolnheldoffandwatchedsymptoms.Greeley's"Prayerof
TwentyMillions"receivedthecurtanswer,lessthanayearbeforeEmancipation,thatthewar
wasnottoabolishslavery,andifLincolncouldholdthecountrytogetherandkeepslavery,he
woulddoit.
Buthecouldnot,andhehadnosoonersaidthisthanhebegantorealizethathecouldnot.In
June,1862,slaverywasabolishedintheterritories.Compensationwithpossiblecolonization
wasplannedfortheDistrictofColumbia.RepresentativesandSenatorsfromtheBorder
Stateswerebroughttogethertotalkaboutextendingthisplantotheirstates,butthey
hesitated.
InAugust,Lincolnfacedthetruth,frontforward;andthattruthwasnotsimplythatNegroes
oughttobefree;itwasthatthousandsofthemwerealreadyfree,andthateitherthepower
whichslavesputintothehandsoftheSouthwastobetakenfromit,ortheNorthcouldnot
winthewar.EithertheNegrowastobeallowedtofight,orthedraftitselfwouldnotbring
enoughwhitemenintothearmytokeepupthewar.
Morethanthat,unlesstheNorthfacedtheworldwiththemoralstrengthofdeclaringopenly
thattheywerefightingfortheemancipationofslaves,theywouldprobablyfindthatthe
worldwouldrecognizetheSouthasaseparatenation;thatportswouldbeopened;thattrade
wouldbegin,andthatdespiteallthemilitaryadvantageoftheNorth,thewarwouldbelost.
InAugust,1862,LincolndiscussedEmancipationasamilitarymeasure;inSeptember,he
issuedhispreliminaryproclamation;on
January1,1863,hedeclaredthattheslavesofallpersonsinrebellionwere"henceforward
andforeverfree."
ThegunsatSumter,themarchingarmies,thefugitiveslaves,thefugitivesas"contrabands,"
spies,servantsandlaborers;theNegroassoldier,ascitizen,asvoter—thesestepscamefrom
1861to1868withregularbeatthatwasalmostrhythmic.Itwasthepriceofthedisasterof
war,anditwasapricethatfewAmericansatfirstdreamedofpayingorwantedtopay.The
NorthwasnotAbolitionist.ItwasoverwhelminglyinfavorofNegroslavery,solongasthis
didnotinterferewithNorthernmoneymaking.But,ontheotherhand,therewasaminority
oftheNorthwhohatedslaverywithperfecthatred;whowantednounionwithslaveholders;
whofoughtforfreedomandtreatedNegroesasmen.AstheAbolition-democracygainedin
prestigeandinpower,theyappearedasprophets,andledbystatesmen,theybegantoguide
thenationoutofthemorassintowhichithadfallen.Theyandtheirblackfriendsandthe
newfreedmenbecamegraduallytheleadersofaReconstructionofDemocracyintheUnited
States,whilemarchingmillionssangthenoblestwar-songoftheagestothetuneof"John
Brown'sBody":
MineeyeshaveseenthegloryofthecomingoftheLord,Heistramplingoutthevintage
wherethegrapesofwratharestored,Hehathloosedthefatefullightningofhisterribleswift
sword,HisTruthismarchingon!
1.PublicOpinionBeforeandAftertheCivilWar,p.4.
2.Williams,HistoryoftheNegroRaceinAmerica,II,p.244.
3.Oberholtzer,AbrahamLincoln,p.263.
4.ResultsofEmancipationintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyaCommitteeofthe
AmericanFreedman'sUnionCommissionin1867,p.6.
5.JournalofNegroHistory,X,p.134.
6.Eaton,Grant,LincolnandtheFreedmen,p.2.
7.ResultsofEmancipationintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyaCommitteeofthe
AmericanFreedman'sUnionCommissionin1867,p.21.
8.Brown,FourYearsinSecessia,p.368.
9.AsheandTyler,Secession,InsurrectionoftheNegroes,andNorthernIncendiarism,
p.12.
10.Eaton,Grant,LincolnandtheFreedmen,pp.2,3,19,22,134.
11.Eaton,Grant,LincolnandtheFreedmen,p.22.
12.Eaton,Grant,LincolnandtheFreedmen,p.166.
13.Pierce,"FreedmenatPortRoyal,"AtlanticMonthly,XII,p.310.
14.TestimonyBeforeReconstructionCommittee,February21,1866,PartII,p.221.
15.Taylor,ReconstructioninSouthCarolina,pp.29,30.
16.Eaton,Grant,LincolnandtheFreedmen,pp.37,38.
17.Campbell,Black,andWhiteintheSouthernStates,p.165.
18.Moore,ConscriptionandConflictintheConfederacy,p.145.
19.Moore,ConscriptionandConflictintheConfederacy,pp.18-20.
V.THECOMINGOFTHELORD
HowtheNegrobecamefreebecausetheNorthcouldnotwin
theCivilWarifheremainedinslavery.Andhowarmsinhis
hands,andtheprospectofarmsinamillionmoreblackhands,
broughtpeaceandemancipationtoAmerica
Threemovements,partlysimultaneousandpartlysuccessive,aretreatedindifferent
chapters.Inthelastchapter,wechronicledtheswarmingoftheslavestomeetthe
approachingUnionarmies;inthisweconsiderhowtheseslavesweretransformedinpart
fromlaborerstosoldiersfightingfortheirownfreedom;andinsucceedingchapters,weshall
treattheorganizationoffreelaborafterthewar.
Intheearsoftheworld,AbrahamLincolnonthefirstofJanuary,1863,declaredfourmillion
slaves"thenceforwardandforeverfree."Thetruthwaslessthanthis.TheEmancipation
Proclamationappliedonlytotheslavesofthosestatesorpartsofstatesstillinrebellion
againsttheUnitedStatesgovernment.Hundredsofthousandsofsuchslaveswerealready
freebytheirownactionandthatoftheinvadingarmies,andintheircases,Lincoln's
proclamationonlyaddedpossiblelegalsanctiontoanaccomplishedfact.
TothemajorityofslavesstillwithintheConfederatelines,theproclamationwouldapply
onlyiftheyfollowedthefugitives.AndthisAbrahamLincolndeterminedtoinducethemto
do,andthustobreakthebackoftherebellionbydeprivingtheSouthofitsprincipallabor
force.
Emancipationhadthustwoulteriorobjects.Itwasdesignedtomakeeasierthereplacement
ofunwillingNorthernwhitesoldierswithblacksoldiers;anditsoughttoputbehindthewar
anewpushtowardNorthernvictorybythemightyimpactofagreatmoralideal,bothinthe
NorthandinEurope.
Thisnationalright-about-facehadbeengraduallyandcarefullyaccomplishedonlybythe
consummatetactofaleaderofmenwhowentnofasterthanhisnationmarchedbutjustas
fast;andalsobytheunwearyingwilloftheAbolitionists,whoforcedthenationonward.
WendellPhillipssaidinWashingtonin1862:
"GentlemenofWashington!Youhavespentforustwomilliondollarsperday.Youburytwo
regimentsamonth,twothousandmenbydiseasewithoutbattle.Yourobeverylaboringman
ofone-halfof
84
hispayforthenextthirtyyearsbyyourtaxes.Youplacethecurseofintolerabletaxationon
everycradleforthenextgeneration.Whatdoyougiveusinreturn?Whatistheothersideof
thebalancesheet?TheNorthhaspouredoutitsbloodandmoneylikewater;ithasleveled
everyfenceofconstitutionalprivilege,andAbrahamLincolnsitstodayamoreunlimited
despotthantheworldknowsthissideofChina.WhatdoesherendertheNorthforthis
unboundedconfidence?Showussomething;orItellyouthatwithintwoyearstheindignant
reactionofthepeoplewillhurlthecabinetincontemptfromtheirseats,andthedevilsthat
wentoutfromyondercapital,fortherehasbeennosweepingorgarnishing,willcomeback
seventimesstronger;forIdonotbelievethatJeffersonDavis,drivendowntotheGulf,will
godowntothewatersandperishascertainbrutesmentionedintheGospeldid."
HoraceGreeleywasatLincoln'sheels.HewroteinAugust,1862,hiseditorial,"Prayerof
TwentyMillions,"whichdrewLincoln'swell-knownreply:"Iftherebethosewhowouldnot
savetheUnionunlesstheycouldatthesametimesaveslavery,Idonotagreewiththem.If
therebethosewhowouldnotsavetheUnionunlesstheycouldatthesametimedestroy
slavery,Idonotagreewiththem.MyparamountobjectinthisstruggleistosavetheUnion
andisnoteithertosaveortodestroyslavery.IfIcouldsavetheUnionwithoutfreeingany
slaves,Iwoulddoit;andifIcouldsaveitbyfreeingalltheslaves,Iwouldalsodothat.What
Idoaboutslaveryandthecoloredrace,IdobecauseIbelieveitwouldhelptosavetheUnion
"
"SupposeIdothat,"saidLincolntoGreeley,discussinggeneralemancipation."Therearenow
20,000ofourmusketsontheshouldersofKentuckianswhoarebravelyfightingourbattles.
Everyoneofthemwillbethrowndownorcarriedovertotherebels."
"Letthemdoit,"saidGreeley."ThecauseoftheUnionwillbestrongerifKentuckyshould
secedewiththerest,thanitisnow."
InSeptember,1862,LincolnsaidtorepresentativesoftheChicagoProtestants:
"Iadmitthatslaveryisattherootoftherebellion,oratleastitssinequanon....Iwillalso
concedethatEmancipationwouldhelpusinEurope....Igrant,further,thatitwouldhelp
somewhatattheNorth,thoughnotsomuch,Ifear,asyouandthoseyourepresentimagine..
..Andthen,unquestionably,itwouldweakentheRebelsbydrawingofftheirlaborers,which
isofgreatimportance;butIamnotsosurewecoulddomuchwiththeBlacks.Ifwewereto
armthem,IfearthatinafewweeksthearmswouldbeinthehandsoftheRebels...,
"WhatgoodwouldaproclamationofEmancipationfrommedo,especiallyaswearenow
situated?Idonotwanttoissueadocumentthatthewholeworldwillseemustnecessarilybe
inoperative,likethePope'sbullagainstthecomet...."*
Nevertheless,justninedayslater,LincolnissuedhispreliminaryEmancipation
Proclamation.Whatcausedthesuddenchange?WasitthemountingmassofNegroes
rushingintoUnionlines?WasitthefightingofNegrosoldierswhichshowedthatweapons
giventothemwereneverfoundinthehandsofConfederates,orwasitthecurious
internationalsituation?
Thefailureorsuccessofthewarhungbyathread.IfEnglandandFranceshouldrecognize
theConfederacy,therewaslittledoubtthattheUnioncausewouldbebeaten;andtheywere
disposedtorecognizeit.OrdidLincolnrealizethatsinceadraftlawwasneededtomake
unwillingNorthernsoldiersfight,blacksoldierswerethelastrefugeoftheUnion?The
preliminaryproclamationcameinSeptember,andinOctoberandNovembermassmeetings
inNewYorkandBrooklyndenouncedtheproposalasinexpedientandadoptedresolutions
againstitwithjeers.Ministers,liketheReverendAlbertBarnesofPhiladelphia,preached
againstemancipation,declaringthatthecontrolofslaveryoughttobeleftabsolutelyand
exclusivelytothestates.TheNewYorkHeraldpointedoutthateveniftheproclamationwas
effective,slavepropertywouldhavetoberestoredorpaidforeventuallybytheUnitedStates
government."TheHeraldiscorrect.Theslavestakenfromourcitizensduringthewarhaveto
beaccountedforatitsend,eitherbyrestorationorindemnity."2TheNewOrleansPicayune
pointedoutinNovemberthatabolitionwouldfloodtheNorthwithNegroes,andthatthis
would"tendtodegradewhitelaborandtocheapenit."
ThefinalproclamationwasissuedJanuaryi,1863,andcarriedaspecialadmonitiontothe
coloredpeople:
"AndIherebyenjoinuponthepeoplesodeclaredtobefreetoabstainfromallviolence,
unlessinnecessaryself-defense;andIrecommendtothemthat,inallcaseswhenallowed,
theylaborfaithfullyforreasonablewages.
"AndIfurtherdeclareandmakeknownthatsuchpersons,ofsuitablecondition,willbe
receivedintothearmedserviceoftheUnitedStatestogarrisonforts,positions,stations,and
otherplaces,andtomanvesselsofallsortsinsaidservice.
"Anduponthisact,sincerelybelievedtobeanactofjustice,warrantedbytheConstitution
uponmilitarynecessity,Iinvoketheconsideratejudgmentofmankind,andthegracious
favorofAlmightyGod."
TheCharlestonCourierjeered:
"ThePope'sbullagainstthecomethasbeenissued,andIsupposeMr.Lincolnnowbreathes
morefreely.Thewonderfulmanbyadashofhiswonderfulpenhassetfree(onpaper)allthe
slavesoftheSouth,andhenceforththisistobeinallitslengthandbreadththelandof
liberty!...
"Meanwhile,Iwouldinvitehisownandtheattentionofallhisdeludedfollowerstoa
paragraphinthelatenumberoftheNewOrleansPicayune,whereinitisstatedthatinquests
hadbeenhelduponthebodiesof21contrabandsinonehousealoneinthatcity.Thesepoor
Negroeshadbeenstolenorenticedawayfromthecomfortablehomesoftheirmasters,and
lefttostarveandrotbythesephilanthropic(?)advocatesoflibertyfortheslave."3
TheSavannahRepublicaninMarchdeclared:
"Inourjudgment,sofarastheBorderStatesareconcerned,hispropositionwillhaveexactly
theoppositeeflecttothatforwhichitwasdesigned.Thosestates,whohaveheldontothe
UnionwiththebeliefthattheirSouthernsisterswerehastyandwronginthebeliefthatthey
wereabouttobebroughtunderanabolitiongovernment,willnowseethattheywereright
andthatalltheirworstapprehensionshavebeenjustifiedbytheactsofthatgovernment."
BeauregardsentanimpudenttelegramtoMilesatRichmond:
"Hasthebillfortheexecutionofabolitionprisoners,afterJanuarynext,beenpassed?Doit,
andEnglandwillbestirredintoaction.Itishightimetoproclaimtheblackflagafterthat
period;lettheexecutionbewiththegarrote."
ThereactiontoemancipationintheNorthwasunfavorablesofaraspoliticalresults
indicated,althoughmanymotivesinfluencedthevoters.Theelectionsof1862inNewYork,
NewJersey,Pennsylvania,Ohio,IndianaandIllinoiswentDemocratic,andinotherpartsof
theWest,Lincolnlostsupport.IntheCongressofi860,therewereseventy-eightRepublicans
andthirty-sevenDemocrats,andin1862,theadministrationhadonlyfifty-sevensupporters,
withsixty-sevenintheopposition.
OnlyamongNegroesandinEnglandwasthereactionfavorable,andbothcounted.The
Proclamationmadefourandahalfmillionlaborerswillingalmostinmasstosacrificetheir
lastdropofbloodfortheirnew-foundcountry.Itsentthemintotransportsofjoyand
sacrifice.Itchangedalltheirpessimismanddespairintoboundlessfaith.ItwastheComing
oftheLord.
TheProclamationhadanundoubtedandimmediateeffectuponEngland.Theupperclasses
werestronglyinfavoroftheConfederacy,andsurethattheYankeeswerefightingonlyfora
hightariffand
hurtvanity.Free-tradeEnglandwasrepelledbythisprogram,andattractedbythefreetrade
whichtheConfederacyoffered.Therewasstrongdemandamongmanufacturerstohavethe
governmentinterfereandrecognizetheSouthernStatesasanindependentnation.The
churchanduniversitieswereinfavoroftheConfederacy,andallthegreatperiodicals.Even
thephilanthropists,likeLordShaftesbury,Car-lyle,BuxtonandGladstone,threwtheir
sympathiestotheSouth.Carlylesneeredatpeople"cuttingeachother'sthroatsbecauseonehalfofthempreferhiringtheirservantsforlife,andtheotherbythehour."4
AsHenryAdamsassuresus:
"Londonwasaltogetherbesideitselfononepoint,inespecial;itcreatedanightmareofits
own,andgaveittheshapeofAbrahamLincoln.Behindthisitplacedanotherdemon,if
possiblemoredevilish,andcalleditMr.Seward.Inregardtothesetwomen,Englishsociety
seemeddemented.Defensewasuseless;explanationwasvain;onecouldonlyletthepassion
exhaustitself.One'sbestfriendswereasunreasonableasenemies,forthebeliefinpoorMr.
Lincoln'sbrutalityandSeward'sferocitybecameadogmaofpopularfaith."5
ConfederatewarshipswerebeingbuiltandharboredinEnglishportsandinSeptember,1862,
Palmerston,believingthattheConfederateswereabouttocaptureWashington,suggested
interventiontomembersofhiscabinet.LordJohnRussellwantedtoactimmediately,butthe
rebelsweredrivenbackatAntietamthesamemonth,andthepreliminaryEmancipation
Proclamationappeared.GladstoneandRussellstilltriedtoforceintervention,but
Palmerstonhesitated.
TherewassimilardemandinFrance,butnotasstrong,becausecottondidnotplaysolargea
part.Nevertheless,thetextileworkersinbothFranceandEnglandwerehard-pressedbythe
cottonfamine.NapoleonIIIwasinfavoroftheSouth,butthemassoftheFrenchnationwas
not.NapoleonwasassuredbytheConfederategovernmentthataSouthernalliancewith
FrenchMexicoandaguarantyofCubacouldbehadfortheasking,ifFrancewouldrecognize
theConfederacy.NodangerfromtheNorthwasanticipated,forSewardwascertaintoaccept
Napoleon'sassurancesofFrance'sneutrality.
PublicopinionstoodbackoftheEnglishgovernmentandwas,onthewhole,infavorofthe
South;butGarrisonandDouglassbytheirvisits,andlaterHarrietBeecherStowe,had
influencedtheopinionofthemiddleandlaboringclasses.Nevertheless,itwasreportedin
1862:"WefindonlyhereandthereamongtheEnglishmenonewhodoesnotfanaticallyside
withtheslavestates."VariousmeetingsinfavoroftheSouthwerearrangedbythe
workingmenandtheGeneralCouncilofWorkingmen'sAssociationsopposedtheproSouthern
movement.Thewarhadcreatedagreatscarcityofcotton,andinadditiontothis,therehad
alreadybeenanover-productionofthecottonindustryinEnglandini860,sothattheeffect
oftheblockadewasnotfeltuntillater,sofarasthesaleofgoodswasconcerned.Butthe
factoriesclosed,andmorethanhalftheloomsandspindleslayidle.EspeciallyinLancashire
therewasgreatdistressamonglaborers.Feverandprostitutionwereprevalentin1865.
Notwithstandingthis,theEnglishworkersstoodupfortheabolitionofNegroslavery,and
protestedagainsttheinterventionoftheEnglish.Upuntil1863,itwasarguedwithsome
showofrightthattheNorthwasnotfightingtofreetheslaves;butonthecontrary,according
toLincoln'sownwords,"wasperfectlywillingtosettlethewarandleavetheNegroesin
slavery."ButassoonasLincolnissuedtheEmancipationProclamation,theworkingmenof
Englandheldhundredsofmeetingsalloverthecountryandinallindustrialsections,and
hailedhisaction.
ErnestJones,theleaderoftheChartistmovement,raisedhiseloquentvoiceagainstslavery.
Duringthewinterof1862-1863,meetingaftermeetinginfavorofemancipationwasheld.
ThereactioninEnglandtotheEmancipationProclamationwastooenthusiasticforthe
governmenttodaretakeanyradicalstep.GreatmeetingsinLondonandManchesterstirred
thenation,andgavenoticetoPalmerstonthathecouldnotyettakethechanceofrecognizing
theSouth.InspiteofRussellandGladstone,hebegantowithdraw,andtheimminentdanger
ofrecognitionoftheSouthbyEnglandandFrancepassed.
InthemonstermeetingofEnglishworkingmenatSt.James'Hall,London,March26,1863,
JohnBrightspoke;andJohnStuartMilldeclaredthat:"Higherpoliticalandsocialfreedom
hasbeenestablishedintheUnitedStates."KarlMarxtestifiedthatthismeetingheldin1863
keptLordPalmerstonfromdeclaringwaragainsttheUnitedStates.OnDecember31,1863,at
meetingsheldsimultaneouslyinLondonandManchester,addressesweresenttoLincoln,
draftedbyKarlMarx.TheLondonaddresssaid:
"Sir:WewhoofferthisaddressareEnglishmenandworkingmen.Weprizeasourdearest
inheritance,boughtforusbythebloodofourfathers,thelibertyweenjoy—thelibertyoffree
laboronafreesoil.Wehave,therefore,beenaccustomedtoregardwithvenerationand
gratitudethefoundersofthegreatrepublicinwhichthelibertiesoftheAnglo-Saxonrace
havebeenwidenedbeyondalltheprecedentsoftheoldworld,andinwhichtherewas
nothingtocondemnortolamentbuttheslaveryanddegradationofmenguiltyonlyofa
coloredskinoranAfricanparentage.Wehavelookedwithadmirationandsympathyupon
thebrave,generousanduntiringeffortsofalarge
partyintheNorthernStatestodelivertheUnionfromthiscurseandshame.Werejoiced,sir,
inyourelectiontothePresidency,asasplendidproofthattheprinciplesofuniversalfreedom
andequalitywererisingtotheascendant.Weregardedwithabhorrencetheconspiracyand
rebellionbywhichitwassoughtatoncetooverthrowthesupremacyofagovernmentbased
uponthemostpopularsuffrageintheworld,andtoperpetuatethehatefulinequalitiesof
race."6
TheManchesteraddress,adoptedbysixthousandpeople,saidamongotherthings:
"Onethingalonehas,inthepast,lessenedoursympathywithyourcountryandour
confidenceinit;wemeantheascendancyofpoliticianswhonotmerelymaintainedNegro
slavery,butdesiredtoextendandrootitmoredeeply.Sincewehavediscerned,however,that
thevictoryofthefreeNorthinthewarwhichhassosorelydistressedusaswellasafflicted
you,willshakeoft"thefettersoftheslave,youhaveattractedourwarmandearnest
sympathy.
"Wejoyfullyhonoryou,asthePresident,andtheCongresswithyou,forthemanydecisive
stepstowardspracticallyexemplifyingyourbeliefinthewordsofyourgreatfounders:'All
menarecreatedfreeandequal.'...
"Weassumethatyoucannotnowstopshortofacompleteuprootingofslavery.Itwouldnot
becomeustodictateanydetails,buttherearebroadprinciplesofhumanitywhichmust
guideyou.Ifcompleteemancipationinsomestatesbedeferred,thoughonlytoa
predeterminedday,still,intheinterval,humanbeingsshouldnotbecountedchattels.
Womanmusthaverightsofchastityandmaternity,mentherightsofhusbands;mastersthe
libertyofmanumission.Justicedemandsfortheblack,nolessthanforthewhite,the
protectionofthelaw—thathisvoicemaybeheardinyourcourts.Normustanysuch
abominationbetoleratedasslave-breedingStatesandaslavemarket—ifyouaretoearnthe
highrewardofallyoursacrificesintheapprovaloftheuniversalbrotherhoodandofthe
DivineFather.Itisforyourfreecountrytodecidewhetheranythingbutimmediateandtotal
emancipationcansecurethemostindispensablerightsofhumanity,againsttheinveterate
wickednessoflocallawsandlocalexecutives.
"Weimploreyou,foryourownhonorandwelfare,nottofaintinyourprovidentialmission.
Whileyourenthusiasmisaflame,andthetideofeventsrunshigh,lettheworkbefinished
effectually.Leavenorootofbitternesstospringupandworkfreshmiserytoyourchildren.It
isamightytask,indeed,toreorganizetheindustry,notonlyoffourmillionsofthecolored
race,butoffivemillionsofwhites.
Nevertheless,thevastprogressyouhavemadeintheshortspaceoftwentymonthsfillsus
withhopethateverystainonyourfreedomwillshortlyberemoved,andthattheerasureof
thatfoulblotuponcivilizationandChristianity—chattelslavery—duringyourPresidency,will
causethenameofAbrahamLincolntobehonoredandreveredbyposterity."7
Lincolninreplysaidthatheknewthesufferingoftheworking-meninManchesterand
Europeinthiscrisis,andappreciatedtheactionoftheEnglishworkingmenasanexampleof
"sublimeChristianheroism,"which"hasnotbeensurpassedinanyageorinanycountry."
HedeclaredthattheCivilWarwas"theattempttooverthrowthisgovernment,whichwas
builtuponafoundationofhumanrights,andtosubstituteonewhichshouldrestexclusively
onthebasisofhumanslavery."
IntheNorth,theEmancipationProclamationmeanttheNegrosoldier,andtheNegrosoldier
meanttheendofthewar.
"Wehavecometosetyoufree!"criedtheblackcavalrymenwhorodeattheheadofthe
UnionArmyasitenteredRichmondin1864.ThesesoldierswereinthedivisionofGodfrey
Weitzel;whenBenButlerfirstassignedNegrotroopstoWeitzel'scommandinLouisiana,
Weitzelresigned.Itwasagoodthingforhimthatherecalledthisresignation,forhisblack
soldiersatPortHudsonwrotehisnameinhistory.
Herewasindeedrevolution.Atfirst,thiswastobeawhiteman'swar.First,becausethe
NorthdidnotwanttoaffronttheSouth,andthewarwasgoingtobeshort,veryshort;and
secondly,ifNegroesfoughtinthewar,howcouldithelpbeingawarfortheiremancipation?
AndforthistheNorthwouldnotfight.Yetscarcelyayearafterhostilitiesstarted,the
Negroeswerefighting,althoughunrecognizedassoldiers;intwoyearstheywerefreeand
enrollinginthearmy.
PrivateMilesO'Reillyexpressedinthenewspapersagrowingpublicopinion:
"Somesayitisaburnin'shame
Tomakethenaygursfight,An'thatthethradeo'bein'kiltBelongsbuttothewhite;
"Butasforme'uponmesowl'Soliberalarewehere,I'llletSambobemurtheredinplaceo'
meselfOneverydayintheyear."
InDecember,1861,Unionofficerswereorderednottoreturnfugitiveslavesonpainofcourtmartial.In1862cameHunter'sblackregimentinSouthCarolina.
Inthespringof1862,GeneralHunterhadlessthaneleventhousandmenunderhis
command,andhadtoholdthewholebrokenseacoastofGeorgia,SouthCarolinaandFlorida.
HeappliedoftenandinvaintotheauthoritiesatWashingtonforreinforcements.Allthe
troopsavailableintheNorthwerelessthansufficientforGeneralMcClellan'sgreat
operationsagainstRichmond,andthereiteratedansweroftheWarDepartmentwas:"You
mustgetalongasbestyoucan.NotamanfromtheNorthcanbespared."
"NoreinforcementstobehadfromtheNorth;vastfatiguedutiesinthrowingupearthworks
imposedonourinsufficientgarrison;theenemycontinuallyincreasing,bothininsolence
andnumbers;ouronlysuccessthecaptureofFortPulaski,sealingupSavannah;andthis
victoryoffset,ifnotfullycounterbalanced,bymanyminorgainsoftheenemy;thiswasabout
theconditionofaffairsasseenfromtheheadquartersfrontingPortRoyalbay,whenGeneral
Hunteronemorning,'withtwirlingglasses,puckeredlipsanddilatednostrils'[hehadjust
receivedanother"don't-bother-us-for-reenforcements"dispatchfromWashington]
announcedhisintentionof'formingaNegroregiment,andcompellingeveryable-bodied
blackmaninthedepartmenttofightforthefreedomwhichcouldnotbutbetheissueofour
war.'"8
Huntercausedallthenecessaryorderstobeissued,andtookuponhimselftheresponsibility
fortheirregularissueofarms,clothing,equipmentsandrationsinvolvedincollectingand
organizingthefirstexperimentalNegroregiments.
ReportsoftheorganizationoftheFirstSouthCarolinaInfantrywereforwardedto
headquartersinWashington,andtheWarDepartmenttooknonotice.Nothingwassaid,nor
wasanyauthoritygiventopaythemenorfurnishthemsubsistence.Butatlastaspecial
dispatchsteamerplowedherwayoverthebarwithwordfromtheWarDepartment,
"requiringimmediateanswer."
ItwasademandforinformationinregardtotheNegroregiment,basedonaresolution
introducedbyWickliffeofKentucky.TheseresolutionshadbeenadoptedbyCongress.
Hunterlaughed,butashewaswithoutauthorityforanyofhisactionsinthiscase,itseemed
tohisworriedAdjutant-Generalthatthedocumentsinhishandswerenolaughingmatter.
ButHunterdeclared:
"ThatoldfoolhasjustgivenmetheverychanceIwasgrowingsickfor!TheWarDepartment
hasrefusedtonoticemyblackregiment;butnow,inreplytothisresolution,Icanlaythe
matterbeforethe
country,andforcetheauthoritieseithertoadoptmyNegroes,ortodisbandthem."9
SoHunterwrote:"Noregimentof'fugitiveslaves'hasbeen,orisbeing,organizedinthis
department.Thereis,however,afineregimentofloyalpersonswhoselatemastersare
fugitiverebels."HesaidthathedidthisunderinstructionsgivenbythelateSecretaryofWar,
andhisgeneralauthoritytoemploy"allloyalpersonsofferingtheirserviceindefenseofthe
Union."Headded:
"NeitherhaveIhadanyspecificauthorityforsupplyingthesepersonswithshovels,spades,
andpickaxes,whenemployingthemaslaborers;norwithboatsandoars,whenusingthemas
lighter-men;butthesearenotpointsincludedinMr.Wickliffe'sresolutions.Tomeitseemed
thatlibertytoemploymeninanyparticularcapacityimpliedandcarriedwithitliberty,also,
tosupplythemwiththenecessarytools;and,actinguponthisfaith,Ihaveclothed,equipped
andarmedtheonlyloyalregimentyetraisedinSouthCarolina,GeorgiaorFlorida....
"Theexperimentofarmingtheblacks,sofarasIhavemadeit,hasbeenacompleteandeven
marveloussuccess.Theyaresober,docile,attentive,andenthusiastic;displayinggreat
naturalcapacitiesinacquiringthedutiesofthesoldier.Theyarenoweagerbeyondallthings
totakethefieldandbeledintoaction;anditistheunanimousopinionoftheofficerswho
havehadchargeofthemthat,inthepeculiaritiesofthisclimateandcountry,theywillprove
invaluableauxiliaries,fullyequaltothesimilarregimentssolongandsuccessfullyusedby
theBritishauthoritiesintheWestIndiaIslands.
"Inconclusion,Iwouldsay,itismyhope—thereappearingnopossibilityofother
reinforcements,owingtotheexigenciesofthecampaigninthePeninsula—tohaveorganized
bytheendofnextfall,andbeabletopresenttothegovernment,fromforty-eighttofifty
thousandofthesehardyanddevotedsoldiers."
WhenthereplywasreadintheHouseofRepresentatives:"Itseffectsweremagical.Theclerk
couldscarcelyreaditwithdecorum;norcouldhalfhiswordsbeheardamidsttheuniversal
pealsoflaughterinwhichbothDemocratsandRepublicansappearedtovieastowhich
shouldbethemorenoisy....Itwasthegreatjokeoftheday,andcomingatamomentof
universalgloominthepublicmind,wasseizeduponbythewholeloyalpressofthecountry
asakindofpolitico-militarychampagnecocktail."
WhentheConfederateGovernmentheardofthis,itissuedanorderrecitingthat"asthe
governmentoftheUnitedStateshadrefusedtoanswerwhetheritauthorizedtheraisingofa
blackregimentbyGeneralHunterornot,"saidgeneral,hisstaff,andallofficersunderhis
commandwhohaddirectlyorindirectlyparticipatedintheuncleanthing,shouldhereafterbe
outlawsnotcoveredbythelawsofwar;buttobeexecutedasfelonsforthecrimeof"inciting
Negroinsurrectionwherevercaught."
InLouisiana,thecoloredCreolesinmanycaseshesitated.Someofthemhadbeenownersof
slaves,andsomeactuallyfoughtintheConfederateArmy,butwerenotregisteredas
Negroes.OnNovember23,1861,theConfederategrandparadetookplaceinNewOrleans,
andonefeatureofthereviewwasaregimentoffreemenofcolor,1,400innumber.The
PicayunespeaksofalaterreviewonFebruary9,1862:
"Wemustpaydeservedcomplimenttothecompaniesoffreemenofcolor,allwell-dressed,
well-drilled,andcomfortablyuniformed.Mostofthesecompanieshaveprovidedthemselves
witharmsunaidedbvtheadministration."
WhenButlerenteredthecityin1862,theConfederatesfledtu-multuouslyorlaidasidetheir
uniformsandstayed.ThefreeNegroregimentdidneither,butoffereditsservicestothe
Federalarmy.Butleratfirstwasinaquandary.
"TheinstructionsgivenbyGeneralMcClellantoGeneralButlerweresilentonthismost
perplexingproblem.OnleavingWashington,ButlerwasverballyinformedbythePresident,
thatthegovernmentwasnotyetpreparedtoannounceaNegropolicy.Theywereanxiously
consideringthesubject,andhoped,erelong,toarriveatconclusions."10
ButlerfoundtheNegroesofgreathelptohim,buthecouldnot,asinVirginia,callthem
"contraband,"becausehehadnoworkforthem.Hewantedtofreethem,butonMay9,the
newscamethatHunter'sproclamationinSouthCarolinahadbeenrevoked.Butler,however,
abolishedthewhippinghouses,andencouragedtheNegroeswhocalledonhim."One
consequencewasthatthegeneralhadaspyineveryhouse,behindeachrebel'schair,ashe
satattable."
GeneralButleraskedforreinforcementsallsummeronaccountofthegrowingstrengthof
VicksburgandPortHudson,theconditionofMobileandcampsnearNewOrleans.The
answerfromWashingtonwas:"Wecannotspareyouoneman;wewillsendyoumenwhen
wehavethemtosend.YoumustholdNewOrleansbyallmeansandatallhazards."
Earlier,GeneralPhelps,whocommandedtheFederalforcesaboutsevenmilesfromNew
Orleans,hadreceivedanumberofrefugees,someoftheminchainsandsomeofthem
bleedingfromwounds.ButlerorderedhimMay23,1862,toexcludethesefromhislines.He
repliedatlength:
"Addedtothefourmillionsofthecoloredracewhosedisaffectionisincreasingevenmore
rapidlythantheirnumber,thereareatleastfourmillionsmoreofthewhiteracewhose
growingmiserieswillnaturallyseekcompanionshipwiththoseoftheblacks."
HedemandedthatthePresidentshouldabolishslavery,andthattheNegroesbearmed.
ButlerforwardedPhelps'replytoWashington.PhelpsagaindemandedtherighttoarmNegro
troops.HewasorderedJuly1,1862,tousetheNegroestocutwood.Heimmediatelyhanded
inhisresignation,saying:
"IamwillingtoprepareAfricanregimentsforthedefenseofthegovernmentagainstits
assailants.Iamnotwillingtobecomethe
mereslave-driverwhichyoupropose,havingnoqualificationsinthat
"11way.
TheuseofNegrotroopswasprecipitatedbytheattackwhichBreckinridgemadeAugust5,
1862,onBatonRouge.ButlerhadtohavetroopstodefendNewOrleans,andhadappliedto
Washington,butnonecouldbesent.Therefore,byproclamation,August22,1862,Butler
"calledonAfrica,"acceptedthefreeNegroregimentwhichhadoffereditsservices,and
proceededtoorganizeotherNegrotroops.Herecitedatlengththepreviousactionofthe
ConfederateGovernorinorganizingtheNegroregiment,April23,1861,andquoteddirectly
fromtheConfederateGovernor'sproclamation:
"Now,therefore,theCommandingGeneral,believingthatalargeportionofthismilitiaforce
oftheStateofLouisianaarewillingtotakeserviceinthevolunteerforcesoftheUnited
States,andbeenrolledandorganizedto'defendtheirhomes'from'ruthlessinvaders';to
protecttheirwivesandchildrenandkindredfromwrongandoutrage;toshieldtheirproperty
frombeingseizedbybadmen;andtodefendtheflagoftheirnativecountry,astheirfathers
didunderJacksonatChalmetteagainstPackenhamandhismyrmidons,carryingtheblack
flagof'beautyandbooty':
"Appreciatingtheirmotives,relyingupontheir'well-knownloyaltyandpatriotism,'andwith
'praiseandrespect'forthesebravemen—itisorderedthatallthemembersofthe'Native
Guards'aforesaid,andallotherfreecoloredcitizensrecognizedbythefirstandlategovernor
andauthoritiesoftheStateofLouisiana,asaportionofthemilitiaoftheState,whoshall
enlistinthevolunteerserviceoftheUnitedStates,shallbedulyorganizedbythe
appointmentofproperofficers,andaccepted,paid,equipped,armedandrationedasareother
volunteertroopsoftheUnitedStates,subjecttotheapprovalofthePresidentoftheUnited
States."12
ThousandsofvolunteersunderButler'sappealappeared.Infourteendays,aregimentwas
organizedwithcoloredlineofficersand
whitefieldofficers.MorethanhalfoftheprivateswerenotreallyfreeNegroesbutfugitive
slaves.Asecondregimentwithcoloredlineofficerswasenlisted,andathird,withcolored
messofficers.
IntheKansasHomeGuardweretworegimentsofIndians,andamongthemoverfour
hundredNegroes;and2,500NegroesservedinthecontingentthatcamefromtheIndian
nations.Manyofthemenlistedearlyin1862.
Inthemeantime,thewarwasevidentlymorethanadressparadeoraquickattackupon
Richmond.Onehundredthousand"threemonths"soldierswerebuta"dropinthebucket."
Moreandmoretroopsmustbehad.Thetimeofenlistmentformanyofthewhitetroopswas
alreadyexpiring,andatleastNegrotroopscouldbeusedonfatiguedutyinthelargestretches
ofterritoryheldbytheFederalarmiesdowntheAtlanticCoast,andintheMississippiValley,
andintheBorderStates.
SenatorHenryWilsonofMassachusetts,ChairmanoftheSenateCommitteeonMilitary
Affairs,introducedabillinJuly,1862,whichempoweredthePresidenttoacceptNegroesfor
constructingentrenchments,oranyotherwarserviceforwhichtheymightbefound
competent.Ifownedbyrebels,suchNegroesweretobefreed,butnothingwassaidoftheir
families.ThaddeusStevenschampionedthebillintheHouse,anditwassignedbyLincoln,
July17,1862.
Thedebatewasbitter.SenatorShermanofOhiosaid:
"Thequestionrises,whetherthepeopleoftheUnitedStates,strugglingfornational
existence,shouldnotemploytheseblacksforthemaintenanceoftheGovernment.The
policyheretoforepursuedbytheofficersoftheUnitedStateshasbeentorepelthisclassof
peoplefromourlines,torefusetheirservices.Theywouldhavemadethebestspies;andyet
theyhavebeendrivenfromourlines."
FessendenofMaineadded:"Itellthegeneralsofourarmy,theymustreversetheirpractices
andtheircourseofproceedingonthissubject....Iadviseitherefrommyplace—treatyour
enemiesasenemies,astheworstofenemies,andavailyourselveslikemen,ofeverypower
whichGodhasplacedinyourhands,toaccomplishyourpurposewithintherulesofcivilized
warfare."Race,ofMinnesota,declaredthat"notmanydayscanpassbeforethepeopleofthe
UnitedStatesNorthmustdecideupononeortwoquestions:wehaveeithertoacknowledge
theSouthernConfederacyasafreeandindependentnation,andthatspeedily;orwehaveas
speedilytoresolvetouseallthemeansgivenusbytheAlmightytoprosecutethiswartoa
successfultermination.Thenecessityforactionhasarisen.Tohesitateisworsethan
criminal."TheBorderStatesdemurred,andDavisofKentuckywasespeciallybitterwith
threats.
Thebillfinallywasamendedsoastopaytheblacksoldier'sbountytohisowner,ifhe
happenedtobeaslave!
Allthatwassimplypermissivelegislation,andforatimetheWarDepartmentdidnothing.
Someofthecommandersinthefield,however,begantomove.Ontheotherhand,Senator
DavisofKentuckytriedinJanuary,1863,tostoptheuseofanynationalappropriationsto
payNegrosoldiers.Thisattemptwasdefeated,andonJanuary6,1863,fivedaysafterthe
EmancipationProclamation,theSecretaryofWarauthorizedtheGovernorofMassachusetts
toraisetwoNegroregimentsforthreeyears'service.Thesewerethecelebrated54thand55th
Negroregiments—thefirstregularlyauthorizedNegroregimentsofthewar.
Therecruitingofthe54thMassachusettsRegimentofcoloredmenwascompletedbythe
13thofMay.IthadbeenplannedtohavetheregimentpassthroughNewYork,buttheChief
ofPolicewarnedthatitwouldbesubjecttoinsult,sothatitwentbyseatoSouthCarolina.
InOctober,theAdjutant-GeneraloftheUnitedStatesissuedageneralorderpermittingthe
militaryemploymentofNegroes.TheUnionLeagueClubofNewYorkappointedacommittee
toraiseNegrotroops,andaftersomedifficultywithGovernorSeymour,theyreceivedfrom
Washingtonauthoritytoraisearegiment.OnethousandNegroesrespondedwithintwo
weeks,andbyJanuary27,1864,asecondregimentwasraised.Nobountywasofferedthem,
andnoprotectionpromisedtheirfamilies.Oneoftheregimentsmarchedthroughthecity.
"Thesceneofyesterday,"saysaNewYorkpaper,"wasonewhichmarksaneraofprogressin
thepoliticalandsocialhistoryofNewYork.Athousandmenwithblackskinsandcladand
equippedwiththeuniformsandarmsoftheUnitedStatesGovernment,marchedfromtheir
campthroughchemostaristocraticandbusystreets,receivedagrandovationatthehandsof
thewealthiestandmostrespectableladiesandgentlemenofNewYork,andthenmoved
downBroadwaytothesteamerwhichbearsthemtotheirdestination—allamidthe
enthusiasticcheers,theencouragingplaudits,thewavinghandkerchiefs,theshowering
bouquetsandotherapprovingmanifesta-;tionsofahundredthousandofthemostloyalof
ourpeople."13
PennsylvaniawasespeciallyprominentinrecruitingNegrotroops.Acommitteewas
appointed,whichraised$33,388,withwhichtheyproposedtoraisethreeregiments.The
committeefoundedCampWilliamPennatSheltonHill,andthefirstsquadwentintocamp
June26,1863.Thefirstregiment,knownastheThirdUnitedStates,wasfullJuly24,1863,
Thethirdregiment,knownastheEighthUnited
States,wasfullDecember4,1863.TwomoreregimentswerefullJanuary6andFebruary3.
TheregimentswentSouth,August13,October14,1863,andJanuary16,1864.
IntheDepartmentoftheCumberland,theSecretaryofWarauthorizedGeorgeL.Stearnsof
MassachusettstorecruitNegroes.StearnswasafriendofJohnBrown,andaprominent
Abolitionist.HetookupheadquartersatNashville,andraisedanumberofregiments.Inthe
DepartmentoftheGulf,GeneralBanks,May1,1863,proposedanarmycorpstobeknownas
theCorpsd'Afrique.Itwastoconsistofeighteenregiments,infantry,artilleryandcalvary,
andtobeorganizedinthreedivisionsofthreebrigadeseach,withengineersandhospitals,
etc.Hesaidinhisorder:
"TheGovernmentmakesuseofmules,horses,uneducatedandeducatedwhitemen,inthe
defenseofitsinstitutions.WhyshouldnottheNegrocontributewhateverisinhispowerfor
thecauseinwhichheisasdeeplyinterestedasothermen?Wemayproperlydemandfrom
himwhateverservicehecanrender."
InMarch,1863,theSecretaryofWarsenttheAdjutant-General,LorenzoThomas,intothe
Southonatourofinspection.Stanton'sorderssaid:
"ThePresidentdesiresthatyoushouldconferfreelywithMajor-GeneralGrant,andthe
officerswithwhomyoumayhavecommunication,andexplaintothemtheimportance
attachedbytheGovernmenttotheuseofthecoloredpopulationemancipatedbythe
President'sProclamation,andparticularlyfortheorganizationoftheirlaborandmilitary
strength....
"Youareauthorizedinthisconnection,toissueinthenameofthisdepartment,lettersof
appointmentforfieldandcompanyofficers,andtoorganizesuchtroopsformilitaryservice
totheutmostextenttowhichtheycanbeobtainedinaccordancewiththerulesand
regulationsoftheservice."14
ThomasspoketothearmyofficersinLouisiana,andexpressedhimselfclearly.
"Youknowfullwell—foryouhavebeenoverthiscountry—thattheRebelshavesentintothe
fieldsalltheiravailablefightingmen—everymancapableofbearingarms;andyouknow
theyhavekeptathomealltheirslavesfortheraisingofsubsistencefortheirarmiesinthe
field.Inthiswaytheycanbringtobearagainstusallthestrengthoftheirso-called
ConfederateStates;whileweattheNorthcanonlysendaportionofourfightingforce,being
compelledtoleavebehindanotherportiontocultivateourfieldsandsupplythewantsofan
immensearmy,theadministrationhasdeterminedtotake
FROMTHEREBELSTHISSOURCEOFSUPPLY—TOTAKETHEIRNEGROESAND
COMPELTHEMTOSENDBACKAPORTIONOFTHEIRWHITESTOCULTIVATETHEIR
DESERTEDPLANTATIONS—ANDVERYPOORPERSONSTHEYWOULDBETOFILLTHE
PLACEOFTHEDARK-HUEDLABORER.THEYMUSTDOTHIS,ORTHEIRARMIESWILL
STARVE....
"Allofyouwillsomedaybeonpicketduty;andIchargeyouall,ifanyofthisunfortunate
racecomewithinyourlines,thatyoudonotturnthemaway,butreceivethemkindlyand
cordially.Theyaretobeencouragedtocometous;theyaretobereceivedwithopenarms;
theyaretobefedandclothed;theyaretobearmed."15
ItwouldnothavebeenAmerican,however,nottohavemaintainedsomecolor
discrimination,howeverpetty.First,therewasthematterofpay.Thepayofsoldiersatthe
beginningofthewarwas$13amonth.Negrosoldiersenlistedunderthesamelaw.Inthe
instructionstoGeneralSaxton,August25,1862,itwasstatedthatthepayshouldbethesame
asthatoftheothertroops.Soon,however,thiswaschanged,andNegrosoldierswereallowed
but$10amonth,and$3ofthiswasdeductedforclothing.Manyoftheregimentsrefusedto
receivethereducedpay.The54thMassachusettsInfantryrefusedpayforawholeyearuntil
theregimentwastreatedasotherregiments.TheStateofMassachusettsmadeupthe
differencetodisabledanddischargedsoldiersuntilJune15,1864,whenthelawwaschanged.
IntheDepartmentoftheGulf,whitetroopswhodidprovostdutiesaboutthecitywerepaid
$16amonth,whiletheNegroregimentswerepaid$7.Atonetime,thiscamenearcausinga
mutiny.
ButtheNegroesdidnotwaver.JohnM.LangstoninaspeechinOhioinAugust,1862,said:
"Payornopay,letusvolunteer.Thegoodresultsofsuchacoursearemanifold.Butthisone
aloneisallthatneedstobementionedinthisconnection.Irefertothoroughorganization.
ThisisthegreatneedofthecoloredAmericans/'
Withregardtoofficers,thepeopleofPennsylvaniasecuredfromtheSecretaryofWar
permissiontoestablishafreemilitaryschoolfortheeducationofcandidatesfor
commissionedofficersamongthecoloredtroops.Theschoolwasestablished,andwithinless
thansixmonths,examinedover1,000applicantsandpassed560.IntheDepartmentofthe
Gulf,Butlerwasinfavorofcoloredofficers,becauseintheFirstColoredRegimentthere
wereanumberofwell-trainedandintelligentNegroofficers.ButBankswasverymuch
againstcoloredofficers,andwouldnotusethem.Therewasatfirstaverygreatdistasteon
thepartofwhitemenforservingincoloredregiments.Hunterfoundthisdifficultywithhis
firstregiment,buthequicklycureditbyofferingcommissionstocompetentnon-commissionedofficers.Later,whentheblacktroopsmadetheirreputationinbattle,thechanceto
commandthemwaseagerlysought.
Congressfinallyfreedthewivesandchildrenofenlistedsoldiers;ameasurewhichDavisof
Kentuckyquicklyopposedonthegroundthat"Thegovernmenthadnopowertotakeprivate
propertyexceptforpublicuse,andwithoutjustcompensationtotheowner."
AbrahamLincoln,underafireofcriticism,warmlydefendedtheenlistmentofNegrotroops.
"Theslightestknowledgeofarithmeticwillprovetoanymanthattherebelarmiescannotbe
destroyedwithDemocraticstrategy.ItwouldsacrificeallthewhitemenoftheNorthtodoit.
TherearenowintheserviceoftheUnitedStatesneartwohundredthousandable-bodied
coloredmen,mostofthemunderarms,defendingandacquiringUnionterritory....
"abandonallthepostsnowgarrisonedbyblackmen;taketwohundredthousandmenfrom
oursideandputtheminthebattlefieldorcornfieldagainstus,andwewouldbecompelledto
abandonthewarinthreeweeks....
"MyenemiespretendIamnowcarryingonthiswarforthesolepurposeofabolition.Solong
asIamPresident,itshallbecarriedonforthesolepurposeofrestoringtheUnion.Butno
humanpowercansubduethisrebellionwithouttheuseoftheemancipationpolicy,and
everyotherpolicycalculatedtoweakenthemoralandphysicalforcesoftherebellion.
FreedomhasgivenustwohundredthousandmenraisedonSouthernsoil.Itwillgiveus
moreyet.Justsomuchithassubtractedfromtheenemy."16
ThequestionastowhetherNegroesshouldenlistintheFederalarmywasnotnearlyasclear
in1863asitseemstoday.TheSouthstillrefusedtobelievethattheCivilWarwouldendin
theemancipationofslaves.Therenotonlywerestrongdeclarationstothecontraryinthe
North,buttherewasstillthedeterminedoppositionoftheBorderStates.TheConfederates
industriouslyspreadpropagandaamongslaves,allegingthatNorthernersmistreatedthe
Negroes,andweresellingthemtotheWestIndiesintoharsherslavery.EvenintheNorth,
amongthemoreintelligentfreeNegroes,therewassomehesitancy.
FrederickDouglassspokeforthefreeandeducatedblackman,clear-headedandundeceived:
"Now,whatistheattitudeoftheWashingtongovernmenttowardsthecoloredrace?What
reasonshavewetodesireitstriumphinthepresentcontest?Mind,Idonotaskwhatwasits
attitudetowardsusbeforethisbloodyrebellionbrokeout.Idonotaskwhatwasits
disposition,whenitwascontrolledbytheverymenwhoarenowfightingtodestroyit,when
theycouldnolongercontrolit.Idonotevenaskwhatitwastwoyearsago,
whenMcClellanshamelesslygaveoutthatinawarbetweenloyalslavesanddisloyalmasters,
hewouldtakethesideofthemastersagainsttheslaves—whenheopenlyproclaimedhis
purposetoputdownslaveinsurrectionswithanironhand—whengloriousBenButler,now
stunnedintoaconversiontoanti-slaveryprinciples(whichIhaveeveryreasontobelieve
sincere),profferedhisservicestotheGovernorofMaryland,tosuppressaslaveinsurrection,
whiletreasonranriotinthatState,andthewarm,redbloodofMassachusettssoldiersstill
stainedthepavementsofBaltimore.
"Idonotaskwhatwastheattitudeofthisgovernmentwhenmanyoftheofficersandmen
whohadundertakentodefenditopenlythreatenedtothrowdowntheirarmsandleavethe
serviceifmenofcolorshouldstepforwardtodefendit,andbeinvestedwiththedignityof
soldiers.Moreover,Idonotaskwhatwasthepositionofthisgovernmentwhenourloyal
campsweremadeslave-huntinggrounds,andUnitedStatesofficersperformedthedisgusting
dutyofslavedogstohuntdownslavesforrebelmasters.Thesewereallthedarkandterrible
daysfortherepublic.Idonotaskyouaboutthedeadpast.Ibringyoutothelivingpresent.
"Eventsmoremightythanmen,eternalProvidence,all-wiseandall-controlling,haveplaced
usinnewrelationstothegovernmentandthegovernmenttous.Whatthatgovernmentisto
ustoday,andwhatitwillbetomorrow,ismadeevidentbyaveryfewfacts.Lookatthem,
coloredmen.SlaveryintheDistrictofColumbiaisabolishedforever;slaveryinallthe
territoriesoftheUnitedStatesisabolishedforever;theforeignslavetrade,withitsten
thousandrevoltingabominations,isrenderedimpossible;slaveryintenStatesoftheUnion
isabolishedforever;slaveryinthefiveremainingStatesisascertaintofollowthesamefate
asthenightistofollowtheday.TheindependenceofHaitiisrecognized;herMinistersits
besideourPrimeMinister,Mr.Seward,anddinesathistableinWashington,whilecolored
menareexcludedfromthecarsinPhiladelphia;showingthatablackman'scomplexionin
Washington,inthepresenceoftheFederalGovernment,islessoffensivethaninthecityof
brotherlylove.Citizenshipisnolongerdeniedusunderthisgovernment.
"UndertheinterpretationofourrightsbyAttorneyGeneralBates,JweareAmericancitizens.
Wecanimportgoods,ownandsailshipsandtravelinforeigncountries,withAmerican
passportsinourpockets;andnow,sofarfromtherebeinganyopposition,sofarfrom
excludingusfromthearmyassoldiers,thePresidentatWashington,theCabinetandthe
Congress,thegeneralscommandingandthewholearmyofthenationuniteingivingusone
thunderouswelcometosharewiththeminthehonorandgloryofsuppressingtreasonandupholdingthestar-spangledbanner.Therevolutionistremendous,anditbecomes
usaswisementorecognizethechange,andtoshapeouractionaccordingly.
"IholdthattheFederalGovernmentwasnever,initsessence,anythingbutanantislavery
government.Abolishslaverytomorrow,andnotasentenceorsyllableoftheConstitution
needbealtered.Itwaspurposelysoframedastogivenoclaim,nosanctiontotheclaimof
propertyinman.Ifinitsoriginslaveryhadanyrelationtothegovernment,itwasonlyasthe
scaffoldingtothemagnificentstructure,toberemovedassoonasthebuildingwas
completed.ThereisintheConstitutionnoEast,noWest,noNorth,noSouth,noblack,no
white,noslave,noslaveholder,butallarecitizenswhoareofAmericanbirth.
"Suchisthegovernment,fellow-citizens,youarenowcalledupontoupholdwithyourarms.
Suchisthegovernment,thatyouarecalledupontocooperatewithinburyingrebellionand
slaveryinacommongrave.Neversincetheworldbeganwasabetterchanceofferedtoalong
enslavedandoppressedpeople.Theopportunityisgivenustobemen.Withonecourageous
resolutionwemayblotoutthehandwritingofagesagainstus.Oncelettheblackmanget
uponhispersonthebrasslettersU.S.;lethimgetaneagleonhisbutton,andamusketon
hisshoulder,andbulletsinhispocket,andthereisnopowerontheearthorundertheearth
whichcandenythathehasearnedtherightofcitizenshipintheUnitedStates."17
Inthemeantime,twofatefuloccurrencestookplace.First,thewhiteworkersofNewYork
declaredineffectthattheNegroeswerethecauseofthewar,andthattheyweretiredofthe
discriminationthatmadeworkersfightersfortherich.They,therefore,killedalltheNegroes
thattheycouldlaytheirhandson.Ontheotherhand,inLouisianaandSouthCarolina,Negro
soldiersweresuccessfullyusedinpitchedbattle.
TheoppositiontothewarintheNorthtookvariousforms.Therewastheopensedition,led
byVallandinghamandendinginthemassoppositionoftheworkingclasses.This
Copperheadmovementwaspro-slaveryandpro-Southern,andwasmetinpartbycloser
understandingandalliancebetweentheAbolitionistsandtheRepublicanadministration.But
theworkingclassmovementwasdeeperandmoredifficult.Itwastheprotestofthepoor
againstbeingcompelledtofightthebattlesoftherichinwhichtheycouldconceiveno
interestoftheirs.Iftheworkershadbeeninspiredbythesentimentagainstslaverywhich
animatedtheEnglishworkers,resultsmighthavebeendifferent.ButtheCopperheadsofthe
North,andthecommercialinterestsofNewYork,inparticular,wereenabledtoturnthejust
indignationoftheworkersagainsttheNegrolaborers,ratherthanagainstthecapitalists;and
againstanywar,evenforemancipation.
Whenthedraftlawwaspassedin1863,itmeantthatthewarcouldnolongerbecarriedon
withvolunteers;thatsoldiersweregoingtobecompelledtofight,andthesesoldierswere
goingtobepoormenwhocouldnotbuyexemption.Theresultthroughoutthecountrywas
widespreaddisaffectionthatwentoftenasfarasrioting.Morethan2,500desertersfromthe
UnionarmywerereturnedtotheranksfromIndianapolisaloneduringasinglemonthin
1862;thetotaldesertionsintheNorthmusthavebeenseveralhundredthousands.
Itwaseasytotransferclasshatredsothatitfellupontheblackworker.Theendofwar
seemedfaroff,andtheattempttoenforcethedraftledparticularlytodisturbancesinNew
YorkCity,whereapowerfulpartofthecitypresswasnotonlyagainstthedraft,butagainst
thewar,andinfavoroftheSouthandNegroslavery.
TheestablishmentofthedraftundertakenJuly13inNewYorkCitymeteverywherewith
resistance.Workingmenengagedintearingdownbuildingswererequestedtogivetheir
namesforthedraft;theyrefused,anddroveawaytheofficers.Themovementspreadoverthe
wholecity.Mobsvisitedworkshopsandcompelledthementostopwork.Firemenwere
preventedfromputtingoutfires,telegraphwireswerecut,andthenatlastthewholeforceof
theriotturnedagainsttheNegroes.Theywerethecauseofthewar,andhencethecauseof
thedraft.Theywerebiddingforthesamejobsaswhitemen.Theywereunderbiddingwhite
workersinordertokeepthemselvesfromstarving.TheyweredislikedespeciallybytheIrish
becauseofdirecteconomiccompetitionanddifferenceinreligion.
TheDemocraticpresshadadvisedthepeoplethattheyweretobecalledupontofightthe
battlesof"niggersandAbolitionists";GovernorSeymourpolitely"requested"theriotersto
awaitthereturnofhisAdjutant-General,whomhehaddispatchedtoWashingtontoaskthe
Presidenttosuspendthedraft.
ThereportoftheMerchants'CommitteeontheDraftRiotsaysoftheNegroes:"Drivenbythe
fearofdeathatthehandsofthemob,whotheweekprevioushad,asyouremember,brutally
murderedbyhangingontreesandlampposts,severaloftheirnumber,andcruellybeaten
androbbedmanyothers,burningandsackingtheirhouses,anddrivingnearlyallfromthe
streets,alleysanddocksuponwhichtheyhadpreviouslyobtainedanhonestthoughhumble
living—thesepeoplehadbeenforcedtotakerefugeonBlackwell'sIsland,atpolicestations,
ontheoutskirtsofthecity,intheswampsandwoodsbackofBergen,NewJersey,at
Weeksville,andinthebarnsandout-housesofthefarmersofLongIslandandMorrisania.At
theseplaceswerescatteredsome5,000homelessmen,womenandchildren."18
Thewholedemonstrationbecameanti-Unionandpro-slavery.Attacksweremadeonthe
residenceofHoraceGreeley,andcheerswereheardforJeffersonDavis.Thepolicefoughtit
atfirstonlyhalfheartedlyandwithsympathy,andfinally,withbrutality.Soldierswere
summonedfromFortHamilton,WestPointandelsewhere.
Thepropertylosswasputat$1,200,000,anditwasestimatedthatbetweenfourhundredand
athousandpeoplewerekilled.WhenathousandtroopsunderGeneralWooltookchargeof
thecity,thirteenrioterswerekilled,eighteenwounded,andtwenty-fourmadeprisoners.
Fourdaystheriotlasted,andthecityappropriated$2,500,000toindemnifythevictims.
Inmanyotherplaces,riotstookplace,althoughtheydidnotbecomesospecificallyraceriots.
Theydid,however,showtheNorththatunlesstheycouldreplaceunwillingwhitesoldiers
withblacksoldiers,whohadavitalstakeintheoutcomeofthewar,thewarcouldnotbe
won.
IthadbeenacommonplacethingintheNorthtodeclarethatNegroeswouldnotfight.Even
theblackman'sfriendswereskepticalaboutthepossibilityofusinghimasasoldier,andfar
fromitsbeingtothecreditofblackmen,oranymen,thattheydidnotwanttokill,theability
andwillingnesstotakehumanlifehasalwaysbeen,eveninthemindsofliberalmen,aproof
ofmanhood.IttookinmanyrespectsafinertypeofcouragefortheNegrotoworkquietly
andfaithfullyasaslavewhiletheworldwasfightingoverhisdestiny,thanitdidtoseizea
bayonetandrushmadwithfuryorinflamedwithdrink,andplungeitintothebowelsofa
stranger.YetthiswastheproofofmanhoodrequiredoftheNegro.Hemightpleadhiscause
withthetongueofFrederickDouglass,andthenationlistenedalmostunmoved.Hemight
laborforthenation'swealth,andthenationtooktheresultswithoutthanks,andhandedhim
asnearnothinginreturnaswouldkeephimalive.Hewascalledacowardandafoolwhenhe
protectedthewomenandchildrenofhismaster.Butwhenheroseandfoughtandkilled,the
wholenationwithonevoiceproclaimedhimamanandbrother.Nothingelsemade
emancipationpossibleintheUnitedStates.NothingelsemadeNegrocitizenshipconceivable,
buttherecordoftheNegrosoldierasafighter.
ThemilitaryaidoftheNegroesbeganaslaborersandasspies.Asoldiersaid:"Thiswarhas
beenfullofrecordsofNegroagencyinourbehalf.Negroguideshavepilotedourforces;
Negrosympathycaredforourprisonersescapingfromtheenemy;Negrohandshave
madeforusnavalcaptures;Negrospiesbroughtusvaluableinformation.TheNegroesofthe
Southhavebeeninsympathywithusfromthebeginning,andhavealwayshailedthe
approachofourflagwiththewildestdemonstrationsofjoy."19
Allthroughthewarandafter,Negroeswereindispensableasinformers,asiswellknown.
TheSouthernpapershadrepeatednoticesoftheworkofNegrospies.InRichmond,awhite
womanwithdispatchesfortheConfederatearmywasarrestedin1863oninformationgiven
byaNegro.AttheBattleofManassas,thehouseofafreeNegrowasusedasarefugeforthe
deadandwoundedUnionmen.NegropilotsrepeatedlyguidedFederalboatsinSouthern
waters,andtherewereseveralcelebratedcasesofwholeboatsbeingseizedbyNegropilots.A
typicalinstanceofthistypewastheactionofWilliamF.Tillman,acoloredstewardonboard
thebrigS.J.Waring,whichcarriedacargovaluedat$100,000.Hehadsucceeded,byleading
arevolt,infreeingthevesselfromtheConfederateswhohadseizedit,andwiththeaidofa
GermanandaCanadianhadbroughtthevesselintoportatNewYork.Thisactionbroughtup
thequestionofwhetheraNegrocouldbemasterofavessel.IntheOfficialOpinionsofthe
Attorney-Generalfor1862,itwasdeclaredthatafreecoloredmanifbornintheUnitedStates
wasacitizenoftheUnitedStatesandthathewascompetenttobemasterofavesselengaged
inthecoastingtrade.
ThecaseofSmallsandthePlanteratCharleston,SouthCarolina,becamealmostclassic.
"WhileatthewheelofthePlanterasPilotintherebelservice,itoccurredtomethatIcould
notonlysecuremyownfreedom,butthatofnumbersofmycomradesinbonds,and
moreover,IthoughtthePlantermightbeofsomeusetoUncleAbe
"IreportedmyplansforrescuingthePlanterfromtherebelcaptaintothecrew(allcolored),
andsecuredtheirsecrecyandcooperation.
"OnMay13,1862,wetookonboardseverallargegunsattheAtlanticDock.Ateveningof
thatday,theCaptainwenthome,leavingtheboatinmycare,withinstructiontosendforhim
incaseheshouldbewanted....Athalf-pastthreeo'clockonthemorningofthe14thofMay,I
lefttheAtlanticDockwiththePlanter,wenttotheEt-taoue;tookonboardmyfamily;and
severalotherfamilies,thenproceededdownCharlestonRiverslowly.Whenopposite...Fort
Sumterat4a.m.,Igavethesignal,whichwasansweredfromtheFort,therebygiving
permissiontopass.IthenmadespeedfortheBlockadingFleet.Whenentirelyoutofrangeof
Sumter'sguns,Ihoisteda|whiteflag,andat5a.m.,reachedaU.S.blockadingvessel,commandedbyCapt.Nicholas,towhomIturnedoverthePlanter."20
AfterLincolnwasassassinated,GeneralHancockappealedtoNegroesforhelpincapturing
hismurderers:
"YourPresidenthasbeenmurdered!Hehasfallenbytheassassinandwithoutamoment's
warning,simplyandsolelybecausehewasyourfriendandthefriendofourcountry.Hadhe
beenunfaithfultoyouandtothegreatcauseofhumanfreedomhemighthavelived.The
pistolfromwhichhemethisdeath,thoughheldbyBooth,washeldbythehandsoftreason
andslavery.Thinkofthisandrememberhowlongandhowanxiouslythisgoodmanlabored
tobreakyourchainsandmakeyouhappy.Inowappealtoyou,byeveryconsiderationwhich
canmoveloyalandgratefulhearts,toaidindiscoveringandarrestinghismurderer."21
Thiswasissuedonthe24thofApril.Onthenextday,thecavairyandpoliceforce,having
crossedthePotomac,receivedinformationfromacoloredwomanthatthefugitiveshadbeen
seenthere.TheywerefollowedtowardBowlingGreen,andthentowardPortRoyal.Therean
oldcoloredmanreportedthatfourindividuals,incompanywitharebelCaptain,hadcrossed
therivertoBowlingGreen.ThisinformationbroughtthepolicetoGarrett'shouse,where
Boothwasfound.
NegromilitarylaborhadbeenindispensabletotheUnionarmies."Negroesbuiltmostofthe
fortificationsandearth-worksforGeneralGrantinfrontofVicksburg.Theworksinand
aboutNashvillewerecastupbythestrongarmandwillinghandoftheloyalBlacks.Dutch
GapwasdugbyNegroes,andmilesofearth-works,fortifications,andcorduroy-roadswere
madebyNegroes.TheydidfatiguedutyineverydepartmentoftheUnionarmy.Wherevera
Negroappearedwithashovelinhishand,awhitesoldiertookhisgunandreturnedtothe
ranks.Therewere200,000NegroesinthecampsandemployoftheUnionarmies,as
servants,teamsters,cooks,andlaborers."22
TheSouthwasforalongtimeconvincedthattheNegrocouldnotandwouldnotfight."The
ideaoftheirdoinganyseriousfightingagainstwhitemenissimplyridiculous,"saidan
editorialintheSavannahRepublican,March25,1863.
OftheactualfightingofNegroes,aUniongeneral,Morgan,afterwardinterestedinNegro
education,says:
"Historyhasnotyetdonejusticetothesharebornebycoloredsoldiersinthewarforthe
Union.Theirconductduringthateventfulperiod,hasbeenasilent,butmostpotentfactorin
influencingpublicsentiment,shapinglegislation,andfixingthestatusofcoloredpeoplein
America.Iftherecordsoftheirachievementscouldbeputinto
shapethattheycouldbeaccessibletothethousandsofcoloredyouthintheSouth,they
wouldkindleintheiryoungmindsanenthusiasticdevotiontomanhoodandliberty."23
Blackmenwererepeatedlyanddeliberatelyusedasshocktroops,whentherewaslittleorno
hopeofsuccess.InFebruary,1863,ColonelThomasWentworthHigginsonledblacktroops
intoFlorida,anddeclared:"Itwouldhavebeenmadnesstoattemptwiththebravestwhite
troopswhatsuccessfullyaccomplishedwithblackones."24
InApril,therewerethreewhitecompaniesfromMaineandsevenNegrocompaniesonShip
Island,thekeytoNewOrleans.Theblacktroopswithblackofficerswereattackedby
Confederateswhooutnumberedthemfivetoone.TheNegroesretreatedsoastogivethe
Federalgunboat]ac\sonachancetoshelltheirpursuers.Butthewhitecrewdislikedthe
Negrosoldiers,andopenedfiredirectlyupontheblacktroopswhiletheywerefightingthe
Confederates.MajorDumas,theNegroofficerincommand,rescuedtheblackmen;repulsed
theConfederates,andbroughtthemenoutsafely.Thecommandercalledattentiontothese
coloredofficers:"theywereconstantlyinthethickestofthefight,andbytheirunflinching
bravery,andadmirablehandlingoftheircommands,contributedtothesuccessoftheattack,
andreflectedgreathonorupontheflag."25
ThefirstbattlewithnumbersofNegrotroopsfollowedsoonafter.BankslaidsiegetoPort
Hudsonwithallhisforces,includingtwoblackregiments.OnMay23,1863,theassaultwas
ordered,butthevariouscooperatingorganizationsdidnotadvancesimultaneously.The
Negroregiments,ontheNorth,madethreedesperatecharges,losingheavily,butmaintained
theadvanceoverafieldcoveredwithrecentlyfelledtrees.Confederatebatteriesopenedfire
uponthem.Michigan,NewYorkandMassachusettswhitetroopswerehurledback,butthe
workshadtobetaken.TwoNegroregimentswereorderedtogoforward,throughadirectand
crossfire.
"Thedeedsofheroismperformedbythesecoloredmenweresuchastheproudestwhitemen
mightemulate.Theircolorsaretorntopiecesbyshot,andliterallybespatteredbybloodand
brains.Thecolor-sergeantofthe1stLouisiana,onbeingmortallywounded,huggedthecolors
tohisbreast,whenastruggleensuedbetweenthetwocolor-corporalsoneachsideofhim,as
towhoshouldhavethehonorofbearingthesacredstandard,andduringthisgenerous
contention,onewasseriouslywounded.Oneblacklieutenantactuallymountedtheenemy's
worksthreeorfourtimes,andinonechargetheassaultingpartycamewithinfiftypacesof
them.Indeed,ifonlyordinarilysupportedbyartilleryandreserve,noonecanconvinceus
thattheywouldnothaveopenedapassagethroughtheenemy'sworks.
"CaptainCalliouxoftheistLouisiana,amansoblackthatheactuallypridedhimselfuponhis
blackness,diedthedeathofahero,leadingonhismeninthethickestofthefight."26
"ColonelBassettbeingdrivenback,ColonelFinnegastookhisplace,andhismenbeing
similarlycuttopieces,Lieutenant-ColonelBassettreformedandrecommenced;andthus
thesebravepeoplewenton,frommorninguntil3130p.m.,underthemosthideouscarnage
thatmeneverhadtowithstand,andthatveryfewwhiteoneswouldhavehadnerveto
encounter,eveniforderedto.Duringthistime,theyrallied,andwereorderedtoma\esix
distinctcharges,losingthirty-sevenkilled,andonehundredandfifty-fivewounded,andone
hundredandsixteenmissing,—themajority,ifnotall,ofthesebeinginallprobability,now
lyingdeadonthegoryfield,andwithouttheritesofsepulture;forwhen,byflagoftruce,our
forcesinotherdirectionwerepermittedtoreclaimtheirdead,thebenefit,throughsome
neglect,wasnotextendedtotheseblackregiments!"27
InJune,camethebattleofMilliken'sBend.Grant,inordertocaptureVicksburg,haddrawn
nearlyallhistroopsfromMilliken'sBend,exceptthreeNegroregiments,andasmallforceof
whitecavalry.ThisforcewassurprisedbytheConfederates,whodrovethewhitecavalryto
theverybreastworksofthefort.HeretheConfederatesrested,expectingtotakethe
fortificationsinthemorning.Atthreeo'clock,theyrushedoverwithdrawnbayonets,butthe
Negroesdrovethemoutofthefortsandheldthemuntilthegunboatscameup.Oneofficer
describesthefight:
"Beforethecolonelwasready,themenwereinline,readyforaction.Asbeforestated,the
rebelsdroveourforcetowardthegunboats,takingcoloredmenprisonersandmurdering
them.Thissoenragedthemthattheyrallied,andchargedtheenemymoreheroicallyand
desperatelythanhasbeenrecordedduringthewar.Itwasagenuinebayonetcharge,ahandto-handfight,thathasneveroccurredtoanyextentduringthisprolongedconflict.Uponboth
sidesmenwerekilledwiththebuttsofmuskets.Whiteandblackmenwerelyingsideby
side,piercedbybayonets,andinsomeinstancestransfixedtotheearth.Inoneinstance,two
men,onewhiteandtheotherblack,werefounddead,sidebyside,eachhavingtheother's
bayonetthroughhisbody.Iffactsprovetobewhattheyarenowrepresented,this
engagementofSundaymorningwillberecordedasthemostdesperateofthiswar.Broken
limbs,brokenheads,themanglingofbodies,allprovethatitwasacontestbetweenenraged
men:ontheonesidefromhatredtoarace;andontheother,desireforself-preservation,
revenge
forpastgrievancesandtheinhumanmurdero£theircomrades."28
ThemonthofJuly,1863,wasmemorable.GeneralMeadehaddrivenLeefromGettysburg,
GranthadcapturedVicksburg,BankshadcapturedPortHudson,andGilmorehadbegunhis
operationsonMorrisIsland.Onthe13thofJuly,thedraftriotbrokeoutinNewYorkCity,
andbeforeitwasover,aNegroregimentinSouthCarolina,the54thMassachusetts,was
preparingtoleadtheassaultonFortWagner.Itwasadesperate,impossibleventure,which
failed,butcanneverbeforgotten.
TheblackFifty-FourthMassachusettsregimentwastoleadtheassault."Wagnerloomed,
black,grimandsilent.Therewasnoglimmeroflight.Nevertheless,inthefort,downbelow
thelevelofthetide,andunderroofsmadebyhugetrunksoftrees,laytwothousand
Confederatesoldiershidden.Ourtroopsadvancedtowardthefort,whileourmortarsinthe
reartossedbombsovertheirheads.Behindthe54thcamefiveregimentsfromConnecticut,
NewYork,NewHampshire,PennsylvaniaandMaine.Themasswentquicklyandsilentlyin
thenight.Then,suddenly,thewallsofthefortburstwithablindingsheetofvividlight.Shot,
shellsofironandbulletscrushedthroughthedensemassesoftheattackingforce.Ishall
neverforgettheterriblesoundofthatawfulblastofdeathwhichsweptdown,batteredor
dead,athousandofourmen.Notashothadmisseditsaim.Everyboltofironandleadtasted
ofhumanblood.
"Thecolumnwaveredandrecovereditself.Theyreachedtheditchbeforethefort.They
climbedontherampartsandswarmedoverthewalls.Itlookedasthoughthefortwas
captured.Thentherecameanotherblindingblazefromconcealedgunsintherearofthefort,
andthemenwentdownbyscores.Therebelsrallied,andwerereenforcedbythousandsof
others,whohadlandedonthebeachinthedarknessunseenbythefleet.Theyhurled
themselvesupontheattackingforce.Thestrugglewasterrific.Thesupportingunitshurried
uptoaidtheircomrades,butastheyraisedtheramparts,theyfiredavolleywhichstruck
downmanyoftheirownmen.Ourmenralliedagain,butwereforcedbacktotheedgeofthe
ditch.ColonelShaw,withscoresofhisblackfighters,wentdownstrugglingdesperately.
Resistancewasvain.Theassailantswereforcedbacktothebeach,andtherebelsdrilledtheir
recoveredcannonsanewontheremainingsurvivors."
WhenarequestwasmadeforColonelShaw'sbody,aConfederateMajorsaid:"Wehave
buriedhimwithhisniggers."29
InDecember,1863,MorganledNegrotroopsinthebattleofNashville.Hedeclaredanew
chapterinthehistoryoflibertyhadbeenwritten."Ithadbeenshownthatmarchingundera
flagoffreedom,animatedbyaloveofliberty,eventheslavebecomesamananda
noBLACKRECONSTRUCTION
hero."BetweeneightandtenthousandNegrotroopstookpartinthebattlesaround
Nashville,allofthemfromslavestates.
WhenGeneralThomasrodeoverthebattlefield,andsawthebodiesofcoloredmensideby
sidewiththeforemostontheveryworksoftheenemy,heturnedtohisstaff,saying:
"Gentlemen,thequestionissettled:Negroeswillfight."
Howextraordinary,andwhatatributetoignoranceandreligioushypocrisy,isthefactthatin
themindsofmostpeople,eventhoseofliberals,onlymurdermakesmen.Theslavepleaded;
hewashumble;heprotectedthewomenoftheSouth,andtheworldignoredhim.Theslave
killedwhitemen;andbehold,hewasaman!
TheNewYorkTimessaidconservatively,in1863:
"NegrosoldiershavenowbeeninbattleatPortHudsonandatMilliken'sBendinLouisiana,
atHelenainArkansas,atMorrisIslandinSouthCarolina,andatornearFortGibsoninthe
Indianterritory.Intwooftheseinstancestheyassaultedfortifiedpositions,andledthe
assault;intwo,theyfoughtonthedefensive,andinone,theyattackedrebelinfantry.Inallof
them,theyactedinconjunctionwithwhitetroops,andundercommandofwhiteofficers.In
someinstances,theyactedwithdistinguishedbravery,andinall,theyactedaswellascould
beexpectedofrawtroops."
EventheNewYorkHeraldwroteinMay,1864:
"Theconductofthecoloredtroops,bytheway,intheactionsofthelastfewdays,isdescribed
assuperb.AnOhiosoldiersaidtometoday,'Ineversawmenfightwithsuchdesperate
gallantryasthoseNegroesdid.Theyadvancedasgrimandsternasdeath,andwhenwithin
reachoftheenemystruckaboutthemwithpitilessvigor,thatwasalmostfearful.'Another
soldiersaidtome:'TheseNegroesnevershrink,norholdback,nomatterwhattheorder.
Throughscorchingheatandpeltingstorms,iftheordercomes,theymarchwithprompt,
readyfeet.'Suchpraiseisgreatpraise,anditisdeserved."
AndtherewasasignificantdispatchintheNewYorkTribuneJuly26th:
"Inspeakingofthesoldierlyqualitiesofourcoloredtroops,Idonotreferespeciallytotheir
nobleactionintheperilousedgeofthebattle;thatissettled,buttotheirdocilityandtheir
patienceoflaborandsufferinginthecampandonthemarch."
GrantwasmadeLieutenant-Generalin1864,andbegantoreorganizethearmies.Whenhe
cameEast,hefoundthatfewNegrotroopshadbeenusedinVirginia.Hetherefore
transferrednearlytwentythousandNegroesfromtheSouthernandWesternarmiestothe
armyofVirginia.TheyfoughtinnearlyallthebattlesaroundPetersburgandRichmond,and
officersonthefieldreported:
THECOMINGOFTHELORDm
"Theproblemissolved.TheNegroisaman,asoldier,ahero.Knowingofyourlaudable
interestinthecoloredtroops,butparticularlythoseraisedundertheimmediateauspicesof
theSupervisoryCommittee,IhavethoughtitproperthatIshouldletyouknowhowthey
acquittedthemselvesinthelateactionsinfrontofPetersburg,ofwhichyouhavealready
receivednewspaperaccounts.Ifyouremember,inmyconversationsuponthecharacterof
thesetroops,IcarefullyavoidedsayinganythingabouttheirfightingqualitiestillIcouldhave
anopportunityoftryingthem."30
WhenthesiegeofPetersburgbegan,thereweredesperatebattlesthe16th,17thand18thof
June.ThepresenceofNegrosoldiersrenderedtheenemyespeciallyspiteful,andtherewere
continualscrimmagesandsharpshooting.Burnside's9thCorpshadabrigadeofblacktroops,
whoadvancedwithinfiftyyardsoftheenemyworks.Therewasasmallprojectingfortwhich
itwasdecidedtomineanddestroy.Thecoloredtroopsweretochargeaftertheminewasset
off.Aninspectingofficerreportedthatthe"blackcorpswasfittestfortheperilousservices,"
butMeadeobjectedtocoloredtroopsleadingtheassault.Burnsideinsisted.Thematterwas
referredtoGrant,andheagreedwithMeade.Awhitedivisionledtheassaultandfailed.The
battleoftheCraterfollowed.CaptainMcCabesays:"Itwasnoweighto'clockinthemorning.
TherestofPotter's(Federal)divisionmovedoutslowly,whenFerrero'sNegrodivision,the
menbeyondquestion,inflamedwithdrink[Therearemanyofficersandmen,myselfamong
thenumber,whowilltestifytothis],burstfromtheadvancedlines,cheeringvehemently,
passedatadoublequickoveracrestunderaheavyfire,andrushedwithscarcelyacheckover
theheadsofthewhitetroopsinthecrater,spreadtotheirright,andcapturedmorethantwo
hundredprisonersandonestandofcolors."
GeneralGrantafterwardsaid:"GeneralBurnsidewantedtoputhiscoloredtroopsinfront.I
believeifhehaddoneso,itwouldhavebeenasuccess."31
Thefollowingspring,April3rd,theFederaltroopsenteredRichmond.Weitzelwasleading,
withablackregimentinhiscommand—alongbluelinewithgun-barrelsgleaming,and
bandsplaying:"JohnBrown'sbodyliesa-molderinginthegravebuthissoulgoesmarching
on."
PresidentLincolnvisitedthecityafterthesurrender,andtheConnecticutcoloredtroops,
knownasthe29thColoredRegiment,witnessedhisentry.Onememberofthisunitsaid:
"WhenthePresidentlanded,therewasnocarriagenear,neitherdidhewaitforone,but
leadinghisson,theywalkedoveramiletoGeneralWeitzel'sheadquartersatJeffDavis'mansion,acoloredmanactingasguide....Whata
spectacle!Ineverwitnessedsuchrejoicinginallmylife.AsthePresidentpassedalongthe
street,thecoloredpeoplewavedtheirhandkerchiefs,hatsandbonnets,andexpressedtheir
gratitudebyshoutingrepeatedly,'ThankGodforHisgoodness;wehaveseenHissalvation.'
...
"Nowondertearscametohiseyes,whenhelookedonthepoorcoloredpeoplewhowere
onceslaves,andheardtheblessingsutteredfromthankfulheartsandthanksgivingtoGod
andJesus....AftervisitingJeffersonDavis'mansion,heproceededtotherebelcapitol,and
fromthestepsdeliveredashortspeech,andspoketothecoloredpeople,asfollows:
"'Inreferencetoyou,coloredpeople,letmesayGodhasmadeyoufree.Althoughyouhave
beendeprivedofyourGod-givenrightsbyyourso-calledmasters,youarenowasfreeasI
am,andifthosethatclaimtobeyoursuperiorsdonotknowthatyouarefree,takethesword
andbayonetandteachthemthatyouare—forGodcreatedallmenfree,givingtoeachthe
samerightsoflife,libertyandthepursuitofhappiness.'"32
TherecruitingofNegrosoldierswashastenedafterthebattleofFortWagner,untilfinallyno
lessthan154regiments,designatedasUnitedStatesNegrotroops,wereenlisted.They
included140infantryregiments,sevencavalryregiments,13artilleryregiments,and11
separatecompaniesandbatteries.33Thewholenumberenlistedwillneverbeaccurately
known,sinceintheDepartmentoftheGulfandelsewhere,therewasapracticeofputtinga
livingNegrosoldierinadeadone'splaceunderthesamename.
Officialfiguressaythattherewereinall186,017Negrotroops,ofwhom123,156werestillin
service,July16,1865;andthatthelossesduringthewarwere68,178.Theytookpartin198
battlesandskirmishes.Withoutdoubt,includingservants,laborersandspies,betweenthree
andfourhundredthousandNegroeshelpedasregularsoldiersorlaborersinwinningthe
CivilWar.
TheworldknowsthatnobleinscriptiononSt.Gaudens'ShawMonumentinBostonCommon
writtenbyPresidentEliot:
THEWHITEOFFICERS
TakingLifeandHonorintheirHands—CasttheirlotwithMenofaDespisedRaceUnproved
inWar—andRiskedDeathasIncitersofaServileInsurrectionifTakenPrisoners,Besides
EncounteringalltheCommonPerilsofCamp,March,andBattle.
i
THEBLACKRANKANDFILE
VolunteeredwhenDisasterCloudedtheUnionCause—ServedwithoutPayforEighteen
MonthstillGiventhatofWhiteTroops—FacedThreatenedEnslavementifCaptured—Were
BraveinAction—PatientunderDangerousandHeavyLaborsandCheerfulamidHardships
andPrivations.
TOGETHER
TheyGavetotheNationUndyingProofthatAmericansofAfricanDescentPossessthePride,
Courage,andDevotionofthePatriotSoldier—OneHundredandEightyThousandSuch
AmericansEnlistedundertheUnionFlaginmdccclxiii-mdccclxv.
NotonlydidNegroesfightintheranks,butalsoabout75servedascommissionedofficers,
andalargenumberassubalterns.MajorF.E.DumasofLouisianawasafreeNegro,anda
gentlemanofeducation,abilityandproperty.Heorganizedawholecompanyofhisown
slaves,andwaspromotedtotherankofMajor.ManyoftheotherLouisianaofficerswere
well-educated.Amongtheseofficerswere1Major,27Captainsand38Lieutenants,and
nearly100non-commissionedofficers.Intheothercoloredregiments,mostoftheofficers
werewhites;butMassachusettscommissioned10Negroofficers,andKansas3.Therewere,
outsideLouisiana,1Lieutenant-Colonel,1Major,2Captains,2Surgeons,and4Lieutenants,
whoserecordsareknown.Therewereanumberofmulattoeswhoservedasofficersinwhite
regiments;onewasonthestaflofaMajor-GeneralofVolunteers.34Medalsofhonorwere
bestowedbytheUnitedStatesgovernmentforheroicconductonthefieldofbattleupon14
Negroes.
TheConfederatesfuriouslydenouncedthearmingofNegroes.TheSavannahRepublican
calledHunter"thecold-bloodedAbolitionmiscreant,whofromhisheadquartersatHilton
Head,isengagedinexecutingthebloodyandsavagebehestsoftheimperialgorilla,whofrom
histhroneofhumanbonesatWashington,rules,reignsandriotsoverthedestiniesofthe
brutishanddegradedNorth."Theofficersincommandofblacktroopswerebrandedas
outlaws.Ifcaptured,theyweretobetreatedascommonfelons.TobekilledbyaNegrowasa
shamefuldeath.TobeshotbytheIrishandGermansfromNortherncityslumswas
humiliating,butformasterstofacearmedbodiesoftheirformerslaveswasinconceivable.
When,therefore,blackmenwereenrolledinNorthernarmies,theConfederatestriedto
pillorythegovernmentinternationallyonthegroundthatthiswasarmingbarbariansfor
servilewar.
InamessagetotheConfederateCongress,JeffersonDavisasked"ourfellowmenofall
countriestopassjudgmentonameasurebywhichseveralmillionsofhumanbeingsofan
inferiorrace—peacefulandcontentedlaborersintheirsphere—aredoomedtoextermination,
whileatthesametimetheyareencouragedtoageneralassassinationoftheirmastersbythe
insidiousrecommendationtoabstainfromviolenceunlessinnecessarydefense.Ourown
detestationofthosewhohaveattemptedthemostexecrablemeasuresrecordedinthehistory
ofguiltymenistemperedbyprofoundcontemptfortheimpotentragewhichitdiscloses.So
farasregardstheactionofthisgovernmentonsuchcriminalsasmayattemptitsexecution,I
confinemyselftoinformingyouthatIshall—unlessinyourwisdomyoudeemsomeother
courseexpedient—delivertotheseveralStateauthoritiesallcommissionedofficersofthe
UnitedStatesthatmayhereafterbecapturedbyourforcesinanyoftheStatesembracedin
theProclamation,thattheymaybedealtwithinaccordancewiththelawsofthoseStates
providingforthepunishmentofcriminalsengagedinexcitingservileinsurrection."35
InDecember,1862,heissuedaproclamation,"thatallNegroslavescapturedinarmsbeat
oncedeliveredovertotheexecutiveauthorities,oftherespectiveStatestowhichthey
belongedandtobedealtwithaccordingtothelawofthesaidStates,"which,ofcourse,meant
death.Thesamemonth,theConfederateCongresspassedresolutionsconfirminginthemain
thePresident'sProclamationorderingthatcommissionedofficerscommandingNegrotroops
beputtodeathbytheConfederategovernment,whiletheNegroesbeturnedovertothe
states.
ThefireoftheConfederateswasalwaysconcentratedupontheblacktroops,andNegroes
capturedsufferedindignitiesandcruelties.FrederickDouglass,whovisitedtheWhiteHouse
inthePresident'scarriage"totaketea,"appealedinbehalfofhisfellowblacks.Iftheyserved
inFederaluniform,hesaidthattheyshouldreceivethetreatmentofprisonersofwar.This
treatmentofNegrosoldiersbroughtrebukefromAbrahamLincoln;butworsethanthat,it
broughtfearfulretaliationuponthefieldofbattle.
ThemostterriblecaseofConfederatecrueltywasthemassacreatFortPillow.WhenMajor
BoothrefusedtosurrendertheforttheConfederateGeneralForrestgaveasignal,andhis
troopsmadeafiercecharge.Intenminutes,theyhadsweptin.Federaltroopssurrendered;
butanindiscriminatemassacrefollowed.Theblacktroopswereshotdownintheirtracks;
pinionedtothegroundwithbayonetsandsaber.Somewereclubbedtodeathwhiledyingof
wounds;othersweremadetogetdownupontheirknees,inwhichconditionthey
wereshottodeath.Somewereburnedalive,havingbeenfastenedinsidethebuildings,while
stillotherswerenailedagainstthehouses,tortured,andthenburnedtoacrisp.
ThedilemmaoftheSouthinthematterofNegrotroopsgrewmoreperplexing.Negroesmade
goodsoldiers;that,theNorthernexperimenthadprovenbeyondperadventure.Theprospect
offreedomwasleadinganincreasingstreamofblacktroopsintotheFederalarmy.This
streamcouldbedivertedintotheSouthernarmy,ifthelureoffreedomwereofferedbythe
Confederacy.Butthiswouldbeanastonishingendingforawarindefenseofslavery!
InthefirstyearofthewarlargenumbersofNegroeswereintheserviceoftheConfederates
aslaborers.InJanuary,atMobile,numbersofNegroesfromtheplantationsofAlabamawere
atworkontheredoubts.Thesewereverysubstantiallymade,andstrengthenedbysand-bags
andsheet-iron.ElsewhereintheSouthNegroeswereemployedinbuildingfortifications,as
teamstersandhelpersinarmyservice.In1862,theFloridaLegislatureconferredauthority
upontheGovernortoimpressslavesformilitarypurposes,ifsoauthorizedbythe
ConfederateGovernment.TheConfederateCongressprovidedbylawinFebruary,1864,for
theimpressmentof20,000slavesformenialserviceintheConfederatearmy.President
Daviswassosatisfiedwiththeirlaborthathesuggested,inhisannualmessage,November,
1864,thatthisnumbershouldbeincreasedto40,000,withthepromiseofemancipationat
theendoftheirservice.36
InLouisiana,theAdjutant-General'sOfficeoftheMilitiastatedthat"theGovernorandthe
Commander-in-Chiefrelyingimplicitlyupontheloyaltyofthefreecoloredpopulationofthe
cityandstate,fortheprotectionoftheirhomes,theirpropertyandforSouthernrights,from
thepollutionofaruthlessinvader,andbelievingthatthemilitaryorganizationwhichexisted
priortoFebruary15,1862,andelicitedpraiseandrespectforthepatrioticmotiveswhich
promptedit,shouldexistforandduringthewar,callsuponthemtomaintaintheir
organizationandholdthemselvespreparedforsuchordersasmaybetransmittedtothem."
These"NativeGuards"joinedtheConfederateforcesbuttheydidnotleavethecitywith
thesetroops.WhenGeneralButlerlearnedofthisorganization,hesentforseveralofthe
prominentcoloredmenandaskedwhytheyhadacceptedserviceundertheConfederate
government.Theyrepliedthattheydarednotrefuse,andhopedbyservingtheConfederates
toadvancenearertoequalitywiththewhites.
InCharlestononJanuary2,150freecoloredmenofferedtheirservicestohastentheworkof
throwingupredoubtsalongthecoast.AtNashville,Tennessee,April,1861,acompanyoffree
Negroes
offeredtheirservicestotheConfederates,andatMemphisarecruitingofficewasopened.
TheLegislatureofTennesseeauthorizedGovernorHarris,onJune28,1861,toreceiveinto
militaryserviceallmalepersonsofcolorbetweentheagesoffifteenandfifty.Aprocessionof
severalhundredcoloredmenmarchedunderthecommandofConfederateofficersand
carriedshovels,axes,andblankets.Theobserveradds,"theywerebrimfulofpatriotism,
shoutingforJeffDavisandsingingwarsongs."ApaperinLynchburg,Virginia,commenting
ontheenlistmentof70freeNegroestofightforthedefenseoftheState,concludedwith
"threecheersforthepatrioticNegroesofLynchburg."
AfterthefiringonFortSumter,severalcompaniesofNegrovolunteerspassedthrough
AugustaontheirwaytoVirginia.Theyconsistedofsixteencompaniesofvolunteersandone
NegrocompanyfromNashville.InNovemberofthesameyear,twenty-eightthousandtroops
passedbeforeGovernorMoore,GeneralLowellandGeneralRugglesatNewOrleans.The
lineofmarchwasoversevenmiles,andoneregimentcomprised1,400freecoloredmen.The
BaltimoreTravelercommentingonarmingNegroesatRichmond,said:"Contrabandswho
haverecentlycomewithintheFederallinesatWilliams-port,reportthatalltheable-bodied
meninthatvicinityarebeingtakentoRichmond,formedintoregiments,andarmedforthe
defenseofthatcity."
InFebruary,1862,theConfederateLegislatureofVirginiaconsideredabilltoenrollallfree
NegroesintheStateforservicewiththeConfederateforces.
WhilethentheNegroeshelpedtheConfederatesasforcedlaborersandinafewinstancesas
soldiers,theConfederatesfearedtotrustthemfar,andhatedtheideaofdependingfor
victoryanddefenseontheseverypersonsforwhoseslaverytheywerefighting.Butinthelast
daysofthestruggle,nostrawcouldbeoverlooked.InDecember,1863,Major-GeneralPatrick
R.Cleburne,whocommandedadivisioninHardee'sCorpsoftheConfederateArmyofthe
Tennessee,sentinapaperinwhichtheemploymentoftheslavesassoldiersoftheSouth
wasvigorouslyadvocated.Cleburneurgedthat"freedomwithinareasonabletime"begranted
toeveryslaveremainingtruetotheConfederacy,andwasmovedtothisactionbythevalorof
theFifty-FourthMassachusetts,saying:"Ifthey[theNegroes]canbemadetofaceandfight
bravelyagainsttheirformermasters,howmuchmoreprobableisitthatwiththeallurement
ofahigherreward,andledbythosemasters,theywouldsubmittodisciplineandface
dangers?"
PresidentDaviswasnotconvinced,andendorsedCleburne'spleawiththestatement:"Ideem
itinexpedientatthistimetogivepublicitytothispaper,andrequestthatitbesuppressed."
InSeptember,1864,GovernorAllenofLouisianawrotetoJ.A.Seddon,SecretaryofWarin
theConfederategovernment:"Thetimehascometoputintothearmyeveryable-bodied
Negroasasoldier.TheNegroknowshecannotescapeconscriptionifhegoestotheenemy.
Hemustplayanimportantpartinthewar.Hecausedthefight,andhewillhavehisportion
oftheburdentobear....Iwouldfreeallabletobeararms,andputtheminthefieldatonce."
Inthatyear,1864,100,000poorwhitesdesertedtheConfederatearmies.InNovember,1864,
JeffersonDavisinhismessagetotheConfederateCongressrecognizedthatslavesmightbe
neededintheConfederatearmy.Hesaid:"Thesubjectistobeviewedbyus,therefore,solely
inthelightofpolicyandoursocialeconomy.Whensoregarded,Imustdissentfromthose
whoadviseagenerallevyandarmingofslavesforthedutyofsoldiers.Untilourwhite
populationshallproveinsufficientforthearmieswerequireandcanaffordtokeepthefield,
toemployasasoldiertheNegro,whohasmerelybeentrainedtolabor,andasalaborer
underthewhitemanaccustomedfromhisyouthtotheuseoffirearms,wouldscarcelybe
deemedwiseoradvantageousbyany;andthisisthequestionbeforeus.Butshouldthe
alternativeeverbepresentedofsubjugationoroftheemploymentoftheslaveasasoldier,
thereseemsnoreasontodoubtwhatshouldbeourdecision."
InresponsetoaninquiryfromtheConfederateSecretaryofWar,astoarmingslaves,Howell
CobbofGeorgiaopposedthemeasuretoarmtheNegroes."Ithinkthatthepropositionto
makesoldiersofourslavesisthemostperniciousideathathasbeensuggestedsincethewar
began...youcannotmakesoldiersofslavesorslavesofsoldiers.Themomentyouresortto
Negrosoldiers,yourwhitesoldierswillbelosttoyou,andonesecretofthefavorwithwhich
thepropositionisreceivedinportionsofthearmyisthehopewhenNegroesgointothe
army,they[thewhites]willbepermittedtoretire.Itissimplyapropositiontofightthe
balanceofthewarwithNegrotroops.Youcan'tkeepwhiteandblacktroopstogetherandyou
can'ttrustNegroesbythemselves....UsealltheNegroesyoucangetforallpurposesfor
whichyouneedthembutdon'tarmthem.Thedayyoumakesoldiersofthemisthe
beginningoftheendoftherevolution."
J.P.Benjamin,SecretaryofState,ontheotherhand,declaredthattheslaveswouldbemade
tofightagainsttheSouth,ifSouthernersfailedtoarmthemfortheirowndefense.He
advocatedemancipationforsuchblacksoldiersatalargemeetingatRichmond:"Wehave
680,000blackscapableofbearingarms,andwhooughtnowtobeinthefield.Letusnowsay
toeveryNegrowhowishestogointotheranksonconditionofbeingfree,goandfight—you
arefree."
37
InalettertoPresidentDavis,anothercorrespondentadded:"Iwouldnotmakeasoldierof
theNegroifitcouldbehelped,butwearereducedtothislastresort."SamClaytonofGeorgia
wrote:"TherecruitsshouldcomefromourNegroes,nowhereelse.Weshouldawaywith
prideofopinion,awaywithfalsepride,andpromptlytakeholdofallthemeansGodhas
placedwithoutourreachtohelpusthroughthisstruggle—awarfortherightofselfgovernment.SomepeoplesaythatNegroeswillnotfight.Isaytheywillfight.Theyfoughtat
OceanPond[Olustee,Florida],HoneyHillandotherplaces.Theenemyfightsuswith
Negroes,andtheywilldoverywelltofighttheYankees."
InJanuary,1865,GeneralLeesenthiscelebratedstatementtoAndrewHunter:
"Weshouldnotexpectslavestofightforprospectivefreedomwhentheycansecureitatonce
bygoingtotheenemy,inwhoseservicetheywillincurnogreaterriskthaninours.The
reasonsthatinducemetorecommendtheemploymentofNegrotroopsatallrenderthe
effectofthemeasuresIhavesuggesteduponslaveryimmaterial,andinmyopinionthebest
meansofsecuringtheefficiencyandfidelityofthisauxiliaryforcewouldbetoaccompany
themeasurewithawell-digestedplanofgradualandgeneralemancipation.Asthatwillbe
theresultofthecontinuanceofthewar,andwillcertainlyoccuriftheenemysucceeds,it
seemstomemostadvisabletodoitatonce,andtherebyobtainallthebenefitsthatwill
accruetoourcause.38
ThisletterwasdiscussedbytheConfederates,andFebruary8,SenatorBrownofMississippi,
introducedintotheConfederateCongressaresolutionwhichwouldhavefreed200,000
Negroesandenrolledtheminthearmy.Thiswasvoteddown.
JefTersonDavisinalettertoJohnForsythe,February,1865,saidthat"allargumentsasto
thepositiveadvantageordisadvantageofemployingthemarebesidethequestion,whichis
simplyoneofrelativeadvantagebetweenhavingtheirfightingelementinourranksorin
thoseoftheenemy."
OnFebruary11,anotherbilltoenroll200,000Negrosoldierswasintroduced,andforawhile
itlookedasthoughitwouldpass.General,Leeagainwrote,declaringthemeasurenotonly
expedientbutnecessary,andthat"underpropercircumstances,theNegroeswillmake
efficientsoldiers."
TheRichmondWhigofFebruary20,1865,declared"thatthepropositiontoputNegroesin
thearmyhasgainedrapidlyoflate,andpromisesinsomeformorothertobeadopted....
Theenemyhastaughtusalessontowhichweoughtnottoshutoureyes.Hehas
causedhimtofightaswell,ifnotbetter,thanhavehiswhitetroopsofthesamelengthof
service."
JeffersonDavisdiscussedthematterwiththeGovernorofVirginia,andsaidthathehadbeen
inconferencewiththeSecretaryofWarandtheAdjutant-General.Hedeclaredthattheaidof
recruitingofficersforthepurposeofenlistingNegroeswouldbefreelyaccepted.March17,it
wassaid:"WeshallhaveaNegroarmy.Lettersarepouringintothedepartmentsfrommenof
militaryskillandcharacteraskingauthoritytoraisecompanies,battalions,andregimentsof
Negrotroops."39
ThusonrecommendationfromGeneralLeeandGovernorSmithofVirginia,andwiththe
approvalofPresidentDavis,anactwaspassedbytheConfederateCongress,March13,1865,
enrollingslavesintheConfederatearmy.EachStatewastofurnishaquotaofthetotal
300,000.Thepreambleoftheactreadsasfollows:
"AnActtoincreasetheMilitaryForceoftheConfederateStates:TheCongressofthe
ConfederateStatesofAmericasoenact,that,inordertoprovideadditionalforcestorepel
invasion,maintaintherightfulpossessionoftheConfederateStates,securetheir
independenceandpreservetheirinstitutions,thePresidentbe,andheisherebyauthorizedto
askforandacceptfromtheownersofslaves,theservicesofsuchnumberofable-bodied
Negromenashemaydeemexpedient,forandduringthewar,toperformmilitaryservicein
whatevercapacityhemaydirect...."Thelanguageusedimpliedthatvolunteeringwastobe
rewardedbyfreedom.
GeneralLeecooperatedwiththeWarDepartmentinhasteningtherecruitingofNegro
troops.RecruitingofficerswereappointedinnearlyallSouthernStates.LieutenantJohnL.
Cowardin,Adjutant,19thBattalion,VirginiaArtillery,wasorderedApril1,1865,torecruit
Negrotroopsaccordingtotheact.OnMarch30,1865,CaptainEdwardBostickwasorderedto
raisefourcompaniesinSouthCarolina.Otherofficerswereorderedtoraisecompaniesin
Alabama,Florida,andVirginia."ItwastheopinionofPresidentDavis,onlearningofthe
passageoftheact,thatnotsomuchwasaccomplishedaswouldhavebeen,iftheacthad
beenpassedearliersothatduringthewintertheslavescouldhavebeendrilledandmade
readyforthespringcampaignof1865."
Itwastoolatenow,andonApril9,1865,Leesurrendered.
NegroeswellwithintheConfederatelineswerenotinsensibleofwhatwasgoingon.A
colorednewspapersaid:
"SecretassociationswereatonceorganizedinRichmond,whichrapidlyspreadthroughout
Virginia,wherethevenerablepatriarchsoftheoppressedpeopleprayerfullyassembled
togethertodeliberateupon
thepropositionoftakinguparmsindefenseoftheSouth.Therewasbutoneopinionasto
therebellionanditsobject;butthequestionwhichpuzzledthemmostwas,howweretheyto
actthepartabouttobeassignedtotheminthismartialdrama?Afteracordialinterchangeof
opinions,itwasdecidedwithgreatunanimity,andfinallyratifiedbyalltheauxiliary
associationseverywhere,thatblackmenshouldpromptlyrespondtothecalloftheRebel
chiefs,wheneveritshouldbemade,forthemtotakeuparms.
"Aquestionaroseastowhatpositiontheywouldlikelyoccupyinanengagement,which
occasionednolittlesolicitude;fromwhichallmindswererelievedbyagreeingthatifthey
wereplacedinfrontassoonasthebattlebegantheNegroesweretoraiseashoutabout
AbrahamLincolnandtheUnion,and,satisfiedtherewouldbeplentyofsupportsfromthe
Federalforce,theyweretoturnlikeuncagedtigersupontherebelhordes.Shouldtheybe
placedintherear,itwasalsounderstood,thatassoonasfiringbegan,theyweretocharge
furiouslyuponthechivalry,whichwouldplacethembetweentwofires;whichwould
disastrouslydefeatthearmyofLee,ifnotaccomplishitsentireannihilation."40
OftheeffectofNegrosoldiersintheNorthernarmy,therecanbenodoubt.John*C.
Underwood,residentofVirginiafortwentyyears,saidbeforetheCommitteeon
Reconstruction:
"Ihadaconversationwithoneoftheleadingmeninthatcity,andhesaidtomethatthe
enlistmentofNegrotroopsbytheUnitedStateswastheturning-pointoftherebellion;thatit
wastheheaviestblowtheyeverreceived.HeremarkedthatwhentheNegroesdesertedtheir
masters,andshowedageneraldispositiontodosoandjointheforcesoftheUnitedStates,
intelligentmeneverywheresawthatthematterwasended.Ihaveoftenheardasimilar
expressionofopinionfromothers,andIamsatisfiedthattheoriginofthisbitterness
towardstheNegroisthisbeliefamongtheleadingmenthattheirweightthrownintothe
scaledecidedthecontestagainstthem.Howeverthefactmaybe,Ithinkthatsuchisapretty
wellsettledconclusionamongleadingRebelsinVirginia."41
AUnidngeneralsaid:"TheAmericanCivilWarof1861-1865marksanepochnotonlyinthe
historyoftheUnitedStates,butinthatofdemocracy,andofcivilization.Itsissuehasvitally
affectedthecourseofhumanprogress.Tothestudentofhistoryitranksalongwiththe
conquestsofAlexander;theincursionsoftheBarbarians;theCrusades;thediscoveryof
America,andtheAmericanRevolution.ItsettledthequestionofourNationalunitywithall
theconsequencesattachingthereto.Itexhibitedinaverystrikingmannerthepowerofafree
peopletopreservetheirformofgovernmentagainstitsmost
dangerousfoe,CivilWar.ItnotonlyenfranchisedfourmillionsofAmericanslavesofAfrican
descent,butmadeslaveryforeverimpossibleinthegreatRepublic,andgaveanewimpulse
tothecauseofhumanfreedom."42
ItwasnottheAbolitionistalonewhofreedtheslaves.TheAbolitionistsneverhadareal
majorityofthepeopleoftheUnitedStatesbackofthem.Freedomfortheslavewasthe
logicalresultofacrazyattempttowagewarinthemidstoffourmillionblackslaves,and
tryingthewhilesublimelytoignoretheinterestsofthoseslavesintheoutcomeofthe
fighting.Yet,theseslaveshadenormouspowerintheirhands.Simplybystoppingwork,they
couldthreatentheConfederacywithstarvation.BywalkingintotheFederalcamps,they
showedtodoubtingNorthernerstheeasypossibilityofusingthemasworkersandas
servants,asfarmers,andasspies,andfinally,asfightingsoldiers.Andnotonlyusingthem
thus,butbythesamegesture,deprivingtheirenemiesoftheiruseinjustthesefields.Itwas
thefugitiveslavewhomadetheslaveholdersfacethealternativeofsurrenderingtothe
North,ortotheNegroes.
ItwasthisplainalternativethatbroughtLee'ssuddensurrender.EithertheSouthmust
maketermswithitsslaves,freethem,usethemtofighttheNorth,andthereafternolonger
treatthemasbondsmen;ortheycouldsurrendertotheNorthwiththeassumptionthatthe
North,afterthewar,musthelpthemtodefendslavery,asithadbefore.Itwasthenthat
Abolitioncameinasadeterminingfactor,anditselfwastransformedtoanewdemocratic
movement.
Soinbloodandservilewar,freedomcametoAmerica.Whatdiditmeantomen?The
paradoxofademocracyfoundedonslaveryhadatlastbeendoneawaywith.Butitbecame
moreandmorecustomaryastimewenton,tolingeronandemphasizethefreedomwhich
emancipationbroughttothemasters,andlatertothepoorwhites.Ontheotherhand,
strangelyenough,notasmuchhasbeensaidofwhatfreedommeanttothefreed;ofthe
suddenwaveofglorythatroseandburstabovefourmillionpeople,andoftheechoingshout
thatbroughtjoytofourhundredthousandfellowsofAfricanbloodintheNorth.Canwe
imaginethisspectacularrevolution?Not,ofcourse,unlesswethinkofthesepeopleas
humanbeingslikeourselves.Notunless,assumingthiscommonhumanity,weconceive
ourselvesinapositionwherewearechattelsandrealestate,andthensuddenlyinanight
become"thenceforwardandforeverfree."Unlesswecandothis,thereis,ofcourse,nopoint
inthinkingofthiscentralfigureinemancipation.Butassumingthecommonhumanityof
thesepeople,conceiveofwhathappened:beforethewar,theslavewascuriouslyisolated;
thiswasthepolicy,andtheeffectivepolicyofthe
slavesystem,whichmadetheplantationthecenterofablackgroupwithanetworkofwhite
folkaroundandabout,whokepttheslavesfromcontactwitheachother.Ofcourse,
clandestinecontacttherealwayswas;thepassingofNegroestoandfroonerrands;
particularlythesemi-freedomandminglingincities;andyet,themassofslaveswere
curiouslyprovincialandkeptoutofthecurrentsofinformation.
Therecametheslowloomingofemancipation.Crowdsandarmiesoftheunknown,
inscrutable,unfathomableYankees;crueltybehindandbefore;rumorsofanewslavetrade;
butslowly,continuously,thewildtruth,thebittertruth,themagictruth,camesurging
through.
Therewastobeanewfreedom!Andablacknationwenttrampingafterthearmiesnomatter
whatitsuffered;nomatterhowitwastreated,nomatterhowitdied.First,withoutmasters,
withoutfood,withoutshelter;thenwithnewmasters,foodthatwasfree,andimprovised
shelters,cabins,homes;andatlast,land.Theyprayed;theyworked;theydancedandsang;
theystudiedtolearn;theywantedtowander.SomeforthefirsttimeintheirlivessawTown;
somelefttheplantationandwalkedoutintotheworld;somehandledactualmoney,and
somewitharmsintheirhands,actuallyfoughtforfreedom.Anunletteredleaderoffugitive
slavespicturedit:"Andthenwesawthelightning—thatwastheguns!andthenweheardthe
thunder—thatwasthebigguns;andthenweheardtherainfalling,andthatwasthedropsof
bloodfalling;andwhenwecametogitinthecrapsitwasdeadmenthatwereaped."
Themassofslaves,eventhemoreintelligentones,andcertainlythegreatgroupoffield
hands,wereinreligiousandhystericalfervor.ThiswasthecomingoftheLord.Thiswasthe
fulfillmentofprophecyandlegend.ItwastheGoldenDawn,afterchainsofathousandyears.
Itwaseverythingmiraculousandperfectandpromising.Forthefirsttimeintheirlife,they
couldtravel;theycouldsee;theycouldchangethedeadleveloftheirlabor;theycouldtalkto
friendsandsitatsundownandinmoonlight,listeningandimpartingwonder-tales.They
couldhuntintheswamps,andfishintherivers.Andaboveall,theycouldstandupand
assertthemselves.Theyneednotfearthepatrol;theyneednotevencringebeforeawhite
face,andtouchtheirhats.
Tothesmallgroupofliterateandintelligentblackfolk,NorthandSouth,thiswasasudden
beginningofanentirelynewera.Theywereatlasttoberecognizedasmen;andiftheywere
giventhepropersocialandpoliticalpower,theirfutureasAmericancitizenswasassured.
Theyhad,therefore,totalkandagitatefortheirciviland
politicalrights.Withthese,inthoughtandobject,stoodsomeoftheintelligentslavesofthe
South.
Ontheotherhand,thehouseservantsandmechanicsamongthefreedslavesfaced
difficulties.Thebondswhichheldthemtotheirformermasterswerenotmerelysentiment.
Themastershadstoodbetweenthemandaworldinwhichtheyhadnolegalprotection
exceptthemaster.Themastersweretheirsourceofinformation.Thequestion,then,was
howfartheycouldforsakethepowerofthemasters,evenwhenitwas"partiallyoverthrown?
Forwhomwouldtheslavemechanicwork,andhowcouldhecollecthiswages?Whatwould
behisstatusincourt?Whatprotectionwouldhehaveagainstthecompetingmechanic?
Backofthis,throughitall,combiningtheirownintuitivesensewithwhatfriendsandleaders
taughtthem,theseblackfolkwantedtwothings—first,landwhichtheycouldownandwork
fortheirowncrops.Thiswasthenaturaloutcomeofslavery.Someofthemhadbeengivenby
theirmasterslittleplotstoworkon,andraisetheirownfood.Sometimestheyraisedhogs
andchickens,inaddition.Thisfaintbeginningofindustrialfreedomnowpicturedtothem
economicfreedom.Theywantedlittlefarmswhichwouldmakethemindependent.
Then,inadditiontothat,theywantedtoknow;theywantedtobeabletointerpretthe
cabalisticlettersandfigureswhichwerethekeytomore.Theywereconsumedwithcuriosity
atthemeaningoftheworld.Firstandforemost,justwhatwasthisthathadrecently
happenedaboutthem—thisupturningoftheuniverseandrevolutionofthewholesocial
fabric?AndwhatwasitsrelationtotheirowndimlyrememberedpastoftheWestIndiesand
Africa,VirginiaandKentucky?
Theywereconsumedwithdesireforschools.Theuprisingoftheblackman,andthepouring
ofhimselfintoorganizedeffortforeducation,inthoseyearsbetween1861and1871,wasone
ofthemarvelousoccurrencesofthemodernworld;almostwithoutparallelinthehistoryof
civilization.Themovementthatwasstartedwasirresistible.Itplantedthefreecommon
schoolinapartofthenation,andinapartoftheworld,whereithadneverbeenknown,and
neverbeenrecognizedbefore.Free,then,withadesireforlandandafrenzyforschools,the
Negrolurchedintothenewday.
Supposeonsomegrayday,asyouploddownWallStreet,youshouldseeGodsittingonthe
Treasurysteps,inHisGlory,withthethunderscurvedabouthim?SupposeonMichigan
Avenue,betweenthelakesandhillsofstone,andinthemidstofhasteningautomobiles
andjostlingcrowds,suddenlyyouseelivingandwalkingtowardyou,theChrist,withsorrow
andsunshineinhisface?
Foolishtalk,allofthis,yousay,ofcourse;andthatisbecausenoAmericannowbelievesin
hisreligion.Itsfactsaremeresymbolism;itsrevelationvaguegeneralities;itsethicsamatter
ofcarefullybalancedgain.Buttomostofthefourmillionblackfolkemancipatedbycivilwar,
Godwasreal.TheyknewHim.TheyhadmetHimpersonallyinmanyawildorgyofreligious
frenzy,orintheblackstillnessofthenight.Hisplanforthemwasclear;theyweretosuffer
andbedegraded,andthenafterwardsbyDivineedict,raisedtomanhoodandpower;andso
onJanuaryi,1863,Hemadethemfree.
Itwasallfoolish,bizarre,andtawdry.GangsofdirtyNegroeshowlinganddancing;povertystrickenignorantlaborersmistakingwar,destructionandrevolutionforthemysteryofthe
freehumansoul;andyettotheseblackfolkitwastheApocalypse.Themagnificenttrumpet
tonesofHebrewScripture,transmutedandoddlychanged,becameastrangenewgospel.All
thatwasBeauty,allthatwasLove,allthatwasTruth,stoodonthetopofthesemadmornings
andsangwiththestars.Agreathumansobshriekedinthewind,andtosseditstearsupon
thesea,—free,free,free.
TherewasjoyintheSouth.Itroselikeperfume—likeaprayer.Menstoodquivering.Slim
darkgirls,wildandbeautifulwithwrinkledhair,weptsilently;youngwomen,black,tawny,
whiteandgolden,liftedshiveringhands,andoldandbrokenmothers,blackandgray,raised
greatvoicesandshoutedtoGodacrossthefields,anduptotherocksandthemountains.
Agreatsongarose,theloveliestthingbornthissidetheseas.Itwasanewsong.Itdidnot
comefromAfrica,thoughthedarkthrobandbeatofthatAncientofDayswasinitand
throughit.ItdidnotcomefromwhiteAmerica—neverfromsopaleandhardandthina
thing,howeverdeepthesevulgarandsurroundingtoneshaddriven.NottheIndiesnorthe
hotSouth,thecoldEastorheavyWestmadethatmusic.Itwasanewsonganditsdeepand
plaintivebeauty,itsgreatcadencesandwildappealwailed,throbbedandthunderedonthe
world'searswithamessageseldomvoicedbyman.Itswelledandblossomedlikeincense,
improvisedandbornanewoutofanagelongpast,andweavingintoitstexturetheoldand
newmelodiesinwordandinthought.
Theysneeredatit—thosewhiteSouthernerswhohearditandneverunderstood.Theyraped
anddefiledit—thosewhiteNorthernerswholistenedwithoutears.Yetitlivedandgrew;
alwaysitgrewand
swelledandlived,anditsitstodayattherighthandofGod,asAmerica'sonerealgiftto
beauty;asslavery'soneredemption,distilledfromthedrossofitsdung.
Theworldatfirstneithersawnorunderstood.OfallthatmostAmericanswanted,this
freeingofslaveswasthelast.Everythingblackwashideous.EverythingNegroesdidwas
wrong.Iftheyfoughtforfreedom,theywerebeasts;iftheydidnotfight,theywereborn
slaves.Iftheycoweredontheplantations,theylovedslavery;iftheyranaway,theywerelazy
loafers.Iftheysang,theyweresilly;iftheyscowled,theywereimpudent.
Thebitesandblowsofanationfellonthem.AllhatredthatthewhitesaftertheCivilWar
hadforeachothergraduallyconcentrateditselfonthem.Theycausedthewar—they,its
victims.Theywereguiltyofallthetheftsofthosewhostole.Theywerethecauseofwasted
propertyandsmallcrops.TheyhadimpoverishedtheSouth,andplungedtheNorthinto
endlessdebt.Andtheywerefunny,funny—ridiculousbaboons,apingman.
Southernerswhohadsuckledfoodfromblackbreastsviedwitheachotherinfornication
withblackwomen,andeveninbeastlyincest.Theytookthenameoftheirfathersinvainto
seducetheirownsisters.Nothing—nothingthatblackfolkdidorsaidorthoughtorsangwas
sacred.ForseventyyearsfewAmericanshaddaredsayafairwordaboutaNegro.
TherewasnoonekindofNegrowhowasfreedfromslavery.Thefreedmenwerenotan
undifferentiatedgroup;therewerethoseamongthemwhowerecowedandaltogetherbitter.
Therewerethecowedwhowerehumble;therewerethoseopenlybitteranddefiant,but
whippedintosubmission,orreadytorunaway.Therewerethedebauchedandthefurtive,
pettythievesandlicentiousscoundrels.Therewerethefewwhocouldreadandwrite,and
someeveneducatedbeyondthat.Therewerethechildrenandgrandchildrenofwhite
masters;therewerethehouseservants,trainedinmanners,andinservilerespectforthe
upperclasses.Thereweretheambitious,whosoughtbymeansofslaverytogainfavoror
evenfreedom;thereweretheartisans,whohadacertainmodicumoffreedomintheirwork,
wereoftenhiredout,andworkedpracticallyasfreelaborers.Theimpactoflegalfreedom
uponthesevariousclassesdifferedinallsortsofways.
Andyetemancipationcamenotsimplytoblackfolkin1863;towhiteAmericanscameslowly
anewvisionandanewuplift,asuddenfreeingofhatefulmentalshadows.Atlastdemocracy
wastobejustifiedofitsownchildren.Thenationwastobepurgedofcontinualsin
notindeedallofitsowndoing—duepartlytoitsinheritance;andyetasin,anegationthat
gavetheworldtherighttosneeratthepretensionsofthisrepublic.Atlasttherecouldreally
beafreecommonwealthoffreemen.
Thus,amidenthusiasmandphilanthropy,andreligiousfervorthatsurgedoverthewhole
country,theblackmanbecameinword"henceforwardandforeverfree."
"Fondlydowehopeandferventlydowepray,thatthismightyscourgeofwarmayspeedily
passaway.Yet,ifGodwillsthatitcontinueuntilallthewealthpiledupbythebondman'stwo
hundredandfiftyyearsofunrequitedtoilshallbesunk,anduntileverydropofblooddrawn
bythelashshallbepaidbyanotherdrawnwiththesword,aswassaidthreethousandyears
ago,sostillitmustbesaid,'thejudgmentsoftheLordaretrueandrighteousaltogether.''
ThusspakeFatherAbraham,"theImperialGorillaofWashington,"Lordofarmiesvaster
thananytheCaesarseversaw,overabarnyardreekingwithoffal,andalanddrippingwith
tearsandblood.Suddenly,therewasReasoninallthismadorgy.Suddenlytheworldknew
whythisblunderinghorrorofcivilwarhadtobe.GodhadcometoAmerica,andtheland,
fire-drunk,howledthehymnofjoy:
Freude,schonerGotterfunken,TochterausElysium,Wirbetretenfeuertrunken,
Himmlische,deinHeiligtum.DeineZauberbindenwieder,WasdieModestrenggeteilt,Alle
MenschenwerdenBriider,WodeinsanfterFliigelweilt.Seidumschlungen,Millionen!
AlleMenschen...AlleMenschen...
JOHANNSCHILLER
1.Williams,HistoryoftheNegroRaceinAmerica,II,pp.265-266.
2.CharlestonDailyCourier,January8,1863.
3.CharlestonDailyCourier,February16,1863.
4.JordonandPratt,EuropeandtheAmericanCivilWar,p.73.
5.EducationofHenryAdams,pp.130-131.
6.Schliiter,Lincoln,LaborandSlavery,p.158.
7.Schliiter,Lincoln,LaborandSlavery,pp.161,162,163.
8.Wilson,HistoryoftheBlac\Phalanx,pp.146,147.
9.Wilson,HistoryoftheBlac\Phalanx,pp.151-154.10.Parton,ButlerinNewOrleans,pp.
491,493.
11.Wilson,HistoryoftheBlackPhalanx,p.192.
12.Wilson,HistoryoftheBlackyPhalanx,p.195.
13.Williams,HistoryoftheNegroRaceinAmerica,II,pp.292,293.
14.Wilson,HistoryoftheBlackyPhalanx,p.120.
15.Williams,HistoryoftheNegroRaceinAmerica,pp.289,290.(Italicsours.)
16.Herz,AbrahamLincoln,II,pp.931-932.(Italicsours.)
17.Woodson,NegroOrators,pp.249,251.
18.ReportoftheMerchantsCommittee,p.7.
19.Wilson,HistoryoftheBlackyPhalanx,p.394.
20.StorytoldbySmallstotheA.M.E.GeneralConference,Philadelphia,May,1864.
21.NewOrleansTribune,May4,1865.
22.Williams,HistoryoftheNegroRaceinAmerica,II,p.262.
23.Wilson,HistoryoftheBlackPhalanx,p.305.
24.Williams,HistoryoftheNegroRaceinAmerica,II,p.314.
25.Wilson,HistoryoftheBlack,Phalanx,p.211.
26.Williams,HistoryoftheNegroRaceinAmerica,II,p.321.
27.Williams,HistoryoftheNegroRaceinAmerica,II,pp.320,321.
28.Williams,HistoryoftheNegroRaceinAmerica,II,p.327.
29.Wilson,HistoryoftheBlackPhalanx,p.256.
30.Williams,HistoryoftheNegroRaceinAmerica,II,pp.338,339.
31.TestimonyBeforeCongressionalCommittee;citedinWilson,p.428.
32.Hill,Sketchofthe29thRegimentofConnecticutColoredTroops,pp.26,27.
33.NicolayandHaygive149regiments.VI,p.468.
34.Cf.Wilson,HistoryoftheBlack.Phalanx,ChapterIV;andWilliams,Historyofthe
NegroRaceinAmerica,II,pp.299-301.
35.Wilson,HistoryoftheBlack.Phalanx,pp.316,317.
36.ThefollowingaccountismainlyfromCharlesWesley'sarticle,JournalofNegro
History,IV,pp.242-243.
37.Wilson,HistoryoftheBlackPhalanx,pp.491,492.
38.Wilson,HistoryoftheBlackPhalanx,p.490.
39.Wilson,HistoryoftheBlackPhalanx,p.494.
40.NewOrleansTribune,February25,1865.
41.ReportoftheJointCommitteeonReconstruction,1866,p.8.
42.GeneralT.J.Morgan,inWilson,BlackPhalanx,p.289.
VI.LOOKINGBACKWARD
Howtheplanters,havinglostthewarforslavery,soughttobeginagainwheretheyleftoffin
i860,merelysubstitutingfortheindividualownershipofslaves,anewstateserfdomofblack
folk
TheyoungSouthernfanaticwhomurderedAbrahamLincolnsaid,accordingtotheNewYork
Times,April21,1865:
"...Thiscountrywasformedforthewhite,nottheblackman;andlookinguponAfrican
slaveryfromthesamestandpointheldbythenobleframersofourConstitution,I,forone,
haveeverconsidereditofthegreatestblessings(bothforthemselvesandus)thatGodever
bestoweduponafavorednation.Witnessheretoforeourwealthandpower;witnesstheir
elevationandenlightenmentabovetheirraceelsewhere.Ihavelivedamongitmostofmylife
andhaveseenlessharshtreatmentfrommastertomanthanIhavebeheldintheNorthfrom
fathertoson.YetHeavenknows,noonewouldbewillingtodomorefortheNegroracethan
I,couldIbutseeawaytostillbettertheircondition.ButLincoln'spolicyisonlypreparing
thewayfortheirtotalannihilation."
TheSouthhadriskedwartoprotectthissystemoflaborandtoexpanditintoatriumphant
empire;andevenifalloftheSouthernersdidnotagreewiththisbroaderprogram,eventhese
hadriskedwarinordertowardoffthedisasterofafreelaborclass,eitherwhiteorblack.
Yet,theyhadfailed.Afterawhirlwindofbattles,inwhichtheSouthhadputenergy,courage
andskill,andmostoftheirmoney;inthefaceofinnerbickeringsanddividedcouncils,
jealousyofleaders,indifferenceofpoorwhitesandthegeneralstrikeofblacklabor,theyhad
failedintheirsupremeeffort,andnowfoundthemselveswithmuchoftheirwealthgone,
theirlandwidelydevastated,andsomeofitconfiscated,theirslavesdeclaredfree,andtheir
countryoccupiedbyahostilearmy."TheSouthfacedallsortsofdifficulties.Thehostilities,
militaryandnaval,hadpracticallydestroyedthewholecommercialsystemoftheSouth,and
reducedthepeopletoapitiableprimitive,almostbarbariclevel....
"IthasbeensaidthattheruiningoftheplantingclassintheSouth
throughwarwasmorecompletethanthedestructionofthenobility
andclergyintheFrenchRevolution.Theveryfoundationsofthesystemwereshattered."x
TherewasattheendofthewarnocivilauthoritywithpowerinNorthandSouthCarolina,
Georgia,Florida,Alabama,MississippiandTexas;andintheotherstates,authoritywasonly
functioninginpartunderCongressorthePresident."TheNorthernsoldiersweretransported
homewithprovisionsfortheircomfort,andoftenwithroyalwelcomes,whiletheSouthern
soldierswalkedhomeinpovertyanddisillusioned."
Landshaddeterioratedbecauseofthefailuretousefertilizers.Themarketingofthecrops
wasdifficultandthetitlestolandandcropsdisputed.Governmentofficialsseizedmuchof
theproduceandthecottontaxof3centsapoundborehardupontheplanters.Themortality
ofthewhiteswassogreatinthedecadefollowing1865,astobe"amatterofcommon
remark."2
Whenarightandjustcauseloses,mensuffer.Butmenalsosufferwhenawrongcauseloses.
Sufferingthusinitselfdoesnotprovethejusticeorinjusticeofacause.Italways,however,
pointsagravemoral.Certainlyafterthewar,noonecouldrestrainhissorrowatthe
destructionandhavocbroughtuponthewhites;leastofallweretheNegroesunsympathetic.
Perhapsneverinthehistoryoftheworldhavevictimsgivensomuchofhelpandsympathyto
theirformeroppressors.Yetthemostpitiablevictimsofthewarwerenottherichplanters,
butthepoorworkers;notthewhiterace,buttheblack.
Naturally,themassoftheplanterswerebitterlyopposedtotheabolitionofslavery.First,
theybasedtheiroppositionuponalife-longconvictionthatfreeNegrolaborcouldnotbe
madeprofitable.TheNewOrleansPicayunesaid,July8,1862:
"Insoberearnest,wesay,andwebelieveallwhoknowanythingfromobservationor
experiencewillcorroborateourassertion,thatthisisanabsoluteimpossibility.Therecould
benofullcropproducedunderthatsystem.Theearlierprocessesmightbeperformedina
mannerandtosomeextent;butthelaterandmorearduous,thoseupontheprompt
performanceofwhichdependstheproductionofanycropatall,wouldbeslighted,ifnot
indeedentirelylost.Thethriftless,thoughtlessNegrowouldjinglehislastmonth'swagesin
theplanter'sfaceandtellhimtodotherestoftheworkhimself.LookatJamaica,Barbadoes,
Antigua,andtheotherBritishWestIndieswherethisexperimentishavingamostsuggestive
trial."
TheTexasRepublican,aweeklynewspaper,said:"Theruinouseffectsoffreeingfourmillions
ofignorantandhelplessblackswouldnotbeconfinedtotheSouth,buttheblightwouldbe
communicatedtotheNorth,andthetimewouldcomewhenthepeopleofthatsectionwouldbegladtowitnessareturntoasystemattendedwithmorephilanthropyand
happinesstotheblackracethantheonetheyseemdeterminedtoestablish;fortheywillfind
thatcompulsorylaboraffordslargercropsandarichermarketforYankeemanufacturers."
Themasterswereadvised,therefore,nottoturntheirslavesloosetobecomedemoralized,
buttomaintainakindandprotectingcareoverthem.
Inadditiontothis,itwassaidthateveniffreeNegrolabormiraculouslyprovedprofitable,
Negroesthemselveswereimpossibleasfreemen,neighborsandcitizens.Theycouldnotbe
educatedandreallycivilized.Andbeyondthatifafree,educatedblackcitizenandvotercould
bebroughtuponthestagethiswouldinitselfbetheworstconceivablethingonearth;worse
thanshiftless,unprofitablelabor;worsethanignorance,worsethancrime.Itwouldlead
inevitablytoamulattoSouthandtheeventualruinofallcivilization.
ThiswasanaturalreactionforacountryeducatedastheSouthhadbeen;andthatthemass
oftheplanterspassionatelybelieveditisbeyondquestion,despitedifficultiesofinternal
logic.EventhefactthatsomethoughtfreeNegrolaborpracticable,andmanyknewperfectly
wellthatatleastsomeNegroeswerecapableofeducationandevenofculture,thesestood
likearockwallagainstanythingfurther:againstNegrocitizens,againstNegrovoters,against
anysocialrecognitioninpolitics,religionorculture.
Thepoorwhites,ontheotherhand,wereabsolutelyatsea.TheNegrowastobecome
apparentlytheirfellowlaborer.Butwerethewhitestobeboundtotheblacklaborerby
economicconditionanddestiny,orrathertothewhiteplanterbycommunityofblood?
Almostunanimously,followingthereactionofsuchleadersasAndrewJohnsonandHinton
Helper,thepoorwhiteclungfranticallytotheplanterandhisideals;andalthoughignorant
andimpoverished,maimedanddiscouraged,victimsofawarfoughtlargelybythepoorwhite
forthebenefitoftherichplanter,theysoughtredressbydemandingunityofwhiteagainst
black,andnotunityofpooragainstrich,orofworkeragainstexploiter.
ThisbroughtsingularschismintheSouth.ThewhiteplanterendeavoredtokeeptheNegro
atworkforhisownprofitontermsthatamountedtoslaveryandwhichwerehardly
distinguishablefromit.Thiswastheplainvoiceoftheslavecodes.Ontheotherhand,the
onlyconceivableambitionofapoorwhitewastobecomeaplanter.Meantimethepoorwhite
didnotwanttheNegroputtoprofitablework.HewantedtheNegrobeneaththefeetofthe
whiteworker.
Rightherehadlaintheseatofthetroublebeforethewar.Alltheregularandprofitablejobs
wenttoNegroes,andthepoorwhiteswere
excluded.Itseemedafterthewarimmaterialtothepoorwhitethatprofitfromthe
exploitationofblacklaborcontinuedtogototheplanter.Heregardedtheprocessasthe
exploitationofblackfolkbywhite,notoflaborbycapital.When,then,hefacedthe
possibilityofbeinghimselfcompelledtocompetewithaNegrowageworker,whilebothwere
thehirelingsofawhiteplanter,hiswholesoulrevolted.Heturned,therefore,fromwar
servicetoguerrillawarfare,particularlyagainstNegroes.Hejoinedeagerlysecret
organizations,liketheKuKluxKlan,whichfedhisvanitybymakinghimco-workerwiththe
whiteplanter,andgavehimachancetomaintainhisracesuperioritybykillingand
intimidating"niggers";andeveninsecretforaysofhisown,hecoulddriveawaytheplanter's
blackhelp,leavingthelandopentowhitelabor.Orhecouldmurdertoosuccessfulfreedmen.
ItwasonlywhentheysawtheNegrowithavoteinhishand,backedbythepowerandmoney
ofthenation,thatthepoorwhiteswhofollowedsomeoftheplantersintotheranksofthe
"scalawags"begantoconceiveofaneconomicsolidaritybetweenwhiteandblackworkers.In
thisintervaltheyreceivedatthehandsoftheblackvoterandhisalliesamoregeneralright
tovote,toholdofficeandtoreceiveeducation,privilegeswhichtheplanterhadalways
deniedthem.Butbeforeallthiswassoestablishedastobeintelligentlyrecognized,armed
revoltintheSouthbecameorganizedbytheplanterswiththecooperationofthemassof
poorwhites.Takingadvantageofanindustrialcrisiswhichthrottledbothdemocracyand
industryintheNorth,thiscombinationdrovetheNegrobacktowardslavery.Finallythepoor
whitesjoinedthesonsoftheplantersanddisfranchisedtheblacklaborer,thusnullifyingthe
labormovementintheSouthforahalfcenturyandmore.
AstheCivilWarstaggeredtowarditsend,thecountrybegantorealizethatitwasnotonlyat
theendofanera,butitwasfacingthebeginningofavasterandmoreimportantcycle.The
emancipationoffourmillionslavesmightendslavery,butwoulditnotalsobetheendofits
fourmillionvictims?Tobesurethereweremanyprophets,SouthandNorth,whoforetold
thisfateofNegroextinction,buttheywerewrong.ItwasthebeginningofNegro
development,andwhatwasthisdevelopmentgoingtobe?
BackofalltheenthusiasmandfervorofvictoryintheNorthcameawaveofreflectionthat
representedthesoberafter-thoughtofthenation.Itharkedbacktoatimewhennotone
personintenbelievedinNegroes,orinemancipation,orinanyattempttoconquerthe
South.Thisfeelingbegantoarisebeforethewarclosed,andafteritendeditrosehigherand
higherintosomethinglikedismay.From
beforethetimeofWashingtonandJeffersondowntotheCivilWar,thenationhadaskedifit
werepossibleforfreeNegroestobecomeAmericancitizensinthefullsenseoftheword.The
answerstothisproblem,historically,hadtakentheseforms:
1.Negroes,afterconversiontoChristianity,wereinthesamepositionasothercolonial
subjectsoftheBritishKing.Thisattitudedisappearedearlyincolonialhistory.
2.Whentheslavetradewasstopped,Negroeswoulddieout.Therefore,theattackupon
slaverymustbeginwiththeabolitionoftheslavetradeandafterthattheraceproblemwould
settleitself.Thisattitudewasbackoftheslavetradelaws,1808-20.
3.IfNegroesdidnotdieout,andifgraduallybyemancipationandtheeconomicfailureof
slaverytheybecamefree,theymustbesystematicallydeportedoutofthecountry,backto
Africaorelsewhere,wheretheywoulddevelopintoanindependentpeopleordiefrom
lazinessordisease.ThisrepresentedtheattitudeofliberalAmericafromtheendoftheWar
of1812downtothebeginningoftheCottonKingdom.
4.Negroesweredestinedtobeperpetualslavesinaneweconomywhichrecognizedacasteof
slaveworkers.Andthiscastesystemmighteventuallydisplacethewhiteworker.Atanyrate,
itwasdestinedtowiderexpansiontowardthetropics.Thiswastheattitudeofthe
Confederacy.
ItisclearthatfromthetimeofWashingtonandJeffersondowntotheCivilWar,whenthe
nationwasaskedifitwaspossibleforfreeNegroestobecomeAmericancitizensinthefull
senseoftheword,itansweredbyasternanddetermined"No!"Thepersonswhoconceivedof
theNegroesasfreeandremainingintheUnitedStateswereasmallminoritybefore1861,
andconfinedtoeducatedfreeNegroesandsomeoftheAbolitionists.
ThisbasicthoughtoftheAmericannationnowbegangraduallytobechanged.Itborethe
faceoffear.Itshowedacertaindismayatthethoughtofwhatthenationwasfacingafterthe
warandunderhypnotismofaphilanthropicidea.Theveryjoyintheshoutofemancipated
Negroeswasathreat.Whowerethesepeople?Werewenotloosingasortofgorillainto
Americanfreedom?Negroeswerelazy,poorandignorant.Moreovertheirignorancewas
morethantheignoranceofwhites.Itwasabiological,fundamentalandineradicable
ignorancebasedonpronouncedandeternalracialdifferences.Thedemocracyandfreedom
openandpossibletowhitemenofEnglishstock,andeventoContinentalEuropeans,were
unthinkableinthecaseofAfricans.Weweremovingslowlyinanabsolutelyimpossible
direction.
Meantime,therewasanarchyintheSouthandthetriumphofbrutephysicalforceoverlarge
areas.TheclassicreportonconditionsintheSouthdirectlyafterthewaristhatofCarl
Schurz.CarlSchurzwasofthefinesttypeofimmigrantAmericans.AGermanofeducation
andtraining,hehadfoughtforliberalthoughtandgovernmentinhiscountry,andwhen
drivenoutbythefailureoftherevolutionof1848,hadcometotheUnitedStates,wherehe
foughtforfreedom.Nomanwasbetterprepareddispassionatelytojudgeconditionsinthe
SouththanSchurz.Hewastobesureanidealistanddoctrinaire,butsurelythehard-headed
andthepracticalhadmademessenoughwithAmerica.Thiswasatimeforthoughtandplan.
Schurz'sreportsonhisjourneyremaintodaywitheveryinternalevidenceoftruthand
reliability.
Hismissioncameaboutinthisway:hehadwrittenJohnsononhisNorthCarolinaeffortat
ReconstructionandJohnsoninvitedhimtocall.
"PresidentJohnsonreceivedmewiththeassurancethathehadreadmyletterswithgreat
interestandappreciation,andthathewasearnestly.consideringtheviewsIhadpresentedin
them.Butinonerespect,hesaid,Ihadentirelymistakenhisintentions.HisNorthCarolina
proclamationwasnottobeunderstoodaslayingdownageneralruleforthereconstruction
ofall'thestateslatelyinrebellion.'Itwastoberegardedasmerelyexperimental,andhe
thoughtthattheconditionofthingsinNorthCarolinawasespeciallyfavorableforthe
makingofsuchanexperiment.AstotheGulfStates,hewasverydoubtfulandevenanxious.
Hewishedtoseethosestatesrestoredtotheirconstitutionalrelationswiththegeneral
governmentasquicklyaspossible,buthedidnotknowwhetheritcouldbedonewithsafety
totheUnionmenandtotheemanicipatedslaves.Hethereforerequestedmetovisitthose
statesforthepurposeofreportingtohimwhateverinformationIcouldgatherastothe
existingconditionofthings,andofsuggestingtohimsuchmeasuresasmyobservations
mightleadmetobelieveadvisable."3
Inhisreport,SchurzdifferentiatedfourclassesintheSouth:
"1.Thosewho,althoughhavingyieldedsubmissiontothenationalgovernmentonlywhen
obligedtodoso,haveaclearperceptionoftheirreversiblechangesproducedbythewar,and
honestlyendeavortoaccommodatethemselvestotheneworderofthings.
"2.Thosewhoseprincipalobjectistohavethestateswithoutdelayrestoredtotheirposition
andinfluenceintheUnionandthepeopleofthestatestotheabsolutecontroloftheirhome
concerns.Theyarereadyinordertoattainthatobjecttomakeanyostensibleconcession
thatwillnotpreventthemfromarrangingthingstosuittheirtasteassoonasthatobjectis
attained.
"3.Theincorrigibles,whostillindulgeintheswaggerwhichwassocustomarybeforeand
duringthewar,andstillhopeforatimewhentheSouthernconfederacywillachieveits
independence.
"4.Themultitudeofpeoplewhohavenodefiniteideasaboutthecircumstancesunderwhich
theyliveandaboutthecoursetheyhavetofollow;whoseintellectsareweak,butwhose
prejudicesandimpulsesarestrong,andwhoareapttobecarriedalongbythosewhoknow
howtoappealtothelatter."4
Hethusdescribesthemovementsimmediatelyfollowingthewar:
"Whenthewarcametoaclose,thelaborsystemoftheSouthwasalreadymuchdisturbed.
Duringtheprogressofmilitaryoperationslargenumbersofslaveshadlefttheirmastersand
followedthecolumnsofourarmies;othershadtakenrefugeinourcamps;manythousands
hadenlistedintheserviceofthenationalgovernment.ExtensivesettlementsofNegroeshad
beenformedalongtheseaboardandthebanksoftheMississippi,underthesupervisionof
armyofficersandtreasuryagents,andthegovernmentwasfeedingthecoloredrefugeeswho
couldnotbeadvantageouslyemployedintheso-calledcontrabandcamps.
"Manyslaveshadalsobeenremovedbytheirmasters,asourarmiespenetratedthecountry,
eithertoTexasortotheinteriorofGeorgiaandAlabama.Thusaconsiderableportionofthe
laboringforcehadbeenwithdrawnfromitsformeremployments.Butamajorityoftheslaves
remainedontheplantationstowhichtheybelonged,especiallyinthosepartsofthecountry
whichwerenottouchedbythewar,andwhere,consequently,theemancipationproclamation
wasnotenforcedbythemilitarypower.Althoughnotignorantofthestaketheyhadinthe
resultofthecontest,thepatientbondmenwaitedquietlyforthedevelopmentofthings.
"Butassoonasthestrugglewasfinallydecided,andourforceswerescatteredaboutin
detachmentstooccupythecountry,thesofarunmovedmassesbegantostir.Thereportwent
amongthemthattheirliberationwasnolongeramerecontingency,butafixedfact.Large
numbersofcoloredpeoplelefttheplantations;manyflockedtoourmilitarypostsandcamps
toobtainthecertaintyoftheirfreedom,andotherswalkedawaymerelyforthepurposeof
leavingtheplacesonwhichtheyhadbeenheldinslavery,andbecausetheycouldnowgo
withimpunity.Stillothers,andtheirnumberwasbynomeansinconsiderable,remainedwith
theirformermastersandcontinuedtheirworkonthefield,butundernewandasyet
unsettledconditions,andundertheagitatinginfluenceofafeelingofrestlessness.
"Insomelocalities,however,whereourtroopshadnotyetpenetratedandwherenomilitary
postwaswithinreach,plantersendeavoredandpartiallysucceededinmaintainingbetween
themselvesandtheNegroestherelationofmasterandslavepartlybyconcealingfromthem
thegreatchangesthathadtakenplace,andpartlybyterrorizingthemintosubmissionto
theirbehests.Butasidefromtheseexceptions,thecountryfounditselfthrownintothat
confusionwhichisnaturallyinseparablefromachangesogreatandsosudden.Thewhite
peoplewereafraidoftheNegroes,andtheNegroesdidnottrustthewhitepeople;the
militarypowerofthenationalgovernmentstoodthere,andwaslookedupto,astheprotector
ofboth....
"SomeoftheplanterswithwhomIhadoccasiontoconverseexpressedtheirdeterminationto
adoptthecoursewhichbestaccordswiththespiritoffreelabor,tomaketheNegroworkby
offeringhimfairinducements,tostimulatehisambition,andtoextendtohimthosemeans
ofintellectualandmoralimprovementwhicharebestcalculatedtomakehimanintelligent,
reliableandefficientfreelaborerandagoodandusefulcitizen....
"IregrettosaythatviewsandintentionssoreasonableIfoundconfinedtoasmallminority.
AsidefromtheassumptionthattheNegrowillnotworkwithoutphysicalcompulsion,there
appearstobeanotherpopularnotionprevalentintheSouthwhichstandsasnolessserious
anobstacleinthewayofasuccessfulsolutionoftheproblem.ItisthattheNegroexistsfor
thespecialobjecto£raisingcotton,riceandsugarforthewhites,andthatitisillegitimatefor
himtoindulge,likeotherpeople,inthepursuitofhisownhappinessinhisownway....
"ImadeitaspecialpointinmostoftheconversationsIhadwithSouthernmentoinquire
intotheirviewswithregardtothissubject.Ifound,indeed,somegentlemenofthoughtand
liberalideaswhoreadilyacknowledgedthenecessityofprovidingfortheeducationofthe
coloredpeople,andwhodeclaredthemselveswillingtocooperatetothatendtotheextentof
theirinfluence.Someplantersthoughtofestablishingschoolsontheirestates,andothers
wouldhavebeengladtoseemeasurestakentothateffectbythepeopleoftheneighborhoods
inwhichtheylived.ButwheneverIaskedthequestionwhetheritmightbehopedthatthe
legislaturesoftheirstatesortheircountyauthoritieswouldmakeprovisionsforNegro
education,Ineverreceivedanaffirmative,andonlyintwoorthreeinstancesfeebly
encouraginganswers.AtlastIwasforcedtotheconclusionthat,asidefromasmallnumber
ofhonorableexceptions,thepopularprejudiceisalmostasbitterlysetagainsttheNegro's
havingtheadvantageofeducationasitwaswhentheNegrowasaslave.
Theremaybeanimprovementinthatrespect,butitwouldproveonlyhowuniversalthe
prejudicewasinformerdays.HundredsoftimesIheardtheoldassertionrepeated,that
'learningwillspoiltheniggerforwork,'andthat'Negroeducationwillbetheruinofthe
South.'Anothermostsingularnotionstillholdsapotentswayoverthemindsofthemasses—
itis,thattheelevationoftheblackswillbethedegradationofthewhites....
"Theemancipationoftheslavesissubmittedtoonlyinsofaraschattelslaveryintheold
formcouldnotbekeptup.Butalthoughthefreedmanisnolongerconsideredthepropertyof
theindividualmaster,heisconsideredtheslaveofsociety,andallindependentstate
legislationwillsharethetendencytomakehimsuch.Theordinancesabolishingslavery
passedbytheconventionsunderthepressureofcircumstanceswillnotbelookeduponas
barringtheestablishmentofanewformofservitude."
CarlSchurzsummedthematterup:
"WhereverIgo—thestreet,theshop,thehouse,thehotel,orthesteamboat—Ihearthe
peopletalkinsuchawayastoindicatethattheyareyetunabletoconceiveoftheNegroas
possessinganyrightsatall.Menwhoarehonorableintheirdealingswiththeirwhite
neighbors,willcheataNegrowithoutfeelingasingletwingeoftheirhonor.TokillaNegro,
theydonotdeemmurder;todebauchaNegrowoman,theydonotthinkfornication;totake
thepropertyawayfromaNegro,theydonotconsiderrobbery.Thepeopleboastthatwhen
theygetfreedmen'saffairsintheirownhands,tousetheirownexpression,'theniggerswill
catchhell.'
"Thereasonofallthisissimpleandmanifest.Thewhitesesteemtheblackstheirpropertyby
naturalright,andhowevermuchtheyadmitthattheindividualrelationsofmastersand
slaveshavebeendestroyedbythewarandbythePresident'semancipationproclamation,
theystillhaveaningrainedfeelingthattheblacksatlargebelongtothewhitesatlarge."
CorroborationofthemainpointsinthethesisofSchurzcamefrommanysources.5From
Virginia:
"Beforetheabolitionofslavery,andbeforethewar,itwasthepolicyofslaveholderstomake
afreeNegroasdespicableacreatureandasuncomfortableaspossible.Theydidnotwanta
freeNegroaboutatall.Theyconsidereditaninjurytotheslave,asitundoubtedlywas,
creatingdiscontentamongtheslaves.Theconsequenceswerethattherewasalwaysan
intenseprejudiceagainstthefreeNegro.Now,verysuddenly,allhavebecomefreeNegroes;
andthatwasnotcalculatedtoallaythatprejudice."
Acoloredmantestified:
"Therewasadistincttendencytowardcompulsion,towardreestablishedslaveryunder
anothername.NegroescomingintoYork-townfromregionsofVirginiaandthereabout,said
thattheyhadworkedallyearandreceivednopayandweredrivenoffthefirstofJanuary.
Theownerssoldtheircropsandtoldthemtheyhadnofurtheruseforthemandthatthey
mightgototheYankees,ortheslaveholdersofferedtotakethembackbutrefusedtopayany
wages.Afewofferedadollaramonthandclothingandfood.Theywerenotwillingtopay
anythingforwork."
ThecourtsaidedthesubjectionofNegroes.GeorgeS.SmithofVirginia,residentsince1848,
saidthathehadbeenintheProvostMarshal'sdepartmentand"havehadgreatopportunities
ofseeingthecasesthatarebroughtbeforehim.AlthoughIamprejudicedagainsttheNegro
myself,stillImusttellthetruth,andmustacknowledgethathehasrights.Inmorethannine
casesoutoftenthathavecomeupinGeneralPatrick'soffice,theNegrohasbeenrightand
thewhitemanhasbeenwrong,andIthinkthatthatwillbefoundtobethecaseifyou
examinethedifferentprovostmarshals."
ItwascommonforVirginiansin1865and1866toadvocatewholesaleexpulsionofthe
Negroes.Thisattitudearosefromtheslavetrade:
"TheslavesysteminVirginiahasbeensuchastoexhaustverylargelytheable-bodied
laborers;Ihavebeeninformedthattwenty-thousandofthatclasswereannuallysoldfrom
Virginia;consequently,averylargeportionofthecoloredpopulationthereiscomposedof
theaged,infirm,womenandchildren,andthebeingfreedfromthenecessityofsupporting
themisreallyagreatreliefinthepresentpovertyofthepeople—arelieftotheirformer
owners."
Ofcourse,thosewhowantedNegrolaborimmediatelyandwerepushedonbythecurrent
highpricesforproducts,werewillingtocompromiseinsomerespects.
"Themoreintelligentpeoplethere,thosewhohavelandedestates,needtheirlabor.Being
dependentuponthemforlabor,theyseethenecessityofemployingthem,andaredisposed
togetalongwiththem.Allofthepeople,however,areextremelyreluctanttogranttheNegro
hiscivilrights—thoseprivilegesthatpertaintofreedom,theprotectionoflife,libertyand
propertybeforethelaws,therighttotestifyinthecourts,etc.Theyareallveryreluctantto
concedethat;andifitiseverdone,itwillbebecausetheyareforcedtodoit.Theyare
reluctanteventoconsiderandtreattheNegroasafreeman."
LieutenantSanderson,whowasinNorthCarolinaforthreeyears,saidthatassoonasthe
Southernerscameininfullcontrol,theyintendedtoputinforcelaws"notallowinga
contrabandtostayinanysectionoversuchalengthoftimewithoutwork;ifhedoes,to
seizehimandsellhim.Infact,thatisdonenowinthecountyofGates,NorthCarolina.The
countypolice,organizedunderordersfromheadquarters,didenforcethat.
"Mr.Parkertoldmethathehadhiredhispeoplefortheseason:thatdirectlyafterthe
surrenderofGeneralLee,hecalledthemupandtoldthemtheywerefree;thathewasbetter
usedtothemthantoothers,andwouldpreferhiringthem;thathewouldgivethemboard
andtwosuitsofclothingtostaywithhimtilltheistdayofJanuary,1866,andoneSunday
suitattheendofthattime;thattheyconsentedwillingly—infact,preferredtoremainwith
him,etc.ButfromhispeopleIlearnedthatthoughhedidcallthemup,asstated,yetwhen
oneofthemdemurredattheoffer,hissonJamesflewathimandcuffedandkickedhim;that
afterthattheywereall'perfectlywillingtostay';theywerewatchednightandday;thatBob,
oneofthemen,hadbeenkeptchainednights;thattheywereactuallyafraidtotrytoget
away."
Sometimestheresentmentatthenewstateofaffairswasfunny.Acountyjudgenear
Goldsboro,whohadneverbeenaddressedbyaNegrounbidden,cametothequartersof
LieutenantSanderson:
"'Lieutenant,whatamItostandfromthesefreedpeople?Isupposeyoucallthemfree.
WhatinsultsamIobligedtosuffer?Iaminaperfectfever.'ItoldhimIsawhewas,and
askedhimwhathecomplainedof?IftherewasanythingwrongIwouldrightit.'Well,'said
he,'oneoftheseinfernalniggerscamealongasIsatonmypiazzathismorningandbowedto
me,andsaidgoodmorning;—oneofyoursoldiers!'"
FromAlabamaitwasreported:
"TheplantershatetheNegro,andthelatterclassdistrusttheformer,andwhilethisstateof
thingscontinues,therecannotbeharmoniousactionindevelopingtheresourcesofthe
country.Besides,agoodmanymenareunwillingyettobelievethatthe'peculiarinstitution'
oftheSouthhasbeenactuallyabolished,andstillhavethelingeringhopethatslavery,
thoughnotinname,willyetinsomeformpracticallyexist.Andhencethegreatanxietytoget
backintotheUnion,whichbeingaccomplished,theywillthen,asIhavehearditexpressed,
'fixtheNegro!'...
"Itisthesimplefact,capableofindefiniteproof,thattheblackmandoesnotreceivethe
faintestshadowofjustice.Iaverthatinninecasesoutoftenwithinmyownobservation,
whereawhitemanhasprovokedanaffraywithablackandsavagelymisusedhim,theblack
manhasbeenfinedforinsolentlanguagebecausehedidnotreceivethechastisementin
submissivesilence,whilethewhitemanhasgonefree."6
TheNewYorkHeraldsaysofGeorgia:
"Springingnaturallyoutofthisdisorderedstateofaffairsisanorganizationof'regulators,'so
called.Theirnumbersincludemanyex-Confederatecavaliersofthecountry,andtheir
missionistovisitsummaryjusticeuponanyoffendersagainstthepublicpeace.Itisneedless
tosaythattheirattentionislargelydirectedtomaintainingquietandsubmissionamongthe
blacks.Theshootingorstringingupofsomeobstreperous'niggerbythe'regulators'isso
commonanoccurrenceastoexcitelittleremar\.Noristhewor\ofproscriptionconfinedto
thefreedmenonly.The'regulators'gotothebottomofthematter,andstrivetomakeit
uncomfortablywarmforanynewsettlerwithdemoralizinginnovationsofwagesfor
'niggers.'"7
AcommitteeoftheFloridalegislaturereportedin1865thatitwastruethatoneoftheresults
ofthewarwastheabolitionofAfricanslavery.
"Butitwillhardlybeseriouslyarguedthatthesimpleactofemancipationofitselfworked
anychangeinthesocial,legalorpoliticalstatusofsuchoftheAfricanraceaswerealready
free.Norwillitbeinsisted,wepresume,thattheemancipatedslavetechnicallydenominated
a'freedman'occupiedanyhigherpositioninthescaleofrightsandprivilegesthandidthe
'freeNegro.'Iftheseinferencesbecorrect,thenitresultsasalogicalconclusion,thatallthe
argumentsgoingtosustaintheauthorityoftheGeneralAssemblytodiscriminateinthecase
of'freeNegroes'equallyapplytothatof'freedmen,'oremancipatedslaves.
"Butitisinsistedbyacertainclassofradicaltheoriststhattheactofemancipationdidnot
stopinitseffectinmerelyseveringtherelationofmasterandslave,butthatitextended
further,andsooperatedastoexalttheentireraceandplacedthemupontermsofperfect
equalitywiththewhiteman.Thesefanaticsmaybeverysincereandhonestintheir
convictions,buttheresultoftherecentelectionsinConnecticutandWisconsinshowsvery
conclusivelythatsuchisnotthesentimentofthemajorityoftheso-calledFreeStates."
SomeSouthernerssawinemancipationnothingbutexterminationfortheNegrorace.The
ProvisionalGovernorofFloridabecamealmosttearfulovertheimpendingfateofthe
NegroesandtheguiltoftheNorth.
"Thisunfortunateclassofourpopulation,butrecentlyconstitutingthehappiestandbest
providedforlaboringpopulationintheworld,bynoactoftheirsorvoluntaryconcurrenceof
ours;withnopriortrainingtopreparethemfortheirnewresponsibilities,havebeen
suddenlydeprivedofthefosteringcareandprotectionoftheiroldmastersandarenowto
become,likesomanychildrengamboling
uponthebrinkoftheyawningprecipice,carelessofthefutureandintentonlyonrevellingin
thepresentunrestrainedenjoymentofthenewlyfoundbaubleoffreedom...."8
JudgeHumphreyofAlabamasaid:
"IbelieveincaseofareturntotheUnion,wewouldreceivepoliticalcooperationsoasto
securethemanagementofthatlaborbythosewhowereslaves.Thereisreallynodifference,
inmyopinion,whetherweholdthemasabsoluteslavesorobtaintheirlaborbysomeother
method.Ofcourse,weprefertheoldmethod.Butthatquestionisnotnowbeforeus!"
Atwelve-yearresidentofAlabamasaid:
"Thereisakindofinnatefeeling,alingeringhopeamongmanyintheSouththatslaverywill
beregalvanizedinsomeshapeorother.Theytriedbytheirlawstomakeaworseslaverythan
therewasbefore,forthefreedmanhasnotnowtheprotectionwhichthemasterfrom
interestgavehimbefore."9
"Everyday,thepressoftheSouthtestifiestotheoutragesthatarebeingperpetratedupon
unoffendingcoloredpeoplebythestatemilitia.Theseoutragesareparticularlyflagrantinthe
statesofAlabamaandMississippi,andareofsuchcharacterastodemandmostimperatively
theinterpositionofthenationalExecutive.Thesemenarerapidlyinauguratingaconditionof
things—afeeling—amongthefreedmenthatwill,ifnotchecked,ultimateininsurrection.The
freedmenarepeaceableandinoffensive;yetifthewhitescontinuetomakeitalltheirlives
areworthtogothroughthecountry,asfreepeoplehavearighttodo,theywillgoadthemto
thatpointatwhichsubmissionandpatienceceasetobeavirtue.
"Icallyourattentiontothismatterafterreadingandhearingfromthemostauthentic
sources—officersandothers—forweeks,ofthecontinuanceofthemilitiarobbingthecolored
peopleoftheirproperty—arms—shootingtheminthepublichighwaysiftheyrefusetohalt
whensocommanded,andlodgingtheminjailiffoundfromhomewithoutpasses,andask,
asamatterofsimplejusticetoanunoffendinganddowntroddenpeoplethatyouuseyour
influencetoinducethePresidenttoissueanorderorproclamationforbiddingthe
organizationofstatemilitia."10
InMississippi:
"InrespectfulearnestnessImustsaythatifattheendofallthebloodthathasbeenshedand
thetreasureexpended,theunfortunateNegroistobeleftinthehandsofhisinfuriatedand
disappointedformerownerstolegislateandfixhisstatus,Godhelphim,forhiscupof
bitternesswilloverflowindeed.Waseversuchapolicyconceivedinthebrainofmen
before?"
Sumnerquotes"anauthorityofpeculiarvalue"—agentlemanwritingfromMississippi:
"IregrettostatethatunderthecivilpowerdeemedbyalltheinhabitantsofMississippitobe
paramount,theconditionofthefreed-meninmanyportionsofthecountryhasbecome
deplorableandpainfulintheextreme./mustgiveitasmydeliberateopinionthatthe
freedmenaretoday,inthevicinitywhereIamnowwriting,worseoffinmostrespectsthan
whentheywereheldslaves.Ifmattersarepermittedtocontinueonastheynowseemlikely
tobe,itneedsnoprophettopredictarisingonthepartofthecoloredpopulation,anda
terriblesceneofbloodshedanddesolation.NorcananyoneblametheNegroesifthisproves
tobetheresult./haveheardsincemyarrivalhere,ofnumberlessatrocitiesthathavebeen
perpetrateduponthefreedmen.Itissufficienttostatethattheoldoverseersareinpower
again....TheobjectoftheSouthernersappearstobetomakegoodtheiroften-repeated
assertions,totheeffectthattheNegroeswoulddieiftheywerefreed.Tomakeitso,they
seemdeterminedtogoadthemtodesperation,inordertohaveanexcusetoturnuponand
annihilatethem."
GeneralFiskearlyin1866said:
"Ihavetodayreceivedthestatementoftwoveryrespectablecoloredmenwhowentinto
northernMississippifromNashvilleandrentedplantations.Bothofthemweremenof
means,andoneareputedsonofIshamG.Harris,aformerGovernorofTennessee.Both
wereveryintelligentcoloredmen.Theyhavebeendrivenoutandwarnednottoputtheirfeet
withinthestateagain.TheirwrittenstatementsandaffidavitsIhave,andwillcheerfully
placetheminthehandsofthecommitteeiftheydesireit.Theyarereliablemen;Iknow
themboth."
AformerMississippislaveholderwrote:
"Asamanwhohasbeendeprivedofalargenumberofpersonsheonceclaimedasslaves,I
protestagainstsuchacourse.Ifitisintendedtofollowuptheabolitionofslaverybyaliberal
andenlightenedpolicy,bywhichImeanbestowinguponthemthefullrightsofother
citizens,thenIcangivethismovementmyheartandhand.ButiftheNegroistobeleftina
helplesscondition,farmoremiserablethanthatofslavery,Iwouldaskwhatwastheobject
oftakinghimfromthosewhoclaimedhisservices.
"GeneralChetlaintellsusthatwhilehewasincommand,fortwomonths,oftheJackson
District,containingninecounties,therewasanaverageofoneblackmankilledeveryday,
andthatinmovingoutfortymilesonanexpeditionhefoundsevenNegroeswantonly
butchered.ColonelThomas,assistantcommissionerofthe[Freed-men's]bureauforthis
state,tellsusthatthereisnowadailyaverage
oftwoorthreeblackmenkilledinMississippi;thesablepatriotsinblueastheyreturn,are
theobjectsofespecialspite."
GovernorSharkeyofMississippisaid:
"Myexpectationconcerningthemisthattheyaredestinedtoextinction,beyondalldoubt.
Wemustjudgeofthefuturebythepast.Icouldtellyouagreatmanycircumstancestothat
effect;IamsorryIdidnotcomepreparedwithmeanstostatethepercentageofdeaths
amongthem.Itisalarming,appalling,Ithinktheywillgraduallydieout."
GeneralFiskreceivedaletterfromarichplanterlivinginDeSotoCounty,Mississippi."He
hadonhisplantationalittlegirl,andwrotemealongletterinrelationtoit,whichclosedup
bysaying:'Astorecognizingtherightsoffreedmentotheirchildren,Iwillsaythereisnot
onemanorwomaninalltheSouthwhobelievestheyarefree,butweconsiderthemas
stolenproperty—stolenbythebayonetsofthedamnableUnitedStatesgovernment.Yours
truly,T.Yancey.'
"Thereisonethingthatmustbetakenintoaccount,andthatistherewillexistaverystrong
dispositionamongthemasterstocontrolthesepeopleandkeepthemasasubordinateand
subjectedclass.Undoubtedlytheyintendtodothat.Ithinkthetendencytoestablisha
systemofserfdomisthegreatdangertobeguardedagainst.ItalkedwithaplanterintheLa
Fourchedistrict,nearTebadouville;hesaidhewasnotinfavorofsecession;heavowedhis
hopeandexpectationthatslaverywouldberestoredthereinsomeform.Isaid:'Ifwewent
awayandleftthesepeoplenow,doyousupposeyoucouldreducethemtoslavery?'He
laughedtoscorntheideathattheycouldnot.'What!'saidI.'Thesemenwhohavehadarms
intheirhands?''Yes,'hesaid;'weshouldtakethearmsawayfromthem,ofcourse.''
TherewasnoinconsiderablenumberofSouthernerswhostoutlymaintainedthatNegroes
werenotfree.ThePlanters'PartyofLouisianain1864proposedtorevivetheConstitutionof
1852withallitsslaveryfeatures.TheybelievedthatLincolnhademancipatedtheslavesin
therebelliouspartsofthecountryasawarmeasure.Slaveryremainedintactwithinthe
Federallinesexceptastothereturnoffugitives,andmightbereinstatedeverywhereatthe
closeofhostilities;or,inanycase,compensationmightbeobtainedbyloyalcitizensthrough
thedecisionoftheSupremeCourt.
ThesituationinTexaswaspeculiar.Duringthewar,TexanproducehadbeensenttoEurope
bythewayofMexico,andasteadystreamofcashcameinwhichmadeslaveryallthemore
valuable.Attheendofthewarslaverywasessentiallyunimpaired.WhentheFederalsoldiers
approached,someoftheplanterssettheirNegroesfreeandsomeNegroesranaway,but
mostoftheNegroeswerekeptontheplantationstoawaitFederalaction,andtherewaswidespreadbeliefthatslaverywasaninstitution
andwouldcontinueinsomeform.
TheHouston,Texas,Telegraphwasoftheopinionthatemancipationwascertaintotake
placebutthatcompulsorylaborwouldreplaceslavery.SincetheNegrowastobefreedbythe
FederalGovernmentsolelywithaviewtothesafetyoftheUnion,hisconditionwouldbe
modifiedonlysofarastoinsurethis,butnotsofarasmateriallytoweakentheagricultural
resourcesofthecountry.Therefore,theNegroeswouldbecompelledtoworkunderpolice
regulationsofastringentcharacter.
Mr.Sumnerreportedin1866aspecialslavetradefromtheSouthtotheWestIndiesand
SouthAmerica.
"Anotherbigtradeisgoingon;thatofrunningNegroestoCubaandBrazil.Theyarerunning
throughthecountrydressedinYankeeclothes,hiringmen,givingthemanypricetheyask,to
maketurpentineonthebay,sometimesontherivers,sometimestomakesugar.Theyget
themonthecars.OfcoursetheNegrodon'tknowwhereheisgoing.Theygethimtothebay
andtellhimtogoonthesteamertogoaroundthecoast,andawaygoespoorCuffeeto
slaveryagain.Theyarejustcleaningoutthissectionofthecountryofthelikeliestmenand
womeninit.Federalofficersaremixedupinit,too."
Somuchfortheattitudeoftheowningclass,theformerslaveowners.Butthegreatmassof
theSouthernerswerenotslaveholders;theywerewhitepeasant-farmers,artisans,withafew
merchantsandprofessionalmen.LargenumbersofthesewerefedbytheFederal
governmentandformedaconsiderableproportionofthefugitivesafterthewar.
GeneralHatchreportedin1866:"Thepoorerclassesofthewhitepeoplehaveanintense
dislike"towardNegroesinMississippi.Five-sixthsofthesoldiersintheConfederateArmy
werenotslave-owners,andhadfoughtagainstthecompetitionofNegroes,andfortheir
continuedslavery.
"Themostdiscouragingfeaturewastheutterhelplessnessofthewhitecommunityinthe
faceoftheterribleproblem.Almostanythoughtfultravelercouldseethatthemajorityofthe
whiteswereparasites,idlersandsemi-vagabonds.AccordingtoSidneyAndrews,'TheNegro,
asbadashisconditionis,'saidhe,'seemstome,onthewhole,toaccommodatehimselfmore
easilythanthewhitestothechangedsituation.Ishouldsaythatthequestionatissueinthe
Southisnot'WhatshallbedonewiththeNegro?'but'Whatshallbedonewiththewhites?'
Theblacksmanagetolivecomfortablyforthemostpartandhelpeachother;butthewhites,
accustomedtohavingalltheiraffairsmanagedbyanaristocracywhichwasthenruined,
seemed
powerless.Theychosecommitteesandreportedcasesofsuffering,butanyorganizedaction
onalargescalecouldnotbeexpected.Itwashopedthataidforthewhiteswouldcomefrom
theNorth,forfearfuldistressfromhungerwasinevitable."
GeneralTurnersaidoftheconditionsinVirginia:
"AmongthelowerclassesofthewhitesthereisaspiritofaggressionagainsttheNegro....
AndagreatmanyoftheNegroesareinclinedtotakethethingintheirownhands;theyare
notdisposedtobeimposeduponbythosepeople,iftheycanhavehalfashowtodefend
themselves....
"Withthelowerclasses—IspeaknowmoreparticularlyofthecityofRichmond—probably
thefeelingdoesnotexisttosuchanextentintheruraldistricts—thereisanimpulsivefeeling
ofaggression—adesiretogettheNegrooutoftheway.Theydonotthinkofhisrights;they
donotappeartoknowwhatitmeans;onlytheyfeelthattheNegrohassomething."
GeneralFiskspokeofTennessee:
"ItisamelancholyfactthatamongthebitterestopponentsoftheNegroinTennesseearethe
intenselyradicalloyalistsofthemountaindistrict—themenwhohavebeeninourarmies...
."
"Thepoorerclassesofthewhitepeoplehaveanintensedisliketowardthem,"saidGeneral
Hatch.HeespeciallyemphasizedthesituationinTennesseeandspokeoftheaidthatwas
beinggiventhewhitefugitives.HesaidthattheNegroknewthatwithoutlegalrightshewas
notsafefromthepoorwhites,andthattheyhadnotissuedtotheNegroesone-tenthofthe
rationsthattheyhadgiventhepoorwhites.
"ThehatredtowardtheNegroasafreemanisintenseamongthelowandbrutal,whoarethe
vastmajority.Murders,shootings,whippings,robbingandbrutaltreatmentofeverykindare
dailyinflicteduponthem,andIamsorrytosayinmostcasestheycangetnoredress.They
don'tknowwheretocomplainorhowtoseekjusticeaftertheyhavebeenabusedand
cheated.Thehabitualdeferencetowardthewhitemanmakesthemfearfulofhisangerand
revenge."
TheUnionmembersoftheTennesseelegislaturesaid:
"ThatlongbeforethewarcommonlaborershadlearnedtocursetheYankeesand
AbolitionistsandtotalkaboutNegroequalityandhisrightsintheterritories.Withallthis
wentagreatdegreeofpersonalviolence.Leavingoutforthemomentthegroupviolence,the
organizedfightagainsttheNegrowhichwascontinuous,thepersonalphysicalopposition
wascontinuallyinexistence."
AcandidateforCongressinVirginiain1865said:
"IamopposedtotheSouthernstatesbeingtaxedatallfortheredemptionofthisnationaldebt,eitherdirectlyorindirectly;and/willvotetorepealalllaws
thathaveheretoforebeenpassedforthatpurpose;and,indoingso,IdonotconsiderthatI
violateanyobligationstowhichtheSouthwasaparty.Wehaveneverplightedourfaithfor
theredemptionofthewardebt.Thepeoplewillbebornedownwithtaxesforyearstocome;
evenifthewardebtisrepudiated,itwillbethedutyofthegovernmenttosupportthe
maimedanddisabledsoldiers,andthiswillbeagreatexpense;andiftheUnitedStates
GovernmentrequirestheSouthtobetaxedforthesupportofUnionsoldiers,weshould
insistthatalldisabledsoldiersshouldbemaintainedbytheUnitedStatesGovernment
withoutregardtothesidetheyhadta\eninthewar.
"Thenationaldebtdoubtlessseemstoyoubeyondthereachofanyhand.YetIregarditas
veryprobablethatoneortwoorallofthreethingswillbeattemptedwithinthreeyearsafter
theSouthernmembersofCongressareadmittedtoseats—therepudiationofthenational
debt,theassumptionoftheConfederatedebt,orthepaymentofseveralhundredmillion
dollarstotheSouthforpropertydestroyedandslavesemancipated."
AleaderfromSouthCarolina,JamesH.Campbell,said:
"IbelievethatwhenourvotesareadmittedintothatCongress,ifwearetolerablywise,
governedbyamoderateshareofcommonsense,wewillhaveourownway.Iamspeaking
nownottobereported.Wewillhaveourownwayyet,ifwearetruetoourselves.Weknow
thepast,weknownotwhatistobeourfuture.Arewenotinaconditiontoacceptwhatwe
cannothelp?Arewenotinaconditionwhereitisthepartofwisdomtowaitandgivewhat
wecannotavoidgiving?Ibelieveassurelyasweareapeople,sosurely,ifweareguidedby
wisdom,wewillbythebeginningofthenextpresidentialelectionwhichisallthatisknown
oftheConstitution—forwhenyoutalkoftheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesitmeansthe
presidentialelectionandtheshareofthespoils—Ibelievethenwemayholdthebalanceof
power."
Thusgradually,theSouthconceivedapicture.Itdeliberatelylookedbackwardtowards
slaveryinadaywhentwoSouthernpoorwhiteswerePresidentsoftheUnitedStates.
AlthoughhewastheEmancipator,AbrahamLincoln,too,inmanyrespects,waslooking
backwardtowardthepast.Lincoln'ssolutionfortheNegroproblemwascolonization.Inthis
respecthewentbacktotheearlynineteenthcenturywhentheAmericanColonizationSociety
wasformed,withwhatprovedtobetwoantagonisticobjects:Thefirstwasthephilanthropic
objectofremovingtheNegrotoAfricaandstartinghimontheroadtoanindependent
cultureinhis
ownfatherland.ThesecondandmoreinfluentialobjectwastogetridofthefreeNegrointhe
UnitedStatessoastomakecolorcastethepermanentfoundationofAmericanNegroslavery.
Thecontradictionofthesetwoobjectswastherealcauseofthefailureofcolonization,since
itearlyincurredthebitteroppositionofbothAbolitionistsandNegroleaders.Theresultof
themovementwastheestablishmentofLiberiainaninhospitablelandandwithoutadequate
capitalandleadership.Thesurvivalofthatlittlecountrytoourdayisoneofthemiraclesof
Negroeffort,despiteallofthepropagandaofcriticismthathasbeenleveledagainstthat
country.
WhentheNegroquestionbecameprominentbeforethewar,theprojectofcolonizationwas
revived,andAbrahamLincolnbelievedinit"asonemeansofsolvingthegreatraceproblem
involvedintheexistenceofslaveryintheUnitedStates....Withoutbeinganenthusiast,
Lincolnwasafirmbelieverincolonization."1X
IntheLincoln-Douglasdebates,LincolnsaidatPeoria,Illinois:
"Ifallearthlypowerweregivenme,Ishouldnotknowwhattodoastotheexisting
institution.MyfirstimpulsewouldbetofreealltheslavesandsendthemtoLiberia—totheir
ownnativeland.Butamoment'sreflectionwouldconvincemethat,whateverofhighhope
(asIthinkthereis)theremaybeinthis,inthelongrunitssuddenexecutionisimpossible.If
theywerealllandedthereinaday,theywouldallperishinthenexttendays;andthereare
notsurplusshippingandsurplusmoneyenoughintheworldtocarrythemthereinmany
timestendays.Whatthen?Freethemallandkeepthemamongusasunderlings?Isitquite
certainthatthisbetterstheircondition?IthinkthatIwouldnotholdoneinslaveryatany
rate,yetthepointisnotclearenoughformetodenouncepeopleupon.Whatnext?Free
themandmakethempoliticallyandsociallyourequals?Myownfeelingswillnotadmitof
this,andifminewould,wewellknowthatthoseofthegreatmassofwhiteswillnot."12
Later,speakingatSpringfield,Illinois,Lincolndeclared:"Thattheseparationofracesisthe
onlyperfectpreventiveofamalgamation."
SeveralprominentRepublicansespouseddeportationin1859.F.B.BlairofMissouriwroteto
SenatorDoolittleofMinnesota:
"Iamdelightedthatyouarepressingthecolonizationschemeinyourcampaignspeeches.I
toucheduponitthreeorfourtimesinmyaddressesinMinnesotaandifIamanyjudgeof
effectitisthefinestthemewithwhichtogetattheheartsofthepeopleand[it]canbe
defendedwithsuccessatallpoints....Imadeittheculminatingpointandinevitableresultof
Republicandoctrine."13
Whenthegeneralstrikeofslavesbeganduringthewar,andtheblackfugitivesbegantopour
intotheFederallines,Lincolnagain
broughtforwardhisproposalofcolonization,notsimplyforthefreedmen,butforsuchfree
Negroesasshouldwishtoemigrate.Hesuggestedanappropriationforacquiringsuitable
territoryandforotherexpenses.
ByanactofApril16,1862,whichabolishedslaveryintheDistrictofColumbia,Congress
madeanappropriationof$100,000forvoluntaryNegroemigrantsatanexpenseof$100
each;andlater,July16,anadditionalappropriationof$500,000wasmadeatLincoln's
request.ThePresidentwasauthorized"tomakeprovisionfortransportation,colonization,
andsettlement,insometropicalcountrybeyondthelimitsoftheUnitedStates,ofsuch
personsoftheAfricanrace,madefreebytheprovisionsofthisact,asmaybewillingto
emigrate,havingfirstobtainedtheconsentofthegovernmentofsaidcountrytotheir
protectionandsettlementwithinthesame,withalltherightsandprivilegesoffreemen."14
ByanactofJuly17,1862,thePresidentwasauthorizedtocolonizeNegroesmadefreebythe
confiscationacts.Proceedsfromconfiscatedpropertyweretoreplacemoniesappropriatedfor
colonization.
CharlesSumnervigorouslyattackedtheseplans.Hesaidcolonizationwasunwise:"Because,
besidesitsintrinsicandfatalinjustice,youwilldeprivethecountryofwhatitmostneeds,
whichislabor.Thosefreedmenonthespotarebetterthanmineralwealth.Eachisamine,
outofwhichrichescanbedrawn,providedyoulethimsharetheproduct,andthroughhim
thatgeneralindustrywillbeestablishedwhichisbetterthananythingbutvirtue,andis,
indeed,aformof
virtue."15
Inseveralcases,PresidentLincolnintervieweddelegationsonthesubject.Hebelievedthata
goodcolonizationschemewouldgreatlyencouragevoluntaryemancipationintheBorder
States.HespoketotheBorderStaterepresentativesandsaidthatroominSouthAmericafor
Negrocolonizationcouldbeobtainedcheaply.HereceivedinAugust,1862,acommitteeof
coloredmen,headedbyE.M.Thomas,andurgedcolonizationonaccountofthedifferenceof
race.
"Shouldthepeopleofyourracebecolonizedandwhere?Whyshouldtheyleavethiscountry?
Youandwearedifferentraces.Wehavebetweenusabroaderdifferencethanexistsbetween
almostanyothertworaces.WhetheritisrightorwrongIneednotdiscuss,butthisphysical
differenceisagreatdisadvantagetousboth,asIthink.Yourracesuffersverygreatly,many
ofthem,bylivingamongus,whileourssuffersfromyourpresence.Inaword,wesufferon
eachside.Ifthisisadmitteditaffordsareasonwhyweshouldbeseparated.Ifwedealwith
thosewhoarenotfreeatthebeginningandwhoseintellectsarecloudedbyslavery,wehave
verypoormaterialto
startwith.Ifintelligentcoloredmen,suchasarebeforeme,wouldmoveinthismattermuch
mightbeaccomplished."16
AbillwasintroducedintotheHousein1862appropriating$200,-000,000—$20,000,000to
colonizeandtheresttopurchase600,000slavesofUnionistownersinBorderStates.Thebill
wasnotpassedbutthecommitteemadeanelaboratereportoncolonizationJuly16,1862,
declaring:
"Themostformidabledifficultywhichliesinthewayofemancipationinmostifnotinallthe
slavestatesisthebeliefwhichobtainsespeciallyamongthosewhoownnoslavesthatifthe
Negroesshallbecomefreetheymuststillcontinueinourmidst,and...insomemeasurebe
madeequaltotheAnglo-Saxonrace....Thebelief[intheinferiorityoftheNegrorace]...is
indeliblyfixeduponthepublicmind.Thedifferencesoftheracesseparatethemaswitha
walloffire;thereisnoinstanceinhistorywhereliberatedslaveshavelivedinharmonywith
theirformermasterswhendeniedequalrights—buttheAnglo-Saxonwillnevergivehis
consenttoNegroequality,andtherecollectionsoftheformerrelationofmasterandslave
willbeperpetuatedbythechangelesscoloroftheEthiop'sskin.Emancipationtherefore
withoutcolonizationcouldofferlittletotheNegrorace.Arevolutionoftheblacksmight
result,butonlytotheirundoing.Toappreciateandunderstandthisdifficultyitisonly
necessaryforonetoobservethatinproportionasthelegalbarriersestablishedbyslavery
havebeenremovedbyemancipationtheprejudiceofcastebecomesstrongerandpublic
opinionmoreintoleranttotheNegrorace."1T
Inhissecondannualmessage,December1,1862,thePresidentreferredtocommunications
fromcoloredmenwhofavoredemigration,andtoprotestsfromseveralSouthAmerican
countriesagainstreceivingNegroes.Herequestedfurtherappropriationsforcolonizingfree
Negroeswiththeirownconsent,butshowedadeviationfromhisformerphilosophy:
"Icannotmakeitbetterknownthanitalreadyis,thatIstronglyfavorcolonization;andyetI
wishtosaythereisanobjectionurgedagainstfreecoloredpersonsremaininginthecountry,
whichislargelyimaginary,ifnotsometimesmalicious.Itisinsistedthattheirpresence
wouldinjureanddisplacewhitelabormorebybeingfreethanbyremainingslaves.Ifthey
stayintheiroldplacestheyjostlenowhitelaborers;iftheyleavetheiroldplaces,theyleave
themopentowhitelaborers.Logicallythenthereisneithermorenorlessofit.
Emancipation,evenwithoutdeportation,wouldprobablyenhancethewagesofwhitelabor
andverysurelywouldnotreducethem.Reducethesupplyofblacklaborbycolonizingthe
blacklaboreroutofthecountry
andbypreciselysomuchyouincreasethedemandforandwagesofwhitelabor."
SeveralnegotiationswerebegunwithforeigncountriesthatownedcoloniesintheWest
Indies,andwithSouthAmericancountries.TheCabinetdiscussedthematter.Bateswanted
compulsorydeportation,butthePresidentobjectedtothis.Finally,hesettledontwo
projects:one,inPanama,andtheotherintheWestIndies,whereanislandwascededby
Haiti.Anadventurer,namedKock,undertooktocarryfivethousandcoloredemigrantstothe
island,buttheresultwasafiascoandalargenumberofthefourhundredactuallysentdied
ofdiseaseandneglect,andwerefinallybroughtbacktotheUnitedStatesonawarvessel.
AslateasApril,1865,PresidentLincolnsaidtoGeneralButler:
"'ButwhatshallwedowiththeNegroesaftertheyarefree?'inquiredLincoln.'Icanhardly
believethattheSouthandNorthcanliveinpeaceunlesswegetridoftheNegroes.Certainly
theycannot,ifwedon'tgetridoftheNegroeswhomwehavearmedanddisciplinedandwho
havefoughtwithus,totheamount,Ibelieve,ofsome150,000men.Ibelievethatitwouldbe
bettertoexportthemalltosomefertilecountrywithagoodclimate,whichtheycouldhave
tothemselves.Youhavebeenastaunchfriendoftheracefromthetimeyoufirstadvisedme
toenlistthematNewOrleans.Youhavehadagreatdealofexperienceinmovingbodiesof
menbywater—yourmovementuptheJameswasamagnificentone.Nowweshallhaveno
useforourverylargenavy.Whatthenareourdifficultiesinsendingtheblacksaway?...
''Iwishyouwouldexaminethequestionandgivemeyourviewsuponitandgointothe
figuresasyoudidbeforeinsomedegreesoastoshowwhethertheNegroescanbeexported.'
Butlerreplied:'Iwillgooverthismatterwithalldiligenceandtellyoumyconclusionsas
soonasIcan.'TheseconddayafterthatButlercalledearlyinthemorningandsaid:'Mr.
President,Ihavegoneverycarefullyovermycalculationsastothepowerofthecountryto
exporttheNegroesoftheSouthandIassureyouthat,usingallyournavalvesselsandallthe
merchantmarinefittocrosstheseaswithsafety,itwillbeimpossibleforyoutotransportto
thenearestplacethatcanbefoundfitforthem—andthatistheIslandofSanDomingo,half
asfastasNegrochildrenwillbebornhere.'"18
TheSecretaryoftheInteriorinDecember,1863,reportedthattheNegroeswerenolonger
willingtoleavetheUnitedStatesandthattheywereneededinthearmy.Forthesereasons,
hethoughtthattheyshouldnotbeforciblydeported.OnJuly2,1864,alllawsrelatingto
Negrocolonizationwererepealed.
Lincolnwasimpressedbythelossofcapitalinvestedinslaves,butcuriouslyneverseemed
seriouslytoconsiderthecorrelativelossofwageandopportunityofslaveworkers,the
tangibleresultsofwhoseexploitationhadgoneintotheplanters'pocketsfortwocenturies.
A.K.McCluresays:"SometimeinAugust,1864,Ispentanhourormorewithhimaloneat
theWhiteHouse,andI,then,forthefirsttimespokewithfranknessonthesubjectof
restoringtheInsurgentStates....Hestartledmebyhispropositionthathehadcarefully
writtenoutinhisownhandonasheetofnotepaper,proposingtopaytheSouth
$400,000,000forthelossoftheirslaves.Hewasthenacandidateforreelection,andgrave
doubtswereentertained,untilafterSherman'scaptureofAtlantaandSheridan'svictoriesin
thevalley,astotheresultofthecontestbetweenLincolnandMcClellan;andhewellknew
thatifpublicannouncementhadbeenmadeofhiswillingnesstopaytheSouth
$400,000,000foremancipationitwouldhavedefeatedhimoverwhelmingly."19
Thisprojectofcompensationforlostcapitalinvestedinslaveswaspermanentlydroppedand
LincolnhadtoturntothequestionoftherelationofthesecededstatestotheUniononcethe
warwasended.Thesituationwasabsolutelyunique.Itwasimpossibletoappealto
constitutionalprecedence,fortheConstitutionnevercontemplatedanythinglikethethings
thathadhappenedbetween1861and1865.
ThegravequestionofthefuturerelationofthesecededstatestotheUnioncouldnotbe
settledbyLincoln'spragmaticprocedure.Itmustbevisionedasawholeandputintolawand
logic.Towardthis,Lincolnwasmovingslowlyandtentativelyseekingaformulathatwould
workandyetbejusttoallmenofallcolors,andconsistentwiththelegalfabricofthenation.
CharlesSumnerfirstlaiddownacomprehensiveformulaFebruary11,1862:
"1.Resolved,Thatanyvoteofsecession,orotheract,byastatehostiletothesupremacyof
theConstitutionwithinitsterritory,isinoperativeandvoidagainsttheConstitution,and,
whensustainedbyforce,becomesapracticalabdicationbytheStateofallrightsunderthe
Constitution,whilethetreasonitinvolvesworksinstantforfeitureofallfunctionsand
powersessentialtothecontinuedexistenceoftheStateasabodypolitic;sothatfromsuch
timeforwardtheterritoryfallsundertheexclusivejurisdictionofCongress,asother
territory,andtheStatebecomes,accordingtothelanguageofthelaw,felo-de-se."~°
ThisplanwastooradicalforLincoln,butthatspringheproceededtoappointmilitary
governorsinTennessee,NorthCarolina,ArkansasandLouisiana,wheretheUnionArmyheld
partsofthestates.Duringthesummer,hecorrespondedwithSouthernfriendsinLouisiana,
and
inDecember,cluetohispressure,twomembersofCongresswereelectedinLouisianafrom
NewOrleansanditssuburbs,whichwastheonlypartunderthecontroloftheUnionArmy.
TheConfederatelegislaturewhichwasmeetingsimultaneouslyatShreveportdeclared:
"(1)Everycitizen[Negroeswerenotcitizens]shouldvotewhohadnotforfeitedhis
citizenshipbyelectingtoadheretothegovernmentoftheUnitedStates.
"(2)Fivehundredthousanddollarswerevotedtopayforslaveslostbydeathorotherwise,
whileimpressedonthepublicworks.
"(3)AnyslavebearingarmsagainsttheinhabitantsofthestateortheConfederateStates,or
whoshouldengageinanyrevoltorrebellionorinsurrectionshouldsufferdeath."21
ThetwoLouisianaCongressmenwereadmittedtoCongresswithsomehesitation,and
Lincolnwasencouragedtomakefurtherexperimentalongthisline.Inhismessageof
December8,1863,therefore,heoutlinedageneralplanofReconstruction.
Heregardedthestatesasstillexisting,evenduringthewar,andthattherebellionwasa
combinationofdisloyalpersonsinthestates.Reconstructionwasanexecutiveproblem
whichconsistedincreatingaloyalclassinthestatesandsupportingthatclassbymilitary
poweruntilitorganizedandoperatedthestategovernment.Theloyalclasswastoswear
allegiancetotheUnitedStatesandtotheActsofCongressunlesstheywereheldvoidor
changed,andallpersonscouldtakethisoathunlesstheywerecivilofficialsofthe
ConfederateGovernment,ormilitaryofficersabovetherankofColonelorLieutenantinthe
navy;orunlesstheyhadresignedfromCongressortheUnitedStatesCourts,orfromarmy
andnavy,inordertoaidtherebellion;orunlesstheyhadnottreatedcoloredsoldiersorthe
leadersofcoloredsoldiersasprisonersofwar.
SuchaloyalclasshewaspreparedtorecognizeinArkansas,Texas,Louisiana,Mississippi,
Tennessee,Alabama,Georgia,Florida,SouthCarolinaandNorthCarolina,whentheyformed
notlessthanone-tenthofthevotescastintheirstateatthepresidentialelectionofi860.
LincolnwascarefultosaythatwhethermemberswhowenttoCongressfromanyofthese
statesshouldbeadmittedornotrestedexclusivelywiththeHousesofCongressandnotwith
thePresident.
VirginiawasnotincludedbecauseLincolnhadalreadyrecognizedthegovernmentat
AlexandriaasthetruegovernmentofVirginiaduringthewar,and,therefore,assumedthat
VirginianeedednoReconstruction,butwastobetreatedlikeKentuckyandMissouri.Of
course,thesupportofagovernmentconsistingofonlyone-tenthofitsvotershadtocome
fromtheoutside;thatis,fromtheFederal
army.Inhisaccompanyingproclamationofthesamedate,thePresidentalsoengagedbythis
proclamationnottoobjecttoanyprovisionwhichmightbeadoptedbysuchstate
governmentsinrelationtothefreedpeopleofthestateswhichshouldrecognizeanddeclare
theirpermanentfreedomandprovideforpresentcondition"asalaboring,landless,and
homelessclass."
HereemergedaclearfeatureoftheLincolnplanwhichhasnotbeenemphasized.Onthis
matterofthefreedomoftheNegroes,andareal,notanominalfreedom,AbrahamLincoln
wasadamant.InDecember,1863,his"messagecontainedanunusuallyforcibleand
luminousexpressionoftheprinciplesembracedintheproclamation.ThePresidentreferred
tothedarkanddoubtfuldayswhichfollowedtheannouncementofthepolicyof
emancipationandoftheemploymentofblacksoldiers;thegradualjustificationofthoseacts
bythesuccesseswhichthenationalarmshadsinceachieved;ofthechangeofthepublic
spiritoftheBorderStatesinfavorofemancipation;theenlistmentofblacksoldiers,andtheir
efficientandcreditablebehaviorinarms;theabsenceofanytendencytoservileinsurrection
ortoviolenceandcrueltyamongtheNegroes;thesensibleimprovementinthepublic
opinionofEuropeandofAmerica.
"Injustificationofhisrequiring,intheoathofamnesty,asubmissiontoandsupportofthe
anti-slaverylawsandproclamations,hesaid:'Thoselawsandproclamationswereenacted
andputforthforthepurposeofaidinginthesuppressionoftherebellion.Togivethemtheir
fullesteffect,therehadtobeapledgefortheirmaintenance.Inmyjudgmenttheyhaveaided
andwillfurtheraidthecauseforwhichtheywereintended.Tonowabandonthemwouldbe
notonlytorelinquishaleverofpower,butwouldalsobeacruelandanastoundingbreachof
faith.'"
ThereceptionofLincoln'smessagetoCongressinDecember,1863,wasenthusiastic:
"Menactedasthoughthemillenniumhadcome.Chandlerwasdelighted,Sumnerwas
joyous,apparentlyforgettingforthemomenthisdoctrineofstatesuicide;whileattheother
politicalpole,DixonandReverdyJohnsonsaidthemessagewas'highlysatisfactory.'Henry
WilsonsaidtothePresident'ssecretary:'Hehasstruckanothergreatblow.Tellhimforme,
Godblesshim.'TheeffectwassimilarintheHouseofRepresentatives.GeorgeS.Boutwell,
whorepresentedtheextremeanti-slaveryelementofNewEngland,said:'Itisaveryableand
shrewdpaper.Ithasgreatpointsofpopularity,anditisright.'OwenLovejoy,theleading
abolitionistoftheWest,seemedtoseeonthemountainthefeetofonebringinggoodtidings.
'Ishalllive,'hesaid,'toseeslaveryendedinAmerica.'...FrancisW.KelloggofMichiganwentshoutingaboutthelobby:'ThePresidentistheonlyman.Thereisnonelikehimin
theworld.Heseesmorewidelyandmoreclearlythananyofus.'HenryT.Blow,theradical
memberfromSt.Louis(whowassixmonthslaterdenouncingMr.Lincolnasatraitorto
freedom)said:'GodblessoldAbe!IamoneoftheRadicalswhohavealwaysbelievedinhim.'
HoraceGreeley,whowasontheflooroftheHouse,wentsofarastosaythemessagewas
'devilishgood.''
Thecausesofthisjubilationwere,however,dangerouslydiverse;theAbolitionistssaw
mainlythedeterminationofLincolnutterlytoabolishslavery.Thishadnotbeenclearbefore.
LincolnhadneverbeenanAbolitionist;hehadneverbelievedinfullNegrocitizenship;he
hadtrieddesperatelytowinthewarwithoutNegrosoldiers,andhehademancipatedthe
slavesonlyonaccountofmilitarynecessity.Ontheotherhand,Lincolnlearned;hestood
nowforabolishingslaveryforever;hegavefullcreditandpraisetoNegrosoldiers;andhe
wassoontofacetheproblemofNegrocitizenship.
NortherncapitalandSouthernsympathizersintheNorthhailedthemessagebecauseit
carriednonoteofrevengeorpunishment,andcontemplatedspeedyrestorationofpolitical
independenceintheSouthandnormalindustry.
NowcametheverypertinentquestionastojusthowthisfreedomofNegroeswastobe
enforcedandmaintained.Lincoln,workingatthisprobleminLouisiana,inhis
correspondencewithBanks,whowasnowincommand,andShepley,MilitaryGovernor,
encouragedprepa-"rationsforareconstructedstategovernment.Banksarrangedtoelect
stateofficialsandacceptedasthebasisofvotingtheprovisionsoftheLouisianaConstitution
of1852which,ofcourse,allowednoNegroestovote.v
Accordingly,hedeclaredtheelectorstobe:
"Everyfreewhitemale,21yearsofage,whohadbeenresidentinthestate12months,andin
theparish6months,whoshallbeacitizenoftheUnitedStatesandshallhavetakentheoath
prescribedbythePresidentinDecember,1863."ThetotalvoteonFebruary22,1864,was
11,355,°fwhichHahnreceived6,171,Fellows,2,959,andFlanders,2,225,glvmgamajority
toHahnforGovernor.23
IfthisexperimentinReconstructionhadbeenattemptedanywherebutinLouisiana,itis
possiblethatthewholequestionofNegrosuffragewouldnothavebeenraisedthenor
perhapsformanyyearsafter.Butbypeculiarfate,ithappenedthataproblemofNegrovoting
wasimmediatelyraisedinLouisianabytheelectionof1864,whichsimplycouldnotbe
ignored.Usually,theargumentconcerningNegrosuffrageafterthewarwasmetbyan
expressionofastonishmentthatanybodycouldforamomentconsidertheadmissionof
ignorant,brutishfieldhandstotheballot-boxintheSouth.Butthatwasnottheproblemwhichfaced
GeneralBanksandAbrahamLincolnin1864.
InLouisiana,wherethequestionofNegrosuffragefirstaroseasaproblem,thereexisteda
groupoffreeNegroes.TheirfathershadbeenfreewhenLouisianawasannexedtotheUnited
States.Theirnumbershadincreasedfrom7,585in1810to25,505in1840,andthendeclined
to18,647mi860,byemigrationandbypassingoverintothewhiteraceonthepartoftheir
octoroonandlightermembers.
NegroesinLouisianaini860ownedfifteenmilliondollars'worthofproperty.TheRicaud
familyalonein1859owned4,000acresoflandand350slaves,atatotalvalueof$250,000.
Thedevelopmentofthismulattogroupwasextraordinary.BeginningundertheFrenchand
Spanish,theyplayedaremarkablepartinthehistoryofthestate.TheSpanishgovernment
whileinpossessionofLouisianahadraisedamongthemtwocompaniesofmilitia,
"composedofallthemechanicswhichthecitypossessed."
ThisgroupofNegroestookpartintheBattleofNewOrleansin1815,andwasextravagantly
praisedbyAndrewJackson.Theywerethecauseofanextraordinaryblossomingofartistic
life,whichmadeNewOrleansintheearlypartofthenineteenthcenturythemost
picturesquecityofAmerica.Negromusiciansandartistsarose.EugeneWarburg,acolored
man,wentfromNewOrleanstobecomeasculptorinFrance.Dubucletbecameamusicianin
France,andtheSeven"LambertstaughtandcomposedinNorthandSouthAmericaand
Europe.SidneywasdecoratedforhisworkbytheKingofPortugal,andEdmundDede
becameadirectorofaleadingorchestrainFrance.
AlexandrePickhilwasapainter,whodiedbetween1840and1850.JosephAbeillardwasan
architectandplannedmanyNewOrleansbuildingsbeforethewar.NorbertRillieuxinvented
thevacuum-panusedinproducingsugar;asanengineerandcontractorRillieuxhadnorivals
inLouisiana.ThegeneralperiodicalsinNewOrleanspraisedhimbutseldomalludedtohis
Negrodescent.
In1843-1845,NewOrleanscoloredfolkissuedamagazineandseventeenoftheyoung
mulattopoetscollectedananthologycalledLesCenelles,whichtheypublishedasasmall
volume.TheywereallmeneducatedeitherinFrance,orinprivateschoolsinLouisiana,and
wereincontactwithsomeofthebestwritersandliteratureoftheday.Itisdoubtfulif
anywhereelseintheUnitedStatesaliterarygroupofequalculturecouldhavebeenfoundat
thetime.In1850,four-fifthsofthefreeNegroeslivinginNewOrleanscouldreadandwrite,
andtheyhadoverathousandchildreninschool.Amongthemwerecarpenters,tailors,
shoemakersandprinters,besidesteachers,plantersandprofessionalmen.
JamesDerham,acoloredmaninNewOrleansin1800,hadamedicalpracticeof$3,000a
year.HewasespeciallycommendedbyDr.BenjaminRush.Belowtheprofessionallevelwere
numbersofNegroesofability.Therewasthecelebratedsorceress,MarieLaveau,who,about
1835,exercisedanextraordinaryinfluencethroughoutthecity.In1850,Louisianahada
coloredarchitect,6physicians,4engineers,andover20teachersinschoolsandinmusic.As
earlyas1803,freecoloredmenwereadmittedtothepoliceforcetopatroloutsidethecity
limits,tocatchrunawayslavesandstoplootingandcrime.
Therewassystematiccommonlawmarriagebetweenwhitesandmulattoes.Theconnections
formedwiththequadroonsandoctoroonswereoftenpermanentenoughfortherearingof
largefamilies,someofwhomobtainedtheirfreedomthroughtheaffectionoftheirfathermaster,andreceivedtheeducationhewouldhavebestoweduponlegitimateoffspring.
WhenButlercametoNewOrleans,itwasoneofthesecoloredCreoleswhoentertainedhim
atabanquetofsevencoursesservedonsilver.
"Thesecret,darlingdesireofthisclassistorankashumanbeingsintheirnativecity;or,as
thegiverofthegrandbanquetexpressedit,'NomatterwhereIfight;Ionlywishtospend
whatIhave,andfightaslongasIcan,ifonlymyboymaystandinthestreetequaltoawhite
boywhenthewarisover.'"24
"ThebestbloodoftheSouthflowedintheirveins,andagreatdealofit;for'thedarkestof
them,'saidGeneralButler,'wereaboutofthecomplexionofthelateMr.Webster.'"25
ThiswasthehistoryofthefreeNegroesofNewOrleans,andtothismustbeaddedtheir
labor,cooperationandenlistmentassoldiers.CouldthegovernmentoftheUnitedStates
allowConfederatesoldierstovotesimplybecausetheywerewhite,andexcludeUnion
soldierssimplybecausetheywereyelloworblack?EveniftheNegroeshadbeenquiescent
andwillingtobeignoredatthiscriticaltime,theirrightswereindisputable.Buttheywere
notquiet.
TheNegroesthemselvesmadestrongstatements.InNovember,1863,thefreemenofcolor
heldameetinginNewOrleansanddrewupanappealtoGovernorShepley"askingtobe
allowedtoregisterandvote."TheyreviewedtheirservicesunderJackson,whocalledthem
"myfellowcitizens"justafterthebattleofNewOrleans,andtheydeclaredtheirpresent
loyaltytotheUnion."Forforty-nineyears,"thepetitionran,"theyhaveneverceasedtobe
peaceablecitizens,payingtheirtaxesonassessmentsofmorethanninemilliondollars."
But,howeverstronglythispetitionappealedtoShepley,itwasmanifestlyimpossibletogrant
itatthistime.Thedecisivereasonwas
thatifNegroeshadbeenallowedtovoteinthiselectiontheywouldhaveformedthemajority
ofthevotingpopulationofUnionLouisiana!
Sofarasisknown,Shepleyreturnednoanswertotheappeal;forinthefollowingJanuary,
thecoloredUnionRadicalAssociationsentacommitteetocallonShepleyrequestinghimto
recognizethe"rights"ofthefreecoloredpopulationtothefranchise.Shepley,unwillingand
unabletoassumesuchresponsibility,referredthecommitteetoGeneralBanks,butthelatter
gavethemnodefinitereply.Heexplainedlater:
"Ithoughtitunwisetogivethemthesuffrage,asitwouldhavecreatedaNegroconstituency.
ThewhitesmightgivesuffragetotheNegroes,butiftheNegroesgavesuffragetothewhites,
itwouldresultintheNegrolosingit.MyideawastogetadecisionfromJudgeDurell
declaringamanwithamajorpartofwhitebloodshouldpossessalltherightsofawhiteman;
butIhadagreatdealtodo,andafewmenwhowantedtobreakthebundleofstickswithout
looseningthebanddefeatedit."26
Accordingly,thecoloredcommitteesentP.M.TournetoWashingtontoadvocatetheirclaims
beforethePresident.ThePresidentsentamannamedMcKeetoNewOrleanstostudy
conditionsamongthecoloredpeople.Lincolnwasimpressedbutcharacteristicallyreticent
andslowinaction.
GeneralBanksnextissuedacallforaconstitutionalconventiontobeheldMarch28,1864,to
amendtheConstitutionof1852.ContrarytothisConstitution,hebasedrepresentationinthe
newgovernmentonthewhitepopulationalone,soastoreducethepowerofthegreat
landholders;andNegroeswerenotallowedtovote.Thetotalvoteforthisconventionwas
only6,400.
WhenaskedtodirecttheLouisianaConstitutionalConventionof1864,Lincolnrefusedand
wrote:"WhileIverywellknowwhatIwouldbegladforLouisianatodo,itisquiteadifficult
thingformetoassumedirectioninthematter.Iwouldbegladforhertomakeanew
ConstitutionrecognizingtheEmancipationProclamation,andadoptingemancipationin
thosepartsofthestatetowhichtheProclamationdoesnotapply.Andwhilesheisatit,I
thinkitwouldnotbeobjectionableforhertoadoptsomepracticalsystembywhichthetwo
racescouldgraduallyliftthemselvesoutoftheiroldrelationtoeachother,andbothcome
outbetterpreparedforthenew.Educationforyoungblacksshouldbeincludedintheplan.
Afterall,thepowerorelementof'contract'maybesufficientforthisprobationaryperiod,and
byitssimplicityandflexibilitybebetter.
"Asananti-slaveryman,Ihaveamotivetodesireemancipation
whichpro-slaverymendonothave;buteventheyhavestrongenoughreasonstothusplace
themselvesagainundertheshieldoftheUnion,andtothusperpetuallyhedgeagainstthe
recurrenceofthescenesthroughwhichwearenowpassing....
"Formyownpart,IthinkIshallnot,inanyevent,retracttheEmancipationProclamation;
nor,asexecutive,everreturntoslaveryanypersonwhoisfreebythetermsofthat
Proclamation,orbyanyoftheactsofCongress.IfLouisianashallsendmemberstoCongress,
theiradmissionwilldepend,asyouknow,upontherespectiveHousesandnotuponthe
President."2T
HereagainwasthesameinsistencethatNegrofreedommustberealandguaranteedand
againthepuzzlingquestion,howcouldthisbeaccomplished?AbrahamLincolntooka
forwardstepandbyhisletterofMarch13tothenewlyelectedGovernorHahn,hemadethe
firsttentativesuggestionforaNegrosuffrageintheSouth.Evidently,thepersistentagitation
ofcoloredNewOrleansinspiredthis:
"ExecutiveMansion,
«TT,,TT"Washington,March13,1864.
Hon.MichaelHahn:6':»t
"MydearSir:IncongratulatingyouonhavingfixedyournameinhistoryasthefirstFree
StateGovernorofLouisiana,nowyouareabouttohaveaconvention,which,amongother
things,willprobablydefinetheelectivefranchise,Ibarelysuggest,foryourprivate
consideration,whethersomeofthecoloredpeoplemaynotbeletin,as,forinstance,thevery
intelligent,andespeciallythosewhohavefoughtgallantlyinourranks.Theywouldprobably
helpinsometryingtimeinthefuturetokeepthejewelofLibertyinthefamilyoffreedom.
Butthisisonlysuggestion,nottothepublic,buttoyoualone.
"Trulyyours,"A.Lincoln."28
ThiswasacharacteristicLincolngesture.Hedidnotdemandororder;hesuggested,and
incidentallyadducedlogicalargumentsoftremendousstrength.ThisletterofLincoln's,says
Blaine,was"ofdeepandalmostpropheticsignificance.Itwasperhapstheearliest
propositionfromanyauthenticsourcetoendowtheNegrowiththerightofsuffrage."29
Thus,withhisunflinchinghonestyoflogic,LincolnfacedtheproblemofNegrovoters.Itwas
unthinkablethatNegroeswhohadfoughttopreservetheUnionorthatNegroesofeducation
andpropertyshouldbeexcludedfromtherighttovotebytheverynationwhoselifetheyhad
saved.Ontheotherhand,unlessastatesawthisclearly,hedidnotseehowitcouldbeforced
toseeit.Hemadethesuggestion,therefore,quietlyandsecretly,andheknewthathehadaslowlygrowingpublicopinion
intheNorthbehindhim.
"TokeepthejewelofLibertyinthefamilyoffreedom,"wasasplendidandpregnantphrase
andithadbackofitunassailablefacts.
ThedelegatesmetApril6,1864,andsatfor78days.Theconventionwasdividedonthe
questionofcompensationforloyalslaveholders,theeducationofthefreedmenatthe
expenseofthestate,andNegrosuffrage.Slaverywasabolishedbyavoteof72-13.Anappeal
wasmadetoCongressforcompensationforslaves;andonMay10,theconventionadopteda
resolutiondeclaringthatthelegislatureshouldneverpassanyactauthorizingfreeNegroesto
vote.BanksandHahn,however,broughtpressuretobearandsomefortyvoteswerechanged,
sothatJune23,Gorlinskymovedthat"Thelegislatureshallhavepowertopasslaws
extendingtherightofsuffragetosuchpersons,citizensoftheUnitedStates,asbymilitary
service,bytaxationtosupportthegovernment,orbyintellectualfitness,maybedeemed
entitledthereto."Manymembersdidnotunderstandthis,butSullivanofNewOrleans
denounceditas"Aniggerresolution,"andmovedtolayitonthetable.Withoutdiscussion,it
wasadopted48-32.
Beforetheassemblingoftheconvention,Banksonhisownresponsibilityhadappointeda
BoardofEducation,ofthreemembers,forthefreedmen'sschoolsandgivenitpowerto
establishschoolsineveryschooldistrict,andtolevyataxtosupportthesystem.Thisorder
wasdiscussedintheconvention,andfinallyapprovedbyavoteof72-9.Also,byavoteof5327,generaltaxationforthesupportoffreepublicschoolsforallwasapproved.The
conventiondiscussedapropositionofrecognizingallpersonsaswhitewhohadlessthan
one-fourthofNegroblood.Butthisinvolvedtoointricateinquiriesintoancestry,amatter
whichofteninLouisianaledtoduelsandmurder.Itwas,therefore,voteddown.
Theexpenseofthiswhiteconventionamountedtomorethan$1,000adayandincluded
liquor,cigars,carriagehire,stationeryandfurniture.Itillustratedtheextravaganthabitsof
thetime,andwasquiteasbadasanysimilarwasteinSouthCarolinawhenNegroeswere
partofthelegislature.TheNewOrleansTimesdescribedsomeoftheproceedingsofthe
conventionas"sickeninganddisgusting"andsaidthatthepresidentwas"drunkanda
damnedfool,"andthat"pandemonium"hadreigned.30
TheConstitutionwasfinallyadopted,67-16,andtheconventionadjournedinAugustwitha
provisionthatitcouldbereconvokedbythepresidentforfurtheramendingtheConstitution.
TheConstitutionwasadoptedbyavoteof6,836to1,566.
OnSeptember5,1864,alegislaturewaselectedaccordingtothe
newConstitution.Therewere9,838votescast,anditwasallegedthatmanycoloredpersons
wereallowedtoregisterandvote.ThenewlegislaturemetOctober3,1864.Thislegislatureis
saidbysomeauthoritiestohaverefusedbyalargemajoritytograntthesuffragetothe
Negro.Ficklin,ontheotherhand,saysthatnofinalvotewasactuallytaken.Certainlythe
legislaturewasagainstNegrosuffrage.Andwhenapetitionwasintroducedfromfive
thousandNegroes,"manyifnotthemajority"ofwhomhadbeenintheFederalarmy,asking
forthesuffrage,noactionwastaken.Onemember,apparentlyexpressingthegeneral
sentiment,said:"Itwillbetimeenoughtograntthispetitionwhenalltheotherfreestates
grantitandsetustheexample.Whenthisstategrantsit,IshallgotoChina."31
GovernorHahnmadenosuggestion,andwhenheresignedfromoffice,saidthatuniversal
suffragewouldbegranted"wheneveritisdeemedwiseandtimely.Louisianahasalready
donemorethanthree-fourthsoftheNorthernstates."
TheLegislaturerefusedtopermitmarriagesbetweenblacksandwhites,andtherewasone
attempttoreferthequestionofNegrosuffragetothepeople.TheThirteenthAmendment
wasadoptedandUnitedStatesSenatorswereelected,includingGovernorHahnfortheterm
beginningin1865.
Meantime,thewholeproblemofReconstructioninLouisianacameupinCongressandmet
theoppositionrepresentedbytheWade-DavisBill.
InArkansas,inasimilarway,bywhitesuffrage,ananti-slaveryConstitutionwasadopted,
andSenatorsandRepresentativeselectedinthespringof1864.
Yet,afterall,thiswasgeneralandpreliminary,andcertaindetailsmustbesettledbefore
RepresentativesandSenatorsfromthesestatescouldbereceivedinCongress;especiallythe
questionloomedastohowfarReconstructionwasgoingtobeanautomaticexecutive
functionandhowfaramatterofCongressionalsupervision.
Congress,thereupon,decidedtolaydownafundamentalplan.ThepartofthePresident's
messageonReconstructionwasreferredintheHousetoaselectcommittee,ofwhichHenry
WinterDaviswaschairman.TheresultwasacongressionalschemeofReconstruction.
TheWade-DavisBill,passedJuly4,1864,providedthattheelevenstateswhichhadseceded
weretobetreatedasrebelliouscommunities,overeachofwhichthePresidentwouldappoint
aProvisionalGovernor.ThisGovernorshouldexerciseallpowersofgovernmentuntilthe
statewasrecognizedbyCongressasrestored.WhenevertheGovernorregardedtherebellion
inhisstateassuppressed,hewastodirecttheUnitedStatesMarshaltoenrollallresident
whitemale
citizens,andgivethemanopportunitytoswearallegiancetotheUnitedStates.Whena
majorityofthesecitizenshadtakentheoath,theycouldelectdelegatestoaconventionand
theconventionwouldestablishastategovernment.Personswhohadheldanyofficeunder
theConfederategovernmentcouldnotvotefordelegates,orbeelectedasdelegatestothe
convention.TheConventionwastoadoptastateconstitutionwhichmustabolishslavery,
repudiateConfederateandstatedebtsincurredbytheConfederates,anddisqualify
Confederateofficialsfromvoting,orbeingelectedGovernororamemberoftheLegislature.
WhenthisConstitutionwasratifiedbyamajorityofthevoters,thePresident,withthe
consentofCongress,wouldproclaimthestategovernmentasestablished.Afterthat,
Representatives,Senators,andpresidentialelectorscouldbechosen.Thebillalsoabolished
slaveryintherebelliousstatesduringtheprocessofReconstruction.
ThusCongressfollowedCharlesSumner's"StateSuicide"theoryandformulated
Reconstructionmeasureswhichregardedthesecedingstatesasterritoriesandadministered
themassuchbycivilgovernmentuntiltheywerere-admitted.
ThisbilldidnotdifferradicallyfromthePresident'splan.Itwasquiteasliberaltothe
Confederatesandwiserinrequiringamajorityofvoters,insteadofonlyone-tenth,for
Reconstruction.ItwasmoremethodicalandcompletebecauseLincolnhadbeenleavingthe
mattervagueuntilhecouldsensemoreclearlythepossibilities.
BoththeWade-DavisplanandtheLincolnplanexcludedtheNegrofromtherightof
suffrage.IntheHousetherewasamotiontostrikeouttheword"white,"butthiswascutoff
bythepreviousquestion.Boutwellregretted,May4,thatthislimitationoftherighttovote
seemedrequiredbythepresentjudgmentoftheHouseandofthecountry.Whenthebill
cametotheSenateJuly1,Wade,asChairman,reportedittotheCommitteewithan
amendmentstrikingouttheword"white."Thisamendmentreceivedonlyfivevotes,
includingthatofCharlesSumner.Sumner,however,finallyvotedforthebillbecauseofits
provisionsagainstslavery.Hehadalreadyintroduced,May27,1864,anotherresolution
anticipatingtheCommitteeofFifteeninthe39thCongress,anddeclaringthatno
representativesfromConfederatestatesshouldbeadmittedwithoutavoteofbothHouses.
Lincoln,however,becamemoreandmoreobdurate.Hewrote:"Somesinglemindmustbe
master,"andhewishedstronglytocarrythroughReconstructionwithouttoomuch
interference.
WhentheWade-DavisBillcametothePresidentJuly4,1864,helaiditasideandrefusedto
signit,explaininghispositionJuly8,1864,inaproclamation:"WhileIam—asIwasin
December
last,whenbyproclamationIpropoundedaplanofrestoration—unpreparedbyformal
approvalofthisbilltobeinflexiblycommittedtoanysingleplanofrestoration;andwhileI
amalsounpreparedtodeclarethatthefreeStateconstitutionsandgovernments,already
adoptedandinstalledinArkansasandLouisiana,shallbesetasideandheldfornaught,
therebyrepealinganddiscouragingtheloyalcitizenswhohavesetupthesameastofurther
effort,ortodeclareaconstitutionalcompetencyinCongresstoabolishslaveryinstates;but
amatthesametimesincerelyhopingandexpectingthataconstitutionalamendment
abolishingslaverythroughoutthenationmaybeadopted,nevertheless,Iamfullysatisfied
withthesystemforrestorationcontainedinthebillasoneveryproperplanfortheloyal
peopleofanystatechoosingtoadoptit;andIam,andatalltimesshallbe,preparedtogive
theexecutiveaidandassistancetoanysuchpeople,sosoonasmilitaryresistancetothe
UnitedStatesshallhavebeensuppressedinanysuchstate,andthepeoplethereofshallhave
sufficientlyreturnedtotheirobediencetotheConstitutionandthelawsoftheUnitedStates,
inwhichcasesmilitarygovernorswillbeappointed,withdirectionstoproceedaccordingto
thebill."
SenatorWadeandRepresentativeDavistooktheircontentionstothecountryinthesummer
of1864.
"Wehavereadwithoutsurprise,butnotwithoutindignation,theproclamationofthe
Presidentofthe8thofJuly,1864.ThesupportersoftheAdministrationareresponsibleto
thecountryforitsconduct;anditistheirrightanddutytochecktheencroachmentsofthe
ExecutiveontheauthorityofCongress,andtorequireittoconfineitselftoitsproper
sphere."
TheydenouncedLincoln'sReconstructionplanandemphasizedthedistinctionbetween
ExecutiveandLegislativepowerinReconstruction.Despitethemanifestoandoppositionon
othergrounds,Lincolnwasreelected;buttheissueremainedtobefoughtoutbetween
CongressandJohnson.
AgaininhismessageofDecember,1864,Lincolnreturnedevenmoreemphaticallytothe
matterofthefreedomoftheslaves.OnecannotbeinmuchdoubtastowhatAbraham
Lincoln'sreactionwouldhavebeentotheblackcodesofSouthCarolinaandMississippi.
Certainlynostatewithsuchlawsconcerningtheblacklaborerwouldhavebeenadmittedto
theUnionwithAbrahamLincoln'sconsent:
"WhileIremaininmypresentpositionIshallnot'attempttoretractormodifythe
EmancipationProclamation.NorshallIreturntoslaveryanypersonwhoisfreebytheterms
ofthatProclamation,orbyanyoftheActsofCongress.//thepeopleshould,bywhatever
mode
ormeans,ma\eitanExecutivedutytoreenslavesuchpersons,another,andnotI,mustbe
theirinstrumenttoperformit."32
TheTrumbullResolutionofFebruary18,1865,recognizingtherestoredLouisiana
government,revealedadispositionintheSenatetoyieldtoLincoln.ButtherisingAbolitiondemocracyprotested.WendellPhillipsspokeinFaneuilHall.
"Gentlemen,youknowverywellthatthisnationcalled4,000,000ofNegroesintocitizenship
tosaveitself.(Applause.)Itnevercalledthemfortheirownsakes.Itcalledthemtosave
itself.(Criesof'Hear,Hear.')AndtodaythisresolutionofferedinFaneuilHallwouldtake
fromthePresidentofsuchanationthepowertoprotectthemillionsyouhavejustliftedinto
danger.(Criesof'Playedout,''Sitdown,'etc.)Youwon'tlethimprotectthem.(Criesof'No.')
Whatmorecontemptibleobjectthananationwhichforitsownselfishpurposesummons
fourmillionsofNegroestosuchapositionofperil,andthenleavesthemdefenseless."
IntheSenate,Sumnerwasadamantinhisdemandthatallmen,irrespectiveofcolor,should
beequalascitizensinthereconstructedstates.Hebelievedthatafirstfalsestepinthis
matterwouldbefatal.ThedebatebeganFebruary23,1865,andSumnerfoughteverystep.
Hemovedasubstitutewhichreceivedonlyeightvotes.Hetriedtodisplacetheresolution,
andfilibustered.Whenaskedtogiveup,hereplied,"Thatisnotmyhabit."
SumnersentinasecondsubstitutedeclaringthatthecauseofhumanrightsandoftheUnion
neededtheballotsaswellasthemusketsofcoloredmen.Heofferedanotheramendment
imposingequalsuffrageasthefundamentalconditionfortheadmissionoftheseceded
states.AnightsessionwascalledwhichlasteduntilnearlySundaymorning.Sumnerwas
rebukedforhisarroganceandassumedsuperiorityandtheSenatefinallyadjourned,halfan
hourbeforemidnight.
Onlyfivedaysofthesessionremained.Wadenowenteredthedebateanddenouncedthe
LouisianagovernmentasamockeryandcomparedittotheLecomptonConstitutionof
Kansas.SumneragainbitterlyarraignedtheproposedLouisianastategovernmentas"amere
sevenmonths'abortion,begottenbythebayonet,incriminalconjunctionwiththespiritof
caste,andbornbeforeitstime,rickety,unformed,unfinished,whosecontinuedexistencewill
beaburden,areproach,andawrong."33
Thebillfinallyfailed.ItwasSumner'sgreatestparliamentarycontestandwithhistriumph,
thecauseofNegrosuffragewaswon.WendellPhillips,FrederickDouglass,ParkerPillsbury
andotherswrotetocongratulateSumner.Douglasssaid:
"Thefriendsoffreedomalloverthecountryhavelookedtoyou
andconfidedinyou,ofallmenintheUnitedStatesSenate,duringallthisterriblewar.They
willlooktoyouallthemorenowthatpeacedawns,andthefinalsettlementofournational
troublesisathand.Godgrantyoustrengthequaltoyourdayandyourduties,ismyprayer
andthatofmillions!"
Ashley'sReconstructionbillcamebeforetheHouseofRepresentativesJanuary16,February
21,andFebruary22,1865.EachdraftconfinedsulTragetowhitemalecitizens,exceptone,in
whichcoloredsoldierswereadmittedtothesuffrage.Ashleyopposedthisdiscrimination,but
hiscommitteeoverruledhim.
Inhislastpublicspeech,April11,1865,LincolnreturnedtothesubjectofReconstruction.
"ThenewConstitutionofLouisiana,declaringEmancipationforthewholeState,practically
appliestheproclamationtothepartpreviouslyexcepted.Itdoesnotadoptapprenticeshipfor
freedpeople,anditissilent,asitcouldnotwellbeotherwise,abouttheadmissionof
memberstoCongress.Sothat,asitappliestoLouisiana,everymemberoftheCabinetfully
approvedtheplan.ThemessagewenttoCongress,andIreceivedmanycommendationsof
theplan,writtenandverbal,andnotasingleobjectiontoitfromanyprofessed
emancipationistcametomyknowledgeuntilafterthenewsreachedWashingtonthatthe
peopleofLouisianahadbeguntomoveinaccordancewithit.FromaboutJuly,1862,Ihad
correspondedwithdifferentpersonssupposedtobeinterested[in]seekingareconstruction
ofaStategovernmentforLouisiana.Whenthemessageof1863,withtheplanbefore
mentioned,reachedNewOrleans,GeneralBankswrotemethathewasconfidentthatthe
people,withhismilitarycooperation,wouldreconstructsubstantiallyonthatplan.Iwroteto
himandsomeofthemtotryit.Theytriedit,andtheresultisknown.Suchonlyhasbeenmy
agencyinsettinguptheLouisianagovernment....
"WeallagreethatthesecededStates,so-called,areoutoftheirproperpracticalrelationwith
theUnion,andthatthesoleobjectoftheGovernment,civilandmilitary,inregardtothose
States,istoagaingetthemintothatproperpracticalrelation.Ibelievethatitisnotonly
possible,butinfacteasier,todothiswithoutdecidingorevenconsideringwhetherthese
StateshaveeverbeenoutoftheUnion,thanwithit.Findingthemselvessafelyathome,it
wouldbeutterlyimmaterialwhethertheyhadeverbeenabroad.Letusalljoinindoingthe
actsnecessarytorestoringtheproperpracticalrelationsbetweentheseStatesandtheUnion,
andeachforeverafterinnocentlyindulgehisownopinionwhetherindoingtheactshe
broughttheStatesfromwithoutintotheUnion,oronlygavethemproperassistance,they
neverhavingbeenoutofit.Theamountofconstituency,so
tospeak,onwhichthenewLouisianagovernmentrests,wouldbemoresatisfactorytoallifit
contained50,000,or30,000,oreven20,000,insteadofonlyabout12,000,asitdoes.Itis
alsounsatisfactorytosomethattheelectivefranchiseisnotgiventothecoloredman.I
wouldmyselfpreferthatitwerenowconferredontheveryintelligent,andonthosewho
serveourcauseassoldiers.
"Still,thequestionisnotwhethertheLouisianagovernment,asitstands,isquiteallthatis
desirable.Thequestionis,willitbewisertotakeitasitisandhelptoimproveit,ortoreject
anddisperseit?CanLouisianabebroughtintoproperpracticalrelationwiththeUnion
soonerbysustainingorbydiscardinghernewStategovernment?Sometwelvethousand
votersintheheretoforeslaveStateofLouisianahaveswornallegiancetotheUnion,assumed
therightfulpoliticalpowerofthestate,heldelections,organizedaStategovernment,adopted
afreeStateconstitution,givingthebenefitofpublicschoolsequallytoblackandwhite,and
empoweredtheLegislaturetoconfertheelectivefranchiseuponthecoloredman.Their
Legislaturehasalreadyvotedtoratifytheconstitutionalamendment,recentlypassedby
Congress,abolishingslaverythroughoutthenation.Thesetwelvethousandpersonsarethus
fullycommittedtotheUnionandtoperpetualfreedomintheState—committedtothevery
things,andnearlyallthethings,thenationwants—andtheyaskthenation'srecognitionand
itsassistancetomakegoodtheircommittal.
"Now,ifwerejectandspurnthem,wedoourutmosttodisorganizeanddispersethem.We,
ineffect,saytothewhiteman:Youareworthlessorworse;wewillneitherhelpyou,norbe
helpedbyyou.Totheblackswesay:Thiscupoflibertywhichthese,youroldmasters,holdto
yourlips,wewilldashfromyou,andleaveyoutothechancesofgatheringthespilledand
scatteredcontentsinsomevagueandundefinedwhen,where,andhow.Ifthiscourse,
discouragingandparalyzingbothwhiteandblack,hasanytendencytobringLouisianainto
properpracticalrelationswiththeUnion,Ihavesofarbeenunabletoperceiveit.If,onthe
contrary,werecognizeandsustainthenewgovernmentofLouisiana,theconverseofallthis
ismadetrue.Weencouragetheheartsandnervethearmsofthetwelvethousandtoadhere
totheirwork,andargueforit,andproselyteforit,andfightforit,andfeedit,andgrowit,
andripenittoacompletesuccess.Thecoloredman,too,inseeingallunitedforhim,is
inspiredwithvigilanceandenergyanddaringtothesameend.Grantthathedesiresthe
electivefranchise,willhenotattainitsoonerbysavingthealreadyadvancedstepstowardsit
thanbyrunningbackwardoverthem?ConcedethatthenewgovernmentofLouisianaisonly
towhatit
shouldbeastheeggistothefowl,weshallsoonerhavethefowlbyhatchingtheeggthanby
smashingit."34
ThetragicdeathofLincolnhasgivencurrencytothetheorythattheLincolnpolicyof
Reconstructionwouldhavebeenfarbetterandmoresuccessfulthanthepolicyafterward
pursued.IfitismeantbythisthatLincolnwouldhavemorecarefullyfollowedpublicopinion
andworkedtoadjustdifferences,thisistrue.ButAbrahamLincolnhimselfcouldnothave
settledthequestionofEmancipation,Negrocitizenshipandthevote,withouttremendous
difficulty.
FirstofallhewasbitterlyhatedbytheoverwhelmingmassofSoutherners.MarkPomeroy,a
NorthernCopperhead,voicedtheextremeSouthernopinionwhenhewrote:
"ItisyouRepublicanswhosetupattheheadofthenationahideousclown...whobecamea
shamelesstyrant,atyrantjustlyfelledbyanavenginghand,andwhonowrotsinhistomb
whilehispoisonoussoulisconsumedbytheeternalflamesofhell."3o
EvenconservativeSouthernpaperscontinuallyreferredtoLincolnasa"gorilla"ora"clown."
AndwhenweconsiderthefactthatLincolnwasdetermineduponrealfreedomfortheNegro,
uponhiseducation,andatleastarestrictedrighttovote,itisdifficulttoseehowtheSouth
couldhavebeenbroughttoagreementwithhim.
IntheSouththerewasabsenceofanyleadershipcorrespondinginbreadthandcourageto
thatofAbrahamLincoln.Herecomesthepenaltywhichalandpayswhenitstiflesfree
speechandfreediscussionandturnsitselfoverentirelytopropaganda.Itdoesnotmakeany
differenceifatthetimethethingsadvocatedareabsolutelyright,thenation,nevertheless,
becomesmorallyemasculatedandmentallyhog-tied,andcannotevolvethathealthy
differenceofopinionwhichleadstothediscoveryoftruthunderchangingconditions.
Suppose,forinstance,therehadbeenintheSouthin1863asmallbutdeterminedandclearthinkinggroupofmenwhosaid:"TheNegroisfreeandtomakehisfreedomreal,hemust
havelandandeducation.Hemustbeguidedinhisworkanddevelopmentbutguidedtoward
freedomandtherighttovote.Suchcompletefreedomandthebestowalofsuffragemustbea
matterofsomeyears,butatpresentwedonotproposetotakeadvantageofthisandretain
politicalpowerbasedonthenon-votingpartsofourpopulation.We,therefore,acceptthe
constitutionalamendmentagainstslavery;weacceptanyotheramendmentwhichwillbase
representationonvoting,orotherproposalswhichwillequalizethevotingpowerofNorth
andSouth.Weadmittherightofthegovernmenttoexerciseajudiciousguardianshipover
theslavessolongaswehavereasonablevoiceinthisguardianship,andthattheinterestsof
theemployeraswellas
theemployeeshallbekeptinmind.Andinanticipationofthisdevelopment,weproposeto
passareasonablecodeoflawsrecognizingthenewstatusoftheNegro."
IftherehadbeeninthewhiteSouthatthistimefar-seeingleadershiporevensomecommon
sense,thesubsequenthistoryofReconstructionandoftheNegrointheUnitedStateswould
havebeenprofoundlychanged.SupposeasinglestatelikeLouisianahadallowedtheNegro
tovote,withahighpropertyqualification,ortheabilitytoreadandwrite,orserviceinthe
army,orallthese?CharlesSumnerandThaddeusStevenswouldnothavebeenwholly
satisfied,butcertainlytheirdemandswouldhavebeengreatlymodified.Bothofthemwere
perfectlywillingtowaitforNegrosuffrageuntiltheNegrohadeducationandhadbegunhis
economicadvance.Buttheydidinsistthathemusthavethechancetoadvance.
Therecannotbetheslightestdoubtthatsuchaprogramwouldhavegatheredenoughsupport
intheNorthtohavemadethehistoryofReconstructionnoteasyandwithoutdifficulty,but
farlessdifficultthanitprovedtobe.TherewereintheSouthin1865menwhosawthistruth
plainlyandsaidso.Buttrueeffectiveleadershipwasdeniedthem;justasbeforethewar
publicopinionintheSouthwashammeredintoidolatrousworshipofslavery,soafterthe
war,evenmorebitterlyandcruelly,publicopiniondemandedanewunyieldingconformity.
Herewasalandofpoignantbeauty,streakedwithhateandbloodandshame,whereGodwas
worshipedwildly,wherehumanbeingswereboughtandsold,andwhereeveninthe
twentiethcenturymenareburnedalive.Thesituationherein1865wasfatal,andfatal
becauseoftheattitudeofmen'smindsratherthanbecauseofmateriallossand
disorganization.Thehumanmind,itswillandemotions,congealedtoonesetpattern,until
herewerepeoplewhoknewtheyknewonethingaboveallothers,justascertainlyasthey
knewthatthesunroseandset;andthatwas,thataNegrowouldnotworkwithout
compulsion,andthatslaverywashisnaturalcondition.IfbyforceandlawtheNegrowas
free,hisonlychancetoremainfreewastransportationimmediatelytoAfricaorsome
outlyingdistrictoftheworld,wherehewouldsoondieofstarvationordisease.Such
colonizationwasimpracticable,andSouthernslavery,asitexistedbeforethewar,wasthe
bestpossiblesystemfortheNegro;andthisthevastmajorityofSouthernerswereforcedto
believeasfirmlyin1865astheydidini860.
ThewholeproofofwhattheSouthproposedtodototheemancipatedNegro,unless
restrainedbythenation,wasshownintheBlackCodespassedafterJohnson'saccession,but
representingthelogicalresultofattitudesofmindexistingwhenLincolnstilllived.Someof
thesewerepassedandenforced.Somewerepassedandafterwardrepealedormodifiedwhen
thereactionoftheNorthwasrealized.Inothercases,asforinstance,inLouisiana,itisnot
clearjustwhichlawswereretainedandwhichwererepealed.InAlabama,theGovernor
inducedthelegislaturenottoenactsomepartsoftheproposedcodewhichthey
overwhelminglyfavored.
TheoriginalcodesfavoredbytheSouthernlegislatureswereanastonishingaffrontto
emancipationanddealtwithvagrancy,apprenticeship,laborcontracts,migration,civiland
legalrights.Inallcases,therewasplainandindisputableattemptonthepartoftheSouthern
statestomakeNegroesslavesineverythingbutname.Theyweregivencertaincivilrights:
therighttoholdproperty,tosueandbesued.Thefamilyrelationsforthefirsttimewere
legallyrecognized.Negroeswerenolongerrealestate.
Yet,inthefaceofthis,theBlackCodesweredeliberatelydesignedtotakeadvantageofevery
misfortuneoftheNegro.Negroeswereliabletoaslavetradeundertheguiseofvagrancyand
apprenticeshiplaws;tomakethebestlaborcontracts,Negroesmustleavetheoldplantations
andseekbetterterms;butifcaughtwanderinginsearchofwork,andthusunemployedand
withoutahome,thiswasvagrancy,andthevictimcouldbewhippedandsoldintoslavery.In
theturmoilofwar,childrenwereseparatedfromparents,orparentsunabletosupportthem
properly.Thesechildrencouldbesoldintoslavery,and"theformerownerofsaidminors
shallhavethepreference."Negroescouldcomeintocourtaswitnessesonlyincasesinwhich
Negroeswereinvolved.Andeventhen,theymustmaketheirappealtoajuryandjudgewho
wouldbelievethewordofanywhitemaninpreferencetothatofanyNegroonpainoflosing
officeandcaste.
TheNegro'saccesstothelandwashinderedandlimited;hisrighttoworkwascurtailed;his
rightofself-defensewastakenaway,whenhisrighttobeararmswasstopped;andhis
employmentwasvirtuallyreducedtocontractlaborwithpenalservitudeasapunishmentfor
leavinghisjob.Andinallcases,thejudgesoftheNegro'sguiltorinnocence,rightsand
obligationsweremenwhobelievedfirmly,forthemostpart,thathehad"norightswhicha
whitemanwasboundtorespect."
Makingeveryallowancefortheexcitementandturmoilofwar,andthementalityofa
defeatedpeople,theBlackCodeswereinfamouspiecesoflegislation.
Letusexaminethesecodesindetail.36Theycovered,naturally,awiderangeofsubjects.
First,therewasthequestionofallowingNegroestocomeintothestate.InSouthCarolina
theconstitutionof1865permittedtheLegislaturetoregulateimmigration,andtheconsequentlawdeclared"thatnopersonofcolorshallmigrateintoandresideinthisState,
unless,withintwentydaysafterhisarrivalwithinthesame,heshallenterintoabond,with
twofreeholdersassureties...inapenaltyofonethousanddollars,conditionedforhisgood
behavior,andforhissupport."
EspeciallyinthematterofworkwastheNegronarrowlyrestricted.InSouthCarolina,he
mustbeespeciallylicensedifhewastofollowonhisownaccountanyemployment,except
thatoffarmerorservant.Thoselicensedmustnotonlyprovetheirfitness,butpayanannual
taxrangingfrom$io-$ioo.Undernocircumstancescouldtheymanufactureorsellliquor.
Licensesforworkweretobegrantedbyajudgeandwererevokableoncomplaint.The
penaltywasafinedoubletheamountofthelicense,one-halfofwhichwenttotheinformer.
Mississippiprovidedthat"everyfreedman,freeNegro,andmulattoshallonthesecond
MondayofJanuary,onethousandeighthundredandsixty-six,andannuallythereafter,have
alawfulhomeoremployment,andshallhavewrittenevidencethereof...fromtheMayor...
orfromamemberoftheboardofpolice...whichlicensesmayberevokedforcauseatany
timebytheauthoritygrantingthesame."
Detailedregulationoflaborwasprovidedforinnearlyallthesestates.
Louisianapassedanelaboratelawin1865,to"regulatelaborcontractsforagricultural
pursuits."Later,itwasdeniedthatthislegislationwasactuallyenacted;butthelawwas
publishedatthetimeandtheconstitutionalconventionof1868certainlyregardedthis
statuteaslaw,fortheyformallyrepealedit.Thelawrequiredallagriculturallaborerstomake
laborcontractsforthenextyearwithinthefirsttendaysofJanuary,thecontractstobein
writing,tobewithheadsoffamilies,toembracethelaborofallthemembers,andtobe
"bindingonallminorsthereof."Eachlaborer,afterchoosinghisemployer,"shallnotbe
allowedtoleavehisplaceofemploymentuntilthefulfillmentofhiscontract,unlessby
consentofhisemployer,oronaccountofharshtreatment,orbreachofcontractonthepart
oftheemployer;andiftheydosoleave,withoutcauseorpermission,theyshallforfeitall
wagesearnedtothetimeofabandonment....
"Incaseofsicknessofthelaborer,wagesforthetimelostshallbededucted,andwherethe
sicknessisfeignedforpurposesofidleness,...andalsoshouldrefusaltoworkbecontinued
beyondthreedays,theoffendershallbereportedtoajusticeofthepeace,andshallbeforced
tolaboronroads,levees,andotherpublicworks,withoutpay,untiltheoffenderconsentsto
returntohislabor....
"Wheninhealth,thelaborershallworktenhoursduringtheday
insummer,andninehoursduringthedayinwinter,unlessotherwisestipulatedinthelabor
contract;heshallobeyallproperordersofhisemployerorhisagent;takepropercareofhis
workmules,horses,oxen,stock;alsoofallagriculturalimplements;andemployersshall
havetherighttomakeareasonabledeductionfromthelaborer'swagesforinjuriesdoneto
animalsoragriculturalimplementscommittedtohiscare,orforbadornegligentwork.Bad
workshallnotbeallowed.Failingtoobeyreasonableorders,neglectofdutyandleaving
homewithoutpermission,willbedeemeddisobedience....Foranydisobedienceafineof
onedollarshallbeimposedontheoffender.Foralllosttimefromworkhours,unlessincase
ofsickness,thelaborershallbefinedtwenty-fivecentsperhour.Forallabsencefromhome
withoutleave,thelaborerwillbefinedattherateoftwodollarsperday.Laborerswillnotbe
requiredtolaborontheSabbathexcepttotakethenecessarycareofstockandotherproperty
onplantationsanddothenecessarycookingandhouseholdduties,unlessbyspecialcontract.
Foralltheftsofthelaborersfromtheemployerofagriculturalproducts,hogs,sheep,poultry
oranyotherpropertyoftheemployer,orwillfuldestructionofpropertyorinjury,thelaborer
shallpaytheemployerdoubletheamountofthevalueofthepropertystolen,destroyedor
injured,onehalftobepaidtotheemployer,andtheotherhalftobeplacedinthegeneral
fundprovidedforinthissection.Nolivestockshallbeallowedtolaborerswithoutthe
permissionoftheemployer.Laborersshallnotreceivevisitorsduringworkhours.All
difficultiesarisingbetweentheemployersandlaborers,underthissection,shallbesettled,
andallfinesbeimposed,bytheformer;ifnotsatisfactorytothelaborers,anappealmaybe
hadtothenearestjusticeofthepeaceandtwofreeholders,citizens,oneofsaidcitizenstobe
selectedbytheemployerandtheotherbythelaborer;andallfinesimposedandcollected
underthissectionshallbedeductedfromthewagesdue,andshallbeplacedinacommon
fund,tobedividedamongtheotherlaborersemployedontheplantationatthetimewhen
theirfullwagesfalldue,exceptasprovidedforabove."
SimilardetailedregulationsofworkwereintheSouthCarolinalaw.Elaborateprovisionwas
madeforcontractingcolored"servants"towhite"masters."Theirmastersweregiventhe
righttowhip"moderately"servantsundereighteen.Othersweretobewhippedonauthority
ofjudicialofficers.Theseofficersweregivenauthoritytoreturnrunawayservantstotheir
masters.Theservants,ontheotherhand,weregivencertainrights.Theirwagesandperiodof
servicemustbespecifiedinwriting,andtheywereprotectedagainst"unreasonable"tasks,
Sundayandnightwork,unauthorizedattacksontheirpersons,andinadequatefood.
ContractingNegroesweretobeknownas"servants"andcontractorsas"masters."Wages
weretobefixedbythejudge,unlessstipulated.Negroesoftenyearsofageormorewithouta
parentlivinginthedistrictmightmakeavalidcontractforayearorless.Failuretomake
writtencontractswasamisdemeanor,punishablebyafineof$5to$50;farmlabortobe
fromsunrisetosunset,withintervalsformeals;servantstoriseatdawn,tobecarefulof
master'spropertyandanswerableforpropertylostorinjured.Losttimewastobededucted
fromwages.Foodandclothesmightbededucted.Servantsweretobequietandorderlyand
togotobedatreasonablehours.Nonightworkoroutdoorworkinbadweatherwastobe
asked,exceptincasesofnecessity,visitorsnotallowedwithoutthemaster'sconsent.
Servantsleavingemploymentwithoutgoodreasonmustforfeitwages.Mastersmight
dischargeservantsfordisobedience,drunkenness,disease,absence,etc.Enticingawaythe
servicesofaservantwaspunishablebyafineof$20to$100.Amastercouldcommanda
servanttoaidhimindefenseofhisownperson,familyorproperty.Houseservantsatall
hoursofthedayandnight,andatalldaysoftheweek,"mustanswerpromptlyallcallsand
executealllawfulorders."
Therighttosellfarmproducts"withoutwrittenevidencefromemployer"wasforbiddenin
SouthCarolina,andsomeotherstates."Apersonofcolorwhoisintheemploymentofa
master,engagedinhusbandry,shallnothavetherighttosellanycorn,rice,peas,wheat,or
othergrain,anyflour,cotton,fodder,hay,bacon,freshmeatofanykind,poultryofanykind,
animalsofanykind,oranyotherproductofafarm,withouthavingwrittenevidencefrom
suchmaster,orsomepersonauthorizedbyhim,orfromthedistrictjudgeoramagistrate,
thathehastherighttosellsuchproduct."
Therewereelaboratelawscoveringthematterofcontractsforwork.Acontractmustbein
writingandusually,asinSouthCarolina,whitewitnessesmustattestitandajudgeapprove
it.InFlorida,contractsweretobeinwritingandfailuretokeepthecontractsbydisobedience
orimpudencewastobetreatedasvagrancy.InKentucky,contractsweretobeinwritingand
attestedbyawhiteperson.InMississippi,contractsweretobeinwritingattestedbyawhite
person,andifthelaborerstoppedwork,hiswagesweretobeforfeitedforayear.Hecouldbe
arrested,andthefeeforhisarrestmustbepaidbytheemployerandtakenoutofhiswages.
Therewerecarefulprovisionstoprotectthecontractingemployerfromlosinghislabor.In
Alabama,"Whenanylaborerorservant,havingcontractedasprovidedinthefirstsectionof
thisact,shallafterwardbefound,beforetheterminationofsaidcontract,intheserviceor
employmentofanother,thatfactshallbeprimafacieevidencethat
suchpersonisguiltyofviolationofthisact,ifhefailandrefusetoforthwithdischargethe
saidlaborerorservant,afterbeingnotifiedandinformedofsuchformercontractand
employment."
Mississippiprovided"thateverycivilofficershall,andeverypersonmay,arrestandcarry
backtohisorherlegalemployeranyfreedman,freeNegro,ormulattowhoshallhavequit
theserviceofhisorheremployerbeforetheexpirationofhisorhertermofservicewithout
goodcause;andsaidofficerandpersonshallbeentitledtoreceiveforarrestingandcarrying
backeverydesertingemployeeaforesaidthesumoffivedollars,andtencentspermilefrom
theplaceofarresttotheplaceofdelivery,andthesameshallbepaidbytheemployerand
heldasaset-offforsomuchagainstthewagesofsaiddesertingemployee."
Itwasprovidedinsomestates,likeSouthCarolina,thatanywhiteman,whetheranofficeror
not,couldarrestaNegro."Uponviewofamisdemeanorcommittedbyapersonofcolor,any
personpresentmayarresttheoffenderandtakehimbeforeamagistrate,tobedealtwithas
thecasemayrequire.Incaseofamisdemeanorcommittedbyawhitepersontowardaperson
ofcolor,anypersonmaycomplaintoamagistrate,whoshallcausetheoffendertobe
arrested,and,accordingtothenatureofthecase,tobebroughtbeforehimself,orbetaken
fortrialinthedistrictcourt."
Ontheotherhand,inMississippi,itwasdangerousforaNegrototrytobringawhiteperson
tocourtonanycharge."Ineverycasewhereanywhitepersonhasbeenarrestedandbrought
totrial,byvirtueoftheprovisionsofthetenthsectionoftheaboverecitedact,inanycourtin
thisState,uponsufficientproofbeingmadetothecourtorjury,uponthetrialbeforesaid
court,thatanyfreedman,freeNegroormulattohasfalselyandmaliciouslycausedthearrest
andtrialofsaidwhitepersonorpersons,thecourtshallrenderupajudgmentagainstsaid
freedman,freeNegroormulattoforallcostsofthecase,andimposeafinenottoexceedfifty
dollars,andimprisonmentinthecountyjailnottoexceedtwentydays;andforafailureof
saidfreedman,freeNegroormulattotopay,orcausetobepaid,allcosts,finesandjailfees,
thesheriffofthecountyisherebyauthorizedandrequired,aftergivingtendays'public
notice,toproceedtohireoutatpublicoutcry,atthecourt-houseofthecounty,said
freedman,freeNegroormulatto,fortheshortesttimetoraisetheamountnecessaryto
dischargesaidfreedman,freeNegroormulattofromallcosts,fines,andjailfeesaforesaid."
Mississippideclaredthat:"Anyfreedman,freeNegro,ormulatto,committingriots,routs,
affrays,trespasses,maliciousmischiefandcrueltreatmenttoanimals,seditiousspeeches,
insultinggestures,Ianguageoracts,orassaultsonanyperson,disturbanceofthepeace,exercisingthefunctionsof
aministerofthegospelwithoutalicensefromsomeregularlyorganizedchurch,vending
spirituousorintoxicatingliquors,orcommittinganyothermisdemeanor,thepunishmentof
whichisnotspecificallyprovidedforbylaw,shall,uponconvictionthereof,inthecounty
court,befinednotlessthantendollars,andnotmorethanonehundreddollars,andmaybe
imprisoned,atthediscretionofthecourt,notexceedingthirtydays."
Astoothercivilrights,themarriageofNegroeswasforthefirsttimerecognizedinthe
Southernstatesandslavemarriageslegalized.SouthCarolinasaidingeneral:"Thatthe
statutesandregulationsconcerningslavesarenowinapplicabletopersonsofcolor;and
althoughsuchpersonsarenotentitledtosocialorpoliticalequalitywithwhitepersons,they
shallhavetherighttoacquire,own,anddisposeofproperty,tomakecontracts,toenjoythe
fruitsoftheirlabor,tosueandbesued,andtoreceiveprotectionunderthelawintheir
personsandproperty."
Floridaforbade"coloredandwhitepersonsrespectivelyfromintrudinguponeachother's
publicassemblies,religiousorother,orpublicvehiclesetapartfortheirexclusiveuse,under
punishmentofpilloryorstripes,orboth."
VerygenerallyNegroeswereprohibitedorlimitedintheirownershipoffirearms.InFlorida,
forinstance,itwas"unlawfulforanyNegro,mulatto,orpersonofcolortoown,use,orkeep
inpossessionorundercontrolanybowie-knife,dirk,sword,firearms,orammunitionofany
kind,unlessbylicenseofthecountyjudgeofprobate,underapenaltyofforfeitingthemto
theinformer,andofstandinginthepilloryonehour,orbewhippednotexceedingthirty-nine
stripes,orboth,atthediscretionofthejury."
Alabamahadasimilarlawmakingitillegaltosell,giveorrentfirearmsorammunitionof
anydescription"toanyfreedman,freeNegroormulatto."
MississippirefusedarmstoNegroes."Nofreedman,freeNegro,ormulatto,notinthe
militaryserviceoftheUnitedStatesGovernment,andnotlicensedtodosobytheboardof
policeofhisorhercounty,shallkeeporcarryfirearmsofanykind,oranyammunition,dirk,
orbowie-knife;andonconvictionthereof,inthecountycourt,shallbepunishedbyfine,not
exceedingtendollars,andpaythecostsofsuchproceedings,andallsucharmsor
ammunitionshallbeforfeitedtotheinformer."
ASouthCarolinaNegrocouldonlykeepfirearmsonpermissioninwritingfromtheDistrict
Judge."PersonsofcolorconstitutenopartofthemilitiaoftheState,andnooneofthem
shall,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthedistrictjudgeormagistrate,beallowedtokeepafirearm,sword,or
othermilitaryweapon,exceptthatoneofthem,whoistheownerofafarm,maykeepashotgunorrifle,suchasisordinarilyusedinhunting,butnotapistol,musket,orotherfirearmor
weaponappropriateforpurposesofwar...andincaseofconviction,shallbepunishedbya
fineequaltotwicethevalueoftheweaponsounlawfullykept,andifthatbenotimmediately
paid,bycorporalpunishment."
Therightofbuyingandsellingpropertywasusuallygrantedbutsometimeslimitedasto
land.Mississippideclared:"Thatallfreedmen,freeNegroesandmulattoesmaysueandbe
sued,impleadandbeimpleadedinallthecourtsoflawandequityofthisState,andmay
acquirepersonalpropertyandchosesinactionbydescentorpurchase,andmaydisposeof
thesameinthesamemannerandtothesameextentthatwhitepersonsmay:Provided,that
theprovisionsofthissectionshallnotbesoconstruedastoallowanyfreedman,freeNegro
ormulattotorentorleaseanylandsortenements,exceptinincorporatedtownsorcities,in
whichplacesthecorporateauthoritiesshallcontrolthesame."
Themostimportantandoppressivelawswerethosewithregardtovagrancyand
apprenticeship.SometimestheyespeciallyappliedtoNegroes;inothercases,theywere
drawningeneraltermsbutevidentlydesignedtofittheNegro'sconditionandtobeenforced
particularlywithregardtoNegroes.
TheVirginiaVagrantActenactedthat"anyjusticeofthepeace,uponthecomplaintofany
oneofcertainofficersthereinnamed,mayissuehiswarrantfortheapprehensionofany
personallegedtobeavagrantandcausesuchpersontobeapprehendedandbroughtbefore
him;andthatifupondueexaminationsaidjusticeofthepeaceshallfindthatsuchpersonis
avagrantwithinthedefinitionofvagrancycontainedinsaidstatute,heshallissuehis
warrant,directingsuchpersontobeemployedforatermnotexceedingthreemonths,andby
anyconstableofthecountywhereintheproceedingsarehad,behiredoutforthebestwages
whichcanbeprocured,hiswagestobeappliedtothesupportofhimselfandhisfamily.The
saidstatutefurtherprovides,thatincaseanyvagrantsohiredshall,duringhistermof
service,runawayfromhisemployerwithoutsufficientcause,heshallbeapprehendedonthe
warrantofajusticeofthepeaceandreturnedtothecustodyofhisemployer,whoshallthen
have,freefromanyotherhire,theservicesofsuchvagrantforonemonthinadditiontothe
originaltermofhiring,andthattheemployershallthenhavepower,ifauthorizedbyajustice
ofthepeace,toworksuchvagrantwithballandchain.Thesaidstatutespecifiedthepersons
whoshallbeconsideredvagrantsandliabletothepenaltiesimposedbyit.Amongthosedeclaredtobe
vagrantsareallpersonswho,nothavingthewherewithtosupporttheirfamilies,liveidlyand
withoutemployment,andrefusetoworkfortheusualandcommonwagesgiventoother
laborersinthelikeworkintheplacewheretheyare."
InFlorida,January12,1866:"Itisprovidedthatwhenanypersonofcolorshallenterintoa
contractasaforesaid,toserveasalaborerforayear,oranyotherspecifiedterm,onanyfarm
orplantationinthisState,ifheshallrefuseorneglecttoperformthestipulationsofhis
contractbywillfuldisobedienceoforders,wantonimpudenceordisrespecttohisemployer,
orhisauthorizedagent,failureorrefusaltoperformtheworkassignedtohim,idleness,or
abandonmentofthepremisesortheemploymentofthepartywithwhomthecontractwas
made,heorsheshallbeliable,uponthecomplaintofhisemployerorhisagent,madeunder
oathbeforeanyjusticeofthepeaceofthecounty,tobearrestedandtriedbeforethecriminal
courtofthecounty,anduponconvictionshallbesubjecttoallthepainsandpenalties
prescribedforthepunishmentofvagrancy."
InGeorgia,itwasruledthat"Allpersonswanderingorstrollingaboutinidleness,whoare
abletowork,andwhohavenopropertytosupportthem;allpersonsleadinganidle,immoral,
orprofligatelife,whohavenopropertytosupportthemandareabletoworkanddonot
work;allpersonsabletoworkhavingnovisibleandknownmeansofafair,honest,and
respectablelivelihood;allpersonshavingafixedabode,whohavenovisiblepropertyto
supportthem,andwholivebystealingorbytradingin,barteringfor,orbuyingstolen
property;andallprofessionalgamblerslivinginidleness,shallbedeemedandconsidered
vagrants,andshallbeindictedassuch,anditshallbelawfulforanypersontoarrestsaid
vagrantsandhavethemboundoverfortrialtothenexttermofthecountycourt,andupon
conviction,theyshallbefinedandimprisonedorsentencedtoworkonthepublicworks,for
notlongerthanayear,orshall,inthediscretionofthecourt,beboundoverfortrialtothe
nexttermofthecountycourt,anduponconviction,theyshallbefinedandimprisonedor
sentencedtoworkonthepublicworks,fornotlongerthanayear,orshall,inthediscretion
ofthecourt,beboundouttosomepersonforatimenotlongerthanoneyear,uponsuch
valuableconsiderationasthecourtmayprescribe."
Mississippiprovided"Thatallfreedmen,freeNegroes,andmulat-toesinthisstateoverthe
ageofeighteenyears,foundonthesecondMondayinJanuary,1866,orthereafter,withno
lawfulemploymentorbusiness,orfoundunlawfullyassemblingthemselvestogether,either
inthedayornighttime,andallwhitepersonssoassemblingwith
freedmen,freeNegroesormulattoes,orusuallyassociatingwithfreedmen,freeNegroesor
mulattoesontermsofequality,orlivinginadulteryorfornicationwithafreedwoman,free
Negroormulatto,shallbedeemedvagrants,andonconvictionthereofshallbefinedinthe
sumofnotexceeding,inthecaseofafreedman,freeNegroormulatto,fiftydollars,anda
whitemantwohundreddollarsandimprisoned,atthediscretionofthecourt,thefreeNegro
notexceedingtendays,andthewhitemennotexceedingsixmonths."
Sec.5providesthat"allfinesandforfeiturescollectedundertheprovisionsofthisactshallbe
paidintothecountytreasuryforgeneralcountypurposes,andincaseanyfreedman,free
Negroormulatto,shallfailforfivedaysaftertheimpositionofanyfineorforfeitureupon
himorher,forviolationofanyoftheprovisionsofthisacttopaythesame,thatitshallbe,
andisherebymade,thedutyoftheSheriffofthepropercountytohireoutsaidfreedman,
freeNegroormulatto,toanypersonwhowill,fortheshortestperiodofservice,paysaidfine
orforfeitureandallcosts;Provided,apreferenceshallbegiventotheemployer,iftherebe
one,inwhichcasetheemployershallbeentitledtodeductandretaintheamountsopaid
fromthewagesofsuchfreedman,freeNegroormulatto,thendueortobecomedue;andin
casesuchfreedman,freeNegroormulattocannotbehiredout,heorshemaybedealtwith
asapauper."
SouthCarolinadeclaredtobevagrantsallpersonswithoutfixedandknownplacesofabode
andlawfulemployment,allprostitutesandallpersonswanderingfromplacetoplaceand
sellingwithoutalicense;allgamblers;idleanddisobedientpersons;personswithout
sufficientmeansofsupport;personsgivingplaysorentertainmentswithoutlicense;fortunetellers,beggars,drunkardsandhunters.Ifapersonofcolorisunabletoearnhissupport,his
nearrelativesmustcontribute.PauperfundswerecomposedoffinespaidbyNegroesand
taxesonNegroes.Ontheotherhand,formerslaveswhowerehelplessandhadbeenon
plantationssixmonthsprevioustoNovember10,1865,couldnotbeevictedbeforeJanuary1,
1867.
InAlabama,the"formerowner"wastohavepreferenceintheapprenticingofachild.This
wastrueinKentuckyandMississippi.
Mississippi"providesthatitshallbethedutyofallsheriffs,justicesofthepeace,andother
civilofficersoftheseveralcountiesinthisstatetoreporttotheprobatecourtsoftheir
respectivecountiessemiannually,attheJanuaryandJulytermsofsaidcourts,allfreedmen,
freeNegroesandmulattoes,undertheageofeighteen,withintheirrespectivecounties,
beats,ordistricts,whoareorphans,orwhoseparentorparentshavenotthemeans,orwho
refusetoprovideforandsupportsaidminors,andthereuponitshallbethedutyofsaid
probatecourttoordertheclerkofsaidcourttoapprenticesaidminorstosomecompetent
andsuitableperson,onsuchtermsasthecourtmaydirect,havingaparticularcaretothe
interestofsaidminors;Provided,thattheformerownerofsaidminorsshallhavethe
preferencewhen,intheopinionofthecourt,heorsheshallbeasuitablepersonforthat
purpose."
SouthCarolinaestablishedspecialcourtsforcoloredpeople,tobecreatedineachdistrictto
administerthelawinrespecttopersonsofcolor.Thepetitjuriesofthesecourtswereto
consistofonlysixmen.Thelocalmagistrate"shallbespeciallychargedwiththesupervision
ofpersonsofcolorinhisneighborhood,theirprotection,andthepreventionoftheir
misconduct."Publicorderwastobesecuredbytheorganizationofforty-fiveormoremilitia
regiments.
"Capitalpunishmentwasprovidedforcoloredpersonsguiltyofwillfulhomicide,assault
uponawhitewoman,impersonatingherhusbandforcarnalpurposes,raisingan
insurrection,stealingahorse,amule,orbaledcotton,andhouse-breaking.Forcrimesnot
demandingdeathNegroesmightbeconfinedathardlabor,whipped,ortransported;'but
punishmentsmoredegradingthanimprisonmentshallnotbeimposeduponawhiteperson
foracrimenotinfamous.'"3T
InmoststatesNegroeswereallowedtotestifyincourtsbutthetestimonywasusually
confinedtocaseswherecoloredpersonswereinvolved,althoughinsomestates,byconsent
oftheparties,theycouldtestifyincaseswhereonlywhitepeoplewereinvolved.InAlabama
"allfreedmen,freeNegroesandmulattoes,shallhavetherighttosueandbesued,pleadand
beimpleadedinallthedifferentandvariouscourtsofthisState,tothesameextentthat
whitepersonsnowhavebylaw.Andtheyshallbecompetenttotestifyonlyinopencourt,and
onlyincasesinwhichfreedmen,freeNegroes,andmulattoesareparties,eitherplaintiffor
defendant,andincivilorcriminalcases,forinjuriesinthepersonsandpropertyoffreedmen,
freeNegroesandmulattoes,andinallcases,civilorcriminal,inwhichafreedman,free
Negro,ormulatto,isawitnessagainstawhiteperson,orawhitepersonagainstafreedman,
freeNegroormulatto,thepartiesshallbecompetentwitnesses."
NorthCarolina,March10,1866,"givesthemalltheprivilegesofwhitepersonsbeforethe
courtsinthemodeofprosecuting,defending,continuing,removing,andtransferringtheir
suitsatlawinequity,"andmakesthemeligibleaswitnesses,whennototherwise
incompetent,in"allcontroversiesatlawandinequitywheretherightsofpersonsorproperty
ofpersonsofcolorshallbeputinissue,andwouldbeconcludedbythejudgmentordecreeof
courts;andalsoinpleasoftheState,wheretheviolence,fraud,orinjuryallegedshallbe
charged
tohavebeendonebyortopersonsofcolor.Inallothercivilandcriminalcasessuchevidence
shallbedeemedinadmissible,unlessbyconsentofthepartiesofrecord."
Mississippisimplyreenactedherslavecodeandmadeitoperativesofaraspunishments
wereconcerned."ThatallthepenalandcriminallawsnowinforceinthisState,defining
offenses,andprescribingthemodeofpunishmentforcrimesandmisdemeanorscommitted
byslaves,freeNegroesormulattoes,beandthesameareherebyre-enacted,anddeclaredto
beinfullforceandeffect,againstfreedmen,freeNegroes,andmulattoes,exceptsofarasthe
modeandmanneroftrialandpunishmenthavebeenchangedoralteredbylaw."
NorthCarolina,ontheotherhand,abolishedherslavecode,makingdifferenceof
punishmentonlyinthecaseofNegroesconvictedofrape.Georgiaplacedthefinesandcosts
ofaservantuponthemaster."Wheresuchcasesshallgoagainsttheservant,thejudgment
forcostsuponwrittennoticetothemastershalloperateasagarnishmentagainsthim,and
heshallretainasufficientamountforthepaymentthereof,outofanywagesduetosaid
servant,ortobecomedueduringtheperiodofservice,andmaybecitedatanytimebythe
collectingofficertomakeanswerthereto."
ThecelebratedordinanceofOpelousas,Louisiana,showsthelocalordinancesregulating
Negroes."NoNegroorfreedmanshallbeallowedtocomewithinthelimitsofthetownof
Opelousaswithoutspecialpermissionfromhisemployer,specifyingtheobjectofhisvisit
andthetimenecessaryfortheaccomplishmentofthesame.
"EveryNegrofreedmanwhoshallbefoundonthestreetsofOpelousasafterteno'clockat
nightwithoutawrittenpassorpermitfromhisemployer,shallbeimprisonedandcompelled
toworkfivedaysonthepublicstreets,orpayafineoffivedollars.
"NoNegroorfreedmanshallbepermittedtorentorkeepahousewithinthelimitsofthe
townunderanycircumstances,andanyonethusoffendingshallbeejected,andcompelledto
findanemployerorleavethetownwithintwenty-fourhours.
"NoNegroorfreedmanshallresidewithinthelimitsofthetownofOpelousaswhoisnotin
theregularserviceofsomewhitepersonorformerowner,whoshallbeheldresponsiblefor
theconductofsaidfreedman.
"NoNegroorfreedmanshallbepermittedtopreach,exhort,orotherwisedeclaimto
congregationsofcoloredpeoplewithoutaspecialpermissionfromtheMayororPresidentof
theBoardofPolice,underthepenaltyofafineoftendollarsortwentydays'workonthe
publicstreets.
"Nofreedmanwhoisnotinthemilitaryserviceshallbeallowedto
carryfirearms,oranykindofweaponswithinthelimitsofthetownofOpelousaswithoutthe
specialpermissionofhisemployer,inwriting,andapprovedbytheMayororPresidentofthe
Board.
"AnyfreedmannotresidinginOpelousas,whoshallbefoundwithinitscorporatelimitsafter
thehourof3o'clock,onSunday,withoutaspecialpermissionfromhisemployerorthe
Mayor,shallbearrestedandimprisonedandmadetoworktwodaysonthepublicstreets,or
paytwodollarsinlieuofsaidwork."38
OfLouisiana,ThomasConwaytestifiedFebruary22,1866:"Someoftheleadingofficersof
thestatedownthere—menwhodomuchtoformandcontroltheopinionsofthemasses—
insteadofdoingastheypromised,andquietlysubmittingtotheauthorityofthegovernment,
engagedinissuingslavecodesandinpromulgatingthemtotheirsubordinates,ordering
themtocarrythemintoexecution,andthistotheknowledgeofstateofficialsofahigher
character,thegovernorandothers.Andthemenwhoissuedthemwerenotpunishedexcept
asthemilitaryauthoritiespunishedthem.Thegovernorinflictednopunishmentonthem
whileIwasthere,andIdon'tknowthat,uptothisday,hehaseverpunishedoneofthem.
Thesecodesweresimplytheoldblackcodeofthestate,withtheword'slave'expunged,and
'Negro'substituted.Themostodiousfeaturesofslaverywerepreservedinthem.Theywere
issuedinthreeorfourlocalitiesinthestate,notahundredmilesfromNewOrleans,months
afterthesurrenderoftheConfederateforces,andyearsaftertheissuanceofthe
EmancipationProclamation.
"Ihavehaddelegationstofrequentlycomeandseeme—delegationscomposedofmenwho,
tomyface,deniedthattheproclamationissuedbyPresidentLincolnwasavalidinstrument,
declaringthattheSupremeCourtwouldpronounceitinvalid.Consequentlytheyhave
claimedthattheirNegroeswereslavesandwouldagainberestoredtothem.Inthecityof
NewOrleanslastsummer,undertheordersoftheactingmayorofthecity,HughKennedy,
thepoliceofthatcityconductedthemselvestowardsthefreedmen,inrespecttoviolenceand
illusage,ineverywayequaltotheolddaysofslavery;arrestingthemonthestreetsas
vagrants,withoutanyformoflawwhatever,andsimplybecausetheydidnothaveintheir
pocketscertificatesofemploymentfromtheirformerownersorotherwhitecitizens.
"Ihavegonetothejailsandreleasedlargenumbersofthem,menwhowereindustriousand
whohadregularemployment;yetbecausetheyhadnotthecertificatesofwhitemenintheir
pocketstheywerelockedupinjailtobesentouttoplantations;lockedup,too,withoutmy
knowledge,anddonespeedilyandsecretlybeforeIhadinformationofit.Somemembersof
theSeventy-FourthUnitedStatesColored
Infantry,aregimentwhichwasmusteredoutbutoneclay,werearrestedthenextbecause
theydidnothavethesecertificatesofemployment.Thiswasdonetothesemenafterhaving
servedintheUnitedStatesarmythreeyears.Theywerearrestedbythepoliceunderthe
orderoftheactingmayor,Mr.HughKennedy...."39
Theaimandobjectoftheselawscannotbemistaken."Inmanycasestherestraintsimposed
wenttothelengthofaveritable'involuntaryservitude.'"40
ProfessorBurgesssays:"Almosteveryact,wordorgestureoftheNegro,notconsonantwith
goodtasteandgoodmannersaswellasgoodmorals,wasmadeacrimeormisdemeanor,for
whichhecouldfirstbefinedbythemagistratesandthenconsignedtoaconditionofalmost
slaveryforanindefinitetime,ifhecouldnotpaythebill."41
Dunningadmitsthat"Thelegislationofthereorganizedgovernments,undercoverofpolice
regulationsandvagrancylaws,hadenactedseverediscriminationsagainstthefreedmeninall
thecommoncivilrights."42
ArecentstudysaysofSouthCarolina:
"Theinterestsofbothraceswouldhavebeenbetterservedhadthereneverbeena'black
code.'ThiswouldbetrueeveniftherehadbeennoNorthernsentimenttotakeintoaccount.
Economically,thelawswereimpracticable,sincetheytriedtoplacetheNegroinaposition
inferiortothatwhichcompetitionorhislaborwouldhavegivenhim."43
"Butitismonotonousiterationtoreviewtheearlylegislationofthereconstructed
governmentsestablishedundertheproclamationofthePresident.Inmostofthestatesthe
lawsestablishedaconditionbutlittlebetterthanthatofslavery,andinoneimportant
respectfarworse;forinplaceofthepropertyinterest,whichwouldinducetheownerto
preserveandcareforhisslave,therewassubstitutedtheguardianshipofpenalstatutes;and
theignorantblackman,innocentofanyintentiontocommitawrong,couldbebandiedabout
fromonetemporaryownertoanotherwhowouldhavenootherinterestthantowringoutof
him,withoutregardtohisultimatecondition,allthatwaspossibleduringthelimitedtermof
histhraldom."44
Theseslavelawshavebeendefendedinvariousways.Theywerepassedinthemidstof
bitternessandfearandwithgreathaste;theywerewordedsomewhatlikesimilarvagrancy
lawsinNorthernStates;theywouldhavebeenmodifiedintime;theysaidmorethanthey
reallymeant.Allofthismaybepartlytrue,butitremainsperfectlyevidentthattheblack
codeslookedbackwardtowardslavery.
ThislegislationprofoundlystirredtheNorth.NottheNorthofindustryandthenew
manufactures,buttheordinaryeverydaypeople
oftheNorth,who,upliftedbythetremendousafflatusofwar,hadseenavisionofsomething
fineandjust,andwho,withoutanypersonalaffectionfortheNegroorrealknowledgeof
him,neverthelesswereconvincedthatNegroeswerehuman,andthatNegroslaverywas
wrong;andthatwhateverfreedommightmean,itcertainlydidnotmeanreenslavement
underanothername.
Here,then,wasthedominantthoughtofthatSouthwithwhichReconstructionmustdeal.
Arisingwithachingheadandpalsiedhandsitdeliberatelylookedbackward.Therecameto
thepresidentialchair,withvastpower,amanwhowasSouthernborn;withhimcame
inconceivablefearsthattheNorthproposedtomaketheseNegroesreallyfree;togivethema
sufficientstatusevenforvoting,togivethemtherighttoholdoffice;thattherewasevena
possibilitythattheseslavesmightout-votetheirformermasters;thattheymightaccumulate
wealth,achieveeducation,andfinally,theymightevenaspiretomarrywhitewomenand
mingletheirbloodwiththebloodoftheirmasters.
Itwasfantastic.Itcalledforrevolt.Itcalledinextremityfortherenewalofwar.TheNegro
mustbekeptinhisplacebyhunger,whippingandmurder.AsW.P.CalhounofGreenville,
SouthCarolina,saidaslateas1901:"Character,wealth,learning,goodbehavior,andallthat
makesuporconstitutesgoodcitizenshipintheblackmanispositivelyofnoavailwhatever.
Meritcannotwininthiscase."45
Thecryofthebewilderedfreemanrose,butitwasdrownedbytheRebelyell.
IamaSoutherner;IlovetheSouth;IdaredforherTofightfromLookouttothesea,With
herproudbanneroverme.Butfrommylipsthanksgivingbroke,AsGodinbattle-thunder
spoke,AndthatBlackIdol,breedingdrouthAnddearthofhumansympathyThroughoutthe
sweetandsensuousSouth,
Was,withitschainsandhumanyoke,Blownhellwardfromthecannon'smouth,
WhileFreedomcheeredbehindthesmoke!
MauriceThompson
1.CompareDunning,Reconstruction,PoliticalandEconomic,pp.11-13;Beard,AmericanCivilization,II,p.99.
2.Herbert,"TheConditionsoftheReconstructionProblems,"AtlanticMonthly,
LXXXVII,p.146.
3.TheReminiscencesofCarlSchurz,III,pp.157-158.
4.39thCongress,1stSession,SenateExecutiveDocumentNumber2,ReportofCarl
Schurz.
5.ReportoftheJointCommitteeonReconstruction,1866,PartII.
6.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,p.94.
7.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,p.94.
8.Wallace,CarpetbagRuleinFlorida,pp.34-35.
9.QuotationsoftestimonyarefromReportoftheJointCommitteeonReconstruction,
1866,PartsII,III,andIV.
10.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,p.94.
11.Nicolay-Hay,AbrahamLincoln,VI,pp.354-355.
12.Wesley,"Lincoln'sPlanforColonizingtheEmancipatedNegro,"JournalofNegro
History,IV,p.9.
13.Fleming,DeportationandColonization:StudiesinSouthernHistoryandPolitics,
p.10.
14.Nicolay-Hay,AbrahamLincoln,VI,p.357.
15.Quoted:JournalofNegroHistory,IV,pp.11-12.
16.Wesley,"Lincoln'sPlanforColonizingtheEmancipatedNegro,"JournalofNegro
History,IV,pp.12-13.
17.Fleming,DeportationandColonization:StudiesinSouthernHistoryandPolitics,
P-1318.Wesley,"Lincoln'sPlanforColonizingtheEmancipatedNegro,"JournalofNegro
History,IV,p.20.
19.McClure,A.K.,Recollections.
20.Sumner,Charles,CompleteWor\s,VI,p.302.
21.Ficklen,HistoryofReconstructioninLouisiana,JohnHopkinsStudies,28thSeries,
pp.65,66.
22.Nicolay-Hay,AbrahamLincoln,IX,pp.105-110.
23.CompareFicklen,HistoryofReconstructioninLouisiana,p.62.
24.Parton,GeneralButlerinNewOrleans,pp.489-490.
25.Parton,GeneralButlerinNewOrleans,p.517.
26.Ficklen,HistoryofReconstructioninLouisiana,p.65.
27.CompareFicklen.
28.McPherson,HistoryofUnitedStatesDuringReconstruction,p.20.
29.Blaine,TwentyYearsofCongress,II,p.40.
30.Ficklen,HistoryofReconstructioninLouisiana,pp.74-77.
31.Ficklen,HistoryofReconstructioninLouisiana,p.89.
32.Italicsours.
33.Pierce,MemoirsandLettersofCharlesSumner,IV,p.226.
34.Nicolay-Hay,AbrahamLincoln,IX,pp.459-462.
35.Clemenceau,AmericanReconstruction,1865-1870,p.232.
36.QuotationsfromMcPherson,HistoryofUnitedStatesDuringReconstruction,pp.
_29-44.
37.SimkinsandWoody,SouthCarolinaDuringReconstruction,pp.49,50.
38.Warmoth,War,PoliticsandReconstruction,p.274.
39.ReportoftheJointCommitteeonReconstruction,1866,PartIV,pp.78-79.
40.AtlanticMonthly,LXXXVII,January,1910,p.6.
41.DuBois,ReconstructionandItsBenefits,p.784.
42.Dunning,EssaysontheCivilWarandReconstruction,p.92.
43.SimkinsandWoody,ReconstructioninSouthCarolina,p.51.
44.Morse,ThaddeusStevens,AmericanStatesmen,pp.253-254.
45.Brewster,SketchesofSouthernMystery,p.275.
VII.LOOKINGFORWARD
HowtwotheoriesofthefutureofAmericaclashedandblendedjustaftertheCivilWar:the
onewasabolition-democracybasedonfreedom,intelligenceandpowerforallmen;theother
wasindustryforprivateprofitdirectedbyanautocracydeterminedatanypricetoamass
wealthandpower.TheuncomprehendingresistanceoftheSouth,andthepressureofblack
folk,madethesetwothoughtsuneasyandtemporaryallies
Aprinterandacarpenter,arail-splitterandatailor—Garrison,Christ,LincolnandJohnson,
werethetoolsofthegreatestmoralawakeningAmericaeverknew,chosentochallenge
capitalinvestedinthebodiesofmenandannultheprivateprofitofslavery.
Thisdone,twoquitedistinctbutpersistentlyundifferentiatedvisionsofthefuture
dominatedthetriumphantNorthafterthewar.OnewastheprolongationofPuritanidealism,
transformedbythefrontierintoatheoryofuniversaldemocracy,andnowexpressedby
AbolitionistslikeWendellPhillips,studentsofcivilizationlikeCharlesSumner,andleaders
ofthecommonpeoplelikeThaddeusStephens,togetherwithsomeoftheleadersofthenew
labormovement.Theothertrendwasentirelydifferentandisconfusedwiththedemocratic
idealbecausethetwoidealslayconfusedinsomanyindividualminds.Thiswasthe
developmentofindustryinAmericaandofanewindustrialphilosophy.
Thenewindustryhadavisionnotofworkbutofwealth;notofplannedaccomplishment,but
ofpower.Itbecamethemostconscienceless,unmoralsystemofindustrywhichtheworld
hasexperienced.Itwentwithruthlessindifferencetowardswaste,death,uglinessand
disaster,andyetrearedthemoststupendousmachinefortheefficientorganizationofwork
whichtheworldhaseverseen.
ThustheendoftheCivilWarwasthebeginningofvasteconomicdevelopmentinthe
industrialexpansionoftheEast,intheagriculturalgrowthoftheMiddleWest,inthenew
cattleindustryoftheplains,intheminingenterprisesoftheRockies,inthedevelopmentof
thePacificCoast,andinthereconstructionoftheSouthernmarket.
Behindthisextraordinaryindustrialdevelopment,asjustificationinthemindsofmen,lay
whatwemaycallthegreatAmericanAssumption,whichuptothetimeoftheCivilWar,was
heldmoreorless
explicitlybypracticallyallAmericans.TheAmericanAssumptionwasthatwealthismainly
theresultofitsowner'seffortandthatanyaverageworkercanbythriftbecomeacapitalist.
Thecuriousthingaboutthisassumptionwasthatwhileitwasnottrue,itwasundoubtedly
morenearlytrueinAmericafrom1820toi860thaninanyothercontemporaryland.Itwas
nottrueandnotrecognizedastrueduringColonialtimes;butwiththeopeningoftheWest
andtheexpandingindustryofthetwenties,andcoincidentwiththeriseoftheCotton
Kingdom,itwasafactthatoftenapoorwhitemaninAmericabythriftandsavingcould
obtainlandandcapital;andbyintelligenceandgoodluckhecouldbecomeasmallcapitalist
andevenarichman;andconverselyacarelessspendthriftthoughrichmightbecomea
pauper,sincehereditarysafeguardsforpropertyhadlittlelegalsanction.
Thusarosethephilosophyof"shirt-sleevestoshirt-sleeves,"onwhichtheAmericantheory
ofcompensateddemocracywasbuilt.Itaskedsimply,ineighteenthcenturyaccents,freedom
fromgovernmentinterferencewithindividualventures,andavoiceintheselectionof
governmentofficials.Thecontinuedfreedomofeconomicopportunityandeverpossible
increaseofindustrialincome,ittookforgranted.Thisattitudewasbackoftheadoptionof
universalsuffrage,thedisappearanceofcompulsorymilitaryserviceandimprisonmentfor
debt,whichcharacterizedJacksoniandemocracy.TheAmericanAssumptionwas
contemporarywiththeCottonKingdom,whichwasitsmostsinistercontradiction.Thenew
captainsofindustryintheNorthwerelargelyrisenfromthelaboringclassandthusliving
proofoftheeaseofcapitalisticaccumulation.ThevalidityoftheAmericanAssumption
ceasedwiththeCivilWar,butitstraditionlasteddowntothedayoftheGreatDepression,
whenitdiedwithagreatwailofdespair,notsomuchfrombreadlinesandsoupkitchens,as
frompoorandthriftybankdepositorsandsmallinvestors.
TheAmericanlabormovement,foundedinthespiritthatregardedAmericaasarefugefrom
oppressionandfreeforindividualdevelopmentaccordingtoconscienceandability,grewand
expandedinAmerica,basingitselffranklyupontheAmericanAssumption.Itsobjectwasrule
bythepeople,thewideeducationofpeoplesothattheycouldruleintelligently,and
economicopportunityofwealthfreeforthrift.Itfounditselfhinderedbyslaveryinthe
South:directly,becauseofthegrowingbeliefoftheinfluentialplanterclassinoligarchyand
thedegradationoflabor;andindirectlybythecompetitionofslavelaborandthespreadof
theslavepsychology.Itbecame,therefore,atfirstmoreandmoreopposedtoslaveryas
ethicallywrong,politicallydangerous,andeconomicallyunprofitable.
Capital,ontheotherhand,acceptedwidespreadsuffrageasafactforcedontheworldby
revolutionandthegrowingintelligenceoftheworkingclass.Butsincethenewindustry
calledforintelligenceinitsworkers,capitalistsnotonlyaccepteduniversalsuffragebutearly
discoveredthathighwagesinAmericamadeevenhigherprofitspossible;andthatthishigh
standardoflivingwasitselfaprotectionforcapitalinthatitmadethemoreintelligentand
bestpaidofworkersalliesofcapitalandleftitsultimatedictatorshipundisturbed.
Nevertheless,industrytookpainstoprotectitselfwhereverpossible.Itexcludedilliterate
foreignvotersfromtheballotandadvocatedareservoirofnon-votingcommonlabor;andit
stoodreadyatanytimebydirectbriberyortheuseofitspowertohireanddischargelabor,to
manipulatethelaborvote.
ThetruesignificanceofslaveryintheUnitedStatestothewholesocialdevelopmentof
America,layintheultimaterelationofslavestodemocracy.Whatweretobethelimitsof
democraticcontrolintheUnitedStates?Ifalllabor,blackaswellaswhite,becamefree,were
givenschoolsandtherighttovote,whatcontrolcouldorshouldbesettothepowerand
actionoftheselaborers?WastheruleofthemassofAmericanstobeunlimited,andthe
righttoruleextendedtoallmen,regardlessofraceandcolor,orifnot,whatpowerof
dictatorshipwouldrule,andhowwouldpropertyandprivilegebeprotected?Thiswasthe
greatandprimaryquestionwhichwasinthemindsofthemenwhowrotetheConstitutionof
theUnitedStatesandcontinuedinthemindsofthinkersdownthroughtheslavery
controversy.Itstillremainswiththeworldastheproblemofdemocracyexpandsandtouches
allracesandnations.
Theabolition-democracywastheliberalmovementamongbothlaborersandsmall
capitalists,whounitedintheAmericanAssumption,butsawthedangerofslaverytoboth
capitalandlabor.Itbeganitsmoralfightagainstslaveryinthethirtiesandfortiesand,
graduallytransformedbyeconomicelements,concludeditduringthewar.Theobjectand
onlyrealobjectoftheCivilWarinitseyeswastheabolitionofslavery,anditwasconvinced
thatthiscouldbethoroughlyaccomplishedonlyiftheemancipatedNegroesbecamefree
citizensandvoters.
Theabolition-democracysawclearlythedifficultiesofthisstep,duetotheignoranceand
povertyofthefreedmen.ForthefirsttimeintheclassicdemocracyintheUnitedStates,it
wasmadeawarethattheAmericanAssumptionwasnotandcouldnotbeuniversallytrue.
Someoftheleadersofthelabormovementevencametoseethatitwasnottrueinthecase
ofthemassofwhitelabor.Butthat
thoughtcametotheAbolitionistsafterwardsandinthemindso£onlyafewclear-sighted
menlikeWendellPhillips.
AtthetimeoftheCivilWar,itwas,however,perfectlycleartoSumnerandStevensthat
freedominordertobefreerequiredaminimumofcapitalinadditiontopoliticalrightsand
thatthLcouldbeinsuredagainstthenaturalresentmentoftheplantersonlybysomesortof
dictatorship.Thusabolition-democracywaspushedtowardstheconceptionofadictatorship
oflabor,althoughfewofitsadvocateswhollygraspedthefactthatthisnecessarilyinvolved
dictatorshipbylaborovercapitalandindustry.
Ontheotherhand,industrialistsafterthewarexpectedtheSouthtoseizeuponthe
opportunitytomakeincreasedprofitbyamoreintelligentexploitationoflaborthanwas
possibleundertheslavesystem.TheylookeduponfreeNegrolaborasasourceofprofit,and
consideredfreedom,thatis,alegaldoingawaywithindividualphysicalcontrol,allthatthe
Negroesortheirfriendscouldask.TheydidnotwantforNegrolaboranyspecialprotection
orpoliticalpowerorcapital,anymorethantheywantedthisforIrish,Germanor
ScandinavianlaborintheNorth.Theyexpectedsomepopulareducationandagradual
grantingoftherighttovote,whichwouldbestraitlycurtailedinitspowerformischiefbythe
farlargerpowerofcapital.TheSouth,however,persistedinitspre-warconceptionofthese
twotendenciesintheNorth.Itsoughttoreestablishslaverybyforce,becauseithadno
comprehensionofthemeansbywhichmodernindustrycouldsecuretheadvantagesofslave
laborwithoutitsresponsibilities.TheSouth,therefore,opposedNegroeducation,opposed
landandcapitalforNegroes,andviolentlyandbitterlyopposedanypoliticalpower.Itfought
everyconceptioninchbyinch:norealemancipation,limitedcivilrights,noNegroschools,no
votesforNegroes.
Inthefaceofsuchintransigence,Northernindustrywas,onthewhole,willingtoyield,since
noneoftheseconcessionsreallyobstructedtheexpansionofindustryandcapitalinthe
nation.When,however,theSouthwentbeyondreasonandtruculentlydemandednotsimply
itsoldpoliticalpowerbutincreasedpoliticalpowerbasedondisfranchisedNegroes,whichit
openlythreatenedtousefortherevisionofthetariff,fortherepudiationofthenationaldebt,
fordisestablishingthenationalbanks,andforputtingthenewcorporateformofindustry
understrictstateregulationandrule,Northernindustrywasfrightenedandbegantomove
towardsthestandwhichabolition-democracyhadalreadytaken;namely,temporary
dictatorship,endowedNegroeducation,legalcivilrights,andeventuallyevenvotesfor
NegroestooffsettheSouthernthreatofeconomicattack.
Theabolition-democracywasnotdeceived.Itatoncefearedanddared.Itwantednorevenge
ontheSouthandheldnohatred.ItdidwanttotrainNegroesinintelligence,experienceand
labor,theownershipoflandandcapital,andtheexerciseofcivilrightsandtheuseof
politicalpower.Intheadvocacyofthesethingsitreachedthehighestlevelofself-sacrificing
statesmanshipeverattainedinAmerica;andtwoofthegreatestleadersoftheideal,Stevens
andSumner,voluntarilylaiddowntheirlivesonthealtarofdemocracyandwereeventually
paid,astheymusthaveanticipatedtheywouldbepaid,bythewidespreadcontemptof
America.
Eventothisday,thegrandsonsofAbolitionists,ashamedoftheirfathers'faithinblackmen,
aresalvingtheirconsciencewithatheorythatdemocraticgovernmentbyintelligentmenof
characterisimpossible,when,infact,nothingelseispossible;andthegrandsonsofthe
plantersandofthepoorwhiteswhodisplacedthemareexcusingtheirapostasytocivilization
bychargingtheNegrowithalltheevilcausedbywar,destructionandgreed,andbythedeeds
ofwhitemen,NorthernandSouthern.
Theabolition-democracyadvocatedFederalcontroltoguideanddirecttheriseoftheNegro,
buttheydesiredthiscontroltobecivilratherthanmilitary,likethestrictgovernmentof
territoriesuntilnewstatesshoulddevelop.Theyhadtohelptheminthefurtheranceofthis
planadegreeofenthusiasm,humilityandhardworkonthepartofthedepressedNegro
whichisnotparalleledinmodernhistory.Whennowtheywereofferedalliancewith
Northernindustry,temporarymilitarycontrolinsteadofcivilgovernment,andthen
immediatecitizenshipandtherighttovoteforNegroes,insteadofaperiodofguardianship,
theyacceptedbecausetheycouldnotrefuse;becausetheyknewthatthiswastheironly
chanceandthatnothingelsewouldbeoffered.Theirtheoryofdemocracyledthemtoriskall,
evenintheabsenceofthateconomicandeducationalminimumwhichtheyknewwasnextto
indispensable.WhenSumnersawhisfailurehere,hewenthomeandwept.Butthebeliefin
theself-resurrectionofdemocracywasstronginthesemenandlentunconsciouspowerto
theAmericanAssumption.TheyexpectedthatbothNorthernindustryandtheSouth,in
sheerself-defense,wouldhavetoeducateNegrointelligenceanddependonNegropolitical
power.
TheSouthwastooastonishedforbelief,whenitsawindustryanddemocracyintheNorth
unitedforapolicyofcoercion.Inthepast,theSouthhadalwaysbeenablebymeregestureof
concessiontobringNorthernindustrytoitskneesbegging.Itdidnotrealizehowstrong
Industryhadgrownandhowconsciousitspower;andhowboundlessitsplans.Itdidnot
realizethatthebasisofthe
South'sownpowerhadliterallybeensweptaway.EventheWest,onwhichtheSouthhad
longcountedintheory,althoughsympathyhadseldomledtoeffectiveaction,whileitfought
industrialmonopoly,thenationaldebtandthemoneypower,yetwhenithadtochoose
betweenacontinuationofSouthernoligarchyandagreatdemocraticmovement,swung
inevitablytowardsdemocracy.NortherncapitalwentSouthandviedwiththeplantersforthe
directionoftheNegrovote.Thepoorwhitesscurriedtocover,nowhere,nowthere,anda
dictatorshipoflaborensued,withanewdemocraticConstitution,newsociallegislation,
publicschoolsandpublicimprovements.Butofthatweshallspeakmoreindetailinlater
chapters.
Ontheotherhand,Northernindustryseemedatlastfreeandun-trammeled.Itbeganin1876
anexploitationwhichwasbuiltonmuchthesamesortofslaverywhichithelpedto
overthrowin1863.ItmurdereddemocracyintheUnitedStatessocompletelythattheworld
doesnotrecognizeitscorpse.Itestablishedasdominantinindustryamonarchicalsystem
whichkilledtheideaofdemocracy.
ThebasisoftheargumentforNegrosuffragehasusuallybeeninterpretedasagestureof
vengeance.Butitwasmuchdeeperthanthis.Itwasphrased,firstbyAbrahamLincoln
himself,asamethodofretaining"theJewelofLibertyintheFamilyofFreedom";thiswas
echoed,howeverunwillingly,byAndrewJohnsonasasoptotheRadicals;butitgradually
cameinthethoughtofthenationtobeaninescapablething.VotesforNegroeswereintruth
afinalcompromisebetweenbusinessandabolitionandwereforcedonabolitionbybusiness
astheonlymethodofrealizingthebasicprinciplesofabolition-democracy.
Alloftheselfishness,cunningandpowerthatwerebackofthenewindustryoftheNorth
havebeenlookeduponassimplytheothersideofabolition-democracy;andthereasonfor
thiswasthatinseveralcases,thetwoideasweremingledinindividuals'minds.Onecansee
thatinthesermonsofHenryWardBeecher,whowasagreatadvocateofvotesforNegroes,
butneverthelessinstinctivelycapitalistic;standingonthesideoftheexploiter,hehadscant
sympathyfortheexploited.Therewassomethingofthis,althoughnotnearlyasmuch,inthe
caseofThaddeusStevens,whowasatheartthegreatestandmostuncompromisingof
abolitionist-democrats,butwhoadvocatednotonlyuniversalsuffrageandfreeschools,but
protectionforPennsylvaniairon;yetinthatprotectionhehadjustasdistinctlyinmindthe
welfareofthelaborerastheprofitoftheemployer.
What,then,wasthestrengthofthedemocraticmovementwhichsucceededthewar?In
manyrespectsitwasemotional.Itsweptthelandwithitsmusicandpoetry.Awar,whichto
theintensedissatisfactionoftheAbolitionistshadbegunwiththedistinctobject,evenonthepartofthegreat
Emancipator,tosaveandprotectslavery,andinnowaytodisturbit,excepttokeepitoutof
competitionwiththefreepeasantoftheWest,hadresultedinEmancipation.Menlike
WilliamLloydGarrison,whohadnosympathywiththeplatformoftheRepublicansini860,
becamesuddenlythecenterofthestageofthenewdispensation.Thus,alegal-metaphysical
dispute,involvingtherightofslavestatestoexpandintotheterritories,wasrapidlychanged,
firsttoaquestionoffreedomforslaves,andthentoastruggleforinauguratinganewformof
nationalgovernmentintheUnitedStates.
Whenthephysicalwarended,thentherealpracticalproblemspresentedthemselves.How
wasslaverytobeeffectivelyabolished?AndwhatwastobethestatusoftheNegroes?What
wastheconditionandpowerofthestateswhichhadrebelled?Thelegalsolutionofthese
questionswaseasy.Thestatesthathadattemptedtorebelhadfailed.Theymustnowresume
theirrelationstothegovernment.Slaveryhadbeenabolishedasawarmeasure.Thisshould
beconfirmedandextendedbyaconstitutionalamendment.SomecontroloftheNegro
populationmustbedevisedintheplaceofslavery,soastointroducetheNegrointohisnew
freedom.Thepowerofthenationalgovernmenthadbeengreatlyexpandedbywar.This
expansionmustbeconsolidatedsothatinthefuturesecessionwouldbeimpossibleand
slaveryneverreestablished.
Thedifficultywiththislegalisticformulawasthatitdidnotclingtofacts.Slaverywasnot
abolishedevenaftertheThirteenthAmendment.Therewerefourmillionfreedmenandmost
ofthemonthesameplantation,doingthesameworkthattheydidbeforeemancipation,
exceptastheirworkhadbeeninterruptedandchangedbytheupheavalofwar.Moreover,
theyweregettingaboutthesamewagesandapparentlyweregoingtobesubjecttoslave
codesmodifiedonlyinname.Therewereamongthemthousandsoffugitivesinthecampsof
thesoldiersoronthestreetsofthecities,homeless,sickandimpoverished.Theyhadbeen
freedpracticallywithnolandnormoney,and,saveinexceptionalcases,withoutlegalstatus,
andwithoutprotection.
NegroesdeservednotonlythepityoftheworldbutthegratitudeofbothSouthandNorth.
Underextraordinaryprovocationtheyhadactedlikedecenthumanbeings;theyhad
protectedtheirmasters'families,whentheirmasterswereawayfightingforblackslavery.
TheydidthisnaturallybecausetheywerenotsurethattheNorthwasfightingforfreedom,
andbecausetheydidnotknowwhichsidewouldwin.But,atanyrate,theydidit.Andeven
whentheyunderstoodthattheNorth,willingorunwilling,wasboundtowardsfreedom,and
thattheycouldfightfortheirownfreedom,theywereneithervindictivenorcrueltowards
theirformermasters,althoughtheywerequitenaturallywidelyaccusedof"laziness"and
"impudence,"whicharetheonlyweaponsofoffensewhicharisingsocialclasscaneasilyuse.
Theseblackmenwantedfreedom;theywantededucation;theywantedprotection.Theyhad
beenofgreathelptotheUnionarmiesandthathelphadbeengivenundergreatstress.Black
soldiershadbeenoutlawed,andinmanycasesruthlesslymurderedbytheenemywho
refusedtoregardthemassoldiersorashuman.Theytookchanceseverytimetheyputona
uniform.Yetafterthewartheywerestillnotfree;theywerestillpracticallyslaves,andhow
wastheirfreedomtobemadeafact?Itcouldbedoneinonlyoneway.Theymusthavethe
protectionoflaw;andbackoflawmuststandphysicalforce.Theymusthaveland;theymust
haveeducation.Howwasallthistobedone?
LincolntriedhardintheBorderStates,longbeforetheendofthewar,togetvoluntary
emancipationandpayfortheslaves,sothatanewsystemoflaborunderfavorable
circumstancescouldbearranged.TheBorderStateswouldhavenoneofit.Thewarendedin
anarchyaswaralwaysends.Thecosthadbeensogreatthattherecouldbenothoughtofpay
fortheslaves,evenonthepartoftheSouth,afterthefirstflushofReconstruction.Therewas
nopossibilityofpayingforcapitaldestroyedinotherways,orofquicklyrestoringthe
neglectedlandandtools.
Thusbythesheerlogicoffacts,therearoseintheUnitedStatesaclearanddefiniteprogram
forthefreedomandupliftoftheNegro,andfortheextensionoftherealizationofdemocracy.
Someofthemenwhohadthisvisionwereidentifiedwiththenewindustry,butsawno
incongruityoroppositionbetweentheirideasorbetweentheriseandexpansionoftariffprotectedcorporationsandtheirequallysincerebeliefsindemocraticmethods.Otherswere
notidentifiedwithindustryatall.Theywere,someofthem,richmen,supportedbyincomes
derivedfromindustry;mostofthemwerepoormenearningasalary.Someofthemwere
laborers.ThesemenstartedfromtheAbolitionist'spointofview.Slaverywaswrongbecause
itreducedhumanbeingstothelevelofanimals.Theabolitionofslaverymeantnotsimply
abolitionoflegalownershipoftheslave;itmeanttheupliftofslavesandtheireventual
incorporationintothebodycivil,politic,andsocial,oftheUnitedStates.Therewas,of
course,muchdifferenceastotheexactextentofthisincorporation,butlessandlessdesireto
limititinanywaybylaw.
TheNegromusthavecivilrightsasacitizen;hemusteventuallyhavepoliticalrightslike
everyothercitizenoftheUnitedStates.And
whilesocialrightscouldnotbeamatteroflegislation,they,ontheotherhand,mustnotbe
deniedthroughlegislation,butremainamatteroffreeindividualchoice.Thisoutlookand
theoryoftheAbolitionistsreceivedtremendousimpetusfromthewar.Thosewhohadbeen
classedasfanatics,whohadbeenleftoutofthesocietyoftherespected,andmobbed,North,
EastandWest,suddenlybecamethemoraljustificationbywhichtheNorthmarchedonto
victory.
AllofthegreatliteratureoftheCivilWarwasbasedmainlyuponhumanfreedom,andinso
farasitstressedunion,ithadtomakeit"liberty"andunion.Thewarsongs,thewarstories,
thewarafflatus,werebasedonthefreedomoftheslaves,justasintheWorldWarwe
mobilizedthemassofmankindinawartoendwarandtopromotethefreedomandunionof
nations.
Moreover,thenewabolition-democracythatcameafterthewarhadatremendousand
unexpectedsourceandmethodofpropaganda,andthatlayinthecrusadeoftheNew
Englandschoolmarm."TheannalsofthisNinthCrusadeareyettobewritten—thetaleofa
missionthatseemedtoouragefarmorequixoticthanthequestofSt.Louisseemedtohis.
Behindthemistofruinandrapinewavedthecalicodressesofwomenwhodared,andafter
thehoarsemouthingsofthefieldgunsrangtherhythmofthealphabet.Richandpoorthey
were,seriousandcurious.Bereavednowofafather,nowofabrother,nowofmorethan
these,theycameseekingalifeworkinplantingtheNewEnglandschoolhouseamongthe
whiteandblackoftheSouth.Theydidtheirworkwell.Inthatfirstyeartheytaughtone
hundredthousandsouls,andmore."1
Hereforthefirsttimetherewasestablishedbetweenthewhiteandblackofthiscountrya
contactontermsofessentialsocialequalityandmutualrespect.Therehadbeencontact
betweenNegroesandwhitepeopleintheoldSouth;andinsomecasescontactofbeautiful
friendship,andevenwarmloveandaffection.Butthiswasspasmodicandexceptionaland
hadtobepartiallyconcealed;andalwaysitwasspoiledbythesenseofinferiorityonthepart
oftheNegro,andthewilltoruleonthepartofthewhites.
ButinathousandschoolsoftheSouthafterthewarwerebroughttogetherthemosteagerof
theemancipatedblacksandthatpartoftheNorthwhichbelievedindemocracy;andthis
socialcontactofhumanbeingsbecameamatterofcourse.Theresultswereofallsorts.
Sometimestheteachersbecamedisgusted;sometimesthestudentsbecamesullenand
impudent;but,onthewhole,theresultwasoneofthemostastonishingsuccessesinnew
andsuddenhumancontacts.Wemustalsorememberthatthepopulationofthesixtieswas
dividedintochurchcongregations,andthegreatmajorityoftheseMethodist,
Baptist,Congregational,PresbyterianandQuakercongregationsintheNorthwere
representeddirectlyorindirectlyintheSouth,afterthewar,byoneoftheirmemberswho
reportedtheworkthatshe(anditwasusuallyshe)wasdoingwithcoloredpeople.Thiswork,
toanunusualdegree,wassosuccessfulandsohelpfulthatherwordscarriedwidespread
conviction.
AtthebeginningofthewarprobablynotonewhiteAmericaninahundredbelievedthat
NegroescouldbecomeanintegralpartofAmericandemocracy.Theywereslavesand
cowards,ignorantbynatureandnotbylackofteaching.Eveniftheyweregoingtobefreed,
theymustbegotridoforridthelandofthemselves.Duringthewarcamethefirstreal
revulsionoffeelingwhenitwasfoundthatNegroescouldandwouldfight;wereaptsubjects
formilitarydiscipline,andindispensableintheconductofthewar.Beyondthatcamethe
changeinfeelingwhentheriseofschoolsoveralltheSouthshowedthattheNegrowould
andcouldlearn.Theremightbecontinueddoubtastotheextentofthelearningandthe
heighttowhichtheracecouldrise;butnobodyinthatdayofwidespreadimmigrationfrom
EuropecoulddoubtthattheNegrowascapableofatleastasmucheducationastheordinary
Northernlaborer.
PresentAmericahasnoconceptionofthecogencyofthisargument.In1865,therightofall
freeAmericanstobevoterswasunquestioned,andhadnotbeenquestionedsincethetimeof
AndrewJackson,exceptinthecaseofwomen,whereitinterferedwithsex-ownership.The
burdenoftheprooflayonthemanwhosaidtherecouldbeintheUnitedStatesfourorfive
millionAmericanswithouttherighttovote.Whatwouldtheybe?Whatstatuswouldthey
hold?Wouldtheynotinevitablybeslaves,inspiteofthefactthattheywerecalledfree?
Therewere,tobesure,NorthernstateswhichwouldnotallowNegroestovote;butmanyof
theNorthernstatesdid;andmostofthosethatdidnothadcomparativelyfewNegroes.The
wholeargumentagainstNegrosuffrage,eveninthosestates,hadbeenbasedonthestatusof
theslaveintheSouth.Whentheslavebecamefree,anewproblemwasstagedforsuch
Northernstates.
Twomenstandintheforefrontofthisnewattempttoexpandandimplementdemocracy:
CharlesSumnerandThaddeusStevens.
Sumnerhadbeenfightingsteadilynotsimplyagainstslavery,butforthemanhoodrightsof
thefreeNegro,eversinceheenteredCongress.ByamendingtheActofMarch3,1863,he
stoppeddiscriminationonstreetcarsbetweenWashingtonandAlexandriaandbytheActof
March3,1865,extendedthistoalltherailwaysoftheDistrict.June25,1864,byamendingan
appropriationbill,hestoppeddiscriminationintheUnitedStatescourts,aresultwhichhe
called"Themost
importantofallinestablishingthemanhoodandcitizenshipofthecoloredpeople....For
thisresult,Ihavelaboredtwoyears."
HefoughtforequalpaytoNegrosoldiersandfinallysecuredafavorabledecisionofthe
Attorney-General.In1863-1864,hefoughtunsuccessfullyagainst"white"suffrageinthenew
territoryofMontana;hetriedtoincludecoloredcitizensamongthevotersofthecityof
Washington,butlostagain.
"Atthismomentofrevolution,whenourcountryneedstheblessingofAlmightyGodandthe
strongarmsofallherchildren,thisisnotthetimeforussolemnlytoenactinjustice.Induty
toourcountryandindutytoGod,Ipleadagainstanysuchthing.Wemustbeagainstslavery
initsoriginalshape,andinallitsbroodofprejudiceanderror."2
Fouryearslater,SenatorDoolittlesaidthatSumnerhad"alwaysbeeninfavorofpushing
Negrosuffrage;hewastheoriginatorofthatnotion;heisthemasterofthatnewschoolof
Reconstruction."
InDecember,1864,Sumnersketchedananti-slaveryamendment.Thiswasadoptedbythe
AmericanAnti-SlaverySocietyandearlyinthesessionwasmovedbyAshleyofOhioand
WilsonofIowaintheHouse,andHendersonofMissouriintheSenate.Sumneryieldedto
Trumbull,whoadoptedtheformulaoftheOrdinanceof1787,whichfinallybecamethe
ThirteenthAmendmentin1865.Sumnersecuredaspecialcommitteeonslaveryand
freedmenintheSenateinJanuary,1864,andbecametheChairman.Heintroducedabillto
repealallfugitiveslavelawsandtheCommitteereportedit.Itwasopposedbyboth
DemocraticandRepublicanSenators.Itwasamendedsoastosavethelawof1793,andthe
Committeedroppedit.Twomonthslater,aHousebillreachedtheSenate,andSumner
reportedit.Sauls-buryofDelawarewanted"onedaywithoutthenigger."Thebillwasfinally
passed,27-12,andLincolnsigneditJune28,1864.
Sumnerindeedassumedamightytask,andonerealizeditashestoodFebruary5,1866,
beforetheSenateoftheUnitedStates,beforealltheRepresentativesthatcouldcrowdinto
thehall,beforeanaudienceincludingthewholenationandinsomedegreethewholeworld.
Hespokefourhoursontwosuccessivedays.Publicinterestwasintense;thegalleriesofthe
Senatewerecrowded,andtherewereanumberofcoloredpeople,includingFrederick
DouglassandHenryHighlandGarnett.
Thevoiceofthespeakerwassolemnandearnest.Hisstyleandpresenceheldtheaudienceto
everyword.3"Rarely,ifeverdidhemakeadeeperimpressionintheSenateorawakenwider
interestinthecountry."ThomasWentworthHigginsonfoundnothingincontemporary
statesmanship,hereorabroad,toequalthespeech,andwhenSumner
.satdown,theaudiencebrokeintoapplause.CharlesSumnerwasatthetimefifty-fiveyears
ofage,handsome,butheavyofcarriage,aI.scholarandgentleman,noleaderofmenbuta
leaderofthought,andoneofthefinestexamplesofNewEnglandcultureandAmerican
courage.HisspeechlaiddownaMagnaChartaofdemocracyinAmerica.
"Ibeginbyexpressingaheart-feltaspirationthatthedaymaysooncomewhenthestates
latelyinrebellionmaybereceivedagainintothecopartnershipofpoliticalpowerandthefull
fellowshipoftheUnion.ButIseetoowellthatitisvaintoexpectthisday,whichissomuch
longedfor,untilwehaveobtainedthatsecurityforthefuture,whichisfoundonlyinthe
EqualRightsofAll,whetherinthecourt-roomorattheballot-box.ThisistheGreat
Guarantee,withoutwhichallotherguaranteeswillfail.Thisisthesolesolutionofour
presenttroublesandanxieties.Thisistheonlysufficientassuranceofpeaceand
reconciliation....
"OurfatherssolemnlyannouncedtheEqualRightsofallmen,andthatGovernmenthadno
justfoundationexceptintheconsentofthegoverned;andtothesupportoftheDeclaration,
heraldingtheseself-evidenttruths,theypledgedtheirlives,theirfortunes,andtheirsacred
honor....Andnowthemomenthascomewhenthesevowsmustbefulfilledtotheletter.In
securingtheEqualRightsofthefreedman,andhisparticipationintheGovernment,which
heistaxedtosupport,weshallperformthoseearlypromisesoftheFathers,andatthesame
timethesupplementarypromisesonlyrecentlymadetothefreedmanastheconditionof
allianceandaidagainsttheRebellion.Afailuretoperformthesepromisesismoraland
politicalbankruptcy....
"Twicealready,sincerebelslaveryrose...[necessity]hasspokentous,insisting:first,that
theslavesshouldbedeclaredfree;andsecondly,thatmusketsshouldbeputintotheirhands
forthecommondefense.Yieldingtonecessity,thesetwothingsweredone.Reason,
humanity,justicewerepowerlessinthisbehalf;butnecessitywasirresistible.Andtheresult
testifieshowwiselytheRepublicacted.Withoutemancipation,followedbythearmingofthe
slaves,rebelslaverywouldnothavebeenovercome.Withthesethevictorywaseasy.
"Atlastthesamenecessitywhichinsistedfirstuponemancipationandthenuponthearming
oftheslaves,insistswiththesameunanswerableforceupontheadmissionofthefreedman
tocompleteEqualitybeforethelaw,sothatthereshallbenobanofcolorincourt-roomorat
theballot-box,andgovernmentshallbefixedonitsonlyrightfulfoundation—theconsentof
thegoverned.Reason,humanity,andjustice,allofwhichareclearforthisadmissionofthe
freedman,mayfail
tomoveyou;butyoumustyieldtonecessity,whichnowrequiresthatthesepromisesshall
beperformed....
"Thefreedmanmustbeprotected.TothisyouarespeciallypledgedbytheProclamationof
PresidentLincoln,which,afterdeclaringhim'free,'promisestomaintainthisfreedom,not
foranylimitedperiod,butforalltime.Butthiscannotbedonesolongasyoudenyhimthe
shieldofimpartiallaws.Lethimbeheardincourtandlethimvote.Lettheserightsbe
guardedsacredly.Beyondeventheshieldofimpartiallaws,hewillthenhavethatprotection
whichcomesfromtheconsciousnessofmanhood.Cladinthefullpanoplyofcitizenshiphe
willfeelatlastthatheisaman.Atpresentheisonlyarecentchattel,awaitingyourjusticeto
betransmutedintomanhood.Ifyouwouldhavehimrespectedinhisrights,youmustbegin
byrespectinghiminyourlaws.Ifyouwouldmaintainhiminhisfreedom,youmustbeginby
maintaininghimintheequalrightsofcitizenship.
"Foremostistheequalityofallmen.Ofcourse,inadeclarationofrights,nosuchsupreme
follywasintendedasthatallmenarecreatedequalinformorcapacity,bodilyormental;but
simplythattheyarecreatedequalinrights.Thisisthefirstoftheself-evidenttruthsthatare
announced,leadingandgoverningalltherest.Life,liberty,andthepursuitofhappinessare
amonginalienablerights;buttheyareallheldinsubordinationtothatprimaltruth.Hereis
thestarting-pointofthewhole,andtheendislikethestarting-point.Inannouncingthat
governmentsderivetheirjustpowersfromtheconsentofthegoverned,theDeclaration
repeatsagainthesameproclamationofEqualRights.ThusisEqualitytheAlphaandthe
Omega,inwhichallotherrightsareembraced.Menmaynothaveanaturalrighttocertain
things,butmostclearlytheyhaveanaturalrighttoimpartiallaws,bywhichtheyshallbe
securedinEqualRights.Equalityinrightsisthefirstofrights....
"Takingthesumtotalofthepopulationintheelevenstates,wefind5,447,222whitesto
3,666,110coloredpersons;andyouarenowtodecide,whetherinthedischargeofyourduties
undertheConstitution,andboundtoguarantyarepublicanformofgovernment,youwill
disfranchisethismightymass,shuttingthemoutfromthoseEqualRightspromisedbyour
fathers,andfromallvoiceinthegovernmentoftheircountry.Theysurpassinnumbersbyat
leastamillionthewholepopulationofthecoloniesatthetimeourfathersraisedthecry,
'TaxationwithoutRepresentationisTyranny';andnowyouaretodecidewhetheryouwill
stripthemofrepresentationwhileyousubjectthemtoagrindingtaxationbytariffand
excise,actingdirectlyandindirectly,whichdwarfsintoinsignificanceeverythingattempted
bytheBritishParliament....
"Letmebeunderstood.WhatIespeciallyaskisimpartialsuffrage,whichis,ofcourse,
embracedinuniversalsuffrage.Whatisuniversalisnecessarilyimpartial.Forthepresent,I
simplyinsistthatallshallbeequalbeforethelaw,sothat,intheenjoymentofthisright,
thereshallbenorestrictionwhichisnotequallyapplicabletoall.Anyfurtherquestion,inthe
natureof'qualification,'belongstoanotherstageofdebate.AndyetIhavenohesitationin
sayingthatuniversalsuffrageisauniversalright,subjectonlytosuchregulationsasthe
safetyofsocietymayrequire.Thesemayconcern(1)age,(2)character,(3)registration,(4)
residence.Nobodydoubtsthatminorsmaybeexcluded,andso,also,personsofinfamous
life.Registrationandresidencearebothprudentialrequirementsforthesafeguardofthe
ballot-boxagainsttheNomadsandBohemiansofpolitics,andtocompeltheexerciseofthis
franchisewhereapersonisknownamonghisneighborsandfriends.Educationalsomay,
undercertaincircumstances,bearequirementofprudence,especiallyvaluableinaRepublic
wheresomuchdependsontheintelligenceofthepeople.Thesetemporaryrestrictionsdo
notinanywayinterferewiththerightsofsuffrage,fortheyleaveitabsolutelyaccessibleto
all....
"Theballotisaschoolmaster.Readingandwritingareofinestimablevalue,buttheballot
teacheswhatthesecannotteach.Itteachesmanhood.Especiallyisitimportanttoarace
whosemanhoodhasbeendenied.Theworkofredemptioncannotbecompleteiftheballotis
leftindoubt.Thefreedmanalreadyknowshisfriendsbytheunerringinstinctoftheheart.
Givehimtheballot,andhewillbeeducatedintotheprinciplesofthegovernment.Denyhim
theballot,andhewillcontinueanalieninknowledgeasinrights.Hisclaimisexceptional,as
yourinjusticeisexceptional.Forgenerationsyouhaveshuthimoutfromalleducation,
makingitacrimetoteachhimtoreadforhimselftheBookofLife.Letnotthetyrannyofthe
pastbeanapologyforanyfurtherexclusion....
"Havingpleadedforthefreedman,InowpleadfortheRepublic;fortoeachaliketheballotis
anecessity.Itisidletoexpectanytruepeacewhilethefreedmanisrobbedofthis
transcendentlightandleftapreytothatvengeancewhichisreadytowreakuponhimthe
disappointmentofdefeat.Thecountry,sympatheticwithhim,willbeinapositionof
perpetualunrest.Withhimitwillsufferandwithhimalonecanitceasetosuffer.Only
throughhimcanyouredressthebalanceofourpoliticalsystemandassurethesafetyof
patriotcitizens.Onlythroughhimcanyousavethenationaldebtfromtheinevitable
repudiationwhichawaitsitwhenrecentrebelsinconjunctionwithNorthernalliesoncemore
bearsway.Hisisourbestguarantee.Use
him.Hewasonceyourfellow-soldier;hehasalwaysbeenyourfellow-man....
"Ispeaktodayhopingtodosomethingformycountry,andespeciallyforthatunhappy
portionwhichhasbeenarrayedinarmsagainstus.Thepeopletherearemyfellow-citizens,
andgladlywouldIhailthem,iftheywouldpermitit,asnolongera'section,'nolonger'the
South,'butanintegralpartoftheRepublic—underaConstitutionwhichknowsnoNorthand
noSouthandcannottolerateany'sectional'pretensions.GladlydoIoffermybesteffortsin
allsincerityfortheirwelfare.ButIseeclearlythatthereisnothinginthecompassofmortal
powersoimportanttothemineveryrespect,morally,politically,andeconomically—that
thereisnothingwithsuchcertainpromisetothemofbeneficentresults—thereisnothingso
suretomaketheirlandsmilewithindustryandfertilityasthedecreeofEqualRightswhichI
nowinvoke.Letthedecreegoforthtocoverthemwithblessings,suretodescendupontheir
childreninsuccessivegenerations.Theyhavegivenuswar;wegivethempeace.Theyhave
ragedagainstusinthenameofSlavery.WesendthembackthebenedictionofJusticeforall.
Theymenacehate;weofferinreturnallthesacredcharitiesofcountrytogetherwithoblivion
ofthepast.Thisisour'MeasureforMeasure.'Thisisourretaliation.Thisisouronlyrevenge.
...
"Inthefearfultragedynowdrawingtoaclosethereisadestiny,sternandirresistibleasthat
oftheGreekDrama,whichseemstomasterallthatisdone,hurryingonthedeathofSlavery
anditswholebroodofsin.ThereisalsoaChristianProvidencewhichwatchesthisbattlefor
right,caringespeciallyforthepooranddowntroddenwhohavenohelper.Thefreedmanstill
writhingundercrueloppressionnowliftshisvoicetoGodtheavenger.Itisforustosave
ourselvesfromrighteousjudgment.Neverwithimpunitycanyououtragehumannature.Our
countrywhichisguiltystill,ispayingstillthegrievouspenalty.Thereforebyeverymotiveof
self-preservationwearesummonedtobejust.Andthusisthecauseassociatedindissolubly
withthenationallife....
"StrikeattheBlackCode,asyouhavealreadystruckattheSlaveCode.Thereisnothingto
choosebetweenthem.Strikeatonce;strikehard.Youhavealreadyproclaimed
Emancipation;proclaimEnfranchisementalso.Anddonotstultifyyourselvesbysettingat
naughtthepracticalprincipleoftheFathers,thatalljustgovernmentstandsonlyonthe
consentofthegoverned,anditsinseparablecorollary,thattaxationwithoutrepresentationis
tyranny.Whatwasoncetrueistrueforever,althoughwemayforatimelosesightofit,and
thisisthe
casewiththoseimperishabletruthstowhichyouhavebeen,alas!soindifferent.Thusfarthe
workisonlyhalfdone....
"Accordingtothebesttestimonynow,thepopulationoftheearth—embracingCaucasians,
Mongolians,Malays,Africans,andAmericans—isaboutthirteenhundredmillions,ofwhom
onlythreehundredandseventy-fivemillionsare'whitemen,'orlittlelessthanone-fourth,so
that,inclaimingexclusiverightsfor'whitemen,'youdegradenearlythree-quartersofthe
HumanFamily,madeinthe'imageofGod'anddeclaredtobeof'oneblood,'whileyou
sanctionaCasteoffensivetoreligion,anOligarchyinconsistentwithRepublican
Government,andaMonopolywhichhasthewholeworldasitsfootstool.
"AgainstthisassumptionIprotestwithmind,soul,andheart.Itisfalseinreligion,falsein
statesmanship,andfalseineconomy.Itisanextravagance,which,ifenforced,isfoolish
tyranny.Showmeacreaturewitherectcountenancelookingtoheaven,madeintheimageof
God,andIshowyouamanwho,ofwhatevercountryorrace,whetherdarkenedbyequatorial
sunorblanchedbynortherncold,iswithyouachildoftheheavenlyfather,andequalwith
youintitletoalltherightsofhumannature."
ThesecondseerofdemocracywasThaddeusStevens.Hewasamandifferententirelyin
method,educationandthoughtfromCharlesSumner.WeknowStevensbestwhenhewas
oldandsick,andwhenwithgrimandawfulcouragehemadetheAmericanCongresstakethe
laststepwhichithasevertakentowardsdemocracy.YetinonerespectStevensinhisthought
wasevenmorerealisticthanCharlesSumner,althoughSumnerlaterfollowedhim;fromthe
first,Stevensknewthatbeneathalltheoreticalfreedomandpoliticalrightmustliethe
economicfoundation.HesaidatLancaster,Pennsylvania,September7,1865:
"ThewholefabricofSouthernsocietymustbechanged,anditnevercanbedoneifthis
opportunityislost....Howcanrepublicaninstitutions,freeschools,freechurches,free
socialintercourse,existinamingledcommunityofnabobsandserfs;oftheownersoftwenty
thousandacremanorswithlordlypalacesandtheoccupantsofnarrowhutsinhabitedby'low
whitetrash'?IftheSouthisevertobemadeasaferepublicletherlandsbecultivatedbythe
toiloftheownersorthefreelaborofintelligentcitizens.Thismustbedoneeventhoughit
driveshernobilityintoexile!Iftheygo,allthebetter.Itwillbehardtopersuadetheownerof
tenthousandacresofland,whodrivesacoachandfour,thatheisnotdegradedbysittingat
thesametableorinthesamepew,withtheembrownedandhard-handedfarmerwhohas
himselfcultivatedhisownthrivinghomesteadof150acres.Thecountrywouldbewellridof
theproud,bloatedanddefiant
rebels....Thefoundationsoftheirinstitutions...mustbebrokenupandrelaid,orallour
bloodandtreasurehavebeenspentinvain."4
"Hefiguredthattherewereintherebelstatesfourhundredsixty-fivemillionacresofland.
Ofthisthreehundredninety-fourmillionacreswereownedby70,000persons,eachof
whompossessedmorethantwohundredacres.Hearguedthatthesethreehundredninety
fourmillionacresoughttobeconfiscatedbythegovernment.Toeachadultfreedmanshould
begivenfortyacreswhichapproximatelywoulddisposeofaboutfortymillionacres.The
remainingthreehundredfifty-fourmillionacres,hewoulddivideintosuitablefarmsandsell
tothehighestbidder.Includingcitypropertyitshouldbringanaveragepriceoftendollarsan
acre,makingatotalofthreebillionfivehundredfortymillioninsixpercentbonds,the
incomeofwhichshouldgotowardsthepaymentofpensionstothedeservingveterans,and
thewidowsandorphansofsoldiersandsailorswhohadbeenkilledinthewar.Twohundred
milliondollarsshouldbeappropriatedtoreimburseloyalmeninbothNorthandSouth
whosepropertyhadbeendestroyedordamagedduringthewar.Withtheremainingthree
billion,fortymilliondollarshewouldpaythenationaldebt.Stevensarguedthatsinceallthis
propertywhichhastobeconfiscatedwasownedby70,000persons,thevastmajorityofthe
peopleintheSouthwouldnotbeaffectedbythispolicy.These70,000werethearch-traitors
andsincetheyhadcausedanunjustwartheyshouldbemadetosuffertheconsequences."5
Sumner,thinkingalongtheselines,hadhesitated.HesaidinJune,1862,whenconfiscation
firstwasbroached:
"IconfessfranklythatIlookwithmorehopeandconfidencetoliberationthanto
confiscation.Togivefreedomisnoblerthantotakeproperty....Thereisinconfiscation,
unlesswhendirectedagainstthecriminalauthorsoftherebellion,aharshnessinconsistent
withthatmercywhichitisalwaysasacreddutytocultivate....Butliberationisnotharsh;
anditiscertain,ifproperlyconducted,tocarrywithitthesmilesofabenignantProvidence."
6
Later,however,hebegantoseetheeconomicdemandsofemancipationandhewrotetoJohn
Bright,March13,1865:"Canemancipationbecarriedoutwithoutusingthelandsofthe
slave-masters?Wemustseethatthefreedmenareestablishedonthesoil,andthattheymay
becomeproprietors.FromthebeginningIhaveregardedconfiscationonlyasancillaryto
emancipation.Thegreatplantations,whichhavebeensomanynurseriesoftherebellion,
mustbebrokenup,andthefreedmenmusthavethepieces.Itlooksasifwewereontheeve
ofanotheragitation.Iinsistthattherebelstatesshallnotcomebackexceptonthefootingof
theDeclarationofIndependence,withall
LOOKINGFORWARD199
personsequalbeforethelaw,andgovernmentfoundedontheconsentofthegoverned.In
otherwords,thereshallbenodiscriminationonaccountofcolor.Ifallwhitesvote,then
mustallblacks;butthereshallbenolimitationofsuffrageforonemorethanfortheother.It
issometimessaid'What!letthefreedman,yesterdayaslave,vote?'Iaminclinedtothink
thatthereismoreharminrefusingthaninconcedingthefranchise.Itissaidthattheyareas
intelligentastheIrishjustarrived;butthequestionhasbecomeimmenselypracticalinthis
respect:WithouttheirvoteswecannotestablishstablegovernmentsintheRebelStates.
Theirvotesareasnecessaryastheirmuskets;ofthisIamsatisfied.Withoutthem,theold
enemywillreappear,andundertheformsoflawtakepossessionofthegovernments,choose
magistratesandofficers,andinalliancewiththeNorthernDemocracy,putusallinperil
again,postponethedayoftranquillity,andmenacethenationalcreditbyassailingthe
nationaldebt.Tomymind,thenationisnowboundbyself-interest—ay,self-defense—tobe
thoroughlyjust.TheDeclarationofIndependencehaspledgeswhichhaveneverbeen
redeemed.Wemustredeemthem,atleastasregardstherebelstateswhichhavefallenunder
ourjurisdiction.Mr.Lincolnisslowinacceptingtruths.Ihaveremindedhimthatifhewould
saythewordwemightsettlethisquestionpromptlyandrightly.Hehesitates.MeanwhileI
feelitmydutytoopposehisschemeofgovernmentinLouisiana,whichforthepresentis
defeatedinCongress."7
Stevens'declarationfoundfewechoes.SenatorWadeofOhiowastheonlyonewhoblazeda
furtherpathtowardindustrialdemocracy.He"declaredinpublicmeetingsthatafterthe
abolitionofslavery,aradicalchangeintherelationsofcapitalandofpropertyinlandisnext
upontheorderoftheday."AndWadeaddedfranklythatthisdemocraticmovementof
freedomandpowerformenwaseasilyconfusedinmen'smindswiththeolderslogansof
freedomfortradeandindustry.
"Thereisnodoubt,"healsoremarked,"thatifbyaninsurrection[thecoloredpeople]could
contrivetoslayonehalftheiroppressors,theotherhalfwouldholdtheminthehighest
respectandnodoubttreatthemwithjustice."
AllofthissimplyincreasedIndustry'sfearofWesternradicalismandwasregardedas
advocacyofindustrialrevolution.Thesewerethedemandsoftheextremeleadersof
abolition-democracy;leaderslikePhillipsandDouglassagreedwiththedemandforthe
ballot.WendellPhillipssaidattheannualmeetingoftheMassachusettsAnti-SlaverySociety
in1865:
"OurphilosophyofgovernmentsincetheFourthdayofJuly,1776,isthatnoclassissafe,no
freedomisreal,noemancipationiseffectual
whichdoesnotplaceinthehandsofthemanhimselfthepowertoprotecthisownrights.
ThatisthegeniusofAmericanInstitutions.
"TheNegromustbegiventhefranchisebecausewehavenoothertimbertobuildstateswith,
andunlesswebuildwithhim,wemustpostponereconstructionforsomanyyears,thatthe
verypatronageofterritorialgovernmentwouldswamprepublicaninstitutions.Keepthem
territories,letthedemocracycomeineightyearsorfour,withthemoneypowerofthisbank
systeminonehandandterritorialgovernmentintheother,andrepublicangovernmentwill
bealmostafailure."
AtaTremontTemplemeetinginBoston,itwas"Resolved,Thatsincethedenialofrightsto
blackmenwasthecauseofthedisruptionoftheUnion,theirenfranchisementandfree
equalitybeforethelawmustbethecornerstoneoftheReconstruction."
Douglasssaid,"Iamforthe'immediate,unconditionalanduniversal'enfranchisementofthe
blackman,ineverystateintheUnion.Withoutthishislibertyisamockery;withoutthis,
youmightaswellalmostretaintheoldnameofslaveryforhiscondition;for,infact,ifheis
nottheslaveoftheindustrialmaster,heistheslaveofsociety,andholdshislibertyasa
privilege,notasaright.Heisatthemercyofthemob,andhasnomeansofprotecting
himself."
NotallAbolitionistsagreed,however;GarrisonintheLiberatorrefusedtodemand
immediateenfranchisement.Hesaid,in1864,inreplytoanEnglishcritic,"Whenwasitever
knownthatliberationfrombondagewasaccompaniedbyarecognitionofpoliticalequality?
Chattelspersonalmaybeinstantlytranslatedfromtheauction-blockintofreemen;butwhen
weretheyevertakenatthesametimetotheballot-box,andinvestedwithallpoliticalrights
andimmunities?Accordingtothelawsofdevelopmentandprogress,itisnotpracticable.To
denounceorcomplainofPresidentLincolnfornotdisregardingpublicsentiment,andnot
flyinginthefaceoftheselaws,ishardlyjust.Besides,Idoubtwhetherhehasthe
constitutionalrighttodecidethismatter.Eversincethisgovernmentwasorganized,theright
ofsuffragehasbeendeterminedbyeachstateintheUnionforitself,sothatthereisno
uniformityinregardtoit.Insomefreestates,coloredcitizensareallowedtovote;inothers,
theyarenot.Itisalwaysastate,neveranationalmatter.
"Nor,ifthefreedblackswereadmittedtothepollsbyPresidentialfiat,doIseeany
permanentadvantagelikelytobesecuredbyit;for,submittedtoasanecessityattheoutset,
assoonasthestatewasorganizedandlefttomanageitsownaffairs,thewhitepopulation,
withtheirsuperiorintelligence,wealth,andpower,wouldunquestionablyalterthefranchise
inaccordancewiththeirprejudices,andexclude
thosethussummarilybroughttothepolls.Coercionwouldgainnothing.Inotherwords—as
inyourowncountry—universalsuffragewillbehardtowinandtoholdwithoutgeneral
preparationoffeelingandsentiment.Butitwillcome,bothattheSouthandwithyou;yet
onlybyastruggleonthepartofthedisfranchised,andagrowingconvictionofitsjustice,'in
thegoodtimecoming.'WiththeabolitionofslaveryintheSouth,prejudiceor'colorphobia,'
thenaturalproductofthesystem,willgraduallydisappear—asinthecaseofyourWest
Indiancolonies—andblackmenwillwintheirwaytowealth,distinction,eminence,and
officialstation.IaskonlyacharitablejudgmentofPresidentLincolnrespectingthismatter,
whetherinLouisianaoranyotherstate."8
HerewassoundpoliticalargumentbutunsoundeconomicsbasedontheAmerican
Assumptionofwealththroughthrift,appliedtoslaves,whereThaddeusStevensaloneknew
itcouldnotbeapplied.NeverthelessthedemandforNegrosuffragegrew,chieflybecauseof
thenecessityofimplementingemancipationandmakingNegrofreedomreal.TheNewYork
TimessaidinApril,1865:
"Nobody,webelieve,wishestokeepanySouthernstateunderdisabilitiessimplyas
punishment.Mr.Sumner,himself,probablydoesnotwanttotransformtheSouthernstates
intoterritoriesforanysuchobject.TherealconcernhereiniswhethertheSouthernstates,if
restoredatoncetotheirfullstaterights,wouldnotabusethembyanoppressionoftheblack
race.Thisracehasrenderedanassistancetothegovernmentintimesofdangerthatentitles
themtoitsbenigncare.Thegovernmentcannot,withouttheworstdishonor,permitthe
bondageoftheblackmantobecontinuedinanyform.Itisboundbyeverymoralprinciple,
aswellaseveryprudentialconsideration,nottoremithimtothetendermerciesofanenemy.
ButitistobehopedthattheSouthernpeoplewillunderstandthattheinterestsofbothraces
requireajustrelationbetweenthemandthattheywillsecurethisbyapromptchangeof
theirstateconstitutionandlaws."
TheNewYorkTribunelaiddownsevenpointsinMay,1865:
"1.EveryonemustrealizethattheblackswillnotemigratebutstayinAmerica.
"2.Theblacksmaynotbespared,fortheirlabormakeslandvaluable,andthelandmaynot
bespared.
"3.Fairpayforfairworkisasinequanon.
"4.Educationforfreedmen.
"5.Witheducationcomesself-elevation,andthedesiretodenyhimthevotewilldisappear.
"6.However,whitemenwhoareignorantandvicious,vote.Suffrageforblacksregardlessof
thisignorance.
"7.Fidelitytothepoliticalcreedofthenationtosecurethehappinessofall."
Later,HoraceGreeleysaid:"Wewouldconsenttosubmittothesuffrageonlythosewho
couldreadandwriteorthosewhopaytaxesorareengagedinsometrade.Anystandard
whichcouldlimitthevotingprivilegetothecompetentanddeservingwouldbeagreeableto
us."Headds,"TheAbolitionistsaremostanxiousthatpoliticalrights,andespeciallytheright
ofself-protectionbysuffrage,shallbeaccordedtothefreedmenoftheSouth;andwaivingall
questionsofpower,theywouldgladlypreferthatsuchextensionofsuffragebeaccordedby,
ratherthanimposedon,Southernwhites.Theycannotrealizethathangingsomeofthelate
insurgentsasrebelsandtraitorswilldisposethesurvivorstowardaccordingtheelective
franchiseeventothemostcapableofemancipatedblacks.Infacttheobstaclestosuch
extensionofsuffragearemanyandformidable—theyarenottobesurmounted(though
manyactasthoughtheycould)byamereorderfromtheWarDepartment,norevenbyanact
ofCongress."9
ThemostpopularargumentforNegrosuffragewasthatofCarlSchurz:
"Itwouldseemthattheinterferenceofthenationalauthorityinthehomeconcernsofthe
Southernstateswouldberenderedlessnecessary,andthewholeproblemofpoliticaland
socialreconstructionbemadesimplified,if,whilethemasseslatelyarrayedagainstthe
governmentarepermittedtovote,thelargemajorityofthosewhowerealwaysloyal,andare
naturallyanxioustoseethefreelaborproblemsuccessfullysolved,werenotexcludedfrom
allinfluenceuponlegislation.InallquestionsconcerningtheUnion,thenationaldebt,and
thefuturesocialorganizationoftheSouth,thefeelingsofthecoloredmanarenaturallyin
sympathywiththeviewsandaimsofthenationalgovernment.AndwhiletheSouthern
whitesfoughtagainsttheUnion,theNegrodidallhecouldtoaidit;whiletheSouthernwhite
seesinthenationalgovernmenthisconqueror,theNegroseesinithisprotector;whilethe
whiteowestothenationaldebthisdefeat,theNegroowestoithisdeliverance;whilethe
whiteconsidershimselfrobbedandruinedbytheemancipationoftheslaves,theNegrofinds
inittheassuranceoffutureprosperityandhappiness.InalltheimportantissuestheNegro
wouldbeledbynaturalimpulsetoforwardtheendsofthegovernment,andbymakinghis
influence,aspartofthevotingbody,telluponthelegislationofthestates,renderthe
interferenceofthenationalauthoritylessnecessary.
"Asthemostdifficultofthependingquestionsareintimatelyconnectedwiththestatusof
theNegroinSouthernsociety,itisobviousthatacorrectsolutioncanbemoreeasily
obtainedifhehasavoicein
thematter.Intherighttovote,hewouldfindthebestpermanentprotectionagainst
oppressiveclass-legislation,aswellasagainstindividualpersecution.Therelationsbetween
thewhiteandblackracesevenifimprovedbythegradualwearingoffofthepresent
animosities,arelikelytoremainlongunderthetroublinginfluenceofprejudice.
"Itisanotoriousfactthattherightsofamanofsomepoliticalpowerarefarlessexposedto
violationsthanthoseofonewhois,inmattersofpublicinterest,completelysubjecttothe
willofothers.Avoterisamanofinfluence;smallasthatinfluencemaybeinthesingle
individual,itbecomeslargerwhenthatindividualbelongstoanumerousclassofvoterswho
arereadytomakecommoncausewithhimfortheprotectionofhisrights.Suchanindividual
isanobjectofinteresttothepoliticalpartiesthatdesiretohavethebenefitsofhisballot.Itis
true,thebringingfacetofaceattheballotboxofthewhiteandtheblackracesmayhereand
thereleadtoanoutbreakoffeeling,andthefirsttrialsoughtcertainlytobemadewhilethe
nationalpowerisstilltheretopreventorrepressdisturbances;butthepracticeonce
successfullyinauguratedundertheprotectionofthatpower,itwouldprobablybemoreapt
thananythingelsetoobliterateoldantagonisms,especiallyifthecoloredpeople—whichis
probable,assoonastheirownrightsaresufficientlysecured—dividetheirvotesbetweenthe
differentpoliticalparties.
"Theeffectoftheextensionofthefranchisetothecoloredpeopleuponthedevelopmentof
freelaboranduponthesecurityofhumanrightsintheSouthbeingtheprincipalobjectin
view,theobjectionsraisedonthegroundoftheignoranceofthefreedmanbecome
unimportant.Practicallibertyisagoodschool,and,besides,ifanyqualificationcanbefound,
applicabletobothraces,whichdoesnotinterferewiththeattainmentofthemainobject,
suchqualificationwouldinthatrespectbeunobjectionable.Butitisidletosaythatitwillbe
timetospeakofNegrosuffragewhenthewholecoloredracewillbeeducated,fortheballot
maybenecessarytohimtosecurehiseducation.Itisalsoidletosaythatignoranceisthe
principalgrounduponwhichSouthernmenobjecttoNegrosuffrage,forifitwere,that
numerousclassofcoloredpeopleinLouisianawhoareashighlyeducated,asintelligentand
aswealthyasanycorrespondingclassofwhites,wouldhavebeenenfranchisedlongago.
"IthasbeenassertedthattheNegrowouldbebutavotingmachineinthehandofhis
employer.Onthispointopinionsseemtodiffer.IhavehearditsaidintheSouththatthe
freedmenaremorelikelytobeinfluencedbytheirschoolmastersandpreachers.Butevenif
wesupposetheemployertocontroltoacertainextenttheNegrolaborer's
vote,twothingsaretobetakenintoconsideration:i.Theclassofemployersorlanded
proprietorswillinafewyearsbeverydifferentfromwhatitwasheretofore;inconsequence
ofthegeneralbreakingup,agreatmanyoftheoldslaveholderswillbeobligedtogiveup
theirlandsandnewmenwillstepintotheirplaces;and2.Theemployerwillhardlycontrol
thevoteoftheNegrolaborersofarastomakehimvoteagainsthisownliberty.The
beneficialeffectofanextensionofsuffragedoesnotalwaysdependupontheintelligence
withwhichthenewlyadmittedvotersexercisetheirright,butsometimesuponthe
circumstancesinwhichtheyareplaced;andthecircumstancesinwhichthefreedmenofthe
Southareplacedaresuchthatwhentheyonlyvotefortheirownlibertyandrights,theyvote
fortherightsoffreelabor,forthesuccessofanimmediateimportantreform,forthe
prosperityofthecountry,andforthegeneralinterestsofmankind.If,therefore,inorderto
controlthecoloredvoter,theemployerorwhoeverhemaybe,isfirstobligedtoconcedeto
thefreedmanthegreatpointofhisownrightsasamanandafreelaborer,thegreatsocial
reformiscompleted,themostdifficultproblemissolved,andallotherquestionsitwillbe
comparativelyeasytosettle.
"IndiscussingthematterofNegrosuffrage,Ideemeditmydutytoconfinemyselfstrictlyto
thepracticalaspectsofthesubject.Ihave,therefore,nottoucheditsmoralmeritsnor
discussedthequestionwhetherthenationalgovernmentiscompetenttoenlargetheelective
franchiseinthestateslatelyinrebellionbyitsownact.
"Ideemitproper,however,toofferafewremarksontheassertionfrequentlyputforththat
thefranchiseislikelytobeextendedtothecoloredmanbythevoluntaryactionofthe
Southernwhitesthemselves.Myobservationleadsmetoacontraryopinion.Asidefroma
veryfewenlightenedmen,Ifoundbutoneclassofpeopleinfavoroftheenfranchisementof
theblacks:itwastheclassofUnionistswhofoundthemselvespoliticallyostracizedand
lookedupontheenfranchisementoftheloyalNegroesasthesalvationofthewholeloyal
element.Buttheirnumbersandinfluencearesadlyinsufficienttosecuresucharesult.The
massesarestronglyopposedtocoloredsuffrage;anybodythatdarestoadvocateitis
stigmatizedasadangerousfanatic;nordoIdeemitprobablethatintheordinarycourseof
things,prejudiceswillwearofftosuchanextentastomakeitapopularmeasure.Outsideof
Louisiana,onlyonegentlemanwhooccupiedaprominentpoliticalpositionintheSouth
expressedtomeanopinionfavorabletoit.Hedeclaredhimselfreadytovoteforan
amendmenttotheconstitutionofhisstatebestowingtherightofsuffrageuponallmale
citizenswithoutdistinctionofcolor,whocouldfurnishevidenceoftheirabilitytoreadand
write,without,however,
disfranchisingthosewhoarenowvotersandarenotabletofulfillthatcondition.This
gentlemanisnowamemberofoneofthestateconventions,butIpresumehewillnotrisk
hispoliticalstandingintheSouthbymovingsuchanamendmentinthatbody.
"Theonlymannerinwhich,inmyopinion,theSouthernpeoplecanbeinducedtograntto
thefreedmansomemeasureofself-protectingpowerintheformofsuffrageistomakeita
conditionprecedentto'readmission.'
"PracticalattemptsonthepartoftheSouthernpeopletodeprivetheNegroofhisrightsasa
freemanmayresultinbloodycollisions,andwillcertainlyplungeSouthernsocietyinto
restlessfluctuationsandanarchicalconfusion.Suchevilscanbepreventedonlyby
continuingthecontrolofthenationalgovernmentinthestateslatelyinrebellion,untilfree
laborisfullydevelopedandfirmlyestablished,andtheadvantagesandblessingsofthenew
orderofthingshavedisclosedthemselves.Thisdesirableresultwillbehastenedbyafirm
declarationonthepartofthegovernmentthatnationalcontrolintheSouthwillnotcease
untilsuchresultsaresecured.OnlyinthiswaycanthatsecuritybeestablishedintheSouth
whichwillrendernumerousimmigrationpossible,andsuchimmigrationwouldmaterially
aidafavorabledevelopmentofthings.
"Thesolutionoftheproblemwouldbeverymuchfacilitatedbyenablingalltheloyaland
free-laborelementsintheSouthtoexerciseahealthyinfluenceuponlegislation.Itwill
hardlybepossibletosecurethefreedmanagainstoppressiveclasslegislationandprivate
persecutionunlesshebeendowedwithacertainmeasureofpoliticalpower.
"AstothefuturepeaceandharmonyoftheUnion,itisofthehighestimportancethatthe
peoplelatelyinrebellionbenotpermittedtobuildupanother'peculiarinstitution'whose
spiritisinconflictwiththefundamentalprinciplesofourpoliticalsystem;foraslongasthey
cherishinterestspeculiartotheminpreferencetothosetheyhaveincommonwiththerest
oftheAmericanpeople,theirloyaltytotheUnionwillalwaysbeuncertain.
"Idesirenottobeunderstoodassayingthattherearenowell-meaningmenamongthose
whowerecomprisedintherebellion.Therearemany,butnoneoftheseinnumbernorin
influencearestrongenoughtocontrolthemanifesttendencyofthepopularspirit.Thereare
greatreasonsforhopethatadeterminedpolicyonthepartofthenationalgovernmentwill
produceinnumerableandvaluableconversions.Thisconsiderationcounselsleniencyasto
persons,suchasisdemandedbythehumanandenlightenedspiritofourtimes,andvigor
andfirmnessinthecarryingoutofprinciplessuchasaredemandedbythenationalsenseofjusticeandtheexigenciesofoursituation."10
TheinevitableresultoftheCivilWareventuallyhadtobetheenfranchisementofthe
laboringclass,blackandwhite,intheSouth.Itcouldnot,astheSouthclamoredtomakeit,
resultinthemerelegalisticfreeingoftheslaves.Ontheotherhand,itwouldnotgoasfaras
economicemancipationforwhichStevensandthefreedmenclamored,becausetheindustrial
NorthinstinctivelyrecoiledfromthisandtheNorthernwhiteworkingmanhimselfhadnot
achievedsucheconomicemancipation.Thepoliticallyenfranchisedslavewasaccused,as
everylaboringclasshasbeen,ofignoranceandbadmanners,ofpovertyandcrime.Andwhen
hetriedtogotoschoolandtriedtoimitatethemannersofhisbrothers,anddemandedreal
economicemancipationthroughownershipoflandandrighttousecapital,therearosethe
bittershriekofproperty,andthechargeofcorruptionandtheftwasaddedtothatof
ignoranceandpoverty,justaswehaveseeninourdayinthecaseofRussia.
Democracy,thatinevitableendofallgovernment,faceseternalparadox.Inallages,thevast
majorityofmenhavebeenignorantandpoor,andanyattempttoarmsuchclasseswith
politicalpowerbringsthequestion:CanIgnoranceandPovertyrule?Iftheytrytorule,their
successinthenatureofthingsmustbehaltingandspasmodic,ifnotabsolutelynil;andit
mustincurthecriticismandrailleryofthewiseandthewell-to-do.Ontheotherhand,ifthe
poor,unletteredtoilersaregivennopoliticalpower,andarekeptbyexploitationinpoverty,
theywillremainsubmergedunlessrescuedbyrevolution;andaphilosophywillprevail,
teachingthatthesubmergenceofthemassisinevitableandisonthewholebest,notonlyfor
them,butfortherulingclasses.
Inallthisargumentthereisseldomaconsiderationofthepossibilitythatthegreatmassof
peoplemaybecomeintelligent,withincomesthatinsureadecentstandardofliving.Insuch
case,noonecoulddenytherightandinevitablenessofdemocracy.Andinthemeantime,in
bridgingtheroadfromignoranceandpovertytointelligenceandanincomesufficientfor
civilization,therealpowermustbeinsomeone'shands.Shallthispowerbeadictatorshipfor
thebenefitoftherich,theculturedandthefortunate?Thisisthebasicproblemofdemocracy
anditwasdiscussedbeforethepeopleoftheUnitedStatesinunusualformdirectlyafterthe
CivilWar.Itwasatestofthenation'srealbeliefindemocraticinstitutions.Andthefactthat
theidealofabolition-democracycarriedthenationasfarasitdidinthematterofNegro
suffragemustalwaysbeasourceofintensegratificationforthosewhobelieveinhumanity
andjustice.
"Inarepublicthepeopleprecedetheirgovernment.Throughoutthewarthepeople
demandedmorestringentandmoreenergeticmeasuresthantheadministrationwas
preparedtoadopt.Theycalledforemancipationbeforeitwasproclaimed;foraFreedmen's
Bureaubeforeitwasorganized;foraCivilRightsbillbeforeitwaspassed;andforimpartial
suffragebeforeitwasfinally,byactofCongress,secured.Inthehistoryofemancipationthe
voluntaryactivitiesofaportionofthepeopleinbenevolent,philanthropicandChristian
effortpreceded,preparedfor,andhelpedtoproducethatgovernmentalactionwhichhas
largelycontributedtothepresentconditionandwell-groundedhopesofthecoloredpeople."
n
ThereportsonconditionsintheSouthgainedwidecurrencyandhadgreatinfluence.Salmon
P.Chase,WhitelawReid,CarlSchurz,allsupportedwithviewsandlogictheprevailingtrend
ofabolition-democracy.IntheSouthitself,longbeforetherewasanyunanimityintheNorth
onthesubjectofNegrosuffrageorsignsofpressure,thequestionofvotesforNegroescame
tothefront.ItwasfirstprecipitatedbytheproposedThirteenthAmendmentabolishing
slavery.December14,1863,AshleyofOhiohadintroducedintotheHouseanamendment
prohibitingslavery,andWilsonofIowaintroducedasimilaramendment.Bothwerereferred,
butnotdiscusseduntilfivemonthsaftertheirintroduction.Fourothersimilaramendments
wereintroducedintheHouseduringtheseason.
IntheSenate,January11,1864,HendersonofMissouriintroducedanamendmenttoabolish
slavery,whichwasreferred.Afewdayslater,CharlesSumnersubmittedajointresolution
againstslavery.ThecommitteepreferredHenderson'sresolution.TheBorderStatemenwere
especiallyopposedandGarrettDavisofKentuckymadelongandfieryspeechesandoffered
eightamendments.SenatorPowellofKentuckyalsoofferedvariousamendments.
AproposedThirteenthAmendmentfinallypassedtheSenateApril8,1863,byavoteof36-6.
ItwasconsideredintheHousethelastdayofMay.OnJune15,itwasapprovedbyavoteof
95-66,butthiswaslessthanthenecessarytwo-thirdsmajority.
Meantime,Lincolnhadbeenreelected,receiving2,216,067outof4,011,413votes;Maryland
hadabolishedslavery,andtherewasamovementforabolitionthroughouttheBorderStates.
Atthesecondsessionofthe38thCongress,thePresidenturgedthepassageoftheThirteenth
Amendment.OnJanuary31,1865,AshleycalledtheproposedThirteenthAmendmentfor
reconsideration.ElevenDemocratsdesertedtheirleaderandenabledtheresolutiontopass,
onJanuary31,1865.
Blainesaid:"Whentheannouncementwasmade,theSpeakerbecamepowerlesstopreserveorder.ThemembersupontheRepublicansidesprangupontheir
seatscheering,shouting,andwavinghands,hats,andcanes,whilethespectatorsuponthe
floorandinthegalleriesjoinedheartilyinthedemonstrations.Upontherestorationoforder,
Mr.IngersollofIllinoisroseandsaid,'Mr.Speaker,inhonorofthisimmortalandsublime
event,ImovethatthisHousedonowadjourn.'"12Thisamendmentwassignedbythe
Presidentandsubmittedtothestates.OnDecember18,1865,itwasdeclaredadoptedbythe
SecretaryofState.
TheAmendmentcarriedanunusualprovisioninSectionIIwhichasserted:"Congressshall
havepowertoenforcethisarticlebyappropriatelegislation."CharlesSumnerandothers
declaredthatthisgaveCongresspowertoenfranchiseNegroesifsuchastepwasnecessaryto
theirfreedom.TheSouthtookcognizanceofthisargument.Ofthestateswhichseceded,
VirginiaandLouisianaratifiedtheThirteenthAmendmentinFebruary,1865,andArkansas
inApril.Allofthesestateswereatthetimeinthecontrolofminoritiessupportedbythe
Unionarmies,andstrongpressurewasexertedonthembytheadministrationin
Washington.
InNovember,1865,SouthCarolinaratifiedwiththisproviso:
"ThatanyattemptbyCongresstowardslegislatinguponthepoliticalstatusofformerslaves,
ortheircivilrelations,wouldbecontrarytotheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesasitnowis,
orasitwouldbealteredbytheproposedamendment;isinconflictwiththepolicyofthe
President,declaredinhisamnestyproclamation,andwiththerestorationofthatharmony
uponwhichdependthevitalinterestsoftheAmericanUnion."13
AlabamaratifiedtheAmendmentthesamemonthwiththisproviso:
"ThatthisamendmenttotheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesisadoptedbytheLegislature
ofAlabamawiththeunderstandingthatitdoesnotconferuponCongressthepowerto
legislateuponthepoliticalstatusoffreedmeninthisState."14
NorthCarolinaandGeorgiaratifiedinDecemberjustbeforetheamendmentwasproclaimed.
MississippirefusedratificationuntilaftertheAmendmentwasinforce.Floridaratifiedit
withtheAlabamareservations.Texasdidnotratifyuntil1870.Itisdifficulttoseeinthese
proceedingsanyindicationthattheSouthwaswillingtoabolishslaveryandcertainlythere
wasnottheslightestindicationofgrantinganyNegropoliticalrights.
InSouthCarolina,"theassemblyshunnedallsuggestionsthatsuffragebegiventheNegroin
anyform."WhenanumberofCharlestonNegroespreparedamemorialonthis,theconventionrefusedtohearit."Itcannotbutbe
theearnestdesireofallmembers,"saidtheCharlestonDailyCourier,"thatthematterbe
ignoredintotoduringthesession....Thewhitedemocracy,especiallythatoftheup-country,
feltthatarestrictedsuffragewhichtooknoaccountofracialdiscriminationswould
disfranchisealargeportionofthewhitevoteandgivethelargelandownersanunfair
influencethroughtheircontrolofNegrovotes....""Itmaysafelybesaid,"wrotethe
ColumbiacorrespondentoftheCharlestonDailyCourier,"thattheviewsandopinionsof
Sumner,ThadStevens,Wilson,andsomeotherNorthernRadicalshavebeenconsideredtoo
unworthytobeseriouslycommenteduponbythemembersoftheconvention.Itiswell
knownthatthesentimentsofthosegentlemenareextremelyunpopularintheNorth."15
Universally,theSouthwasreportedasadamantonthesubjectofNegroesvoting."Thatisnot
aquestiontheyevenallowthemselvestodebate.Theyconsiderittoomonstrousa
propositioneventodebate.Thatisoneofthethingstheyimaginetheywillneversubmitto.
Theywillsufferconfiscationandeverythingbeforetheywillendurethedegradation."16
GovernorWalkerofFloridasaidinhisinauguralspeech:"Eachoneofusknowsthatwe
couldnotgiveeitheranhonestorconscientiousassenttoNegrosuffrage.Thereisnotoneof
usthatwouldnotfeelthathewasdoingwrong,andbarteringhisself-respect,hisconscience
andhisdutytohiscountryandtotheUnionitself,forthebenefitshemighthopetoobtain
bygettingbackintotheUnion.MuchasIworshiptheUnion,andmuchasIwouldrejoiceto
seemyStateoncemorerecognizedasamemberthereof,yetitisbetter,athousandtimes
better,thatsheshouldremainoutoftheUnion,evenasoneofhersubjugatedprovinces,
thangoback,'evisceratedofhermanhood,'despoiledofherhonor,recreantofherduty,
withoutherself-respect,andofcoursewithouttherespectofthebalanceofmankind—a
miserablething,withseedsofmoralandpoliticaldeathinherself,soontobecommunicated
toallherassociates."17
JudgeUnderwoodofVirginiareportsacandidgentlemanofAlexandriatalkingtohimin
friendlyconversation:
"'Soonerthanseethecoloredpeopleraisedtoalegalandpoliticalequality,theSouthern
peoplewouldprefertheirtotalannihilation.'Ihadregardedhimaswellinformedandalmost
ascandidamanaswehaveamongtheRebels."18Grattan,anativeofVirginia,saidFebbruary10,1866:
"Ibelievethatiftheblacksarelefttothemselves,ifallforeigninfluenceweretakenaway,the
whiteswouldcontroltheirvotes.Itis
notinthatthedifficultylies,butitisintherepugnancewhichthewhiteracewouldfeelto
thatsortofpoliticalequality.Itisthesamesortofrepugnancewhichamanfeelstowarda
snake.Hedoesnotfeelanyanimositytothesnake,butthereisanaturalshrinkingfromit."
19HethoughtthatanyattempttogivetheNegroesavotewouldleadtotheirextermination.
InallthisreportedoppositiontoNegrosuffrage,thegroundsgivenwereracialandsocial
animosity,andneverthedeterminationoflandandcapitaltorestrictthepoliticalpowerof
labor.Yetthislastreasonwasthefundamentalone.
WhiletheSouthwasinsuspense,andtheabolition-democracywasslowlydebatingand
crystallizingopinion,industryintheNorthwasforgingforwardwithfuriousintensity;and
thismovementwasforemostandpredominantinthemindandvisionoflivingpersonsin
thatday.Duringthewar,businessprospered.Therewerefewfailuresandtheinflated
currencyincreasedpricesandfavoredbusinessprofits;while,ontheotherhand,itdecreased
realwagesandtheincomeoffarmers.Wealthbecameconcentratedamongthe
manufacturers,merchants,thefinanciersandthespeculators.Therewas,consequently,a
largeaccumulationofcapitalforinvestmentinnewbusinessenterprises;industrial
developmentwashastened.Inventionsandtechnicalimprovementsincreased.Plantsbecame
largerandmoreefficient;steelmanufacturebecamethebasisofmodernindustryand
developedrapidlybecauseofthedemandsofwar.Themetalindustry,thusexpanded,turned
totheproductionofpeacegoods.Thewaritselfcalledformoreefficiencyandlargerplants
andconsolidationofplants.
ThefreeingofthenationfromthestranglinghandsofoligarchyintheSouthfreednotonly
blackmenbutwhitemen,notonlyhumanspirit,butbusinessenterpriseallovertheland.
Thishappenedinsurprisingways.Quitenaturally,andlogically,underthestressofwar,
nationalandlocaltaxesroseandroseandroseyetagain,forcingthewholecommunityand
nationtopayforthingsformerlypaidforbyindividuals.First,necessarymoneywasprovided
bytaxingimports;then,toencouragelocalmanufacturersofgoodsthatmustbehadforwar;
thusbyimperceptibletransition,thenationwastaxedtosupportmanufacturers.TheSouth
hadforceddownthetariffuntilin1857therewaspracticallyfreetrade.Northern
manufacturersduringthewarpressedforhighertariffrates.Taxesonimportedgoodswere
theeasiestmethodofraisingmoney.Thetariffactsof1862-1864raisedtheaverageratesof
taxationto37.2%and47%.Andsincethenthetariffrateshavebeenraisedhigherandhigher
soastofosterindustrialmonopoly.
Theindustrialistswerenotwithoutscientificsupport.HenryCarey,
theAmericaneconomist,publishedhis"PrinciplesofSocialScience"in1858-1859.He
attackedfreetradeandjoinedtheGermanLisztinademandforaself-containednational
economy.Careysoughttoshowthebeneficialeffectsthattheproximityofprotectedindustry
wouldhaveuponagriculture.Thusinthenameofthenewnationalspirit,came"Americafor
Americans"asagreatandself-sufficingfarmingandmanufacturingcountry.
Weemerged,therefore,fromthewarwithatremendousindustry,over-organized,but
efficientinmanydirectionsthroughtheexigenciesanddemandsofwar.Twothings
beckonedfurther;first,thediscoveryandrealizationoftheextraordinarynaturalresourcesof
America,itsiron,coalandoil,itsforests,andofcourserawmaterialslikewool,sugarand
cotton;secondly,aunifiedandwonderfulsystemoftransportation.Thenationborrowed
threebilliondollarsforwarandpaidheavyinterestbecauseofthepriceofgold.Themoney
borrowedbythegovernmenthadtobespentandspentquicklywithoutdeliberation,without
carefuldecision.Contractorsandmanagers,therefore,whofurnishedgoodstothe
governmentcouldmake,legallyandillegally,fabuloussums.Theprosperitywhichthuscame
tothemhadtobepassedoninparttotheworkers,whoreceivedhigherwages,andwho,
despitetheincreasedcostofliving,hadmoneytospendfreely.Boomtimeswereon.There
wasplentyofmoneyforinvestmentandplentyofchancesforinvestment.Speculationran
riot.Thewholemoralfabricofthecountrywaschanged,notsimplybythebloodandcruelty,
hateanddestruction,ofwar,butbytheprospectsofagoldenfuture.Wearetoldthatwhen
theSecretaryoftheTreasuryvisitedNewYorkearlyin1864,hefoundbusinessmen
interestednotinthebloodofbattlebutinthestockmarket.Workersandforeignerscaught
thefeverandnaturallyenoughheldtheSouthtoblameforthepast.HadnottheSouthheld
upthedistributionoftheWesternlandssince1845againsttheprotestofNorthernfarmers
andnewimmigrants;againstSouthernpoorwhitesledbyAndrewJohnson,andwith
sympathyonthepartofthemanagersandhirersoflaboroftheNorth?Earlyinthewar,the
HomesteadLawwaspassedandthrewopentheWesternlandstosettlersoneasyterms.The
newfarmersandthenewimmigrantlaborerswerescarcelyawarewhenthislandwasgiven
mostlytorailroadstohelpfinancethem,andthensoldtofarmersatpriceswhichmade
profitablefarmingincreasinglydifficult.Theysawagriculturalpricesrising;theyexpected
them,ofcourse,tocontinuetorise.
RailwaysintheUnitedStatesincreasedfromthreemilesin1828to23,476milesini860,
30,283milesin1870,andover50,000milesin1880.Therailroadshadbeenfinancedby
sellingbondsabroadbefore
thewarandafterthewarbylargeincreasesindomesticcapitalinvested.Giftsofpubliclands
wereshoweredupontherailwaybuilders,amountingtohalfthefarmareaopenedbythe
HomesteadAct.Greatrailwaysystemsbegantobeconsolidated,andthroughthem
populationdriftedtothecities.
EspeciallydidindustrybegintofeartheunrestintheWestafterthewar.TheWestwas
uneasy.Itbecamemoreuneasyonaccountofthelanddistributiontotherailroads,thehigh
anddiscriminatoryrailroadrates,thewholemoneysituation,andthetaxation.Financeand
industry,therefore,afterthewar,whileitlookedforwardconfidentlytotremendous
industrialdevelopment,waswary.Itproposedtoprotectitself.Therewasgoingtobenonew
freetrade,noagriculturalbloc,nodrivesforcheapmoney,nostateinterventioninindustry.
Thenewnationaldevelopment,protectedfromforeigncompetition,mustbeprotectedfrom
stateintervention.Otherwisestatecontrolofrailroadsandindustries,statetaxationand
regulation,wouldreducetheUnitedStatestoaseriesofsmallexclusiveindustrialterritories
insteadofonevastmarket.
Allthisthoughtanddevelopmentwentonwithlittleattentiontothesocialorpoliticalresults
ofthewar.Butsoonattentionhadtobegiventothesematters.Althoughindustrywasnowin
controlofthenationalgovernment,theRepublicanpartywhichrepresenteditwasaminority
party;andNorthernandSouthernDemocrats,especiallySouthernDemocratswithincreased
powerbycountingthefullNegropopulation,togetherwithWesternmalcontents,could
easilyousttheRepublicans.ItwasbecauseofthisthoughtthatNorthernindustrymadeits
greatalliancewithabolition-democracy.Theconsummationofthisalliancecameslowlyand
reluctantlyandaftervainefforttowardunderstandingwiththeSouthwhichwas
unsuccessfuluntil1876.
WhenLincolnfirstlaiddownhisgeneralproclamationconcerningReconstruction,industry
paidlittleattentiontoit:lettheSouthcomeback;letitcomebackquickly,andletusgoto
workandmakemoneyandrepairthelossesofthewarbyincreasedbusiness;andthenlet
thenationgofarbeyondthisthroughdominationoftheAmericanmarket,andperhapseven
ofthemarketsoftheworld.
However,rightherethedreamsoftheindustrialistswerequicklyshadowedbyunwelcome
reflections.IntheharshvoicesofcertainleadingcitizensoftheSouth,whowereaboutto
returntoCongress,therewassomethingofthatsamearrogancethathadcowedtheNorthin
daysgoneby.WhatthesevoicessaidconcerningNegroesand,indeed,concerningslavery,
wasoflittleimportancetoindustry;butiftheyproposedtocomebackwithincreased
politicalpower,wouldthis
meanadriveforfreetrade?Woulditmeanadriveagainstthenationalbanks?Wouldit
meananattempttoreadjustandtaxtheimmenseprofitmadeintheriseofthenational
debt?Beyondthis,coulditbethatthenewSouthwassetuponsomemovetomakethewhole
countryassumeallorpartoftheConfederatedebtandpayforemancipatedslaves?Perhaps
not,butthiswassomethingtowatch.Stateeconomicrightsmustbecurbed.Southern
oppositiontofinanceandthetariffmustbekeptinbounds.Verysoon,then,thepartywhich
representedsoundmoney—thatis,thepaymentofinterestondepreciatedcurrencyatthe
samerateasthoughithadbeengold—andwhowantedFederalcontrolofindustry,beganto
seethenecessityofconsolidatingtheirpoliticalpower.
Thispointofviewofindustrybegantobeexpressedfrankly.BrewerofNewportwrote
Sumner:"Inaselfishpointofviewfreesuffragetotheblacksisdesirable.Withouttheir
support,Southernerswillcertainlyagainunite,andthereistoomuchreasontofear
successfully,withtheDemocratsoftheNorth,andthelongtrainofevilssuretofollowtheir
ruleisfearfultocontemplate...agreatreductionofthetariffdoingawaywithitsprotective
feature—perhapsfreetradetoculminatewithrepudiation...andhowsweetandcomplete
willbetherevengeoftheformeriftheycanruintheNorthbyfreetradeandrepudiation."
ThemostselfishargumentwasmadebyElizurWrightofBostonin1865.Hesaidthatit
wouldtakeyearsofmilitarysubjugationtoeducatethewhiteSouthoutofitsrebel
propensitiessothatamajorityofitcouldbereliedonforloyalstategovernment.Inthe
meantimetwothingswouldhappen:"1st.Thepublicdebtwouldaccumulate,foramilitary
occupationneverpaysasitgoes.2nd.Theblacksarelargelytrainedtoarms,fortheyarethe
cheapestandbesttroopswecanhaveunderthecircumstances.Hence,whenwearriveatthe
periodwhenloyalstategovernments—thatwillgoalone—canbesetup,theblacksmustbe
enfranchisedortheywillbereadyandwillingtofightforagovernmentoftheirown;and
hereismorewar,andmorepublicdebt,andmoretaxation.
"IftheSouthernstatesarebroughtbackintoosoontheNorthwouldeitherhavetopaythe
rebeldebtorborrowtherebeltheoryandsecedefromtheveryUnionthathadbeenrestored
byconqueringtherebels.
"Thereisonlyonewaytoavoidthisandmakeourvictoryimmediatelyfruitful.Intwostates,
adecidedmajorityofthepopulationisblack,and,bynecessity,loyal.Infiveothers,theblack
elementismorethanone-third;anditisstrongenoughtomakeaneffectivebalanceof
powerineverystatewheretherebelliouselementisofanyserious
magnitude.Again,theparticularchivalrywhichgotupandengineeredtherebellionhassuch
anhonorofsharingpoliticalpowerwithitsformerchattelsthatwhentheenfranchisementof
theblacksisdeterminedonasthesinequanonofReconstruction,anditsownmilitary
powerisoverthrown,itwillemigratetoamorecongenialpoliticalatmosphere.Wehavethen
nothingtodobutconvertwhitesenoughtomakeamajoritywhenaddedtotheenfranchised
blacks,tohavestategovernmentsthatcanbetrustedtostandalone.IthinkIcouldeasily
convinceanyman,whodoesnotallowhisprejudicestostandinthewayofhisinterests,that
itwillprobablymakeadifferenceofatleast$1,000,000,000inthedevelopmentofthe
nationaldebt,whetherwereconstructonthebasisofloyalwhiteandblackvotes,oronwhite
votesexclusively,andthathecanbetteraffordtogivethegovernmentatleastone-quarterof
hisestatethanhaveittrythelatterexperiment.
"Iamnotdisputingabouttastes.ANegro'sballotmaybemorevulgarthanhisbullet.Being
alreadyinforit,thequestionwithmeis,howtheoneortheothercanbemadetoprotectmy
propertyfromtaxation;andIamsureIwouldrathergiveawayhalfthelittleIhave,thanto
havethevictoriesof1865thrownaway,asIamsuretheywillbe,if,endeavoringtokeepthe
Southinsubjugationbyblackarmies,thegovernmentallows4,000,000ofblackpopulation
tocontinuedisfranchised."
Thusindustrybetween1860-1870wasincontrolofthegovernmentbutwasinsecure.The
Republicanpartywhichrepresenteditwasaminorityparty,andifNorthernandSouthern
DemocratshadbeenabletounitewiththedisaffectedWest,theRepublicanswouldhave
beensweptoutofpower.ButtheRepublicanparty,unitedwithabolition-democracyand
usingtheirtremendousmoralpowerandpopularity,theirappealtofreedom,democracyand
theupliftofmankind,mightbuttressthethreatenedfortressofthenewindustry.Andfinally
inextremity,votesforNegroeswouldsavetheday.Thusamovement,whichbeganprimarily
andsincerelytoabolishslaveryandinsuretheNegroes'rights,becamecoupledwitha
struggleofcapitalismtoretaincontrolofthegovernmentasagainstNorthernlaborand
SouthernandWesternagriculture.
TheunionofthesetwopointsofviewisseeninanOhiopamphletthencurrent."Whatisto
bedonewithsixmillionsofrebels?Whatshallbedonewithfourmillionblacks?
"1.Loyalwhitemenonlyshallvote.
"2.Loyalwhitemenandrebels,exceptcertainclasses,shallvote.
"3.Loyalmen,whiteandblack,shallvote.
"4.Loyalmen,whiteandblack,andasmanyoftherebelsascanbecontrolledbyloyalvoters,
shallvote.
"5.Educationalstandards.
"6.Segregationofwhitesandblacks.Theblackstobeinoneterritorywithfullrightstovote.
"7.Rebelstatestobeheldbymilitarypoweruntiltherebelshavepurgedthemselves.
"Inthefirstplan,1,200,000votersintherebelstateswillhaveasmuchvotingpowerastwo
millionvotersintheNorth.UnderthesecondplanbeforetheRebellion,theSouth,withsix
millionwhites,boastedasmuchpoliticalpoweras8,400,000oftheNorth.Bythissecond
plan,6,000,000wouldpossessthepowerof10,000,000oftheNorth.Bythethirdplan,one
voterintheSouthwouldhavemorevotingpowerthantwovotersintheNorth.Underthe
fourthplan,theuneducatedblacksarealmosttheonlyfriendsofthegovernment,whilethe
educatedwhitesareallwrong.Thisillustratesthefollyofaneducationalstandard.Underthe
sixthplan,thewhitesforcedthemixingoftheracesofthecountry,andthosemenwhohave
beenraisedonNegromilk,andsomeofthemwhohavechildrenbyNegromothers,should
nottalkaboutseparation."
Slowlytherankandfileofthenationbegantorespondtothecombinedargumentof
industrialistsandAbolitionists,especiallyastheirseemingunityofpurposeincreased.A
correspondentoftheNewYorkTribunewritesin1865fromtheSouth:
"Thefreedpeoplearetrulyandunreservedlyourfriends,andtheyarealmosttheonlyones.
Theyaremoreintelligentasaclass,andmoreavailableasatrustworthymaterialfor
citizenship,thanIexpectedtofindthem.ThepoorwhiteswhomIsawaredecidedlyinferior
totheaverageoftheslavepopulation.Ifthereistobeforthefutureastablebasisforloyal
statesintheSouth,itmustbemadeuplargelyofthefreedpeople.Itwillnotdoatpresentto
trusttheballotinthehandsofthewhitemenwhohavebeenrebels,andstillaresuchunder
theguiseofUnionmen.Ibelievethistobetruewhethertheblacksbeallowedtovoteornot.
Thereshouldbealongintermediateprobationarystateprescribedbeforetheyareagain
allowedtoapproachtheballot-box."20
Theabolition-democracyfoundsupportintheWest.TheGermanandScandinavians,who
hadsettledintheNorthwest,werenaturallydemocratic.Beforethewar,theyhadstood
againstSouthernpretensions,andintheirmidst,theRepublicanpartywasborn.They
dislikedaristocracyandtheydislikedtheSouthbecausetheSouthwasagainstforeignersand
immigration.AmongtheGermansweremanylaborleadersanddoctrinaires,sothatthe
Northwestcouldbecountedonfordemocracy.Butatthesametime,itcouldbecountedon
foroppositiontothenewindustrialorganizationwithwhichtheNortheasternAbolitionistsweremakingalliance.However,theunionofindustrialistsandthe
Abolitionistsbecamecloser,andsinceitwasunansweredbyanymovetowardsdemocracyin
theSouthoranysympathyfordemocracybyJohnson,theWestfollowedtheAbolitionists,
untillatertheywereseducedbythe\ula\psychologyoflandownership.
InthedisplacementofSouthernfeudalagriculturebyNorthernindustry,wheredidthe
proletariat,theworker,stand?Theproletariatisusuallyenvisagedasunited,buttheirreal
interestswererepresentedinAmericabyfoursetsofpeople:thefreedNegro,theSouthern
poorwhite,andtheNorthernskilledandcommonlaborer.Thesegroupsnevercametosee
theircommoninterests,andthefinanciersandcapitalistseasilykepttheupperhand.Onthe
otherhand,theWestandSouthborepeculiarrelationstothenewindustry.TheSouthclung
totheidealofaristocracyandhadnothoughtoftherealdemocraticmovement.Eventhe
poorwhitesthoughtofemancipationasgivingthemabetterchancetobecomerichplanters,
landownersandemployersofNegrolabor,andneveruntilthetwentiethcenturyenvisaged
themselvesasalaborclass.TheWesternfarmersinthesamewayvacillatedbetweenthe
idealofspeculativelandholdersandpeasantfarmers.Theyharkedbacktotheopportunism
ofthefrontierandwantedfreedomtoexploitaswellastovote.InNewYork,Negroeshad
replacedworkerswhowereonstrike,andthetwopartiesfoughtonthedocksoftheMorgan
Line.InOhiotherewerevariousoutbreaks;inCincinnatiandinPennsylvania,NewJersey,
Chicago,Cleveland,Detroit,BuffaloandAlbany,raceriotsoccurredduringthewar.In1862,
Negrolongshoremenwereassaulted,andcoloredworkingmenemployedinaBrooklyn
tobaccofactoryweremobbedinAugust.InJuly,1862,thereweredisturbancesinNewYork
City,andfinally,in1863,July13,cametheterribledraftriot.AsAbrahamLincolnsaid,
March21,1864,"Nonearesodeeplyinterestedtoresistthepresentrebellionastheworking
people.Letthembewareofprejudice,workingdivisionandhostilityamongthemselves.The
mostnotablefeatureofadisturbanceinyourcitylastsummerwasthehangingofsome
workingpeoplebyotherworkingpeople.Itshouldneverbeso.Thestrongestbondofhuman
sympathy,outsideofthefamilyrelation,shouldbeoneunitingallworkingpeople,ofall
nations,andtongues,andkindreds."
WhenLincolndiedayearlater,IrishorganizationsrefusedtomarchwithNegroes,andthe
commoncouncilofNewYorkCityrefusedtoallowNegroesintheLincolnfuneral
procession;buttheNewYorkTribuneannouncedthatthroughtheinterventionofthePolice
Commissioner,"aplaceintheprocessionhadbeenassignedtothecolored
societiesandotherpersonages,andthepolicewillseethattheyoccupyitwithouthindrance
fromanyquarter."Meantime,thecommoncouncildeclinedtorevoketheirorder.
Whenthewarclosed,amillionmenwerereturningtothelabormarket.Goldwasatits
height,priceswerehigh,andunemploymentspread.Strikestookplace,soldierswereusedto
putthemdown,andlawswereintroducedtopreventstrikes.
Thelabormovementcomprehended,therefore,chieflyNorthernskilledlaborers.Among
themorganizationwasgrowing.Recoveringfromtheoppressionsofwar,therewere79craft
unionsattheendof1863,andtheyhadgrownto270in1864.Tennationalunionswere
formedbetween1863and1866,andby1870therewere32nationalunions.Butalmostnone
oftheseunionsmentionedtheNegro,orconsideredhimorwelcomedhim.A"National
AssemblyofNorthAmerica"washeldatLouisville,Kentucky,in1864,andpassed
resolutionsconcerningworkingmenandlaborconditions;butitsaidnothingofthegreatest
revolutioninlaborthathadhappenedinAmericaforahundredyears—theemancipationof
slaves.
Meantime,anewfloodofcheapimmigrantlaborwasbroughtintothecountrytoworkonthe
railroadsandinthenewindustries.Northernmillownerswhohadfearedfreefarmsbecause
theymightdecreasethenumberoflaborersandraisetheirwages,wereappeasedbythe
promotionofalienimmigration.ItwasinterestingtoheartheUnionParty,asthe
Republicanscalledthemselvesin1864,say,intheirplatform:"Foreignimmigrationwhichin
thepasthadaddedsomuchtothewealthanddevelopmentofresourcesandtheincreaseof
powertothisnation—theaspirationsoftheoppressedofallnations—shouldbefosteredand
encouragedbyaliberalandjustpolicy."ThatyeartheBureauofImmigrationwascreated,
anditwasauthorizedtoimportworkersboundforatermofservice.Theletterofthelawwas
afterwardschanged,butthepracticecontinuedforalongtime.
Ini860,immigrantswerecominginattherateof130,000ayear.Theoutbreakofthewar
broughtthenumberdown,butthenewhomesteadlawsbegantoattractthemsothatafter
thewarimmigrationquicklyrosefrom200,000to350,000ayear,andin1873,hadreached
460,000annually.
Itwasalltootrue,asSenatorWilsonofMassachusettssaidinthe38thCongress,butitwasa
truththatwhitelaborersdidnotyetrealize:"Wehaveadvocatedtherightsoftheblackman,
becausetheblackmanwasthemostoppressedtypeoftoilingmanofthiscountry.Itellyou,
sir,thatthemanwhoistheenemyoftheblacklaboringmanistheenemyofthewhite
laboringmantheworldover.Thesame
influencesthatgotokeepdownandcrushtherightsofthepoorblackmanbeardownand
oppressthepoorwhitelaboringman."
TheFirstInternationalWorkingmen'sAssociationformedbyKarlMarxinLondonin1864
wroteLincolnafterhissecondelectionandsaid:"Fromthecommencementofthetitanic
Americanstrife,theworkingmenofEuropefeltdistinctlythattheStar-SpangledBanner
carriedthedestinyoftheirclass.Thecontestfortheterritorieswhichopenedtheepoch,was
itnottodecidewhetherthevirginsoilofimmensetractsshouldbeweddedtothelaborofthe
immigrantorbeprostitutedbythetrampoftheslavedriver?
"Whenanoligarchyof300,000slaveholdersdaredtoinscribeforthefirsttimeintheannals
oftheworld'Slavery'onthebannerofarmedrevolt,whenontheveryspotswherehardlya
centuryagotheideaofonegreatDemocraticRepublichadfirstsprungup,whencethefirst
declarationoftherightsofmanwasissued,andthefirstimpulsegiventotheEuropean
Revolutionoftheeighteenthcentury,whenonthoseveryspotscounter-revolution,with
systematicthoroughness,gloriedinrescinding'theideasentertainedatthetimeofthe
formationoftheoldConstitution'andmaintained'slaverytobeabeneficialinstitution,'
indeed,theonlysolutionofthegreatproblemofthe'relationofcapitaltolabor,'andcynically
proclaimedpropertyinman'thecornerstoneofthenewedifice'—thentheworkingclassesof
Europeunderstoodatonce,evenbeforethefanaticpartisanshipoftheupperclasses,forthe
Confederategentryhadgivenitsdismalwarnings,thattheslaveholders'rebellionwasto
soundthetocsinforageneralholywarofpropertyagainstlabor,andthatforthemenof
labor,withtheirhopesforthefuture,eventheirpastconquestswereatstakeinthat
tremendousconflictontheothersideoftheAtlantic.Everywheretheyboretherefore
patientlythehardshipsimposeduponthembythecottoncrisis,opposedenthusiasticallythe
pro-slaveryinterventionimportunitiesoftheirbetters,andfrommostpartsofEurope
contributedtheirquotaofbloodtothegoodofthecause.
"Whiletheworkingmen,thetruepoliticalpoweroftheNorth,allowedslaverytodefiletheir
ownrepublic,whilebeforetheNegro,masteredandsoldwithouthisconcurrence,they
boasteditthehighestprerogativeofthewhite-skinnedlaborertosellhimselfandchoosehis
ownmaster,theywereunabletoattainthetruefreedomoflabor,ortosupporttheir
Europeanbrethrenintheirstruggleforemancipation;butthisbarriertoprogresshasbeen
sweptoffbytheredseaofcivilwar.
"TheworkingmenofEuropefeltsurethatastheAmericanWarofIndependenceinitiateda
neweraofascendencyfortheMiddleClass,sotheAmericanAnti-Slaverywarwilldoforthe
workingclasses.
TheyconsideritanearnestsignoftheepochtocomethatitfelltothelotofAbraham
Lincoln,thesingle-mindedsonoftheworkingclass,toleadhiscountrythroughthe
matchlessstrugglesfortherescueoftheenchainedraceandtheReconstructionofasocial
world."21
ThefirstfruitofthegrowingunderstandingbetweenindustrialexpansionandabolitiondemocracywastheFreedmen'sBureau.WhileindustryintheNorthwasdividingthelabor
movementandestablishingafarmoreeffectivedictatorshipofcapitaloverlaborthanithad
everhadbefore,itwascompelledintheSouthtoinstituteanotherdictatorship,designedly
andexpresslyfortheprotectionofemancipatedNegrolabor.IntheFreedmen'sBureau,the
UnitedStatesstarteduponadictatorshipbywhichthelandownerandthecapitalistwereto
beopenlyanddeliberatelycurbedandwhichdirecteditseffortsintheinterestofablackand
whitelaborclass.Ifandwhenuniversalsuffragecametoreenforcethispointofview,an
entirelydifferentdevelopmentofAmericanindustryandAmericancivilizationmustensue.
TheFreedmen'sBureauwasthemostextraordinaryandfar-reachinginstitutionofsocial
upliftthatAmericahaseverattempted.Ithadtodo,notsimplywithemancipatedslavesand
poorwhites,butalsowiththepropertyofSouthernplanters.Itwasagovernment
guardianshipforthereliefandguidanceofwhiteandblacklaborfromafeudalagrarianismto
modernfarmingandindustry.Forthisworktherewasandhadtobeafull-fledged
governmentofmen."Itmadelaws,executedthemandinterpretedthem;itlaidandcollected
taxes,definedandpunishedcrimes,maintainedandusedmilitaryforce,anddictatedsuch
measuresasitthoughtnecessaryandproperfortheaccomplishmentofitsvariedends.
Naturally,allthesepowerswerenotexercisedcontinuouslynortotheirfullestextent;and
yet,asGeneralHowardhassaid,'scarcelyanysubjectthathastobelegislateduponincivil
societyfailed,atonetimeoranother,todemandtheactionofthissingularBureau.'"22Thus
theFreedmen'sBureau,whichroseautomaticallyasaresultoftheslaves'generalstrike
duringthewar,andcamedirectlyoutoftheconsolidationofthevariousarmydepartmentsof
Negroaffairs,nowloomedasthegreatestplanofreasonedemancipationyetproposed.For
thisreason,thebillforitsestablishmentmetcovertandopenopposition.Itwasopposedby
alladvocatesofslavery,andallpersonsNorthandSouthwhodidnotproposethat
emancipationshouldreallyfreetheslaves;itwasadvocatedbyeveryelementthatwantedto
achievethisvastsocialrevolutionbyreasonedleadership,moneyandsacrifice.Itwasfinally
emasculatedandabolishedbythoseintheNorthwhogrudgeditsinevitablecost,andbythat
Southernsentimentwhichpassedtheblackcodes.
AbilltoestablishaBureauintheWarDepartmentforthecareofrefugeesandfreedmenwas
passedMarch3,1865.Ithadbeenproposedasearlyas1863,whenanumberofpetitionsfor
abureauofemancipationwerepresentedtoCongress.InJanuary,1863,lessthanamonth
aftertheEmancipationProclamation,T.D.EliotintroducedintotheHousethefirstbill.But
thecommitteedidnotreportit,andtheFreedmen'sAidSocietiesrenewedtheirpetitions.
AttheopeningofthenewsessioninDecember,1863,Eliotintroducedanotherbill.Thisbill
wasobjectedtointheHousebecauseofitscost,itscharitablefeatures,andthepossible
corruptionofitsemployees.Eliotdefendedthebillvigorously.TheNegroeshadbeenfreedby
proclamation,law,andforce,andtheirfreedommustbemaintained.Theywerefreed
throughselfishmotives,toweakentheenemy.Itwouldbethedepthofmeannesstoletthem
nowgropetheirwaywithoutguidanceorprotection.ThePresident,byproclamation,had
pledgedthemaintenanceofNegrofreedom,andCongresshadrecognizeditsobligationto
secureemploymentandsupportofNegroesonabandonedlands.Negroeswerenow
oppressedbySouthernersandNorthernharpies.Furtherlegislationwasimperatively
demanded.Intheensuingdebates,thebillwasdefendedasencouragingtheenlistmentof
coloredsoldiers,andascalculatedtobringorderoutofthepresentchaos.Itwouldforma
newclassofconsumersforNorthernproducts.Ontheotherhand,opponentsinsistedthat
theBureauwouldopenavastfieldforcorruption,andthatitwasarevolutionaryefforton
thepartofagovernmentoflimitedpowers.BrooksofNewYorkdenounceditbecauseit
wouldputblacklaborunderNortherntaskmastersincompetitionwithwhitelaborand
capitalistsintheNorth.ItwaspassedMarch1,1864,bytheclosevoteof69-67.
IntheSenateitwasreferredtotheCommitteeonSlaveryandFreedom,ofwhichCharles
Sumnerwaschairman.Hereitwastransformedfromatemporarymakeshiftandwar
expedientandbegantotaketheformofagreatmeasureofsocialupliftandreform.The
BureauwasattachedtotheTreasuryDepartment.Sumnerpressedthebill,arguingthat
privatebenevolencecouldnotcopewiththeproblemandthatabureauwasnecessary;that
theTreasurywasalreadyinchargeofabandonedpropertyandhadspecialagentsinthefield.
ThebillpassedtheSenate,June28,byavoteof21-9.TheHouserefusedtoconcurandthe
wholesubjectwentovertothenextsession.Renewedargumentsandpetitionscameinfavor
ofthebill.InJuly,sevenFreedmen'sAidassociationsoftheWestmetinIndianapolis.They
drewupamemorialcomplainingofthecurrentmethodsofdealingwiththefreedmenand
askingforasupervisingagent,becauseofthefailureofCongresstoestablishabureau.
December20,1864,thematterwastakenupagainintheHouseandaconferencecommittee
appointedwithSumnerandEliot.ThiscommitteereportedFebruary2,1865,and
recommendedanindependentDepartmentofFreedmenandAbandonedLands.Inthe
debates,therewasgreatdiversityofopinion.Somefearedthatthefreedmanwouldbetoo
strictlycontrolledandthatthiswouldcurtailhis"initiative"and"self-reliance."Othersurged
thenecessityofthebilltorescuethesewardsfromignoranceandpauperism,andguidethem
intoconfidenceandself-control.ThebillpassedthatHousebyanotherclosevoteof64-62.
However,thereappearedatthesametimeanotherbillforthereliefofbothwhiterefugees
andfreedmenandthetemporaryuseofabandonedproperty.Itwasashortandtemporary
measure.BoththesebillswenttotheSenate.Sumnerstoutlydefendedthecomprehensive
measureagreeduponinconference.ButtheoppositionofbothDemocratsandRepublicans
wastoostrongandtheconferencereportwasrejected.Asecondconferencewasheldanda
newbillpresented,creatingaBureauofRefugees,FreedmenandAbandonedLandsinthe
WarDepartment.
Alltheseproposalsmeantthattherewasaquestionastowhetherthisbureauwastobea
temporarywarmeasure,orapermanentinstitutionforabolishingslaveryandinducting
Negroesgraduallyintoeconomicandpoliticalfreedom.IfitwereattachedtotheWar
Department,itwouldendwiththewar.IntheTreasury,itwouldservetosettleproblemsof
taxation,cropsandfinance,butpresumablyendwhenwarfinanceyieldedtopeace.Inthe
InteriorDepartmentorasaseparatedepartment,theFreedmen'sBureauwouldbe
permanent,withregularrevenuesandawideandcomprehensiveprogramofwork.
Thedebateonthefinalbillwaslimited,andwithoutavotethereportoftheConference
CommitteewasacceptedMarch3rd.AbrahamLincolnimmediatelysignedthebill.Thisbill
providedforaBureautolast"duringthepresentWarofRebellion,andforoneyear
thereafter."IthadatitsheadacommissionerappointedbythePresidentwiththeconsentof
theSenate,andassistantcommissionersmightbeappointedforeachofthetenstatesin
rebellion.Armyofficerscouldbeusedasassistantcommissioners.TheSecretaryofWarwas
toissuenecessaryprovisions,clothing,andfuel,andunderthedirectionofthePresident,the
Commissionercouldsetasideforfreedmenandrefugeestractsoflandofnotmorethanforty
acrestobeleasedtotenants;thelesseesweretobeprotectedintheuseofthelandforthree
yearsatalowrent.Attheendoftheterm,thetenantcouldpurchasethelandatanappraised
value.
SomeCongressmen,likeConness,couldnotconceiveofaFreedmen'sBureauconductedforthebenefitoflabor."Wherewillthefreedmangetthecapitalto
buyhishorseorhisoxenandotheragriculturalimplements,toputhiscropofcottonorcorn
intheground?Alltheserequirecapitalfarbeyondtheabilityofthefreedmantocommand,
andrenderstheschemeimpracticalsofarasitprofessedtobeofbenefittothefreedman.
"Theinevitableresultwillbethatthefreedmanwillleasenoland.Hewillnotbeabletolease
andcultivateland.Hewillnotbeabletopurchaseequipmentofhorseandagricultural
implementsthatwillbenecessaryforitscultivation.Thenhemustfallintogenerallineand
becomesimplyalaborertobehiredtosomemanwithwhomtheyaresecretlyinpartnership,
withwhomtheysharetheprofitsandtheproduceofthefreedman'slaborfromthese
abandonedlands."23Theinevitablecorollarythatundertheespecialcircumstancesof
emancipatedslavelabor,thestatemustfurnishcapital,wasinconceivabletomenlike
Conness.He,likeLaneofIndiana,madetheoldAmericanAssumptionofeconomic
independenceopentoall."IamopposedtothewholetheoryoftheFreedmen'sBureau.I
wouldmakethemfreeunderthelaw.Iwouldprotecttheminthecourtsofjustice;if
necessary,Iwouldgivethemtherightofsuffrage,andletloyalslavesvotetheirrebelmasters
downandreconstructthesecededstates;butIwishtohavenosystemofguardianshipand
pupilageandoverseershipovertheseNegroes."
Therewasinthedebate,insideandoutsideofCongress,distinctevidencethatindustry,
ratherthanpaythecostofsocialupliftonthescalewhichanefficientFreedmen'sBureau
evidentlydemanded,wouldacceptimmediateNegrosuffrageasapreferablepanacea.Justas
therefugeofthosewhoopposedtherighttovotewasworkforthefreedmanandregular
habitsoflabor;soontheotherhand,thosewhoopposedsystematicorganizationofsuch
work,foundrefugeintheballot.Pomeroyhadseenthousandsofcoloredandwhiterefugees
"comingintomystateandIsayheredistinctlythatthecoloredpeopleareabletotakecareof
themselvesandfindtheirplacesandadaptthemselvestotheirnewconditionseasierand
quickerthanthepoorwhiterefugeeswhoaredrivenoutoftheBorderStates.
"Idesirethatthosewhoadvocatethisbillwillstophereandspendtheirtimeandtalentin
demandingfortheNegroracealltherightsandprivilegesoffreedom.Dothisandno
Freedmen'sBureauatallisnecessary.
"Sir,Iamforallracesofmen.Idonotbelievethatitisnecessarytosecurethepropertyof
oneracethatanothershallbedestroyed...
"Letusrefuseadmittancetoeveryrebelstateunlesstheprivilege
oftheelectivefranchiseisgrantedtothecoloredman.Ibelievethefuturepermanencyof
thisgovernmentdependsuponthis,andIbelievethosewhohavefoughtthiswarhaveno
safetyorsecuritywith-outit.
Herewasalogicalrestingplace;nofundsorpermanencyforaFreedmen'sBureau,andNegro
suffragetodefendNorthernindustry;andnoelementfoughtharderandmoredeterminedly
tomakethispossiblethanthewhiteSouth.Withthepossibilityofagovernment
guardianshiptoconducttheNegroinfreedombyindustry,land,andeducationattheexpense
ofthenation,theSouthdeliberatelyandbitterlyfoughtandmalignedtheBureauatevery
turn,andintheenditreceivedtheReconstructionbillsasitsjustreward.
ForthestupendousworkwhichtheFreedmen'sBureaumustattempt,ithadevery
disadvantageexceptone.Itwassolimitedintimethatithadsmallchanceforefficientand
comprehensiveplanning.Ithadatfirstnoappropriatedfunds,butwassupposedtodepend
onthechanceaccumulationsofwartime,unclaimedbountiesofNegrosoldiers,confiscated
landandpropertyformerlybelongingtotheConfederateGovernment,andrations.Further
thanthisithadtousearoughmilitarymachineforadministratingdelicatesocialreform.The
qualitieswhichmakeagoodsoldierdonotnecessarilymakeagoodsocialreformer.And
whileinmanyinstancestheBureauwasfortunateinitspersonnel,inothersitwasjustas
unfortunate,andhadtoputinadministrativepositionsmilitarymartinets,mendisillusioned
andcynicalafteraterriblewar,orcarelessandgreedyandinnowaysuitedforfarsighted
socialbuilding.
ThemostfortunatethingthatLincolngavetheBureauwasitshead,OliverHoward.Howard
wasneitheragreatadministratornoragreatman,buthewasagoodman.Hewas
sympatheticandhumane,andtriedwithendlessapplicationanddesperatesacrificetodoa
hard,thanklessduty."HishighreputationasaChristiangentlemangavehimtheesteemof
thehumaneandbenevolentportionofthepublic,uponwhoseconfidenceandcooperation
hissuccesswaslargelytodepend."24
ThetaskthatHowardhadwasofthegravest,becausetherewerethreethingsthatthe
conqueredSouthfoughtwithbitterdetermination:
1.AnyFederalinterferencewithlabor.
2.ArmsinthehandsofNegroes.
3.VotesforNegroes.
ThisoppositiondidnotariseprimarilyfromanyfailureoftheBureauintheperformanceof
itsduty,orbecauseitsworkfunctionedimperfectly.Evenifithadbeenaperfectandwellplannedmachineforitsmission,theplantersinthemainweredeterminedtotrytocoercebothblack
laborandwhite,withoutoutsideinterferenceofanysort.Theyproposedtoenactandenforce
theblackcodes.Theyweregoingtoreplacelegalslaverybycustomaryserfdomandcaste.
AndtheyweregoingtodoallthisbecausetheycouldnotconceiveofcivilizationintheSouth
withfreeNegroworkers,orNegrosoldiersorvoters.
Howard,therefore,hadabattleonhishandsfromthestart.Hisbureauwaslimitedby
temporarilyextendedandincompletelawsuntilitsmainworkwaspracticallydonein1869,
althoughsomeofitsfunctionsextendeduntilJune30,1872.Underthesecircumstances,the
astonishingthingisthattheBureauwasabletoaccomplishanydefiniteandworth-while
results;yetitdidandthetestimonyinsupportofthiscomesfromitsfriendsandenemies.
Howardsays:"ThelawestablishingtheBureaucommittedtoitthecontrolofallsubjects
relatingtorefugeesandfreedmenundersuchregulationsasmightbeprescribedbythehead
oftheBureauandapprovedbythePresident.Thisalmostunlimitedauthoritygavemegreat
scopeandlibertyofaction,butatthesametimeitimposeduponmeveryperplexingand
responsibleduties.Legislative,judicialandexecutivepowerswerecombinedinmy
commission,reachingalltheinterestsoffourmillionsofpeople,scatteredoveravast
territory,livinginthemidstofanotherpeopleclaimingtobesuperior,andknowntobenot
altogetherfriendly...."TheconditionsfacingtheBureauwerechaotic."Ineverystatemany
thousandswerefoundwithoutemployment,withouthomes,withoutmeansofsubsistence,
crowdingintotownsandaboutmilitaryposts,wheretheyhopedtofindprotectionand
supplies.Thesuddencollapseoftherebellion,makingemancipationanactual,universalfact,
waslikeanearthquake.Itshookandshatteredthewholepreviouslyexistingsocialsystem.It
brokeuptheoldindustriesandthreatenedareignofanarchy.Evenwell-disposedand
humanelandownerswereatalosswhattodo,orhowtobegintheworkofreorganizing
societyandofrebuildingtheirruinedfortunes.Veryfewhadanyknowledgeoffreelabor,or
anyhopethattheirformerslaveswouldservethemfaithfullyforwages.Ontheotherhand,
thefreedpeoplewereinastateofgreatexcitementanduncertainty.Theycouldhardly
believethatthelibertyproclaimedwasrealandpermanent.Manywereafraidtoremainon
thesamesoilthattheyhadtilledasslaveslestbysometricktheymightfindthemselves
againinbondage.OtherssupposedthattheGovernmentwouldeithertaketheentire
supervisionoftheirlaborandsupport,ordivideamongthemthelandsoftheconquered
owners,andfurnishthemwithallthatmightbenecessarytobeginlifeasanindependent
farmer."25
TwelvelaborsofHerculesfacedtheFreedmen'sBureau:tomakeasrapidlyaspossiblea
generalsurveyofconditionsandneedsineverystateandlocality;torelieveimmediate
hungeranddistress;toappointstatecommissionersandupwardsof900bureauofficials;to
putthelaborerstoworkatregularwage;totransportlaborers,teachersandofficials;to
furnishlandforthepeasant;toopenschools;topaybountiestoblacksoldiersandtheir
families;toestablishhospitalsandguardhealth;toadministerjusticebetweenmanand
formermaster;toanswercontinuousandpersistentcriticism,NorthandSouth,blackand
white;tofindfundstopayforallthis.
InfouryearstheBureauissuedovertwenty-onemillionrationstothehungryand
unemployed—fifteenandahalfmilliontoblacksandfiveandahalfmilliontowhites.The
numberrosetofivemillionin1866,andthenfellfromthreeandone-halftotwoandonehalfmillionin1867-1868.Thetotalcostoffoodandclothing,1865-1871,wassetdownat
$3,168,325.
Intheeyesofanationdedicatedtoprofitableindustry,aswellasintheeyesofbureau
officials,thefirstmajorproblemwastosettheNegroestoworkunderawagecontract."To
securefairnessandtoinspireconfidenceonbothsides,thesystemofwrittencontractswas
adopted.Nocompulsionwasused,butallwereadvisedtoenterintowrittenagreementsand
submitthemtoanofficeroftheBureauforapproval.Thenatureandobligationsofthese
contractswerecarefullyexplainedtothefreedmen,andacopyfiledintheofficeoftheagent
approvingit;thiswasfortheiruseincaseanydifficultyarosebetweenthemandtheir
employers.Thelaborimposeduponmyofficersandagentsbythissystemwasverygreat,as
evincedbythefactthatinasinglestatenotlessthanfiftythousand(50,000)suchcontracts
weredrawninduplicateandfilledupwiththenamesofalltheparties."
Thepurelyeconomicresultsofthiseffortwereunusuallysatisfactory.Therewascheatingby
employers,andmalingeringbylaborers,andwidespreaddisorder;yet"inspiteofalldisorders
thathaveprevailedandthemisfortunesthathavefallenuponmanypartsoftheSouth,a
gooddegreeofprosperityandsuccesshasalreadybeenattained.Totheoft-repeatedslander
thattheNegroeswillnotwork,andareincapableoftakingcareofthemselves,itisa
sufficientanswerthattheirvoluntarylaborhasproducednearlyallthefoodthatsupported
thewholepeople,besidesalargeamountofrice,sugarandtobaccoforexport,andtwo
millionsofbalesofcottoneachyear,onwhichwaspaidintotheUnitedStatestreasury
duringtheyears1866and1867atax°fmorethanfortymillionsofdollars($40,000,000).It
isnotclaimedthatthisresultiswhollyduetothecareandoversightofthisBureau,butitis
safetosay,asithasbeensaidrepeatedlyby
intelligentSouthernwhitemen,thatwithoutthebureauorsomesimilaragency,thematerial
interestsofthecountrywouldhavegreatlysuffered,andthegovernmentwouldhavelosta
fargreateramountthanhasbeenexpendedinitsmaintenance...."Three-quartersofa
millionofdollarswasspentintransportinglaborerstohomesandtowork,andteachersand
agentstotheirfieldsofduty.
TheinsistentdemandoftheNegro,aidedbyarmyofficersandNorthernchurchesand
philanthropicorganizations,beganthesystematicteachingofNegroesandpoorwhites.This
beginningtheFreedmen'sBureauraisedtoawidespreadsystemofNegropublicschools.The
Bureaufurnisheddayandnightschools,industrialschools,Sundayschoolsandcolleges.
BetweenJunei,1865,andSeptember1,1871,$5,262,511.26wasspentonschoolsfrom
Bureaufunds,andin1870therewereindayandnightschools3,300teachersand149,581
pupils.NearlyallthepresentNegrouniversitiesandcollegeslikeHoward,Fisk,andAtlanta,
werefoundedorsubstantiallyaidedintheirearliestdaysbytheFreedmen'sBureau.
Thereweresystematicplanstocareforthesick.Inthesummerof1865thereweredetailed
intheseveralstatesfourteensurgeonsandthreeassistantsurgeons,whotookcareofwhite
andblackpeopleindistress,andengagedlocalsurgeonstohelpthem.BySeptember,1867,
therewereforty-sixhospitalswith5,292beds.Thehospitalsweredistributedinfourteen
differentstates,andtheannualappropriationformedicalpurposeswasnearly$500,000in
1866and1867;thetotalexpenditurefortheMedicalDepartmenthasbeenestimatedtohave
been$2,000,000.Withthismoney,452,419casesweretreated,andperhapsanequalnumber
unrecorded.Inall,nearlyamillionpersonsweregivenmedicalaid.Thedeathrateamongthe
freedmenwasreducedfrom30%to13%in1865,andto2.03%in1869.Somethingwasdone
inprovidingphysiciansinlargetowns,inspectingsanitation,andtreatinglame,blind,deaf
anddumbandagedpersonsandorphans.Temporarycarewasgiventheinsane.
ThejudicialworkoftheBureauconsistedinprotectingtheNegrofromviolenceandoutrage,
fromserfdom,andindefendinghisrighttoholdpropertyandenforcehiscontracts.Itwasto
seethatNegroeshadfairtrialsandthattheirtestimonywasreceived,andtheirfamily
relationsrespected.TheCommissionerlaiddowngeneralrulesfortheadministrationof
justicebybureauofficials.Freedmen'scourtsandboardsofarbitrationwereorganizedwhen
needed,andwhileanattemptwasmadetosecureuniformityinthesecourts,theypresented
muchvarietyincompositionandprocedure.SometimestheAssistantCommissioner
constitutedthecourt;sometimesitconsistedofanagentappointedbyhim,anda
representativeofthefreedmenandone
ofthewhites.TheyactedonlyincaseswhereoneorbothpartieswereNegroes,andthey
imposedfinesandenforcedtheirjudgments.
ThefinancialsupportoftheBureauwashaphazard.Noappropriationsweremadeunderthe
originalFreedmen'sBureauBill,butfundsweresuppliedfrommanydepartmentsofNegro
affairsandfromthehandlingofabandonedpropertyandfromtaxesandfees.Nearlyeight
hundredthousandacresoffarminglandandaboutfivethousandpiecesoftownproperty
weretransferredtothebureaubymilitaryandtreasuryofficers,ortakenupbyassistant
commissioners.Ofthisenoughwasleasedtoproducearevenueofnearlyfourhundred
thousanddollars.Somefarmsweresetasideashomesforthedestituteandhelpless,anda
portionwascultivatedbyfreedmenpriortoitsrestoration.Thenecessarytaskofsettlingthe
Negroesontheirownhomesteadswasbegunbythebureaubutsoonrenderedimpossibleby
lackoflandandfundsanddeliberatelyhostileexecutiveaction.Throughtheagencyofthe
bureau,thegovernmentpaidouteightthousanddollarsinbountiestooverfivethousand
Negrosoldiersandtheirheirs,andthushelpedfurnishsomecapitaltothenewlaborers.
UnderthesecondFreedmen'sBureauBill,passedin1866,thesesourceswerebeing
exhaustedsothattheArmyAppropriationbillincluded$594,450fortheBureau.Succeeding
appropriationsbroughtthetotalto$12,961,395.Addingthecostofvariousarmysupplies
used,Howardestimated"thetotalexpensesofourGovernmentforrefugeesandfreedmento
August31,1869,havebeen$13,579,816.82."26Ifweaddtothistheincreaseinthearmy
payrollcausedbytheBureau,andotheritems,Pierceestimatesthatthetotalexpenditurefor
theBureauwasbetween$17,000,000and$18,000,000.
ThisdoesnotprovethattheFreedmen'sBureauwasacompletesuccess,foritwasnot;from
thenatureoftheorganizationanditslimitationsitcouldnotbe.ThewhiteSouthmadeitthe
objectofitsbitterestattacks.Itaccusedtheagentsofeverycrimeandmistakeandplanned
foritsremoval.Thiswasnatural;for,initsessence,thebureauwasadictatorshipofthearmy
overpropertyforthebenefitoflabor.Itwasaimedattheworstmethodsofexploitation;it
soughttogivetheNegrosomestandingatlaw;itcompelledthekeepingofcontracts;and
whilethetestimonyastothenetresultsvariesitseemstrue,asPiercesays:27
"Notwithstandingabusesandextravagances,thebureaudidagreat,anindispensableworkof
mercyandrelief,atatimewhennootherorganizationorbodywasinapositiontodothat
work.
"TotheNegrowasimpartedaconception—inadequateanddistortedthoughitmayhavebeen
—ofhiscivilrightsasafreeman.Ina
landlongdominatedbyslavery,whenfreedomhadjustbeendecreed,whenneitherblacknor
whitewellunderstoodthevalueoffreelabor,andbeforethelawofsupplyanddemandcould
readjustlaborrelations,thebureausetupatentativescaleofwages....Whenunderthe
directionofbroad,temperate,capableagents,thelabordivisionunquestionably
accomplishedmuchofthelargerpurposeforwhichitwasordainedandwhichitsfriends
maintainthatitfulfilled.Allthingsconsideredinthisbranchofthework,moremarked
successwasachievedthanacalmstudyoftheperplexingsituationwouldleadthethoughtful
manoftodaytothinkthatsuchanabnormalandshortlivedinstitutioncouldhaveattained."
AwhitecitizenofLouisianaadds:"Thebestinfluenceinsettlingthestateofthingsin
Louisiana,wouldbetomaintainthereforsomeyearsarigidadministrationofthe
Freedmen'sBureautoprotecttheblacksandtheirrights,aswellastoseethattheycomplied
withreasonableandpropercontractstheymightmake.Iconsiderthatsuchanestablishment
wouldstandasabarriertotheencroachmentsofoneclassupontherightsoftheother."28
Othercriticsareworthhearing.AVirginian,J.M.Botts,said:"Ihaveheardofagreatmany
difficultiesandoutrageswhichhaveproceeded,insomeinstances,ifthetruthhasbeen
representedtome,fromtheignoranceandfanaticismofpersonsconnectedwiththe
Freedmen'sBureau....Ontheotherhand,therearemanyofthepersonsconnectedwiththe
Freedmen'sBureauwhohaveconductedthemselveswithgreatpropriety;andwherethathas
beenso,therehasbeennodifficultybetweenthewhitesandblacks."29JudgeHillwrites,
"Likeallothereffortsofhumanity,theresultsoftheFreedmen'sBureaudependedvery
muchuponthoseappointedtocarryitoutandgiveittheaidintended.Wheretheagentwasa
manofgoodsenseandfreefromprejudicetoeitherpartyorrace,goodresultswereattained;
but,inmanyinstances,theagentsweredeficientinthesenecessaryqualifications,andthe
resultswere,notonlyafailuretoaccomplishthepurposeofthebureau,butadecidedevil."
30
WallacebitterlyarraignsthebureauofficialsinFlorida:
"TheFreedmen'sBureau,aninstitutiondevisedbyCongressundertheinfluenceofthevery
bestpeopleoftheNorthernStates,andintendedasameansofprotectionofthefreedmen,
andpreparingthemforthenewresponsibilitiesandprivilegesconferred,inthehandsofbad
menproved,insteadofablessing,tobetheworstcurseoftherace,asunderithewasmisled,
debasedandbetrayed."31
Thevariousinvestigationsofthebureaubroughtoutdamagingfactsastothehandlingof
fundsandcarelessadministrationandyet"thepeculiardifficultiesofthebureau'sfinancial
problemsmustnotbe
lostsightof.Theamountinvolvedwaslarge.Itwasimpossibletoavoiderrorsinidentifying
thehordesofnameless,irresponsibleclaimantstopublicmoneyentrustedtothebureau.The
thousandsofagentsscatteredoveravastareawerebeyondtheclosepersonalsupervisionof
higherofficials,andmuchoftheirregularityandfraudwasclearlytraceabletounscrupulous
localagents.Thereisnoreasontobelievethatthecommissionerwasguiltyofembezzlement,
fraud,orpersonaldishonesty;buthecertainlywasnotastrictconstructionist.Doubtlesshis
liberalinterpretationofstatuteswasdesignedtobenefitthefreed-menandrefugeestowhose
protectionandwelfarehiseffortsweredirected.Oftensuchinterpretationwasduetothe
delayofCongressinmakingappropriationsdemandedbytheexigenciesofthehour."32
Grantbroughtforwardsomehearsaycriticismduringthefirstyear.PresidentJohnsonsent
twogeneralsSouthwhouncoveredcasesoffraudandmaladministration,butcommended
HowardandbelievedtheBureauhaddonemuchtopreserveorderandtoorganizefreelabor.
AfinalcourtofinquirywascommencedbyactofCongressin1874,andsatforfortydays.
The.committeegaveinitsmajorityreportitsjudgmentofthisextraordinaryexperiment.
"Thegeneraleffectofthepolicypursuedbythispeopletowardsthefreedmenandthegeneral
resultsoftheadministrationoftheFreedmen'sBureaubyGeneralHowardaremattersof
history.Withoutcivilconvulsion,withoutanymanifestationofviolenceorhatetowards
thosewhohadsubjectedhimandhisancestorstotheaccumulatedwrongsofgenerationsof
servitude,theenfranchisedNegroatonceandquietlyentereduponnewrelationsoffreeman
andcitizen.Duringthefiveyearssincethebureauhasbeenestablished,GeneralHowardhas
directedtheexpenditureoftwelvemillionninehundredandsixty-fivethousand,three
hundredandninety-fivedollarsandfortycents;hasexercisedoversightandcareforthe
freedmenandrefugeesinseventeenStatesandtheDistrictofColumbia,aterritoryof
350,000squaremiles,andcooperatedwithbenevolentsocieties,aidingintheeducationof
hundredsofthousandsofpupils,andinthereliefofvastnumbersofdestituteandhomeless
personsofallagesandbothsexes..,.
"Theworldcanpointtonothinglikeitinallthehistoryofemancipation.Nothirteenmillions
ofdollarswereevermorewiselyspent;yet,fromthebeginningthisschemehasencountered
thebitterestoppositionandthemostunrelentinghate.Scoffedatlikeathingofshame,often
struckandwounded,sometimesinthehouseofitsfriends,apologizedforratherthan
defended;yet,withGodonitsside,theFreedmen'sBureauhastriumphed;civilizationhas
receivedanewimpulse,andthefriendsofhumanitymaywellrejoice.The
Bureauworkisbeingrapidlybroughttoaclose,anditsaccomplishmentswillenterinto
history,whiletheunfoundedaccusationsbroughtagainstitwillbeforgotten."33
Thisisperhapsanoverstatement.TheFreedmen'sBureaudidanextraordinarypieceofwork
butitwasbutasmallandimperfectpartofwhatitmighthavedoneifithadbeenmadea
permanentinstitution,givenamplefundsforoperatingschoolsandpurchasingland,andifit
hadbeengraduallymannedbytrainedcivilianadministrators.Allthiswasclearwhen
AndrewJohnsonvetoedtheFreedmen'sBureaubillin1866.
ForthefirsttimeinhistorythepeopleoftheUnitedStateslistenednotonlytothevoicesof
theNegroes'friends,buttotheNegrohimself.Hewasbecomingmoreandmorearticulate,in
theSouthaswellasintheNorth.
AlsotheactionsoftheNegroesweretellingonpublicopinion,andweregivenforthefirst
timeintelligentandsympatheticpublicity.Blacksoldiersparaded;blackpetitions,some
illiterate,somelikethatfromtheDistrictofColumbia,inexcellentandlogicalform,were
published.Blackmenbegantoenterpublicmovementsandtherewasasubsidenceof
ridiculeandcaricature.ThemeetingsandpetitionsofSouthernNegroesweresignificantand
cannotbediscounted.Manyweredoubtlessinstigatedbywhitefriends,butnotall;andeven
thesehadsignificantinternalevidenceofgenuinethoughtandaction.
InMay,1864,theNegroesatPortRoyal,SouthCarolina,participatedinameetingwhich
electeddelegatestotheNationalConventionatBaltimoreinJune.RobertSmallsandthree
otherNegroeswereamongthesixteendelegates,butweredeniedseats."Ontheseventhof
Augustlast[1865]aconventionofcoloredmenwasheldinthiscity[Nashville]....Itwas
resolvedthatthecoloredpeopleoftheStateofTennesseerespectfullyandsolemnlyprotest
againstthecongressionaldelegationfromthisStatebeingadmittedtoseatsinyour
honorablebodiesuntiltheLegislatureofthisStateenactsuchlawsasshallsecuretousour
rightsasfreemen.
"WecannotbelievethattheGeneralGovernmentwillallowustobeleftwithoutsuch
protectionafterknowing,asyoudo,whatserviceswehaverenderedtothecauseofthe
preservationoftheUnionandthemaintenanceofthelaws.Wehaverespectfullypetitioned
ourLegislatureuponthesubject,andhavefailedtogetthemtodoanythingforus,saying
thatitwasprematuretolegislatefortheprotectionofourrights."34September3,1865,a
NegroconventionwasheldinRaleigh,NorthCarolina,andadoptedresolutionsforproper
wages,education,protectionfortheirfamilies,andrepealofunjustdiscrimination.October7,
1865,thecoloredcitizensofMississippiprotested
againstthereactionarypolicyofthestateandexpressedthefearthattheyweretobe
reenslaved."Theysetforththat,owingtotheprejudiceexistingthere,theyhavenotbeen
abletoassembleinconvention,butthattheyhavedoneaswellastheycould,throughafew
oftheirnumbertosetforththeirgrievances.Theyrepresentfourhundredandthirty-seven
thousandfourhundredandfourcitizensoftheUnitedStates,beingamajorityofnearlyone
hundredthousandinthatState.Thesepeople,inaverybriefpetition,askedCongressto
grantthemtherightofsuffrage,that'wemay,'theysay,'themoreeffectuallyproveour
fidelitytotheUnitedStates;aswehavefoughtinfavorofliberty,justice,andhumanity,we
wishtovoteinfavorofitandgiveourinfluencetothepermanentestablishmentofpure
republicaninstitutionsintheseUnitedStates;andalsothatwemaybeinapositioninalegal
andpeaceablewaytoprotectourselvesintheenjoymentofthosesacredrightswhichwere
pledgedtousbytheemancipationproclamation.'"35
Acoloredpeople'sconventionmetinZionChurch,Charleston,S.C,inNovember,1865,to
protestagainsttheworkoftheconventionandlegislature.Thisbeganconcertedpolitical
actionbytheNegroesofthestate.RobertC.DeLarge,A.J.Ransier,}.J.Wright,Beverly
Nash,FrancisL.Cardozo,M.R.Delany,andRichardH.Cain,werethere.Theydeclaredthat
thiswas"anextraordinarymeeting,unknowninthehistoryofSouthCarolina,whenitis
consideredwhocomposeditandforwhatpurposesitwasallowedtoassemble."Complaint
waslodgedagainstthestateauthoritiesindeprivingNegroes"oftherightsofthemeanest
profligateinthecountry";Congresswasaskedtothrow"thestrongarmofthelawoverthe
entirepopulationofthestate,"andgrant"equalsuffrage,"andabolishthe"blackcode."36
Thepetitionofthismeeting,signedbypeopleofSouthCarolina,waspresentedtotheSenate
inDecember."TheyrespectfullyaskedCongress,inconsiderationoftheirunquestioned
loyalty,exhibitedbythemalikeasbondorfree,assoldierorlaborer,intheUnionlinesunder
theprotectionoftheGovernment,orwithintherebellinesunderthedominationofthe
rebellion,thatintheexerciseofourhighauthorityoverthereestablishmentofcivil
governmentinSouthCarolinatheirequalrightbeforethelawmayberespected;thatinthe
formationandadoptionofthefundamentallawoftheState,theymayhaveanequalvoice
withallloyalcitizens,andthatCongresswillnotsanctionanyStateconstitutionwhichdoes
notsecuretheexerciseoftherightoftheelectivefranchisetoallloyalcitizensotherwise
qualifiedinthecommoncourseofAmericanlaw,withoutdistinctionofcolor."3T
ThecoloredpeopleofAlabama,inconventionatMobile,in1866,calleduponCongressto
providesomemeansofmakingtheirfreedomsecure."Theysaythatinthecitywherethey
wereassembledinconventionseveraloftheirchurcheshadbeenalreadyburnedtothe
groundbythetorchoftheincendiary,andthreatsarefrequentlymadetocontinuethe
destructionoftheirproperty;themeansofeducationfortheirchildrenaresecuredtothem
onlybythestrongarmoftheUnitedStatesGovernmentagainstthemarkedoppositionof
theirwhitefellow-citizens,whilethroughoutthewholeStatetherighttoparticipateinthe
franchisesoffreemenisdeniedasinsultingtowhitemen;andarespectfulappealaddressed
bysomeoftheirpeopletothelateStateconventionwasscornfullylaiduponthetable,some
ofthemembersevenrefusingtohearitsreading.Theyalsostatethatmanyoftheirpeople
dailysufferalmosteveryformofoutrageandviolenceatthehandsofwhites;thatinmany
partsofthestatetheirpeoplecannotsafelyleavethevicinityoftheirhomes;theyare
knockeddownandbeatenbytheirwhitefellow-citizenswithouthavingofferedanyinjuryor
insultasacause;theyarearrestedandimprisoneduponfalseaccusations;theirmoneyis
extortedfortheirrelease,ortheyarecondemnedtoimprisonmentathardlabor;thatmanyof
theirpeoplearenowinaconditionofpracticalslavery,beingcompelledtoservetheirformer
ownerswithoutpayandtocallthem'master.'TheyexpressahopethatCongressmaybeled
togivethemanopportunitytoverifythesestatementsbysuitabletestimony,andalsofurther
hopethatCongresswillgrantthemtheprotectiontheyneed."38
In1866,January10,aNegroconventionatAugusta,Georgia,appealedtotheGeorgia
legislature.Thefreedmendeclaredthatduringtheperioddithewarthemajorityofthemhad
remainedsilendyattheirhomes,althoughtheyhadknowntheirpowertorise,andto"fire
yourhouses,burnyourhomesandrailroads,anddiscommodeyouinathousandways."
Duringthewar,theyhadbeenforcedintowarservicebytheSouth.Theyhadbeencompelled
tothrowupbreastworkfortsandfortificationsanddotheworkofprisonersundertheguns
oftheenemy,where,saidthey,"manyofusincommonwithyourselveswerekilled."But
now,theydeclaredthattheycouldnolongerremainindifferentwhenthestatewaspassing
lawswhichwouldbindtheminfutureyears.Againsttheselaws,theywouldprotestfirmly
andopenly.Anotheraddressinthesameyearcalledattentiontothetreatmentwhichthe
Negroeswerereceivinginallwalksoflifethroughoutthestate.Ontherailroadstheypaid
equalfarewithothers,buttheydidnot"gethalftheaccommodation."Theywere"cursedand
kickedbytheconductors"—theirwivesandsisterswere"blackguardedandinsultedbythe
scrapingsoftheearth"—andif
theyspokeoftheirtreatmenttheywere"frowneduponwithcontemptandrepliedtoinbitter
epithets."39
MajorMartinR.Delaney,themostdistinguishedNorthernNegroinSouthCarolina,declared
inalettertoPresidentJohnson,"Whatbecomesnecessarytosecureandperpetuatethe
Unionissimplytheenfranchisementandrecognitionofpoliticalequalityofthepowerthat
savedthenationfromdestruction—arecognitionofthepoliticalequalityoftheblackswith
thewhitesinalltheirrelationsasAmerican
"40
citizens....
"AcorrespondentoftheCharlestonDailyCourierwritingfromSumter,SouthCarolina,
reportedNovember4,1866,anorganizedmovementamongNegroestobettertheircondition.
Theyheldalargeassemblytodealwiththeproblemsofthehour,thisbeingameetingona
largerscalethanthatofmanyothersuchwhichhadbeenheldforthatpurposeinthat
section.Duringthefourhoursofthismeetingthecorrespondentreportedthattherewasnot
utteredawordaboutNegrosuffrageandotherpoliticalquestions.Thekeynoteofthe
meetingwastosecure'afairandremunerativerewardforlabor.'Thecontractsystemhad
provedtobeunequalandunjustandtheywereadvisedtoresorttothesharesystem."
TheblackWestprotestedtotheadmissionofColoradowithwhitesuffrage.OnJanuary24,
1866,SenatorBrownofMissourisaid:"IpresentapetitionofcertaincitizensofDenver,in
theTerritoryofColorado,showingthattheStateConstitution,framedbyacitizens'
convention,andadoptedbyanalmostinsignificantmajorityofthelegalvotersofColorado,
preparatorytoadmissionasaState,excludesallcoloredcitizensoftheTerritoryofColorado
fromtherightofsuffragebytheincorporationinthatinstrumentofthewords'allwhitemale
citizens.'Thepetitioners,therefore,beseechyourhonorablebodynottoadmittheTerritory
asaStateuntiltheword'allwhite'beerasedfromherconstitution."41
ThemostsignificantmeetingtookplaceintheNorthwhereaNationalConventionmetin
Syracuse,NewYork,inOctober,1864.BesidesFrederickDouglass,itwasattendedbyGeorge
L.Ruffin,whoafterwardsbecamethefirstNegrotositonthebenchofMassachusetts,
GeorgeT.DowningofRhodeIsland,RobertHamiltonofNewYork,WilliamHowardDayof
NewJersey,JonathanC.Gibbs,wholaterbecameSecretaryofStateandSuperintendentof
EducationinFlorida;PeterH.ClarkofOhio,HenryHighlandGarnet,theNegropreacher,Dr.
PeterW.RayofBrooklyn,andmanyotherleadersofthefreeNegroes.Theresolutionsaid:
"Theweaknessofourfriendsisstrengthtoourfoes.WhentheAnti-SlaveryStandard,
representingtheAmericanAnti-SlaverySociety,deniesthatthesocietyasksforthe
enfranchisementofcoloredmen,andtheLiberatorapologizesforexcludingthecoloredmen
ofLouisianafromtheballot-box,theyinjureusmorevitallythanalltheribaldjestsofthe
wholepro-slaverypress...
"IntheranksoftheDemocraticparty,alltheworstelementsofAmericansocietyfraternize;
andweneednotexpectasinglevoicefromthatquarterforjustice,mercy,orevendecency.
Toitwearenothing;theslave-holderseverything....
"HowstandsthecasewiththegreatRepublicanpartyinquestion?Wehavealreadyalluded
toitasbeinglargelyundertheinfluenceoftheprevailingcontemptforthecharacterand
rightsofthecoloredrace.ThisisseenbytheslownessofourGovernmenttoemploythe
strongarmoftheblackmanintheworkofputtingdowntherebellion;andinits
unwillingness,afterthusemployinghim,toinvesthimwiththesameincitementstodeedsof
daring,aswhitesoldiers;neithergivinghimthesamepay,rations,andprotection,norany
hopeofrisingintheservicebymeritoriousconduct.Itisalsoseeninthefact,thatinneither
oftheplansemanatingfromthispartyforreconstructingtheinstitutionsoftheSouthern
States,arecoloredmen,noteventhosewhohadfoughtforthecountry,recognizedashaving
anypoliticalexistenceorrightswhatever....
"Doyou,then,askustostate,inplainterms,justwhatwewantofyou,andjustwhatwe
thinkweoughttoreceiveatyourhands?Weanswer:Firstofall,thecompleteabolitionof
theslaveryofourraceintheUnitedStates.Weshallnotstoptoargue.Wefeeltheterrible
stingofthisstupendouswrong,andthatwecannotbefreewhileourbrothersareslaves....
"WewanttheelectivefranchiseinallthestatesnowintheUnion,andthesameinallsuch
statesasmaycomeintotheUnionhereafter.Webelievethatthehighestwelfareofthisgreat
countrywillbefoundinerasingfromitsstatute-booksallenactmentsdiscriminatinginfavor
oragainstanyclassofitspeople,andbyestablishingonelawforthewhiteandcoloredpeople
alike.Whateverprejudiceandtastemaybeinnocentlyallowedtodoortodictateinsocialand
domesticrelations,itisplain,thatinthematterofgovernment,theobjectofwhichisthe
protectionandsecurityofhumanrights,prejudiceshouldbeallowednovoicewhatever....
"Yourfatherslaiddowntheprinciple,longago,thatuniversalsuffrageisthebestfoundation
ofGovernment.Webelieveasyourfathersbelieved,andastheypracticed;for,ineleven
Statesoutoftheoriginalthirteen,coloredmenexercisedtherighttovoteatthetimeofthe
adoptionoftheFederalConstitution....
"Fellow-citizens,letusentreatyou,havefaithinyourownprinciples.Iffreedomisgoodforany,itisgoodforall.Ifyouneedtheelectivefranchise,weneed
itevenmore.Youarestrong,weareweak;youaremany,wearefew;youareprotected,we
areexposed.Clotheuswiththissafeguardofourliberty,andgiveusaninterestinthe
countrytowhich,incommonwithyou,wehavegivenourlivesandpouredoutourbest
blood.Youcannotneedspecialprotection.Ourdegradationisnotessentialtoyourelevation,
norourperilessentialtoyoursafety.Youarenotlikelytobeoutstrippedintheraceof
improvementbypersonsofAfricandescent;andhenceyouhavenoneedofsuperior
advantage,nortoburdenthemwithdisabilitiesofanykind....
"WemayconquerSouthernarmiesbythesword;butitisanotherthingtoconquerSouthern
hate.NowwhatisthenaturalcounterpoiseagainstthisSouthernmalignhostility?Thisitis:
givetheelectivefranchisetoeverycoloredmanoftheSouthwhoisofsanemind,andhas
arrivedattheageoftwenty-oneyears,andyouhaveatoncefourmillionsoffriendswhowill
guardwiththeirvigilance,andifneedbe,defendwiththeirarms,thearkofFederalLiberty
fromthetreasonandpollutionofherenemies.Youaresureofenmityofthemasters,—make
sureofthefriendshipoftheslaves;for,dependuponit,yourGovernmentcannotafTordto
encountertheenmityofboth."42
AndsoatfirstAbrahamLincolnlookedbacktowardssomestableplaceintherelationof
blacksandwhitesintheSouthonwhichmencouldbegintobuildanewedificeforfreedom,
andhegaveonlyonewordthathadinitaringofharshness.Hewaswillingtoacceptalmost
anyovertureonthepartoftheSouthexceptthathewouldnotreturntheNegroestoslavery,
andifanylawcompelledtheexecutivetodothis,thatexecutivewouldnotbeAbraham
Lincoln.TherecanbenodoubtthatAbrahamLincolnneverwouldhaveacceptedtheBlack
Codes.Hebeganbylookingbackwardandthenturnedwiththisforward-lookingword.
Ontheotherhand,AndrewJohnsonstartedlookingforward,towardsfreeland,andthe
interestsofthesuppressedlaborersintheSouth;andthenrealizingthatone-halfthis
laboringclasswasblack,heturnedhisfacetowardsreaction.HeacceptedtheBlackCodes,
andthushefacedinthewinterof1865therepresentativesofthepeopleoftheUnitedStates
inthe39thCongressassembled.
Symbolicmother,wethymyriadsons,
PoundingourstubbornheartsonFreedom'sbars,
Clutchingourbirthright,fightwithfacesset,
Stillvisioningthestars!T^
JessieFauset.
BLACKRECONSTRUCTION
1.DuBois,SoulsofBlackFolk,p.25.
2.Pierce,MemoirsandLettersofCharlesSumner,IV,pp.181,183.
3.CongressionalGlobe,Sumner'sSpeech,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,pp.674,
675,680,683,685,686,687.
4.Herberg,TheHeritageoftheCivilWar,pp.11,12.
5.CompareWoodburn,LifeofThaddeusStevens,ChapterXX.
6.Pierce,MemoirsandLettersofCharlesSumner,IV,p.76.
7.Pierce,MemoirsandLettersofCharlesSumner,IV,p.229.
8.Garrison,LifeofGarrison,IV,1861-1879,pp.123,124.
9.NewYorkTribune,May8,1865.
10.CarlSchurz,SenateDocuments,No.2,39thCongress,1stSession,1865-1866,pp.
42-45.
11.ResultsofEmancipation,p.13.
12.Blaine,TwentyYearsofCongress,I,p.538.
13.McPherson,HistoryofReconstruction,p.23.
14.McPherson,HistoryofReconstruction,p.21.
15.SimkinsandWoody,SouthCarolinaDuringReconstruction,pp.41,42.
16.TestimonyofFrederickH.Bruce,ReportoftheJointCommitteeonReconstruction,
1866,Part2,p.154.
17.Wallace,CarpetbagRuleinFlorida,pp.24,25.
18.TestimonyofJudgeJ.C.Underwood,ReportoftheJointCommitteeonReconstruction,1866,PartII,p.7.
19.ReportoftheJointCommitteeonReconstruction,1866,PartII,p.163.
20.NewYorkTribune,April22,1865.
21.Schliiter,Lincoln,LaborandSlavery,pp.188-197.
22.DuBois,SoulsofBlac^.Folk,p.27.
23.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession.
24.HowardInvestigation,p.5.
25.AtlantaUniversityStudies,No.12,pp.39,40,41.
26.DuBois,AtlantaUniversityStudies,II,p.42.
27.Pierce,TheFreedmen'sBureau,pp.104,160.
28.TestimonyofHeinstadt,ReportoftheJointCommitteeonReconstruction,1866,
January27,PartIII,p.25.
29.ReportoftheJointCommitteeonReconstruction,1866,PartII,p.123.
30.Pierce,TheFreedmen'sBureau,p.157.
31.Wallace,CarpetbagRideinFlorida,p.40.
32.Pierce,TheFreedmen'sBureau,pp.127,128.
33.HowardInvestigation,p.20.
34.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,p.107.
35.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,p.128.
36.SimkinsandWoody,SouthCarolinaDuringReconstruction,p.55.
37.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,pp.107-108.
38.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,p.127.
39.Wesley,NegroLaborintheUnitedStates,pp.122,123.
40.SimkinsandWoody,SouthCarolinaDuringReconstruction,p.54.
41.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,p.390.
42.ProceedingsoftheNationalConventionofColoredMenHeldinSyracuse,New
York,October4-y,1864,pp.48-61.
VIII.TRANSUBSTANTIATIONOFAPOORWHITE
HowAndrewJohnson,unexpectedlyraisedtothePresidency,wassuddenlysetbetweena
democracywhichincludedpoorwhitesandblackmen,andanautocracythatincludedBig
Businessandslavebarons;andhowtornbetweenimpossibleallegiances,heendedinforcing
ahesitantnationtochoosebetweentheincreasedpoliticalpowerofarestoredSouthern
oligarchyandvotesforNegroes
LikeNemesisofGreektragedy,thecentralproblemofAmericaaftertheCivilWar,asbefore,
wastheblackman:thosefourmillionsoulswhomthenationhadusedanddegraded,andon
whomtheSouthhadbuiltanoligarchysimilartothecolonialimperialismoftoday,erected
oncheapcoloredlaborandraisingrawmaterialformanufacture.IfNorthernindustrybefore
thewarhadsecuredamonopolyoftherawmaterialraisedintheSouthforitsnew
manufactures;andifNorthernandWesternlaborcouldhavemaintainedtheirwagescale
againstslavecompetition,theNorthwouldnothavetouchedtheslavesystem.Butthisthe
Southhadfrustrated.Ithadthreatenedlaborwithnation-wideslavecompetitionandhad
sentitscottonabroadtobuycheapmanufactures,andhadresistedtheprotectivetariff
demandedbytheNorth.
Itwasthisspecificsituationthathadgiventhevoiceoffreedomachancetobeheard:
freedomfornew-comepeasantswhofearedthecompetitionofslavelabor;peasantsfrom
Europe,NewEnglandandthepoorwhiteSouth;freedomforallmenblackandwhitethrough
thatdreamofdemocracyinwhichthebestofthenationstillbelieved.
Theresultwaswarbecauseofthemoralwrong,theeconomicdisasterandthedemocratic
contradictionofmakinghumanlaborrealestate;war,becausetheSouthwasdeterminedto
makefreewhitelaborcompetewithblackslaves,monopolizelandandrawmaterialinthe
handsofapoliticalaristocracy,andextendthescopeofthatpower;war,becausethe
industrialNorthrefusedtosurrenderitsrawmaterialandoneofitschiefmarketstoEurope;
war,becausewhiteAmericanlabor,whileitrefusedtorecognizeblacklaborasequaland
human,hadtofighttomaintainitsownhumanityandidealofequality.
Theresultofthewarleftfourmillionhumanbeingsjustasvaluablefortheproductionof
cottonandsugarastheyhadbeenbeforethewar—butduringthewar,aslaborersand
soldiers,theseNegroeshadmadeitpossiblefortheNorthtowin,andwithouttheiractual
andpossibleaid,theSouthwouldneverhavesurrendered;andnotleast,thesefourmillion
freemenformedintheendtheonlypossiblemoraljustificationforanotherwisesordidand
selfishorgyofmurder,arsonandtheft.
Now,earlyin1865,thewarisover.TheNorthdoesnotespeciallywantfreeNegroes;itwants
tradeandwealth.TheSouthdoesnotwantaparticularinterpretationoftheConstitution.It
wantscheapNegrolaborandthepoliticalandsocialpowerbasedonit.Hadtherebeenno
Negroes,therewouldhavebeennowar.HadnoNegroessurvivedthewar,peacewouldhave
beendifficultbecauseofhatred,lossandbittergrief.Butitslogicalpathwouldhavebeen
straight.
TheSouthwouldhavereturnedtoitsplaceinCongresswithlessthanitsformer
representationbecauseofthegrowingNorthandWest.Theseareasofgrowingmanufacture
andagriculture,railroadbuildingandcorporations,wouldhaveheldthepoliticalpowerover
theSouthuntiltheSouthunitedwiththenewinsurgencyoftheWestortheoldEastern
democraticideals.Industrializationmightevenhavebroughtathirdpartyrepresentinglabor
andraisedtheproletariattodominance.
Ofthis,in1865therewereonlyvaguesigns,andinanycase,theformerSouthernaristocracy
wouldnoteasilyhaveallieditselfwithimmigrantlabor,whiletheSouthernpoorwhites
wouldhaveneededlongexperienceandteaching.Thus,theNorthintheabsenceoftheNegro
wouldhavehadavastdebt,aproblemofcharity,distressandrelief,suchreasonableamnesty
aswouldpreventtheoldSouthernleadersfromreturningimmediatelytopower,the
recognitionofthereorganizedstates,andthenworkandforgetting.
"Letushavepeace."Buttherewastheblackmanloominglikeadarkghostonthehorizon.
Hewasthechildofforceandgreed,andthefatherofwealthandwar.Hislaborwas
indispensable,andthelossofitwouldhavecostmanytimesthecostofthewar.IftheNegro
hadbeensilent,hisverypresencewouldhaveannouncedhisplight.Hewasnotsilent.He
wasinunusualevidence.Hewaswritingpetitions,makingspeeches,paradingwithreturned
soldiers,recitinghisadventuresasslaveandfreeman.Evendumbandstill,hemustbe
noticed.Hispovertyhadtoberelieved,andemancipationinhiscasehadtomeanpoverty.If
hehadtowork,hehadtohavelandandtools.Ifhislaborwasinrealitytobefreelabor,he
hadtohavelegalfreedomandcivilrights.Hisignorancecouldonlyberemovedbythatvery
educationwhichthelawoftheSouthhadlongdeniedhim
andthecustomoftheNorthhadmadeexceedinglydifficult.Thuscivilstatusandlegal
freedom,food,clothesandtools,accesstolandandhelptoeducation,weretheminimum
demandsoffourmillionlaborers,andthesedemandsnomancouldignore,Northerneror
Southerner,AbolitionistorCopperhead,laborerorcaptainofindustry.Howdidthenation
facethisparadoxanddilemma?
LedbyAbrahamLincoln,thenationhadlookedbacktothestatusbeforethewarinorderto
findapathtowhichthenewnationandthenewconditionofthefreedmencouldbeguided.
OnlyoneforwardstepPresidentLincolninsisteduponandthatwastherealcontinued
freedomoftheemancipatedslave;buttheabolition-democracywentbeyondthisbecauseit
wasconvincedthatherewasnologicalstoppingplace;anditlookedforwardtociviland
politicalrights,educationandland,astheonlycompleteguaranteeoffreedom,inthefaceof
adominantSouthwhichhopedfromthefirst,toabolishslaveryonlyinname.
IntheNorth,anewandtremendousdictatorshipofcapitalwasarising.Therewasonlyone
waytocurbanddirectwhatpromisedtobecomethegreatestplutocraticgovernmentwhich
theworldhadeverknown.Thiswaywasfirsttoimplementpublicopinionbytheweaponof
universalsuffrage—aweaponwhichthenationalreadyhadinpart,butwhichhadbeen
virtuallyimpotentintheSouthbecauseofslavery,andwhichwasatleastweakenedinthe
Northbythedisfranchisementofanunendingmass"offoreign-bornlaborers.Onceuniversal
suffragewasachieved,thenextstepwastouseitwithsuchintelligenceandpowerthatit
wouldfunctionintheinterestofthemassofworkingmen.
ToaccomplishthisendthereshouldhavebeeninthecountryandrepresentedinCongressa
unionbetweenthechampionsofuniversalsuffrageandtherightsofthefreedmen,together
withtheleadersoflabor,thesmalllandholdersoftheWest,andlogically,thepoorwhitesof
theSouth.AgainstthesewouldhavebeenarrayedtheNorthernindustrialoligarchy,and
eventually,whentheywerere-admittedtoCongress,therepresentativesoftheformer
Southernoligarchy.
Thisunionofdemocraticforcesnevertookplace.Onthecontrary,theyweretornapartby
artificiallinesofdivision.Theoldanti-Negrolaborrivalrybetweenwhiteandblackworkers
keptthelaborelementsafterthewarfromeverreallyunitinginademandtoincreaselabor
powerbyNegrosuffrageandNegroeconomicstability.TheWestwasseducedfromavision
ofpeasant-proprietors,recruitedfromalaboringclass,intoavisionoflabor-exploiting
farmersandlandspeculationwhichtendedtotransformtheWesternfarmersintoapetty
bourgeoisiefightingnottoovercomebuttosharespoilswiththelarge
landspeculators,themonopolistsoftransportation,andthefinanciers.Whereveraliberal
anddemocraticpartystartedtodifferentiateitselffromthisgroup,theonlyallianceoffered
wasthebrokenoligarchyoftheSouth,withitsdeterminationtoreenslaveNegrolabor.
Theeffectivecombinationwhichensuedwasbothcuriousandcontradictory.Themastersof
industry,thefinanciersandmonopolists,hadinself-defensetojoinwithabolitiondemocracyinforcinguniversalsuffrageontheSouth,orsubmittothereassertionoftheold
land-slavefeudalismwithincreasedpoliticalpower.
Suchasituationdemandedaneconomicguardianshipoffreedmen,andthefirststeptothis
meantatleastthebeginningofadictatorshipbylabor.This,however,hadtobebut
temporaryunionandwasboundtobreakupbeforelong.Thebreakwasbegunbythe
extraordinarycorruption,graftandtheftthatbecamemoreandmoreevidentinthecountry
from1868on,asaresultofthewildideathatindustryandprogressforthepeopleofthe
UnitedStateswerecompatiblewiththeselfishsequestrationofprofitforprivateindividuals
andpowerfulcorporations.
Butthosewhorevoltedfromthepartyofexploitationandhighfinancedidnotseealliesin
thedictatorshipoflaborintheSouth.Rathertheywereentirelymisledbythecomplaintof
propertyfromtheSouthernoligarchy.Theyfailedtobecomearealpartyofeconomicreform
andbecameareactionofsmallproperty-holdersagainstcorporations;ofapettybourgeoisie
againstaneweconomicmonarchy.TheyimmediatelyjoinedBigBusinessincomingtoan
understandingwiththeSouthin1876,sothatbyforceandfraudtheSouthoverthrewthe
dictatorshipoftheworkers.
Butthiswasonlytheimmediatecause.Iftherehadbeennowidespreadpoliticalcorruption,
NorthandSouth,therewouldstillhavearisenanabsolutedifferencebetweenthosewho
weretryingtoconductthenewSouthernstategovernmentsintheinterestofthemassof
laborers,blackandwhite,andthoseNorthandSouthwhoweredeterminedtoexploitlabor,
bothinagricultureandindustry,forthebenefitofanoligarchy.Suchanoligarchywasin
effectbackofthemilitarydictatorshipwhichsupportedtheseverySouthernlabor
governments,andwhichhadtosupportthemeitheraslaborersorbydevelopingamongthem
acapitalistclass.ButassoonastherewasunderstandingbetweentheSouthernexploiterof
laborandtheNorthernexploiter,thismilitarysupportwouldbewithdrawn;andthelabor
governments,inspiteofwhattheyhadaccomplishedfortheeducationofthemasses,andin
spiteofthemovementsagainstwasteandgraftwhichtheyhadinaugurated,wouldfail.
Undersuchcircumstances,theyhadtofail,andinalargesensetheimmediatehopeofAmericandemocracy
failedwiththem.
Letusnowfollowthisdevelopmentmoreindetail.In1863and1864,AbrahamLincolnhad
madehistentativeproposalsforreconstructingtheSouth.Hehadleftmanythingsunsaid.
Theloyal-minded,consistingofasfewasone-tenthofthevoterswhomLincolnproposedto
regardasastate,mustnaturally,tosurvive,besupportedbytheUnitedStatesArmy,untila
majorityoftheinhabitantsacquiescedinthenewarrangements.ItwasLincoln'sfondhope
thatthisacquiescencemightbeswiftandclear,butnooneknewbetterthanhethatitmight
not.
HewascarefultosaythatCongresswouldcertainlyhavevoiceastothetermsonwhichthey
wouldrecognizethenewlyelectedSenatorsandRepresentatives.Thisproposalmetthe
generalapprovalofthecountry,butCongresssawdangerandenactedtheWade-DavisBill.
ThisdidnotrecognizeNegrosuffrage,andwasnotradicallydifferentfromtheLincolnplan,
exceptthatthefinalpowerandassentofCongressweremoreprominentlysetforth.
Lincolndidnotopposeit.Hesimplydidnotwanthishandspermanentlytied.Thebillfailed,
leavingLincolnmakingacarefulstudyofthesituation,andpromisinganotherstatement.He
wasgoingforwardcarefully,hopingforsomeliberalmovementtoshowitselfintheSouth,
anddelicatelyurgingit.Intheelectionof1864,thecountrystoodsquarelybackofhim.The
NortherndemocracycarriedonlyNewJersey,DelawareandKentucky.Buthedied,and
AndrewJohnsontookhisplace.
Thus,suddenly,April15,1865,AndrewJohnsonfoundhimselfPresidentoftheUnited
States,sixdaysafterLee'ssurrender,andamonthandahalfafterthe38thCongresshad
adjourned,March3.
ItwasthedreardestinyofthePoorWhiteSouththat,desertingitseconomicclassanditself,
itbecametheinstrumentbywhichdemocracyinthenationwasdonetodeath,race
provincialismdeified,andtheworlddeliveredtoplutocracy.Themanwholedthewaywith
unconsciousparadoxandcontradictionwasAndrewJohnson.
LatelytheearlylifeandcharacterofAndrewJohnsonhavebeenabundantlystudied.Hewas
afanaticalhaterofaristocracy."Througheverypublicactofhisrunsoneconsistent,unifying
threadofpurpose—theadvancementofthepower,prosperityandlibertyofthemassesatthe
expenseofintrenchedprivilege.Theslaveholdingaristocracyhehatedwithabitter,enduring
hatredbornofenvyandambition.'IfJohnsonwereasnake,'saidhisrival,thewell-born
IshamG.Harris,'hewouldlieinthegrasstobitetheheelsoftherichmen's
children.'Theverythoughtofanaristocratcausedhimtoemitvenomandlashabouthimin
fury."*
Hispoliticalmethodswerethoseofthebarn-stormingdemagogue.
"Johnson'sspeechesweretissuesofmisstatement,misrepresentation,andinsulting
personalities,directedtothepassionsandunreasoningimpulsesoftheignorantvoters;
assaultsuponaristocratscombinedwithvauntingofhisownloworiginandthedignityof
manuallabor."2YetabiographersaysthatJohnsonwas"theonlyPresidentwhopracticed
whathepreached,drawingnodistinctionbetweenrichandpoor,orhighandlow....
"DonotthesefactsfurnishanexplanationofJohnson'slife?Dotheynotshowwhyhehad
thecouragetogoupagainstcasteandcheaparistocracy,whyhedaredtostandfortheunderdog,whetherCatholic,Hebrew,foreigner,mechanic,orchild;andtoclinglikedeathtothe
oldflagandtheUnion?...
"'GladlyIwouldlaydownmylife,'hewrote,'ifIcouldsoengraftdemocracyintoourgeneral
governmentthatitwouldbepermanent.'"3
Toallthisthereisonegreatqualification.AndrewJohnsoncouldnotincludeNegroesinany
conceivabledemocracy.Hetriedto,butasapoorwhite,steepedinthelimitations,prejudices,
andambitionsofhissocialclass,hecouldnot;andthisisthekeytohiscareer.
JohnsonsatinCongressfrom1843to1853,andwasSenatorfrom1857to1862.Hefavored
theannexationofTexasasagatewayforNegroemigration.Hewasagainstahightariff,
championedfreeWesternlandsforwhitelabor,andfavoredtheannexationofCubaforblack
slavelabor.
McConnellintroducedahomesteadbillintoCongressinJanuary,1846.Johnson'sbillcame
inMarch.HereturnedtoTennesseeasGovernor,butinducedthelegislaturetoinstruct
membersofCongresstovoteforhisbill.ThebillfinallypassedtheHousebutwasdefeated
intheSenate,andthiswasrepeatedforseveralsessions.Meantime,Johnsonfoundhimself
incuriouscompany.HewaslinkedontheonehandtotheFreeSoilers,andin1851wentto
NewYorktoaddressaLandReformAssociation.Ontheotherhand,theSouthcalledhim
socialisticandWigfallofTexasdubbedhim:"ThevilestofRepublicans,thereddestofReds,a
sans-culotte,forfouryearspasthehasbeentryingtopleasetheNorthwithhisHomestead
andotherbills."4TheAbolitionistsmeanwhilelookedaskancebecauseJohnsonfavoredthe
billforannexingCuba.
HevotedagainstthePacificrailroad,ownedeightslavesandsaidatonetime:"Youwon'tget
ridoftheNegroexceptbyholdinghiminslavery."5Inthemidstofsuchvacillationand
contradiction,small
wonderthatLanereferredtoJohnson's"triumphantignoranceandexultingstupidity."Yet
Johnsonheweddoggedlytocertainlines.Ini860,hewasadvocatinghishomesteadbill
again.ItfinallypassedbothHouseandSenate,butBuchananvetoeditasunconstitutional.
Johnsoncalledthemessage"monstrousandabsurd."Atlast,inJune,1862,aftertheSouth
hadwithdrawnfromCongress,Johnson'sbillwaspassedandLincolnsignedit.
YetitwasthissameJohnsonwhosaidinthe36thCongressthatiftheAbolitionistsfreedthe
slavesandletthemlooseontheSouth,"thenon-slaveholderwouldjoinwiththeslave-owner
andextirpatethem,"and"ifoneshouldbemorereadytojointhananotheritwouldbe
myself."
JohnsonearlybecameafollowerofHintonHelperandusedhisfigures.TheImpending
Crisiswas"AndrewJohnson'svademecum.—hisarsenaloffacts."6
Johnsonmadetwoviolentspeechesagainstsecessionin1860-61,withbitterpersonalities
againstJeffersonDavis,JudahBenjaminandtheirfellows.Hecalledthemrebelsand
traitors;thegalleriesyelledandthepresidingofficersthreatenedtoclearthem.Johnson
shouted:"Iwouldhavethemarrested,andifconvicted,withinthemeaningandscopeofthe
Constitution,bytheEternalGod,Iwouldexecutethem;Sir,treasonmustbepunished;its
enormityandtheextentanddepthoftheoffensemustbemadeknown!"
ClingmanofNorthCarolinasaidthatJohnson'sspeechbroughtontheCivilWar.Alexander
StephenssaidthatitsolidifiedtheNorth.Letterscameintocongratulateandtoencourage
"theonlyUnionSenatorfromtheSouth."Laborralliedtohim.ABaltimorelaborerwrotethat
"thepoorworkingmanwillnodoubtbecalledontofightthebattlesoftherich."From
Memphisanotherwrote:"Itwaslaborthatachievedourindependenceandthelaborersare
readytomaintainit."TheNewYorkWorkingMan'sAssociationpassedaresolutionof
thanks.7
LincolnsetaboutwinningTennessee,andasasteptowardit,askedAndrewJohnsontogo
andactasMilitaryGovernor,andrestorethestate.JohnsonresignedfromtheSenateand
wenttoTennesseeearlyinMarch,1862.HearrivedinNashvilleMarch12,andtook
possessionoftheStateHouse.Hiscourageandsacrificeeventuallyredeemedthestateand
restoredittotheUnion.
SeveraltimesJohnsonspokeonslaveryandtheNegro.Whenheaskedthatplantationsbe
dividedintheSouthandlandsopenedintheWest,hehadinmindwhitemen,whowould
thusbecomerichoratleastricher.ButforNegroes,hehadnothingofthesortinmind,
exceptthebarepossibilitythat,ifgivenfreedom,theymightcontinuetoexistandnotdieout.
JohnsonsaidinJanuary,1864,atNashvilleinreplytoaquestionastowhetherhewasin
favorofemancipation:
"AsfortheNegroIamforsettinghimfreebutatthesametimeIassertthatthisisawhite
man'sgovernment....Ifwhitesandblackscan'tgetalongtogetherarrangementsmustbe
madetocolonizetheblacks....In1843,whenIwascandidateforGovernor,itwassaid,'That
fellowJohnsonisademagogue,isanAbolitionist.'...BecauseIadvocatedawhitebasisfor
representation—apportioningmembersofCongressaccordingtothenumberofqualified
voters,insteadofembracingNegroes,theycalledmeanAbolitionist....Whatdowefind
today?Rightgoesforward;truthtriumphs;justiceissupreme;andslaverygoesdown.
"Infact,theNegroesareemancipatedinTennesseetoday,andtheonlyremainingquestion
forustosettle,asprudentandwisemen,isinassigningtheNegrohisnewrelation.Now,
whatwillthatbe?TheNegrowillbethrownuponsociety,governedbythesamelawsthat
governcommunities,andbecompelledtofallbackuponhisownresources,asallother
humanbeingsare....Politicalfreedommeanslibertytowork,andatthesametimeenjoy
theproductsofone'slabor....Ifhecanrisebyhisownenergies,inthenameofGod,lethim
rise.Insayingthis,IdonotarguethattheNegroraceisequaltotheAnglo-Saxon....Ifthe
Negroisbetterfittedfortheinferiorconditionofsociety,thelawsofnaturewillassignhim
there!"8
AsarewardforJohnson'sservicesandtounitethesectionsLincolnchoseJohnsonashis
runningmatein1864.BeforethecampaignJune10,fromtheSt.CloudHotel,Johnsongave
hisphilosophyofReconstruction:
"Oneofthechiefelementsofthisrebellionistheoppositionoftheslavearistocracytobeing
ruledbymenwhohaverisenfromtheranksofthepeople.ThisaristocracyhatedMr.Lincoln
becausehewasofhumbleorigin,arail-splitterinearlylife.Oneofthem,theprivate
secretaryofHowellCobb,saidtomeoneday,afteralongconversation,'Wepeopleofthe
Southwillnotsubmittobegovernedbyamanwhohascomeupfromtheranksofthe
commonpeople,asAbeLincolnhas.'Heutteredtheessentialfeelingandspiritofthis
Southernrebellion.Nowithasjustoccurredtome,ifthisaristocracyissoviolentlyopposed
tobeinggovernedbyMr.Lincoln,whatinthenameofconsciencewillitdowithLincolnand
Johnson?...
"Iamforemancipationfortworeasons:First,becauseitisrightinitself;andsecond,because
intheemancipationoftheslaves,webreak
downanodiousanddangerousaristocracy;Ithinkthatweatefreeingmorewhitesthan
blacksinTennessee.
"Iwanttoseeslaverybrokenup,andwhenitsbarriersaretorndown,Iwanttosee
industrious,thriftyimmigrantspouringinfromallpartsofthecountry.Comeon!weneed
yourlabor,yourskill,yourcapital....
"Ah,theseRebelleadershaveastrongpersonalreasonforholdingout—tosavetheirnecks
fromthehalter.Andtheseleadersmustfeelthepowerofthegovernment.Treasonmustbe
madeodious,andthetraitormustbepunishedandimpoverished.Theirgreatplantations
mustbeseizedanddividedintosmallfarms,andsoldtohonest,industriousmen.Thedayfor
protectingthelandsandNegroesoftheseauthorsofrebellionispast.Itishightimeitwas."9
DuringthecampaignheaddressedatorchlightprocessionofthousandsofNegroesand
whites.Hesaid,October,1864:
"WhohasnotheardofthegreatestatesofMackCockrill,situatednearthiscity,estates
whoseacresarenumberedbythethousand,whoseslaveswereoncecountedbythescore?
AndofMackCockrill,theirpossessor,thegreatslave-ownerand,ofcourse,theleadingrebel,
wholivesintheverywantonnessofwealth,wrungfromthesweatandtoilandstolenwages
ofothers,andwhogavefabuloussumstoaidJeffDavisinoverturningthisGovernment?...
"WhohasnotheardoftheprincelyestatesofGeneralW.D.Harding,who,bymeansofhis
propertyalone,outweighedininfluenceanyothermaninTennessee,nomatterwhatwere
thatother'sworth,orwisdom,orability.Harding,too,earlyespousedthecauseoftreason
andmadeithisboastthathehadcontributed,anddirectlyinducedotherstocontribute,
millionsofdollarsinaidofthatunholycause....ItiswrongthatMackCockrillandW.D.
Harding,bymeansofforcedandunpaidlabor,shouldhavemonopolizedsolargeashareof
thelandsandwealthofTennessee;andIsayiftheirimmenseplantationsweredividedup
andparceledoutamongstanumberoffree,industrious,andhonestfarmers,itwouldgive
moregoodcitizenstotheCommonwealth,increasethewagesofourmechanics,enrichthe
marketsofourcity,enlivenallthearteriesoftrade,improvesociety,andconducetothe
greatnessandgloryoftheState.
"Therepresentativesofthiscorrupt,andifyouwillpermitmealmosttoswearalittle,this
damnablearistocracy,tauntuswithourdesiretoseejusticedone,andchargeuswith
favoringNegroequality.Ofalllivingmentheyshouldbethelasttomouththatphrase;and,
evenwhenutteredintheirhearing,itshouldcausetheircheekstotingeandburnwith
shame.Negroequality,indeed!Why,passanydayalongthesidewalksofHighStreetwhere
thesearistocratsmore
particularlydwell—thesearistocrats,whosesonsarenowinthebandsofguerillasandcutthroatswhoprowlandrobandmurderaroundourcity—passbytheirdwellings,Isay,and
youwillseeasmanymulattoasNegrochildren,theformerbearinganunmistakable
resemblancetotheiraristocraticowners....ThankGod,thewarhasendedallthis...awar
thathasfreedmorewhitesthanblacks....SupposetheNegroissetfreeandwehaveless
cotton,wewillraisemorewool,hemp,flaxandsilk....Itisallanideathattheworldcan'tget
alongwithoutcotton.And,asissuggestedbymyfriendbehindme,whetherweattain
perfectionintheraisingofcottonornot,Ithinkweoughttostimulatethecultivationof
hemp(greatandrenewedlaughter);forweoughttohavemoreofitandafarbettermaterial,
astrongerfiber,withwhichtomakeastrongerrope.For,nottobemaliciousormalignant,I
amfreetosaythatIbelievemanywhoweredrivenintothisRebellion,arerepentant;butI
sayoftheleaders,theinstigators,theconscious,intelligenttraitors,theyoughttobehung."
10
"'Lookingatthisvastcrowdofcoloredpeople,'continuedtheGovernor,'andreflecting
throughwhatastormofpersecutionandobloquytheyarecompelledtopass,Iamalmost
inducedtowishthat,asinthedaysofold,aMosesmightarisewhoshouldleadthemsafely
totheirpromisedlandoffreedomandhappiness.'
"'YouareourMoses,'shoutedseveralvoices,andtheexclamationwascaughtupandcheered
untiltheCapitolrungagain....
"'Well,then,'repliedthespeaker,'humbleandunworthyasIam,ifnootherbettershallbe
found,IwillindeedbeyourMoses,andleadyouthroughtheRedSeaofwarandbondagetoa
fairerfutureoflibertyandpeace.Ispeaknowasonewhofeelstheworldhiscountry,andall
wholoveequalrightshisfriends.Ispeak,too,asacitizenofTennessee.Iamhereonmyown
soil;andhereImeantostayandfightthisgreatbattleoftruthandjusticetoatriumphant
end.Rebellionandslaveryshall,byGod'sgoodhelp,nolongerpolluteourState.Loyalmen,
whetherwhiteorblack,shallalonecontrolherdestinies;andwhenthisstrifeinwhichweare
allengagedispast,Itrust,Iknow,weshallhaveabetterstateofthings,andshallallrejoice
thathonestlaborreapsthefruitofitsownindustry,andthateverymanhasafairchancein
theraceoflife.'"u
Winstoninterpretedthelatterpartofthisspeechasdirectedtothewhites,whenclearlyhe
wasspeakingdirectlytothecoloredpeople;buthewasafterwardunwillingtoliveuptoits
promises.Asamatteroffact,hefavoredemancipation"inordertosavetheUnionandtofree
thewhitemanandnofurther.'DamntheNegroes,'heoncesaid
whenchargedwithraceequality.'Iamfightingthosetraitorousaristocrats,theirmasters.'"12
JohnsonappearedtotaketheoathofofficeasVice-Presidentsodrunkhewastakeninto
prolongedseclusionafteramaudlinspeech;hisresignationwasdiscussed.Hewasnota
habitualdrunkard,althoughhedrank"threeorfourglassesofRobertson'sCanadaWhiskey"
somedays.In1848Johnsonwritesthathehadbeen"onakindofbust—notabigdrunk."13
BothofJohnson'ssonsbecamedrunkardsandwerecutoffbeforetheyreachedmiddlelife.
YetLincolnwasright:
"Oh,well,don'tyoubotheraboutAndyJohnson'sdrinking.Hemadeabadsliptheotherday,
butIhaveknownAndyagreatmanyyears,andheain'tnodrunkard."Johnsonwasdeeply
humiliatedbytheinaugurationepisodeandperhapsherebeganhisalienationfromthose
whomighthaveinfluencedhimbest.
CharlesA.Dana,AssistantSecretaryofWar,saysthathemetVice-PresidentJohnsonin
Richmond."Hetookmeasideandspokewithgreatearnestnessaboutthenecessityofnot
takingtheConfederatesbackwithoutsomeconditionsorwithoutsomepunishment.He
insistedthattheirsinshadbeenenormous,andthatiftheywereletbackintotheUnion
withoutanypunishmenttheeffectwouldbeverybad.Hesaidtheymightbeverydangerous
inthefuture.TheVice-Presidenttalkedtomeinthisstrainforfullytwentyminutes,Ishould
think—animpassioned,earnestspeechonthesubjectofpunishingrebels."14
HissuddeninductionasPresidentwasmarkedbymodestyandgenuinefeeling.CarlSchurz
saysthattheinauguralspeechofAndrewJohnson,in1865,wasverypleasingtotheliberals
oftheNorth,andmadethembelievethathewasgoingtoallowtheNegrotohavesomepart
inthereconstructionofthestates.
ForamonthaftercomingtothePresidency,Johnsonindulgedinspeech-making,andhis
wordswerestillsoseverethattheanti-slaverypeoplebecameuneasy,feelingthatJohnson
wouldgivehisattentionprimarilytopunishingthewhitesratherthanprotectingthe
Negroes.April21,1865,hesaidinaninterviewwithsomecitizensofIndiana:
"They[theRebelleaders]mustnotonlybepunished,buttheirsocialpowermustbe
destroyed....AndIsaythat,aftermakingtreasonodious,everyUnionmanandthe
governmentshouldberemuneratedoutofthepocketsofthosewhohaveinflictedthisgreat
sufferinguponthecountry."ThiswasexactlythethesisofThaddeusStevensenunciatedin
Septemberofthesameyear.
AnumberofVirginiansvisitedJohnsoninJulyandcomplainedthattheywereseeking
creditsintheNorthandWest,butcouldget
noconsiderationwhiletheyremainedunderthebanofthegovernment.ThePresident
replied:"'Itwasthewealthymenwhodragoonedthepeopleintosecession;Iknowhowthis
thingwasdone.Yourichmenusedthepressandbulliedyourlittlementoforcethestate
intosecession.'Hespokeasapoorwhiteforpoorwhitesandtheplantersleftingloom."
HekeptoninsistinguponpunishmentfortheSouth,andnotonlypersonalpunishmentbut
economicpunishment,sothatmanyconservativeswereafraidthattheyhadelectedtothe
PresidencyaradicalwhowouldseriouslyattacktheSouth.
Thiswouldhavebeentruebutforonething:theSouthernpoorwhitehadhisattitudetoward
propertyandincomeseriouslymodifiedbythepresenceoftheNegro.EvenAbrahamLincoln
wasunableforalongtimetoconceiveoffree,poor,blackcitizensasvotersintheUnited
States.TheproblemoftheNegroes,ashefacedit,worriedhim,andhemaderepeatedefforts
toseeifinsomewaytheycouldnotbesentofftoAfricaortoforeignlands.Johnsonhadno
suchbroadoutlook.NegroestohimwerejustNegroes,andevenasheexpressedhisradical
ideasofhelpingthepoorSoutherners,heseldomenvisagedNegroesasapartofthepoor.
LincolncametoknowNegroespersonally.Hecametorecognizetheirmanhood.Hepraised
themgenerouslyassoldiers,andsuggestedthattheybeadmittedtotheballot.Johnson,on
thecontrary,couldneverregardNegroesasmen."Hehasallthenarrownessandignoranceof
acertainclassofwhiteswhohavealwayslookeduponthecoloredraceasoutofthepaleof
humanity."15
TheNorthernpresshadbeenquitesatisfiedwithLincoln'sattitude.Hehadservedlibertyand
Americawell."Lincoln,"saidSenatorDoolittle,representingindustryintheWest,"would
havedealtwiththeRebelsasanindulgentfatherdealswithhiserringchildren.Johnson
woulddealwiththemmorelikeasternandincorruptiblejudge.Thusinamomenthasthe
scepterofpowerpassedfromthehandoffleshtothehandofiron."
AtacabinetmeetingwithMr.Lincolnonthelastdayofhislife,Friday,April14,Stanton
submittedthedraftofaplanfortherestorationofgovernmentsintheSouth.Thedraft
appliedexpresslytotwostates,butwasintendedasamodelforothers.ThePresident
suggestedarevision,andthesubjectwaspostponeduntilTuesdaythe18th.
AndrewJohnsonbecamePresident,andonSunday,April16,Stantonreadhisdraftto
Sumnerandothergentlemen.Sumnerinterruptedthereadingwiththeinquiry:"'Whether
anyprovisionwasmadeforenfranchisingthecoloredmen,'saying,also,that'unlessthe
blackman
isgiventherighttovotehisfreedomisamockery.'Stantondeprecatedtheagitationofthe
subject...butSumnerinsistedthattheblackman'srighttovotewas'theessence—thegreat
essential.'Stanton'sdraft,nowconfinedtoNorthCarolina,wasconsideredintheCabinet
May9,whenitappearedwithaprovisionforsuffrageintheelectionofmembersofa
constitutionalconventionfortheState.Itincluded'theloyalcitizensoftheUnitedStates.'
Thisparagraph,itappears,StantonhadacceptedApril16,asanamendmentfromSumner
andColfax....HeadmittedthatitwasintendedtoincludeNegroesaswellaswhitemen."16
Stantoninvitedanexpressionofopinion;severalmembersoftheCabinetwereabsent.
Stanton,DennisonandSpeedfavoredtheinclusion;McCulloch,WellesandUsherwere
againstit.ThePresidentexpressednoopinion,butSumnerwascertainofthePresident's
decisioninfavorofNegrosuffrage.
SumnersoughttokeepclosetoJohnson.HeandChasehadaninterviewwithhimaweek
afterhehadtakentheoathofoffice.Johnsonwasreservedbutsympatheticandtheyleft
light-hearted.Afewdayslater,whenthePresidentandSenatorSumnerwerealonetogether,
thePresidentsaid:'"Onthisquestion[thatofsuffrage]thereisnodifferencebetweenus;you
andIarealike.'SumnerexpressedhisjoyandgratitudethatthePresidenthadtakenthis
position,andthatasaconsequencetherewouldthusbenodivisionintheUnionparty;and
thePresidentreplied,'Imeantokeepyoualltogether.'Ashewalkedawaythatevening,
Sumnerfeltthatthebattleofhisownlifewasended."1T
HewrotetoBright,May1,1865,encouragingly:"Lastevening,Ihadalongconversationwith
him[Johnson],mainlyontherebelstatesandhowtheyshallbetranquillized.Ofcoursemy
themeisjusticetothecoloredrace.Heacceptedthisideacompletely,andindeedwentsofar
astosay'thatthereisnodifferencebetweenus.'Youunderstandthatthequestionwhether
rebelstatesshallbetreatedasmilitaryprovincesorterritoriesissimplyoneofform,witha
viewtothegreatresult.ItistheresultthatIaimat!andIshallneverstickleonany
intermediatequestionifthatissecured.Hedeprecateshaste;isunwillingthatstatesshould
beprecipitatedback;thinkstheremustbeaperiodofprobation,butthatmeanwhileallloyal
people,withoutdistinctionofcolor,mustbetreatedascitizens,andmusttakepartinany
proceedingsforreorganization.Hedoubtsatpresenttheexpediencyofannouncingthisfrom
Washingtonlestitshouldgiveahandletoparty,butiswillingitshouldbemadeknownto
thepeopleintherebelstates.TheChiefJusticestartedyesterdayonavisittoNorthCarolina,
SouthCarolina,FloridaandNewOrleans,andwillonhis
waytouchthenecessarystrings,sofarashecan.Ianticipatemuchfromthisjourney.His
opinionsarefixed,andheiswellinformedwithregardtothoseofthePresident.Iwouldnot
betoosanguine,butIshouldnotbesurprisedifwehadthisgreatquestionsettledbeforethe
nextmeetingofCongress—Imeanbythisthatwehadsuchexpressionofopinionandactsas
willforeverconcludeit.Myconfidenceisfoundedinpartupontheessentialjusticeofour
aimsandthenecessityofthecase.WiththePresidentaswelldisposedasheshowshimself,
andtheChiefJusticeaspositive,wemustprevail.Willnotallthissanctifyourwarbeyond
anyinhistory?"
ThenextdaywritingtoLieber,SumnerquotedJohnsonassayingthat"coloredpersonsareto
havetherighttosuffrage;thatnostatecanbeprecipitatedintotheUnion;thatrebelstates
mustgothroughatermofprobation.Allthishehadsaidtomebefore.Tendaysago,the
ChiefJusticeandmyselfvisitedhimintheeveningtospeakofthesethings.Iwascharmed
byhissympathy,whichwasentirelydifferentfromhispredecessor's.TheChiefJusticeis
authorizedtosaywhereverheiswhatthePresidentdesires,andtodoeverythinghecanto
promoteorganizationwithoutdistinctionofcolor.ThePresidentdesiresthatthemovement
shouldappeartoproceedfromthepeople.Thisisinconformitywithhisgeneralideas;buthe
thinksitwilldisarmthepartyathome.ItoldhimthatwhileIdoubtediftheworkcouldbe
effectivelydonewithoutfederalauthority,Iregardedthemodusoperandiasaninferior
question;andthatIshouldbecontent,providedequalitybeforethelawwassecuredforall
withoutdistinctionofcolor.Isaidduringthiswinterthattherebelstatescouldnotcome
back,exceptonthefootingoftheDeclarationofIndependence,andthecompleterecognition
ofhumanrights.Ifeelmorethaneverconfidentthatallthiswillbefulfilled.Andthenwhata
regeneratedland!Ihadlookedforabittercontestonthisquestion;butwiththePresidenton
ourside,itwillbecarriedbysimpleavoirdupois."
ChasewroteJohnsonfromSouthCarolinathesamemonth:"Suffragetoloyalblacks;Ifind
thatreadinessandevendesireforitisinproportiontotheloyaltyofthosewhoexpress
opinions.Nobodydissents,vehemently;whilethosewhohavesufferedfromrebellionand
rejoicewiththeirwholeheartsintherestorationoftheNationalAuthority,arefastcomingto
theconclusiontheywillfindtheirownsurestsafetyintheproposedextension....
"Allseemembarrassedaboutfirststeps.Idonotentertaintheslightestdoubtthatthey
wouldallwelcomesomesimplerecommendationfromyourself,andwouldadoptreadilyany
planwhichyouwouldsuggest....
"Iamanxiousthatyoushouldhavetheleadinthiswork.Itismy
deliberatejudgmentthatnothingwillsostrengthenyouwiththepeopleorbringsomuch
honortoyournamethroughouttheworldassomesuchshortaddressasIsuggestedbefore
leavingWashington.Justsaytothepeople:'Reorganizeyourstategovernments.Iwillaid
youintheenrollmentoftheloyalcitizens;youwillnotexpectmetodiscriminateamongmen
equallyloyal;onceenrolled,votefordelegatestotheConventiontoreformyourState
Constitution.Iwillaidyouincollectinganddeclaringtheirsuffrages.Yourconventionand
yourselvesmustdotherest;butyoumaycountonthesupportoftheNationalGovernment
inallthingsconstitutionallyexpedient.'"18
InAprilandMayof1866,Tennesseehadconfinedtherighttovotetowhites.TheTennessee
Senaterefusedasuffragebillwhichallowedallblacksandwhitesoflegalagetovote,but
excludedafter1875allwhocouldnotread.SumnerwantedJohnsontoinsistonNegro
suffrageinTennessee,butJohnsonexplainedthatifhewereinTennesseehewouldtakea
stand,butthathecouldnotinWashington.
SumnerremainedinWashingtonhalfthroughMayandsawthePresidentalmostdaily,
alwaysseizingopportunitytopresenthisviewsonReconstruction,andinsistingonsuffrage
forNegroes.
JustbeforeleavingWashington,SumnerhadafinalinterviewwiththePresident.Hefound
himcordialandapparentlyunchanged.Sumnerapologizedforrepeatinghisviewsexpressed
before.Johnsonsaid,withasmile,"HaveInotalwayslistenedtoyou?"Sumner,asheleft,
"assuredhisfriendsandcorrespondentsthatthecausehehadatheartwassafe"withAndrew
Johnson.19
Disturbingsigns,however,begantooccur.CarlSchurzwroteinMayconcerningtheplansof
SouthernleadersinMississippi,GeorgiaandNorthCarolina.ThaddeusStevenswasalarmed
atthePresident'srecognitionofthePierpontgovernmentofVirginia.Acaucuswas,
therefore,calledattheNationalHotelatWashington,May12,topreventtheadministration
fromgoingcompletelyastray.WadeandSumnersaidthePresidentwasinnodanger,and
thathewasinfavorofNegrosuffrage.
Sumnermayhavebeenover-sanguineandreadintoJohnson'swordsmorethanJohnson
intended,butitiscertainthatSumnerreceivedadefiniteunderstandingthatPresident
JohnsonstoodforrealemancipationandNegrosuffrage.
HerethenwasAndrewJohnsonin1865,bornatthebottomofsociety,andduringhisearly
lifearadicaldefenderofthepoor,thelandlessandtheexploited.Intheheydayofhisearly
politicalcareer,herailedagainstlandmonopolyintheSouth,andaftertheCivilWar,wanted
thelandofthemonopolistsdividedamongpeasantproprietors.
Suddenly,bytheweirdmagicofhistory,hebecomesmilitarydictatorofanation.He
becomesthemanbywhomthegreatestmoralandeconomicrevolutionthatevertookplace
intheUnitedStates,andperhapsinmoderntimes,wastobeputintoeffect.Hebecomesthe
realemancipatoroffourmillionsofblackslaves,whohavesufferedmorethananythingthat
hehadexperiencedinhisearlierdays.Theynotonlyhavenolands;theyhavenotowned
eventheirbodies,northeirclothes,northeirtools.Theyhavebeenexploiteddowntothe
ownershipoftheirownfamilies;theyhavebeenpoorbylaw,andignorantbyforce.What
moresplendidopportunitycouldthechampionoflaborandtheexploitedhavehadtostarta
nationtowardsfreedom?
JohnsontookoverLincoln'scabinetwithanAnti-AbolitionistWhig,aPro-SlaveryDemocrat,
andaliberalstudentofindustry,amongothers.Thiscabinetlastedalittleoverayearwhen
earlyinJuly,1866,threemembers,Dennison,HarlanandSpeed,resigned,beingunwillingto
opposeCongress.
Inalltheirlogicalsequence,theReconstructionpoliciesnowassociatedwithJohnson'sname
werelaiddownbySeward,andhislogicoverwhelmedJohnson.AsStevensexplained:
"Sewardenteredintohim,andeversincetheyhavebeenrunningdownsteepplacesintothe
sea."
TheCabinetmetatSeward'shouseMay9,andonMay29,JohnsonissuedaProclamationof
AmnestywhichshowedtheSewardinfluence.Indeed,nothingwasleft,apparently,of
Johnson'sliberalism,excepttheexclusionfromamnesty,notsimplyoftheleadersofthe
Confederacy,butoftherich—thoseworth$20,000ormore.Sewardopposedthis,butitwas
theonlythingthatheyieldedtoJohnson'sliberalism.HeearlyconvincedJohnsonthat
ReconstructionwasamatterforthePresidenttosettleandespeciallyheopenedthedoorto
histhoroughconversionwhenthepoweroffurtherpardonswasputintoJohnson'shand.
"Seward,whohadremainedsecretaryafterLincoln'sdeath,hadusedallthepowersofhis
persuasiveeloquencetosatisfyPresidentJohnsonthatallnowtobedonewassimplyto
restoretheUnionbyatoncereadmittingthe'Stateslatelyinrebellion'totheirfull
constitutionalfunctionsasregularStatesoftheUnion,andthatthen,beingencouragedby
thismarkofconfidence,thelatemasterclassintheSouthcouldbetrustedwiththe
recognitionandprotectionoftheemancipatedslaves.ThatMr.Sewardurgedsuchadvice
uponthePresident,thereisgoodreasonforbelieving.Notonlywasitcommonreport,butit
accordedalsostrikinglywithMr.Seward'ssingularturnofmindconcerningtheslavery
question.Asaftertheoutbreakofthesecessionmovementheperemptorilyrelegatedthe
slaveryquestionto
thebackgroundinspiteofitsevidentimportanceintheCivilWarandoftheinfluenceit
wouldinevitablyexerciseupontheopinionandattitudeofforeignnations,sohemayhave
beenforgetfulofthenationaldutyofhonortosecuretherightsofthefreedmenandthe
safetyoftheSouthernUnionmeninhisimpatientdesireto'restoretheUnion'inpointof
form."20
Johnsonwastransformed.Fromthechampionofpeasantlabor,hesawhimselfasthe
restorerofnationalunity,andthebenefactorandalmsgivertothoseveryelementsinthe
Southwhichhadformerlydespisedhim.Ofhisrealroleasemancipator,andtheonewho
wastogiveeffectivefreedomtoNegroes,hestillhadnottheslightestidea.Hecouldnot
conceiveofNegroesasmen.Andequally,hehadnoadequateideaoftheindustrial
transformationthatwasgoingonintheNorth.Therewere,ofcourse,theinevitablescarsof
thewar:thelossofamillionmenandtwelvebilliondollarsinproperty;eventualpensions
andindirectlosses;therevolutioninSouthernagriculture;theuniversalloweringofethical
standardswhichalwaysfollowswar.TheWestwasuneasyonaccountoftaxes,debtandthe
moneysituation.InNewYorkandBoston,menengagedinforeigncommercewantedspeedy
restorationoftheSouthandareductioninthetarifftoincreasetheirbusiness.These
complicatedthreadsvariedandchangedastimewenton.Butwhenthe39thCongressmet,
thewarbusinessboomwasstillon;failureshaddisappeared;priceshadincreased.Wealth
wasbeingconcentratedamongthemanufacturers,merchants,financiersandspeculators.
Thereweregreatamountsofwaitingcapitalandalloftheseinterestswantedthewar
stopped,andtheSouthrestored.
SumnerhadnotleftWashingtontendaysbeforehishopesforajustreconstructiononthe
basisofNegrosuffragewerekilledbythePresident'sproclamation.
Johnson'splanofreconstructionincludedtheabolitionofslavery,therepudiationofwar
debts,thenullificationofsecessionordinances,andtheappointmentofprovisional
governorstohelpinthereconstructionofcivilgovernment.Onlythosewhitefolkswhocould
taketheloyaloathwouldtakepartinthisreconstruction.Inotherwords,thiswaspractically
Lincoln'splananditwasalsotheWade-Davisplan,savethattherewasnoopenorexpressed
recognitionofanypowerorfunctionofCongressexceptasjudgingthelegalityofelections.
Johnsondidnoteventuallyevenadmit,asLincolnapparentlyhadagreed,thatCongresswas
finaljudgeastowhetherthesestatescouldholdlegalelections.
CongresshadadjournedbeforeLee'ssurrender,anditwaswidelybelievedthathadLincoln
lived,aspecialsessionwouldhavebeen
summoned.TheSeward-JohnsoncompromiseproposednottocallCongress.Inoneway,the
decisionwasshrewd.Itgavetheadministrationninemonthstocarryoutitspolicy,andifthe
policywassuccessful,Congresswould,whenitmet,befacedbyafaitaccompli,anationat
peace,aSouthrestoredwithslaveryabolished.Whatmorecouldthenationwant?
Ontheotherhand,theattemptwasfullofrisk.AlreadythepoweroftheExecutivehadgone
farbeyondthedreamsoflivingmen.Itmustbecurbedsoonerorlater.Themilitary
dictatorshipwhichhadcarriedonthewarmust,assoonaspossibleafterthewar,be
temperedbydemocracy.Theattempttodoevenwhatthenationwantedwithoutthiswas
foolish.Anattempttooverridethewillofthenationwassuicidal,andyetthatwasprecisely
whatSewardandJohnsoneventuallyattempted.May29,theDeclarationofAmnestywas
issued;andthatsamemonth,ProvisionalGovernorswereappointedforNorthCarolinaand
Mississippi.InJune,Georgia,Texas,AlabamaandSouthCarolinaweregivenGovernors,and
inJuly,Florida.Thus,threemonthsaftertheassassinationofLincoln,Reconstructionwasin
operation;theUnionpartydividedinopinion;theNorthernDemocratsencouraged,andthe
Southparticularlyencouraged.
TheSouththereuponturneditsattentiononJohnsonandbroughttobearasecondinfluence
nextinpowertoSeward'sandintheendexceedingit.Southernleadersdescendeduponthe
President;notsimplytheformerslavebaronsbutnewrepresentativesofthepoorwhites.In
lessthanninemonthsaftertheProclamationofAmnesty,14,000prominentpersonsaresaid
tohavereceivedpardonsfromthePresident.
NowondertheattitudeofJohnsontowardstheSouthandtheleadersoftherebellionwas
transformed.Theveryinferioritycomplexwhichmadehimhatethewhiteplanterconcealed
asecretadmirationforhisarroganceandaddress.CarlSchurzwascoldlyreceivedwhenhe
returnedfromtheSoutherntripwhichJohnsonhadurgeduponhim.
"ArrivedatWashington,IreportedmyselfatonceattheWhiteHouse.ThePresident'sprivate
secretary,whoseemedsurprisedtoseeme,announcedmetothePresident,whosentout
wordthathewasbusy.WhenwoulditpleasethePresidenttoreceiveme?Theprivate
secretarycouldnottell,asthePresident'stimewasmuchoccupiedbyurgentbusiness.Ileft
theante-room,butcalledagainthenextmorning.ThePresidentwasstillbusy.Iaskedthe
privatesecretarytosubmittothePresidentthatIhadreturnedfromathreemonths'journey
madeatthePresident'spersonalrequest,thatIthoughtitmydutyrespectfullytoreport
myselfback,andthatIshouldbeobligedtothe
Presidentifhewouldletmeknowwhether,and,ifso,when,hewouldreceivemetothatend.
TheprivatesecretarywentinagainandbroughtouttheanswerthatthePresidentwouldsee
meinanhourorso.Attheappointedtime,Iwasadmitted.
"ThePresidentreceivedmewithoutasmileofwelcome.Hismienwassullen.IsaidthatI
hadreturnedfromthejourneywhichIhadmadeinobediencetohisdemandandwasready
togivehim,inadditiontothecommunicationsIhadalreadysenthim,suchfurther
informationaswasinmypossession.Amoment'ssilencefollowed.Thenheinquiredabout
myhealth.IthankedhimfortheinquiryandhopedthePresident'shealthwasgood.Hesaid
itwas.Anotherpause,whichIbroughttoanendbysayingthatIwishedtosupplementthe
lettersIhadwrittentohimfromtheSouthwithanelaboratereportgivingmyexperiences
andconclusionsinaconnectedshape.ThePresidentlookedupandsaidthatIneednotgoto
thetroubleofwritingoutsuchageneralreportonhisaccount.Irepliedthatitwouldbeno
troubleatall,butIconsidereditaduty.ThePresidentdidnotanswer.Thesilencebecame
awkwardandIbowedmyselfout.
"PresidentJohnsonevidentlywishedtosuppressmytestimonyastotheconditionofthings
intheSouth.Iresolvednottolethimdoso.Ihadconscientiouslyendeavoredtosee
Southernconditionsastheywere.Ihadnotpermittedanypoliticalconsiderationsorany
preconceivedopinionsonmypart,toobscuremyperceptionanddiscernmentintheslightest
degree.IhadtoldthetruthasIlearneditandunderstoodit,withtheseverestaccuracy,andI
thoughtitduetothecountrythatthetruthbeknown.
"AmongmyfriendsinWashingtonthereweredifferentopinionsastohowthestriking
changeinPresidentJohnson'sattitudehadbeenbroughtabout.Sometoldmethatduringthe
summertheWhiteHousehadbeenfairlybesiegedbySouthernmenandwomenofhigh
socialstandingwhohadtoldthePresidentthattheonlyelementoftroubleintheSouth
consistedinalotoffanaticalabolitionistswhoexcitedtheNegroeswithallsortsof
dangerousnotions,andthatallwouldbewellifhewouldonlyrestoretheSouthernState
governmentsasquicklyaspossible,accordingtohisownplanaslaiddowninhisNorth
Carolinaproclamation,andthathewasagreatmantowhomtheylookedupastheirsavior.
NowitwasthoughtthatMr.Johnson,theplebeianwhobeforethewarhadbeentreatedwith
undisguisedcontemptbytheslave-holdingaristocracy,couldnotwithstandthesubdeflattery
ofthesamearistocracywhentheyflockedaroundhimashumblesuppliantscajolinghis
vanity."21
Infact,personally,Johnsonlikedtheslave-holders.Headmiredtheirmanners;heenjoyed
theircarriageandclothes.Theywerequitenaturallyhisidealofwhatagentlemanshouldbe.Hecouldnothelpbeingtremendously
flatteredwhentheynoticedhimandactuallysuedforhisfavor.Ascomparedwith
Northerners,hefoundthemfree,naturalandexpansive,ratherthancold,formaland
hypocritical.
Johnson'schangeofmindduringthelasttendaysofMay,1865,wasprobablyduetothe
flatteriesofSouthernleaders;tothenoticetakenofhisintoxicationintheSenatebySumner
andothers;tothecounselsofPrestonKingandtheBlairswhoshelteredhimafterthat
unfortunateexhibition;andabovealltoSeward.Johnson'sprogramswungswiftlyintoits
stride.
AlreadyMay9,thelawsoftheUnitedStateshadbeenputinoperationinVirginiaandthe
Alexandriagovernmentthusrecognized.Johnsonrecognizedthereconstructionalready
accomplishedinLouisiana,ArkansasandTennessee.Sothatbymid-summeralltheseceded
stateshadbeenreconstructedundertheJohnsonplanexceptTexas.Duringtheautumn,
summerandwinterof1865,electionsfordelegatestoconstitutionalconventionswere
orderedinMississippi,Alabama,SouthCarolina,NorthCarolina,GeorgiaandFlorida,onthe
basisofwhitesuffrage.BeforeCongressmet,theseconventionshadallpassedordinances
repealingthesecessionordinances,orpronouncingthemnullandvoid.AllexceptMississippi
andSouthCarolinahadrepudiatedtheConfederatedebt.Allhadamendedtheirconstitutions
abolishingslaveryorrecognizingitsdisappearance.Stateofficersandrepresentativesin
Congresshadbeenelected.Senatorshadalsobeenchosen,exceptinFlorida.Allthestates
hadadoptedtheThirteenthAmendment,exceptFloridaandMississippi;NorthCarolinahad
adoptedtheamendmentwithreservations;Floridaadoptedtheamendmentwithreservations
December18,andelectedSenators.
AgainstthissuddenlymarshaledandquicklyexecutedplanofJohnsonandhisadvisers,
therewasatthetimenoorganizedopposition.Congresswasunquestionablydeterminedto
havethelastwordinthematterbutnotdecidedastowhatthewordwouldbe.The
Abolitionistswantedthefreedomoftheslavesguaranteed,andsomeofthemsawNegro
suffrageastheonlymethodofaccomplishingit,whilestillfewerrecognizedthataminimum
oflandandcapitalwasabsolutelynecessaryeventomaketheballoteffective.Themajorityof
Northernerssimplywantedtogetridofthequestionasquicklyaspossible.Theywere
disposedtoagreeinthemainwithJohnson,buttheywereafraidthathewasmovingtoofast,
andthattheSouthwasreturningtotheUnionwithoutguarantees,eithersofarasthe
freedmenwereconcerned,orwithregardtotheproblemofdebt,thetariff,andnational
finance.
CharlesSumner,representingtheabolition-democracy,agitatedthe
questionallsummer.Hebroughtupthematteronthestreets,atdinner,andinsociety.He
wrotehisviewsfortheAtlanticMonthlyandhaditandhisspeechesdistributedwidely.On
June21,1865,therewasapublicmeetinginPhiladelphia,onNegrosuffrage,atwhichreports
werereadofreactionintheSouth.SumnerwrotetothemembersofJohnson'scabinetand
urgedthemtochangetheircourseofactionandnottofollowtheadviceofSeward.But,
althoughfourmembersofthecabinetweresympathetic,theytooknoaction,andSumner
wrotetoLieberonAugust11:"Theywereallcourtiers,asiftheywerecouncilorsoftheKing."
Stevens,DavisandWadewereindespairagainstanexecutivewhohadbothmilitarypower
andthepowerofpatronageandwasasyetunmovedbyanyunityofopinionintheNorth.
Moreover,itdidnotseemwisetomakeasyetafightonthebasisofNegrosuffrage.Toofew
Northernpeopleagreedwithit.MostpublicmenandjournalistsgavenosupporttoSumner's
demandforNegrosuffrage.TheGovernorofIndianadenouncedit;theGovernorof
MassachusettswassureofthePresident'shonestyofpurpose;theeditoroftheNewYork
EveningPostadvisedagainstanycoerciveactionbyCongressinthematterofsuffrage,and
theNewYorkTimesstoodabsolutelyagainstit.
"IstherenowaytoarresttheinsanecourseofthePresidentinreorganization?"asked
Stevens,inthesummerof1865."Ifsomethingisnotdone,"wroteSumner,"thePresident
willbecrownedKingbeforeCongressmeets."
TheabolitionistsopenedacampaigntoconverttheNorthtoNegrosuffrage,carryingona
propagandawiththemoneyofindustryandthelogicofabolition-democracy.Thespeechesof
Sumner,Kelley,PhillipsandDouglassonNegrosuffragewereprintedandsentbroadcast.
Stearnswrote:"Iamdistributing10,000copiestoanti-slaverymeninallthefreestates;but
desiringtoincreasethenumberto100,000ormore,inviteyoutoaidinitscirculation."22
Heraised$50,-000inthefallof1865tosendout100,000newspapersand50,000pamphlets
aweek,andhimselfprintedbetween20,000and40,000copiesofSumner'sWorcester
speech,October12,1865.LatertheSchurzreportandhisnewspaperarticlesformedstrong
documents.
YettheconversionofpublicopinionintheUnitedStatestoNegrocitizenshipandsuffrage
waslonganddifficult.Therewereharassingquestionsthatpresentedthemselvestothe
majorityofpeopleintheNorth:Couldagovernment,byunitedanddeterminedeffort,raise
theNegroestofullAmericancitizenship?Ofcourseitcould,iftheyweremen;butwerethey
men?Eveniftheyweremen,wasitgoodpolicythustoraiseagreatnewworking,voting
class?Onthispoint
therewaslessopenargument;butitlayinthemindsofbusinessmen,andinfluencedtheir
outlookandaction.
JohnsonsensedthetrendtowardNegrosuffrageandtakingaleaffromLincoln'sbook,
soughttostemit.ButJohnson'smindwasnotlikeLincoln's.Lincolnmovedforwardto
Negrosuffrage;Johnson,alarmed,retreatedtoit.August15,hehadwiredtohisnominee,
Sharkey,ProvisionalGovernorofMississippi:
"Ifyoucouldextendtheelectivefranchisetoallpersonsofcolorwhocanreadthe
ConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesinEnglishandwritetheirnames,andtoallpersonsofcolor
whoownrealestatevaluedatnotlessthantwohundredandfiftydollars,andpaytaxes
thereon,youwouldcompletelydisarmtheadversaryandsetanexampletheotherstateswill
follow.Thisyoucandowithperfectsafety,andyouthusplacetheSouthernStates,in
referencetofreepersonsofcolor,uponthesamebasiswiththefreeStates.Ihopeandtrust
yourconventionwilldothis,and,asaconsequence,theRadicals,whoarewilduponNegro
franchise,willbecompletelyfoiledintheirattempttokeeptheSouthernStatesfrom
renewingtheirrelationstotheUnionbynotacceptingtheirsenatorsandrepresentatives."23
Blainesaysthatthisadvicewassenttootherprovisionalgovernors,butnothingcameofit,
chieflybecauseJohnsondidnotinsistandhisheartwasnotinthesuggestion.
Sumner'swordsshowedthatunionbetweenNorthernindustrialistsandabolition-democracy
hadbeengrowingduringthesummer.Aftertheautumnelections,Sumnersentalong
telegramtoPresidentJohnson.OntheSaturdayeveningbeforeCongressmet,hewaswith
himtwohours.Hefoundhim"changedintemperandpurpose...nolongersympathetic,or
evenkindly,"but"harsh,petulantandunreasonable."Neartheendoftheinterview,there
wasacolloquy,inwhichthePresidentremindedtheSenatorofmurdersinMassachusetts
andassaultsinBostonasanoffsettooutragesintheSouthvisitedonNegroesandwhite
Unionmen,undertheinspirationofpoliticalorraceanimosity.Thetwopartedthatevening
nottomeetagain—thesenatorleaving"withthepainfulconvictionthatthePresident'swhole
soulwassetasaflintagainstthegoodcause,andthatbyassassinationofAbrahamLincoln,
therebellionhadvaultedintothePresidentialchair."24
Meantime,theMassachusettsRepublicanconventionapprovedNegrosuffrageasacondition
ofReconstruction,andtheywerefollowedbyVermont,Iowa,andMinnesota.Theother
Republicanconventionswerenotexplicit,buttheconvictiongrewintheNorththatstate
governmentsintheSouth,whichwouldcurbthepolitical
powerofex-ConfederatesandinsurethefreedomofNegroes,couldnotbeestablished
withoutNegrosuffrage.
Sumnerledinspreadingthisopinion,stressingnaturallytherightsofNegroes.Hewroteto
Mr.Bright,November14:
"ThePresident's'experiment'appearstobebreakingdown;butatwhatfearfulcost!The
Rebelshaveoncemorebeenputontheirlegs;thefreedmenandtheUnionistsaredown.This
isverysad.IcannotbeotherwisethanunhappyasIthinkofit.Oursessionisuncertain.
NobodycantellcertainlywhatpressurethePresidentwillbringtobearonCongress,andhow
Congresscanstandit.IthinkthatCongresswillinsistupontime—thiswillbeourfirst
demand,andthengenerallyuponadequateguarantees.Thereareunpleasantstoriesfrom
Washington;butwemustperseveretotheend."25
InOctober,JohnsonbeganopenlytoargueagainstNegrosuffrage.Inaninterviewwith
GeorgeL.StearnsofMassachusetts,heremindedhimthatNegrosuffragecouldnothave
beenarguedintheNorthsevenyearsbeforeandthattheSouthmusthavetimeto
understanditsnewposition.
"IfIinterferedwiththevoteintherebelstates,todictatethatnoNegroshallvote,Imightdo
thesameformyownpurposeinPennsylvania.Ouronlysafetyliesinallowingeachstateto
controltherightofvotingbyitsownlaws,andwehavethepowertocontroltherebelstatesif
theygowrong....
"MypositionhereisdifferentfromwhatitwouldbeifIwereinTennessee.ThereIshould
trytointroduceNegrosuffragegradually;first,thosewhohadservedinthearmy;thosewho
couldreadandwrite;andperhapsapropertyqualificationforothers,say$200or$250.It
wouldnotdotolettheNegrohaveuniversalsuffragenow;itwouldbreedawarofraces."26
Hewentontodevelopthisthesiswhichwasafavoriteonewithhim:thatNegroesandpoor
whitesnaturallyhatedeachother;andthattheoutragesintheSouthwerechieflyofpoor
whitesonNegroes,andNegroesonpoorwhites;andifsuffragewasgiventheNegro,he
wouldvotewiththemasterandthusprecipitatearacewarintheSouth.Thattherewastruth
inthisfear,thesubsequenthistoryofReconstructionproved;butitdidnotturnoutas
AndrewJohnsonanticipated.
JohnsonhadlittleknowledgeofNegroes;althoughhehadownedafewslaves,heaccepted
mostofthecurrentSouthernpatterns.HebelievedthattheNegrowaslazyandcouldnot
survivefreedom.Hewasafraidhemightbetemptedtolawlessnessandinsurrection.He
spoketocertaincoloredfolkMay11,1865,accordingtothePhiladelphiaPressofMay20,and
statedthathehadto"deplorethe
existenceofanideaamongthemthattheyhavenothingtodobuttofallbackuponthe
governmentforsupportinorderthattheymaybetakencareofinidlenessanddebauchery."
October10,1865,hetalkedtotheFirstColoredRegimentoftheDistrictofColumbiatroops
whohadrecentlyreturnedfromtheSouth.Hecongratulatedthemonservingwithpatience
andenduranceandexhortedthemtobetranquilandpeacefulnowthatthewarwasended:
"Freedomisnotamereidea....Freedomisnotsimplytheprincipletoliveinidleness.
Libertydoesnotmeanmerelytoresorttothelowsaloonsandotherplacesofdisreputable
character.Freedomandlibertydoesnotmeanthatpeopleoughttoliveinlicentiousness;but
libertymeanssimplytobeindustriousandtobevirtuous,tobeuprightinallourdealsand
relationswithmen....Youmustgiveevidencethatyouarecompetentfortherightsthatthe
governmenthasguaranteedyou....
"Theinstitutionofslaveryisoverthrown.Butanotherpartremainstobesolved,andthatis,
canfourmillionsofpeople,rearedastheyhavebeen,withalltheprejudicesofthewhites—
cantheytaketheirplacesinthecommunity,andbemadetoworkharmoniouslyand
congruouslyinoursystem?Thisisaproblemtobeconsidered.Arethedigestivepowersof
theAmericangovernmentsufficienttoreceivethiselementinanewshape,anddigestitand
makeitworkhealthfullyuponthesystemthathasincorporatedit?"
HethenhintedatcolonizationoftheNegropopulation:
"Ifitshouldbesothatthetworacescannotagreeandliveinpeaceandprosperity,andthe
lawsofProvidencerequirethattheyshouldbeseparated—inthatevent,lookingtothefar
distantfuture,andtrustinginGodthatitmaynevercome—ifitshouldcome,Providence,
thatworksmysteriously,butunerringlyandcertainly,willpointouttheway,andthemode,
andthemannerbywhichthesepeoplearetobeseparated,andtheyaretobetakentotheir
landofinheritanceandpromise,forsuchaoneisbeforethem.Hencewearemakingthe
experiment."2T
CongressmetinDecember,1865,withthedeterminationtocontrolthereconstructionofthe
Union.AndinthisthereisnoquestionbutthatCongresswasright.Ifthenationwasgoing
backwardtothesamestatusinwhichitwasbeforethewar,itwasconceivablethatthismight
bedonebyexecutiveaction.Butthereweretwotremendouschangesthatmadethis
unthinkable:onewastheabolitionofslavery,andtheotherwasthenewpoliticalpower
whichtheemancipationoftheseslaveswouldconferupontheSouth.Moreover,there
appearedfromtheSouth,demandingseatsattheopeningofCongress,theVice-Presidentof
theConfederacy,fourConfederategenerals,fiveConfederatecolonels,sixConfederatecabinetofficers,andfifty-eightConfederateCongressmen,
noneofwhomwasabletotaketheoathofallegiance."ThecaseofAlexH.Stephens,late
Vice-presidentoftheConfederacy,wasespeciallyaggravating.Fourmonthsbeforehehad
beenaprisoneratFortWarren.PardonedbythePresident,hewaitednotamomenttorepent
andreturnedtoGeorgia,waselectedtotheUnitedStatesSenate,andwasnowasking
admission—askingtogovernthecountryhehadbeentryingtodestroy."28Moreoveroneof
theworstofthenewblackcodeswaspassedinMississippiinNovember.
ThaddeusStevenstookimmediatelead.Hecalledincaucustwentyorthirtyofhisfollowers,
December1;onDecember2,theRepublicancaucusmet,andStevenssubmittedhisplan:
1.ToclaimthewholequestionofReconstructionastheexclusivebusinessofCongress.
2.ToregardthestepstakenbythePresidentasonlyprovisional.
3.EachHousetopostponeconsiderationoftheadmissionofmembersfromSouthernstates.
4.AndthataJointCommitteeofFifteenbeappointedtoinquireintotheconditionofthe
formerConfederatestates.
WithoutwaitingevenforthereceptionofthePresident'smessage,Stevensproposedinthe
HousearesolutionforaJointCommitteeofFifteenmembersoftheHouseandSenateto
"inquireintotheconditionofthestateswhichformedtheso-calledConfederateStatesof
America,andreportwhethertheyoranyofthemareentitledtoberepresentedineither
HouseofCongress,withleavetoreportatanytimebybillorotherwise;anduntilsuchreport
shallhavebeenmadeandfinallyacteduponbyCongress,nomembershallbereceivedinto
eitherHousefromanyofthesaidso-calledConfederateStates;andallpapersrelatingtothe
representationofthesaidstatesshallbereferredtothesaidcommitteewithoutdebate."29
Byvoteof129-35with18notvoting,therulesweresuspendedandthisresolutionpassed.
ThiswasthefirsttestofpoliticalstrengthinthenewCongress.
TheSenatedidnottakeupthematteruntilDecember12.Thejointresolutionwaschangedto
aconcurrentresolutioninordertomaketheapprovalofthePresidentunnecessary.The
sectionoftheresolutionconcerningthereceptionofmembersandreferenceofallpapers
wasobjectedtoandtheresolutionwasamendedsoastodirectthecommittee"toinquire
intotheconditionoftheStateswhichformedtheso-calledConfederateStatesofAmerica,
andreportwhetherthey,oranyofthem,areentitledtoberepresentedineitherHouseof
Congress,withleavetoreportatanytimebybillorotherwise."30
ThisamendedformtheHouseconcurredin,butpassedanother
HouseresolutiontoadmitnoSouthernmembers,andtoreferallmotionsandpapers.
Eventually,Stevenshadhisway,andafterJohnson'sspeechofFebruary22,theSenate
assentedtoexcludingrepresentativesfromtheSouthuntilbothHousesagreed.
IndustrywasuneasyattheStevensplan.TheNewYorkHeraldclaimeditcreatedlackof
businessconfidenceNorthandSouth.Suchalackofconfidence,ofcourse,wouldhinder
economicdevelopmentintheSouth,andtothatextentlimitNewYork'scommercial
prosperity.CommercewasespeciallyalarmedlestThaddeusStevensshouldusehismachine
forcarryingouthisschemeofconfiscationofSouthernlands.Suchwholesaleconfiscation,
capitalcouldnotcontemplate.Localharmony,lawandorder,thedevelopmentofthevast
industrialresourcesoftheSouth,seemedwisestinNewYork.
Johnson,inhismessageofDecember4,begananextraordinaryseriesofstatepaperswhich
hecouldneverhavewrittenallbyhimself.
"Johnson'sstatepapers,includingvetoes,wereuniformlyingoodtemper,conservative,
historicalandwellconsidered.Inthepreparationofthemhemadeuseofeverypersonon
whomhecouldlayhishands.BancroftwrotethefirstmessagetoCongress;JerreBlack,the
heroofExParteMilligan,wrotetheReconstructionveto;Seward,theprecisescholar,
supervisedmuchthatthePresidentwrote;Stanton,thepracticallawyer,wrotethebillto
admitNorthCarolinaandotherstatesintotheUnionin1865;theAttorney-General,Welles,
SecretaryoftheNavy,andothermembersofthecabinethefrequentlyused."31
Inhisfirstmessage,heforecasttheadoptionoftheThirteenthAmendment,which,infact,
occurredDecember18th.Heexplainedthatbecauseofthisanticipatedabolitionofslavery,
hehadproceededtobeginreorganizationofthestatesandadmissiontotheirfullrightsin
theUnion.Heknewthatthispolicywasattendedwithsomeriskbuttheriskmustbetaken:
"TherelationsoftheGeneralGovernmenttowardsthefourmillionsofinhabitantswhomthe
warhascalledintofreedomhasengagedmymostseriousconsideration.Ontheproprietyof
attemptingtomakethefreedmenelectorsbytheproclamationoftheExecutive,Itookformy
counseltheConstitutionitself,theinterpretationofthatinstrumentbyitsauthorsandtheir
contemporaries,andrecentlegislationbyCongress.When,atthefirstmovementtowards
independence,theCongressoftheUnitedStatesinstructedtheseveralStatestoinstitute
governmentsoftheirown,theylefteachStatetodecideforitselftheconditionsforthe
enjoymentoftheelectivefranchise....Moreover,aconcession"oftheelectivefranchiseto
thefreedmen,by
actofthePresidentoftheUnitedStates,musthavebeenextendedtoallcoloredmen,
whereverfound,andsomusthaveestablishedachangeofsuffrageintheNorthern,Middle,
andWesternStates,notlessthanintheSouthernandSouthwestern.Suchanactwouldhave
createdanewclassofvoters,andwouldhavebeenanassumptionofpowerbythePresident
whichnothingintheConstitutionorlawsoftheUnitedStateswouldhavewarranted.
"Ontheotherhand,everydangerofconflictisavoidedwhenthesettlementofthequestionis
referredtotheseveralStates.Theycan,eachforitself,decideonthemeasure,andwhetherit
istobeadoptedatonceandabsolutely,orintroducedgraduallyandwithconditions..Inmy
judgment,thefreedmen,iftheyshowpatienceandmanlyvirtues,willsoonerobtaina
participationintheelectivefranchisethroughtheStatesthanthroughtheGeneral
Government,evenifithadpowertointervene.Whenthetumultofemotionsthathavebeen
raisedbythesuddennessofthesocialchangeshallhavesubsided,itmayprovethattheywill
receivethekindliestusagefromsomeofthoseonwhomtheyhaveheretoforemostclosely
depended.
"ButwhileIhavenodoubtthatnow,afterthecloseofthewar,itisnotcompetentforthe
GeneralGovernmenttoextendtheelectivefranchiseintheseveralStates,itisequallyclear
thatgoodfaithrequiresthesecurityofthefreedmenintheirlibertyandintheirproperty,
theirrighttolabor,andtheirrighttoclaimthejustreturnoftheirlabor.Icannottoostrongly
urgeadispassionatetreatmentofthissubject,whichshouldbecarefullykeptalooffromall
partystrife.Wemustequallyavoidhastyassumptionsofanynaturalimpossibilityforthe
tworacestolivesidebyside,inastateofmutualbenefitandgoodwill.Theexperiment
involvesusinnoinconsistency;letus,then,goonandmakethatexperimentingoodfaith,
andnotbetooeasilydisheartened.Thecountryisinneedoflabor,andthefreedmenarein
needofwork,culture,andprotection."
Andthencameacharacteristicturnofthought:"Whiletheirrightofvoluntarymigrationand
expatriationisnottobequestioned,Iwouldnotadvisetheirforcedremovaland
colonization."
HerePresidentJohnsonwasclearlyenvisagingtheextinctionorvoluntaryremovaloffour
millionlaborersintheSouth,andthesettlementoftheproblemoftheirpresenceinthe
UnitedStatesbyreplacingthemwithwhitelabor.Ontheotherhand,heseemedanxiousto
havethemprotectedintheirpresentnewstatusanditwasunderstood,bothfromthe
messageandfromothersources,thatthePresidentwasinfavorofcontinuingthe
Freedmen'sBureau.
ThetemperofCongresswasfirm.WhatshouldbedoneinReconstructionwasamatterfor
deliberation,thoughtandcare.Itcould
notbesettledbytheSouthernleaderswhobroughtonthecrisis,workingalonein
conjunctionwiththePresidentandhiscabinet.Ontheotherhand,whatthenationwanted
wasbynomeansclear.Therewasamongitsmillionsnoonemind.Therewasamongits
variousgroupsnounanimity.
ThemindofThaddeusStevensevolvedacourseofaction.Thisplanwastosetupatleast
temporarilyacabinetformofresponsiblegovernmentintheUnitedStates:toputinpowera
camarillaofrepresentativesofthevarioussections,groupsandparties,who,bydeliberation
andinquiry,wouldfindoutwhatactioncouldcommandamajorityintheHouseandinthe
Senate.Thisinitselfwasthebeginningofamomentouschangeinourgovernment,achange
unfortunately,nevercarriedcompletelythrough;andthefailuretocarryitthroughhas
hamperedtheUnitedStatesgovernmenteversince.
TheoriginalideaoftheCongresswasasmall,deliberativeassemblyintwoHouseswhich
shouldthinkandarguemattersthrough,andthenhavetheirdecisionsenforcedbythe
Executive,andcoordinatedandclarifiedbyaSupremeCourt.ButCongressgrewtounwieldy
size;theExecutivegrewinprestigeandpower,untilduringtheCivilWar,hebecamea
dictator,whiletheSupremeCourtwasdestinedtoassumepowerswhichwouldattimes
threatentostoptheprogressofthenation,almostwithoutappeal.
Moreover,thecontingencyofanExecutive,whofarfrombeingtheservantofacongressional
majoritywasantagonisticandevenacontradictorysourceofauthorityandaction,never
occurredtothefathers.TheydidnotintendtohavethePresidentameremouthpieceof
Congress,and,forthisreason,theygavehimthemessageandtheveto;butontheother
hand,theyneverconceivedthatheshouldbeinhimselfbothexecutiveandlawgiverandyet
thishepracticallywasduringandaftertheCivilWar;heexemplifiedatthetimeofAndrew
JohnsonanewandextraordinarysituationinwhichthePresidentoftheUnitedStatesin
vitalparticularswasopposedtotheoverwhelmingmajorityofthepartyinCongresswhich
hadelectedhim,andrefusedineffecttodotheirwill.
Thishadtoberemedied,andforthis,theCommitteeofFifteen,onthemotionofThaddeus
Stevens,cameintobeinginthe39thCongress.ItwasgovernmentontheEnglish
parliamentarymodelwithtwomodifications:itwasresponsibletotwoHousesinsteadofto
one,whichenormouslydelayedandcomplicateditsfunctioning;anditcontained
representativesoftheoppositionparty—althoughthisrepresentationwasoftennullified
throughcaucusesandsub-committees.
ItwasthebusinessoftheCommitteeofFifteentoseehowthegovernmentoftheUnited
Stateswastobechangedafterthewar,fromits
formbeforethewar;andthisinvolved,first,somechangeinthebasisofpopular
representation;secondly,aclarificationofthestatusoftheNegro;andfinallyitbroughta
modificationoftherelationofthenationalgovernmenttostategovernment,notsimplyin
civilrightsbutevenmoreinindustryandlabor.Itwasthroughthefirstandsecondthatthe
majority,whicheventuallydominatedthe39thCongress,gaineditsmoralpower.Itwas
throughthethirdthatthemoralpowerwasimplemented.
Stevenswastooastuteapoliticiantostressfirstthemoralfoundationofhisargument.Inhis
firstspeech,asleaderofthe39thCongress,heplacedhismainargumentonrepresentation,
becauseheknewthatthatwouldappealtothemensittinginfrontofhim,andrepresenting
nationalwealthandindustry.
InDecember,1865,whentheThirteenthAmendmentwasadopted,acuriousresultfollowed:
twenty-nineRepresentativeswereaddedtotheSouth.SincetheadoptionoftheConstitution,
thebasisofcongressionalrepresentationhadbeenthefreepopulation,includingfree
Negroesandthree-fifthsoftheslaves.Stevenssaidthatwiththisbasisofrepresentation
unchanged,"Theeighty-threeSouthernmembers,withtheDemocrats,thatwillinthebest
timesbeelectedfromtheNorth,willalwaysgivethemamajorityinCongressandinthe
ElectoralCollege.TheywillattheveryfirstelectiontakepossessionoftheWhiteHouseand
thehallsofCongress.Ineednotdepicttheruinthatwouldfollow.Assumptionoftherebel
debtorrepudiationoftheFederaldebtwouldbesuretofollow.Theoppressionofthe
freedmen;thereamendmentoftheirStateconstitutions,andthereestablishmentofslavery
wouldbetheinevitableresult.Thattheywouldscornanddisregardtheirpresent
constitutions,forcedupontheminthemidstofmartiallaw,wouldbebothnaturalandjust.
Noonewhohasanyregardforfreedomofelectionscanlookuponthosegovernments,forced
upontheminduress,withanyfavor."
Thiswasthecogent,clearargumentofThaddeusStevens,thepolitician.ButThaddeus
Stevenswasneveramerepolitician.Hecarednothingforconstitutionalsubtletiesnoreven
forpoliticalpower.Hewasasternbelieverindemocracy,bothinpoliticsandinindustry,and
hemadehissecondargumentturnontheeconomicfreedomoftheslave.
"Wehaveturned,orareabouttoturn,loosefourmillionslaveswithoutahuttoshelterthem
oracentintheirpockets.Theinfernallawsofslaveryhavepreventedthemfromacquiringan
education,understandingthecommonestlawsofcontract,orofmanagingtheordinary
businesslife.ThisCongressisboundtoprovideforthemuntiltheycantakecareof
themselves.Ifwedonotfurnishthemwith
homesteads,andhedgethemaroundwithprotectivelaws;ifweleavethemtothelegislation
oftheirlatemasters,wehadbetterhavelefttheminbondage."
Hethenresolutelywentfurtherinadefenseofpuredemocracy,althoughheknewthatin
thisargumenthewasventuringfarbeyondthepracticalbeliefsofhisauditors:
"GovernorPerryofSouthCarolinaandotherprovisionalgovernorsandoratorsproclaimthat
'thisisthewhiteman'sgovernment.'...Demagoguesofallparties,evensomehighin
authority,gravelyshout,'thisisthewhiteman'sgovernment.'Whatisimpliedbythis?That
oneraceofmenaretohavetheexclusiverightsforevertorulethisnation,andtoexerciseall
actsofsovereignty,whileallotherracesandnationsandcolorsaretobetheirsubjects,and
havenovoiceinmakingthelawsandchoosingtherulersbywhomtheyaretobegoverned...
.
"Ourfathersrepudiatedthewholedoctrineofthelegalsuperiorityoffamiliesorraces,and
proclaimedtheequalityofmenbeforethelaw.Uponthattheycreatedarevolutionandbuilt
theRepublic.Theywerepreventedbyslaveryfromperfectingthesuperstructurewhose
foundationtheyhadthusbroadlylaid.ForthesakeoftheUniontheyconsentedtowait,but
neverrelinquishedtheideaofitsfinalcompletion.
"Thetimetowhichtheylookedforwardwithanxietyhascome.Itisourdutytocomplete
theirwork.IfthisRepublicisnotnowmadetostandontheirgreatprinciples,ithasno
honestfoundation,andtheFatherofallmenwillstillshakeittoitscenter.Ifwehavenotyet
beensufficientlyscourgedforournationalsintoteachustodojusticetoallGod'screatures,
withoutdistinctionofraceorcolor,wemustexpectthestillmoreheavyvengeanceofan
offendedFather....
"Thisisnotawhiteman'sGovernment,intheexclusivesenseinwhichitisused.Tosaysois
politicalblasphemy,foritviolatesthefundamentalprinciplesofourgospelofliberty.Thisis
Man'sGovernment,theGovernmentofallmenalike;notthatallmenwillhaveequalpower
andswaywithinit.Accidentalcircumstances,naturalandacquiredendowmentandability,
willvarytheirfortunes.ButequalrightstoalltheprivilegesoftheGovernmentisinnatein
everyimmortalbeing,nomatterwhattheshapeorcolorofthetabernaclewhichitinhabits..
..
"Sir,thisdoctrineofawhiteman'sGovernmentisasatrociousastheinfamoussentiment
thatdamnedthelateChiefJusticetoeverlastingfame;and,Ifear,toeverlastingfire."32
TheensuingdebateintheHouseandSenateflamedoverallcreation,butitstartedwithanoteofmoraltriumph.ThenewlyelectedSpeakerdeclared:"The
firesofcivilwarhavebrokeneveryfetterinthelandandprovedthefuneralpyreofslavery."
ThechaplainoftheSenateincreasedthismoralafflatuswithreligiousfervor,thankfulthat
"thestatueofFreedomnowlooksdownfromourcapitaluponanentirenationoffreemen,
andthatwearepermittedbythedispensationofThyProvidence,andthewaybeingprepared,
togivelibertytothecaptive,theopeningoftheprisontothemthatarebound,andto
proclaimtheacceptableyearofourGod."
ThechaplainoftheHousesaid:"OGod,westandtodayonthesoilofanationwhichis,not
alonebyinferenceorreport,butbythesolemnannouncementoftheconstitutedauthorities,
declaredfreeineverypartandparcelofitsterritory.BlessedbeThyname,OGod,forThy
wonderfulendingofthisterribleconflict!"
CongressionalamendmentsofeverysortpouredintoCongressconcerningthenationaland
Confederatedebt,thecivilrightsoffreedmen,theestablishmentofrepublicangovernment,
thebasisofrepresentation,paymentforslavesandthefuturepowersofFederalgovernment
andthestates.Argumentswirledinamaelstromoflogic.Nomatterwhereitstarted,andhow
farafieldinlegalmetaphysicsitstrayed,alwaysitreturnedandhadtoreturntotwofocal
points:ShalltheSouthberewardedforunsuccessfulsecessionbyincreasedpoliticalpower;
and:CanthefreedNegrobeapartofAmericandemocracy?
Thitherallargumentagainandagainreturned;butittrieddesperatelytocrowdoutthesereal
pointsbyappealingtohigherconstitutionalmetaphysics.Thisconstitutionalargumentwas
astonishing.Aroundandarounditwentindizzy,sillydialectics.Hereweregrown,sensible
menarguingaboutawrittenformofgovernmentadoptedninetyyearsbefore,whenmendid
notbelievethatslaverycouldoutlivetheirgenerationinthiscountry,orthatcivilwarcould
possiblybeitsresult;whennomanforesawtheIndustrialRevolutionortheriseofthe
CottonKingdom;andyetnow,withincantationandabracadabra,theleadersofanationtried
topeerbackintothemagiccrystal,andoutofabitofpapercalledtheConstitution,find
eternalandimmutablelawlaiddownfortheirguidanceforeverandever,Amen!
Theyknewperfecdywellthatnosuchomniscientlawexistedoreverhadexisted.Yet,in
ordertoconcealthefact,theytwistedanddistortedandargued:thesestatesaredead;but
statescanneverdie.ThesestateshavegoneoutoftheUnion;butstatescannevergooutof
theUnion,andtopreventthiswefoughtandwonawar;butwhilewewerefighting,these
stateswerecertainlynotintheUnion,elsewhydidwefight?Andhownowmaytheycome
back?They
arealreadybackbecausetheywereneverreallyout.Thenwhatwerewefightingfor?For
union.Butwehadunionandwehavegotunion,onlytheseconstituentstatesaredeadand
wemustbringthemtolife.Butstatesneverdie.Thentheyhaveforfeitedstatehoodand
becometerritories.Butstatehoodcannotbeforfeited;conspiratorswithinthestates
interfered,andnowtheinterferencehasstopped.Butaslongastheinterferencelasted,there
wassurelynounion.Oh,yes,onlyitdidnotfunction;weneednotnowprovideforits
functioningagain,fortheConstitutionalreadyprovidesforthat.
WherewastheConstitutionduringthewar?Butthewarisended;andnowtheConstitution
prevails;unlesstheConstitutionprevails,thisisnonation,thereisnoPresident;wehaveno
realCongress,sinceitdoesnotrepresentthenation.Butwhorepresentedthenationduring
thewar?Andbythattoken,whosavedthenationandkilledslavery?Shallthenationthat
savedthenationnowsurrenderitspowertorebelswhofoughttopreserveslavery?Thereare
norebels!TheSouthisloyalandslaveryisdead.HowcantheloyaltyoftheSouthbe
guaranteed,andhastheblackslavebeenmadereallyfree?Freedomisamatterofstateright.
Sowassecession.Mustwefightthatbattleoveragain?Yes,ifyoutrytomakemonkeys
equaltomen.Whatcausedthewarbutyourowninsistencethatmenwereatoncemonkeys
andrealestate?Gentlemen,gentlemen,andfellowAmericans,letushavepeace!Butwhatis
peace?Isitslaveryofallpoormen,andincreasedpoliticalpowerfortheslaveholders?Do
youwanttowreakvengeanceontheconqueredandtheunfortunate?Doyouwanttoreward
rebellionbyincreasedpowertorebels?
Andsoon,aroundandaround,andupanddown,dayafterday,weekafterweek,withonly
hereandthereakeen,straightmindtocutthecobwebsandtosayineffectwithSeward
throughJohnson:DamntheNigger;letussettledowntoworkandtrade!Ortodeclarewith
StevensandSumner:Maketheslavesfreewithland,educationandtheballot,andthenlet
theSouthreturntoitsplace.OrtosaywithBlaineandConklingandBingham,notinwords
butinaction:Guardpropertyandindustry;whentheirpositionisimpregnable,lettheSouth
return;wewillthenholditwithblackvotes,untilwecaptureitwithwhitecapital.
Afterallthisblather,thenationanditsCongressfounditselfbacktothetwoplainproblems:
ThebasisofrepresentationinCongressandthestatusoftheNegro.Whenitcametothe
Negro,theolddogmatismleapedtotheforeandwouldnotdown.ChandlerofNewYork
regardedFarnsworth'sdemandforNegroequalityasnotonlyanattackonforeignersbut"an
insulttowhitecitizens."WhentheConstitutionsaid"people,"itmeant"whitepeople."And
hestood
for"thepurityofthewhiterace."FinkdeclaredthatOhiowouldneverletNegroesvotewith
hisconsent.Thisis"andofrightoughttobeawhiteman'sgovernment,"saidBoyerof
Pennsylvania,andhedeclaredthateighteenofthetwenty-fivestatesnowrepresentedin
CongresswouldnotlettheNegrovote.
Yettheargumentforfreedomanddemocracyloomedhighandclear."Slavery,butashort
timeagoreceivedasaGod-givenconditionofmen,hasfallenunderthebannerofapurer
morality,andcomedownwiththecursesofaChristianworld.Withthefallofslaverymust
alsofallthethingspertainingthereto.Themasterwhoyesterdayhadhisheelupontheneck
ofhisslave,todaymeetsthatslaveuponthelevelofcommonequality....TheNegroshould
becarefullyconsideredinthisquestionofReconstruction,forafterallweareourbrother's
keeperandwemustseethateven-handedjusticeismetedouttotheblackmanifpossible."
WoodbridgeofVermontdeclared:"Newsocialandpoliticalrelationshavebeenestablished.
Fourmillionpeoplehavebeenborninaday.Theshackleshavebeenstrickenfromfour
millionchattels,andtheyhavebecomeinanhourliving,thinking,moving,responsible
beings,andcitizensoftheseUnitedStates.AndifCongressdoesnotdosomethingtoprovide
forthesepeople,iftheydonotproveequaltotheirduty,andcomeuptotheirworklikemen,
theconditionofthepeoplewillbeworsethanbefore."
TheSouthrepresentedbytheBorderStateshadtoconfineitselftoconstitutional
metaphysics,orelseblurtout,assomeofitsspokesmendid,anewdefenseoftheold
slavery/TheWest,ontheotherhand,hadarealanddisturbingargumentanditwasvoicedby
VoorheesinhisdramaticattempttodriveawedgebetweenJohnsonandtheRepublicans.He
said,January6,1866:
"Howlongcantheinequalitiesofourpresentrevenuesystembeborne?Howlongwillthe
poorandlaboriouspaytributetotherichandtheidle?Wehavetwogreatinterestsinthis
country,oneofwhichhasprostratedtheother.Thepastfouryearsofsufferingandwarhas
beentheopportuneharvestofthemanufacturer.TheloomsandmachineshopsofNew
EnglandandtheironfurnacesofPennsylvaniahavebeenmoreprolificofwealthtotheir
ownersthanthemostdazzlinggoldminesoftheearth....
"Theyaretheresultsofclasslegislation,ofamonopolyoftradeestablishedbylaw.Itmaybe
saidthattheyindicateprosperity.Mostcertainlytheydo;butitistheprosperityofonewho
obtainsthepropertyofhisneighborwithoutanyequivalentinreturn.Thepresentlawof
tariffisbeingrapidlyunderstood.Itisnolongeradeception,butratherawell-definedand
clearly-recognizedoutrage.Theagriculturallaborofthelandisdriventothecounterso£themostgiganticmonopolyeverbefore
sanctionedbylaw.Fromitsexorbitantdemandsthereisnoescape.TheEuropean
manufacturerisforbiddenourportsoftradeforfearhemightsellhisgoodsatcheaperrates
andthusrelievetheburdenoftheconsumer.Wehavedeclaredbylawthatthereisbutone
marketinwhichourcitizensshallgotomaketheirpurchases,andwehaveleftittothe
ownersofthemarketstofixtheirownprices."33
Thiswasanotherunanswerableargument.But,havingmadeit,whatwasVoorhees'remedy?
HislogicalremedywouldhavebeentounitetheindustrialdemocracyoftheWestwiththe
abolition-democracyoftheEastinordertofightoligarchyinNorthernindustryandthe
attempttoreestablishagriculturaloligarchyintheSouth.Yetthiswasfarthestfromhis
intention.HisimmediateeffortwastoembarrassandsplittheRepublicansbyforcingthem
toendorseorrepudiatetheirownPresidentandleader;hisultimateprogram,ifhehadone,
wastoseekwithAndrewJohnsontorestoreoligarchyintheSouthwithadominantplanter
classandserfdomfortheemancipatedNegroes.Thiswasunthinkable,anditdeprivedthe
radicalWestofallmoralsympathyandvotingpowerwhichitseconomicrevoltdeserved.
Whatwasitthenationwanted?CharlesSumnertoldthenationwhatitoughttowant,but
therewasnodoubtbutthatitdidnotyetwantthis.ThaddeusStevensknewwhatthenation
oughttowant,butasapracticalpoliticianhisbusinesswastoseehowmuchofthishecould
getenactedintoactuallaw.
Therecamebeforethe39thCongresssome140differentproposalstochangethe
ConstitutionoftheUnitedStates,including45onapportionment,31oncivilandpolitical
rights,and13forbiddingpaymentforslaves.Overhalfoftheseaffectedthestatusofthe
freedmen.BeforetheCommitteeofFifteencouldsifttheseandsettletoitslargertaskof
fixingthefuturebasisofrepresentationandthedegreeofnationalguardianshipwhichNegro
freedmencalledfor,thereseemedtobetwomeasuresuponwhichpublicopinioninthe
Northwassofarcrystallizedthatlegislationmightsafelybeattempted.Thesewere:a
permanentFreedmen'sBureau,andabilltoprotectthecivilrightsofNegroes.Onthefirst
dayofbusinessofthe39thCongress,therewereintroducedintotheSenatetwobillsonthese
subjects.
TheCivilRightsBillwastakenupDecember13,butShermanofOhioremindedtheSenate
thattherewasscarcelyastateintheUnionthatdidnotmakedistinctionsonaccountof
color,andwished,therefore,topostponeactionuntiltheThirteenthAmendmenthadbeen
adopted.SaulsburyofMarylandcalledit"aninsaneefforttoelevate
theAfricanracetothedignityofthewhiterace,"andclaimedthattheThirteenth
AmendmentwouldcarrynosuchpowerasShermanassumed.
TrumbullofIllinois,onthecontrary,declaredthatthesecondsectionoftheThirteenth
Amendmentasreportedbyhiscommitteewasdrawn"fortheverypurposeofconferring
uponCongressauthoritytoseethatthefirstsectionwascarriedoutingoodfaith,andfor
noneother;andIholdthatunderthatsecondsectionCongresswillhavetheauthority,when
theconstitutionalamendmentisadopted,notonlytopassthebilloftheSenatorfrom
Massachusetts,butabillthatwillbemuchmoreefficienttoprotectthefreedmaninhis
rights.Wemay,ifdeemedadvisable,continuetheFreedmen'sBureau,clotheitwith
additionalpowers,andifnecessarybackitupwithamilitaryforce,toseethattherightsof
themenmadefreebythefirstclauseoftheconstitutionalamendmentareprotected.And,
sir,whentheconstitutionalamendmentshallhavebeenadopted,iftheinformationfromthe
Southbethatthemenwhoselibertiesaresecuredbyitaredeprivedoftheprivilegetogoand
comewhentheyplease,tobuyandsellwhentheyplease,tomakecontractsandenforce
contracts,Igivenoticethat,ifnooneelsedoes,Ishallintroduceabillandurgeitspassage
throughCongressthatwillsecuretothosemeneveryoneoftheserights:theywouldnotbe
freemenwithoutthem."34
CongressaskedthePresidentforthespecificfactsconcerningthesituationintheSouth.The
PresidentrepliedwiththereportofGeneralGrant,containingthesuperficialresultsofa
hasty,five-daytrip,anddisingenuouslytriedtosuppressthereportofCarlSchurz,
undoubtedlythemostthorough-goingandcarefulinquiryintothesituationjustafterthewar
thathadbeenmade.Sumnerexpressedhisindignationandtheevidentneedofacivilrights
bill.
"WhenIthinkofwhatoccurredyesterdayinthisChamber;whenIcalltomindtheattempt
towhitewashtheunhappyconditionoftherebelStates,andtothrowthemantleofofficial
oblivionoversickeningandheart-rendingoutrages,whereHumanRightsaresacrificedand
rebelBarbarismreceivesanewletteroflicense,IfeelthatIoughttospeakofnothingelse.I
stoodhereyearsago,inthedaysofKansas,whenasmallcommunitywassurrenderedtothe
machinationsofslave-masters.Inowstandhereagain,when,alas!animmenseregion,with
millionsofpeople,hasbeensurrenderedtothemachinationsofslave-masters.Sir,itisthe
dutyofCongresstostressthisfatalfury.Congressmustdaretobebrave;itmustdaretobe
just."35
HeclaimedthattheCivilRightsBillaimed"simplytocarryoutandmaintainthe
ProclamationofEmancipation,bywhichthisrepublicissolemnlypledgedtomaintainthe
emancipatedslaveinhisfreedom.Suchisourpledge:'andtheExecutiveGovernmentoftheUnitedStates,includingthe
militaryandnavalauthoritythereof,willrecognizeandmaintainthefreedomofsuch
persons.'Thispledgeiswithoutanylimitationinspaceortime.Itisasextendedandas
immortalastheRepublicitself.Doesanybodycallitvainwords?Itrustnot.Tothatpledge
wearesolemnlybound.Whereverourflagfloatsaslongastimeendureswemustseethatit
issacredlyobserved.
"Buttheperformanceofthatpledgecannotbeentrustedtoanother;leastofall,canitbe
entrustedtotheoldslave-masters,embitteredagainsttheirslaves.Itmustbeperformedby
theNationalGovernment.Thepowerthatgavefreedommustseethatthisfreedomis
maintained.Thisisaccordingtoreason.Itisalsoaccordingtotheexamplesofhistory.Inthe
BritishWestIndieswefindthisteaching.ThreeofEngland'sgreatestoratorsandstatesmen,
Burke,Canning,andBrougham,atsuccessiveperiods,unitedindeclaring,fromthe
experienceintheBritishWestIndies,thatwhatevertheslave-mastersundertooktodofor
theirslaveswasalways'arranttrifling,'andthat,whatevermightbeitsplausibleform,it
alwayswanted'theexecutiveprinciple.'MorerecentlytheEmperorofRussia,whenordering
Emancipation,declaredthatalleffortsofhispredecessorsinthisdirectionhadfailedbecause
theyhadbeenleftto'thespontaneousinitiativeoftheproprietors.'Imightsaymuchmore
onthisheadbutthisisenough.Iassumethatnosuchblunderwillbemadeonourpart;that
weshallnotleavetotheoldproprietorsthemaintenanceofthatfreedomtowhichweare
pledged,andthusbreakourownpromisesandsacrificearace."
ButCongresswasnotyetreadyforthishighgroundandSumner'sschemewaswidely
criticized.WhitelawReid,inalettertotheCincinnatiGazette,March3,1868,recalledthe
profoundsurpriseandbitternessoffeelingwithwhichSumner'sremarkswerereceivedby
Senators.Republicanjournalsandleaderswithintheinnercirclesofthepartywerehostile.
36
TheRepublicanswere,especially,afraidofanysplitwiththePresidentlestthisbringthe
Democratsintopower;ForneyofthePhiladelphiaPressbeggedSumnertoyieldforthesake
ofharmonywithinthegreatpoliticalarmyinwhichhehadbeen"aconscientiousand
courageousleader."
ProtestsagainstPresidentJohnson'spolicywerethereforeslowinexpression.Thenation
waswearyofwarandobjectedtomilitaryadministrationintheSouth.Capitalistswanted
pacificationoftheSouthernterritorytoopenamarketclosedforfouryears.Theywantedany
methodwhichwouldbringthequickestresults.Moreover,Republicansheldsomeofthe
largeststatesoftheNorthbynarrowmajorities.AnyunpopularstepmightputtheDemocratsinpower.Officeholdersdidnotwantto
breakwithJohnsonandcandidatesforofficeweretimid.
CongressmadeineffectthefirstoverturetotheSouthandinsteadofforcingciviland
possiblypoliticalrights,turnedtotakeupthebillwhichproposedgovernmentguardianship
andtutelagefortheblacks.TheCivilRightsBillwaspostponedandtheFreedmen'sBureau
Bill,whichJohnson'smessageseemedtoaccept,wassubstituted.Thiswasintroducedasan
amendmenttotheactofMarch3,1865,andcontainedthefollowingpropositions:(1)That
thebureaushouldcontinueinforceuntilabolishedbylaw;(2)Thatitshouldembracethe
wholecountrywherevertherewerefreedmenandrefugees;(3)Thatbureauofficialsshould
haveannualsalariesof$500to$1,200;(4)ThatthePresidentshouldsetapartfortheuseof
freedmenandloyalrefugeesunoccupiedlandsintheSouth,tobeallottedinparcelsnot
exceedingfortyacreseach;(5)ThatthetitlesgrantedinpursuanceofGeneralSherman's
ordersofJanuary16,1865,bemadevalid;(6)Thatthecommissionerprocurelandanderect
suitablebuildingsasasylumsandschoolsfordependentfreedmenandrefugees;(7)Thatit
bethedutyofthePresidenttoextendmilitaryprotectionandjurisdictionoverallcases
whereanyofthecivilrightsorimmunitiesbelongingtowhitepersons,includingtherightsto
makeandenforcecontracts,togiveevidence,toinherit,buy,sellandholdproperty,etc.,are
refusedordeniedbylocallaw,prejudiceonaccountofrace,colororpreviousconditionof
servitude;orwheredifferentpunishmentsorpenaltiesareinflictedthanareprescribedfor
whitepersonscommittinglikeoffenses;(8)Thatitbemadeamisdemeanor,punishablebya
fineoff1,000orimprisonmentforoneyearorboth,foranyonedeprivinganotherofthe
aboverightsonaccountofrace,colororpreviousconditionofservitude.Theselastsections
weretoapplytothosestatesordistrictswhereordinaryjudicialproceedingshadbeen
interferedwithbywar.37
Thebillwasopposedasestablishingapermanentbureauinsteadofawar-timeemergency
institution.Itsgreatpowerwascriticizedanditwasdeclaredthatitsexpensewouldbe
enormous.TherewerespecialobjectionstothevalidationoflandtitlesunderSherman's
ordersandtothesectiononcivilrights.Itwasdefendedasbeingnotnecessarilypermanent;
asinaccordancewithourIndianpolicy;andasnotbeingexpensive,sinceitwasmannedby
armyofficers.ItpassedtheSenateinJanuary,1866,byavoteof37-10.
IntheHouse,ThaddeusStevenstriedtostrengthenthebillbythemostthorough-going
provisionsforgovernmentguardianshipyetproposed.Theseprovisionsdirectedthatfood,
clothes,medicalattentionandtransportationbefurnishedwhiterefugeesandblackfreed-menandtheirfamilies;
thatpubliclandbesetasideinFlorida,Mississippi,Alabama,LouisianaandArkansas,and
alsofromforfeitedestates,totheextentofthreemillionacresofgoodland;andthatthis
shouldbeparceledouttoloyalwhiterefugeesandblackfreed-menatarentalnottoexceed
tencentsanacre;andthatattheendofacertainperiodthislandbesoldtotheapplicantsat
apricenottoexceedtwodollarsanacre.Theoccupantsofland,underSherman'sorder,were
confirmedintheirpossession,unlesstheformerownerprovedhistitle,andinthatcase,
otherlandattherateoffortyacresafarmshouldbegiventotheapplicant.Thebureauwasto
erectbuildingsforasylumsandschools,andprovideacommonschooleducationforallwhite
refugeesandfreedmenwhoapplied.Thisthoroughgoingsubstituteunhappilywaslost.
ThebillwhichfinallypassedtheHouse,February6,extendedthepoweroftheFreedmen's
BureautofreedmenthroughoutthewholeUnitedStatesandprovidedforfoodandclothing
forthedestitute,adistributionofpubliclandsamongfreedmenandwhiterefugeesinparcels
notexceedingfortyacreseachatanominalrentandwithaneventualchanceofpurchasing.
ThelandassignedbyShermanwastobeheldforthreeyearsandthen,ifrestored,otherlands
securedbyrentorpurchase.SchoolbuildingsandasylumsweretobeerectedwhenCongress
appropriatedthemoney.Fullcivilrightsweretobeenforced,andpunishmentwasprovided
forthosethwartingthecivilrightsofNegroes.
Thisbillencounteredstrongopposition,especiallyfromtheBorderStates.Saulsburyof
DelawaredeliberatelyreiteratedhiscontentionthatCongresshadnorighttoabolishslavery,
evenifthree-fourthsofthestatesassented!Withminorchangesthebillwasacceptedbythe
Senate,February9,andthusthefirstgreatmeasureofReconstructionwenttothePresident.
Southernslaveryhadnowbeendefinitelyabolishedbyconstitutionalamendment,and
governmentguardianshipoftheNegrowithlandandcourtprotectionwasassuredbya
permanentFreedmen'sBureau.
WhatwastheansweroftheSouthtothis?WherewereSouthernbrainsandleadership?Why
didsomanyhide,likeToombs?WhydidtheSouthhavetotrustitsguidancetoahalfeducated,poorwhitePresidentandaNewYorkcorporationlawyer?SupposeaSouthern
leaderhadappearedatthattimeandhadsaidfrankly:"WeproposetomaketheNegro
actuallyfreeinhisrighttowork,hislegalstatus,andhispersonalsafety.Wearegoingto
allowhimtoget,oneasyterms,homesteads,soasgraduallytoreplacetheplantationsystem
withpeasantproprietors;andwearegoingtoprovidehimandour
poorwhiteswithelementaryschools.Andwhenintime,heisabletoreadandwriteand
accumulateaminimumofproperty,then,andnotuntilthen,hecancastavoteandbe
representedinCongress."
Whatwastheresowildandrevolutionary,sounthinkable,aboutamanlydeclarationofthis
sort?ButanativeofAlabamaknewthatthisattitudewasentirelylacking:"Idonotthinkthat
CongressshouldwaitforthepeopleoftheSouthtomakeregulationsbywhich,atsome
futuretime,theNegroeswillbeprovidedwithhomes,havetheirrightsasfreemen
acknowledged,begivenaparticipationincivilrights,andbemadeapartoftheframeworkof
thecountry.Theywillnotdothat;youneednotwaitforit.IfCongresscanconstitutionally
commenceasystemofeducatingandelevatingtheNegroes,letthemdoit,andnotwaitfor
thepeopleoftheSouthtodoit."38
ItisnonsensetosaythattheSouthknewnothingaboutthecapabilitiesoftheNegrorace.
SouthernersknewNegroesfarbetterthanNortherners.TherewasnotasingleNegroslave
ownerwhodidnotknowdozensofNegroesjustascapableoflearningandefficiencyasthe
massofpoorwhitepeoplearoundandabout,andsomequiteascapableastheaverage
slaveholder.Theyhadcontinuallyinthecourseofthehistoryofslaveryrecognizedsuchmen.
Hereandthereteachersandpreacherstowhitefolksaswellascoloredfolkshadarisen.
Artisansandevenartistshadbeenrecognized.Someofthesecoloredfolkswereblood
relativesofthewhiteslaveholders:brothersandsisters,sonsanddaughters.Theyhad
sometimesbeengivenland,transportedtotheNorthortoEurope,freedandencouraged.
Ofcourse,theSouthernersbelievedsuchpersonstobeexceptional,butallthatwasaskedof
thematthistimewastorecognizethepossibilityofexceptions.Tosuchareasonableoffer
thenationcouldandwouldhaveresponded.ItcouldhavepaidfortheNegro'slandand
education.ItcouldhavecontributedtoreliefandrestorationoftheSouth.Insteadofthat
cameadeterminationtoreestablishslavery,murder,arsonandflogging;adogmatic
oppositiontoNegroeducationanddecentlegalstatus;determinationtohavepoliticalpower
basedonvotelessNegroes,andnovotetoanyNegrounderanycircumstances.
ThisshowedtheutterabsenceofcommonsenseintheleadershipoftheSouth.Theirattitude
wasexpressedbest,however,notbyaSouthernerbutbyWilliamH.Seward,anditcamein
theshapeofavetototheFreedmen'sBureauBill.Ifthisvetohadappliedtoacivilrightsbill
ortoabillprovidingforNegrosuffrage,itwouldhavebeenmuchmorelogical;buttovetoa
billfortheguardianshipofNegroes,eventhoughthatbillcarriedandhadtocarryadefense
ofcivilrights,wasreactionarytothelastdegree.Thevetowasa
shrewddocument,aswaseveryargumentwrittenbythatmasterofsubtlelogic.The
Presidentwasmadetosay:
"IsharewithCongressthestrongestdesiretosecuretothefreed-menthefullenjoymentof
theirfreedomandpropertyandtheirentireindependenceandequalityinmakingcontracts
fortheirlabor."Butheobjectedtothebillbecauseitwas"unconstitutional";becausethe
bureauwaspermanent;becauseitdidforthecoloredpeoplewhathadneverbeendonefor
whitepeople;becauseitconfiscatedland,andbecauseitscostwouldbeprodigious.Itwas
unconstitutional,becauseitextendedjurisdictionallovertheUnitedStates,andgavethe
Bureaujudicialpowerinthatjurisdiction.Itwasmadepermanentinspiteofthefactthat
slaveryhadbeenabolished.ConceiveaPresident,bornapoorwhitelaborer,saying:
"Congresshasneverfeltitselfauthorizedtospendpublicmoneyforrentinghomesforwhite
peoplehonestlytoilingdayandnight,anditwasneverintendedthatfreedmenshouldbefed,
clothed,educatedandshelteredbytheUnitedStates.Theideauponwhichslaveswere
assistedtofreedomwasthattheybecomeaself-sustainingpopulation."
Thebureau,hesaid,wouldbecostly.Duringwartimes,wehadalreadyspent$5,876,272for
thereliefofNegroes,and$2,047,297forthereliefofwhites.For1866,thepresentbureau
needed$11,745,000.Nowweareplanningtospendmoneyforlandandeducationwhichwill
doublethissum.Thebillproposestotakeawaylandfromformerownerswithoutdue
processoflaw.Finally,comesthisextraordinaryeconomicphilosophyforserfs:
"Undoubtedly,thefreedmanshouldbeprotected,butheshouldbeprotectedbythecivil
authorities,especiallybytheexerciseofallconstitutionalpowersofthecourtsoftheUnited
Statesandofthestates."Hiscondition*isnotsobad.Hislaborisindemand,andhecan
changehisdwellingplaceifonecommunityorstatedoesnotpleasehim.Thelawsthat
regulatesupplyanddemandwillregulatehiswages.Thefreedmencanprotectthemselves,
andbeingfree,theycouldbeself-sustaining,capableofselectingtheirownemployment,
insistingonproperwages,andestablishingandmaintainingtheirownasylumsandschools.
"Itisearnestlyhopedthat,insteadofwastingaway,theywill,bytheirownefforts,establish
forthemselvesaconditionofresponsibilityand"prosperity.Itiscertainthattheycanattain
thatconditiononlythroughtheirownmeritsandexertions."
ThiswastheanswerofAndrewJohnsonandWilliamH.SewardtotheFreedmen'sBureau
Bill.Practically,itsaidthattheNegroesdonotneedprotection.Theyarefree.Letthemgoto
work,earnwages,andsupporttheirownschools.Theircivilrightsandpoliticalrights
mustdependentirelyupontheirformermasters,andtheUnitedStateshasnoconstitutional
authoritytointerferetohelpthem.AsStevenssaidlater,thePresidenthimselffavored
confiscationofSouthernlandforthepoorwhenhewas"clothedandinhisrightmind."39
Itwasanastonishingpronouncement.ItwastheAmericanAssumption,ofthepossibilityof
labor'sachievingwealth,appliedwithavengeancetolandlessslavesundercasteconditions.
Theverystrengthofitslogicwastheweaknessofitscommonsense.
Yet,AndrewJohnsonwasthePresidentoftheUnitedStates.Hewastheleaderofthe
Republicanpartywhichhadjustwonthewar.Hedeclaredinthefaceofanastoundingarray
oftestimonytothecontrary,thattheSouthwaspeacefulandloyal,andtheslavesreallyfree.
CongressdidnotbelievethePresidentoragreewithhim,butsomewerenotyetpreparedto
breakwithhim.SixRepublicansdesertedtheirpartyandvotedtoupholdtheveto.Theresult
wasthatbyavoteof30-18,theattempttoover-ridethePresident'svetofailed.Theriftmade
intheRepublicanpartywaswide.Ontheonesidestoodabolition-democracyincurious
alliancewithtriumphantNorthernindustry,bothunitedinself-defenseagainstJohnsonand
theSouth.ThisNorthernunity,JohnsonandSewardintendedtodisrupt,anddidsoinpart
whenthevetooftheFreedmen'sBureauBillwassustained.Sewardfollowedthisbyan
appealforthequickresumptionofpeaceandindustry,andJohnsonmadeanappealtolabor
unrestandWesternradicals.Buthereagain,therewasnonaturalunionandthisSeward
knew.Hisdefense,therefore,ofJohnson'splanwasintendedtosoothebothindustryand
abolitionwithoutstressingradicalism.
Washington'sBirthdayhadbeenfixeduponbythePresident'sfriendsforagrand
demonstration.TheNewYorkAldermenendorsedthePresident's"conservative,liberal,
enlightened,andChristianpolicy,"with"onehundredgunssaluteonFebruary21andone
hundredonFebruary22."Johnsonwasdeclared"greaterthan'OldHickory.'""Hewasonthe
highestpinnacleofthemountoffame";"hisfeetwereplantedontheConstitutionofhis
country";"hewasamoderneditionofAndrewJacksonboundincalf.""Indeed,itwassaidby
theRadicalsinreplytotheDemocraticfireworksthat'morepowderwasburnedinhonorof
thevetobytheCopperheadsthantheyconsumedduringthefouryearsofwar.'"40
SewardsaidatCooperUnion:
"This,Ithink,isthedifferencebetweenthePresident,whoisamanofnerve,intheExecutive
chairatWashington,andthenervousmenwhoareintheHouseofRepresentatives.Both
havegottheUnionrestorednotwithslavery,butwithoutit;notwithsecession,flagrant
orlatent,butwithoutit;notwithcompromise,butwithoutit;notwithdisloyalstates,or
representatives,butwithloyalstatesandrepresentatives;notwithRebeldebts,butwithout
them;notwithexemptionfromourowndebtsforsuppressingtherebellion,butwithequal
liabilitiesupontheRebelsandtheloyalmen;notwithfreedmenandrefugeesabandonedto
sufferingandpersecution,butwithfreedmenemployedinproductive,self-sustaining
industry,withrefugeesundertheprotectionoflawandorder.Themanofnerveseesthatit
hascomeoutrightatlast,andheacceptsthesituation.
"Hedoesnotforgetthatinthistroublesomeworldofours,themosttobesecuredbyanybody
istohavethingscomeoutright.Nobodycaneverexpecttohavethembroughtoutaltogether
inhisownway.Thenervousmen,ontheotherhand,hesitate,delay,debateandagonize—not
becauseithasnotcomeoutright,butbecausetheyhavenotindividuallyhadtheirownway
inbringingittoahappytermination."
AstotheFreedmen'sBureauBill,hesaid:"Ihavenotgivenprominenceintheseremarksto
theconflictofopinionbetweenthePresidentandCongressinreferencetothebureauforthe
ReliefofFreedmenandRefugees.Thatconflictis,initsconsequences,comparatively
unimportant;itwouldexcitelittleinterestandproducelittledivisionifitstoodalone.Itis
becauseithasbecometheoccasionforrevealingthedifferencethatIhavealreadydescribed
thatithasattainedtheimportancewhichseemstosurroundit."
HeproceededtopointoutthatthepresentFreedmen'sBureauBillhadnotexpiredandmight
notexpireforanotheryearandthat,therefore,duringthenextyearCongressmightstill
prolongitsexistence."OughtthePresidentoftheUnitedStatestobedenouncedinthehouse
ofhisfriends,forrefusingintheabsenceofanynecessity,tooccupyorretain,andtoexercise
powergreaterthanthosewhichareexercisedbyanyimperialmagistrateintheworld?Judge
ye!Itrustthatthisfaultofdecliningimperialpowers,toohastilytenderedbyatooconfiding
Congress,maybeforgivenbyagenerouspeople."41
Thiswasanadroitdefense,butJohnsoncouldnotletwellenoughalone.Hewasdeprivedof
hismentorandassuminghisvividroleofstumpspeaker,possiblywithafewstimulants,he
feltcalleduponthissameWashington'sBirthdaytoreplytoacommitteewhichhadwaited
uponhimwithresolutions.HewasspeakingaftertheFourteenthAmendmentinitsfirst
formhadbeenreportedtotheHouseofRepresentativesandsentbacktotheCommitteeof
Fifteen.WiththataswellasthevetoedFreedmen'sBureauBillandthependingCivilRights
Billinmind,herecitedagainhisservicestotheUnionduringthewar;heremindedhis
auditorsthatwhenrebellionmanifesteditselfintheSouth,hestoodbythegovernment.HewasfortheUnionwithslavery;he
wasfortheUnionwithoutslavery.Ineitheralternative,hewasforthegovernmentandthe
Constitution.Thenhewentonwiththeclassicargument:
"Youhavebeenstrugglingforfouryearstoputdownarebellion.Youcontendedatthe
beginningofthatstrugglethatastatehadnotarighttogoout....Andwhenyoudetermine
bytheexecutive,bythemilitaryandbythepublicjudgment,thattheseStatescannothave
anyrighttogoout,thiscommitteeturnsaroundandassumesthattheyareout,andthatthey
shallnotcomein....Isaythatwhenthestatesthatattemptedtosecedecomplywiththe
Constitution,andgivesufficientevidenceofloyalty,Ishallextendtothemtherighthandof
fellowship,andletpeaceandunionberestored.IamopposedtotheDavises,andToombses,
theSlidells,andthelonglistofsuch.ButwhenIperceive,ontheotherhand,men...still
opposedtotheUnion,IamfreetosaytoyouthatIamstillwiththepeople....SupposeI
shouldnametoyouthosewhomIlookuponasbeingopposedtothefundamentalprinciples
ofthisGovernment,andnowlaboringtodestroythem.IsayThaddeusStevensof
Pennsylvania;IsayCharlesSumnerofMassachusetts;IsayWendellPhillipsof
Massachusetts."
Finally,Johnsonbecamemelodramatic:"Aretheynotsatisfiedwithonemartyr?Doesnot
thebloodofLincolnappeasethevengeanceandwrathoftheopponentsofthisGovernment?
Istheirthirststillunslaked?Dotheywantmoreblood?Havetheynothonorandcourage
enoughtoeffecttheremovalofthePresidentialobstacleotherwisethanthroughthehandsof
theassassin?Iamnotafraidofassassins,"etc.,
etc.42
SmallwonderthattheNewYorkTribuneandthePhiladelphiaPressreportedthatJohnson
wasdrunkwhenhemadehisspeech;butthemaincauseofhisdrunkennesswasnot
necessarilywhiskey,itwasconstitutionalinabilitytounderstandmenandmovements.This
wasnottimetostraddleontheslaveryquestion;thatquestionhasbeensettled.Thecrucial
questionnowwas,whatwilltheSouthdowhenitcomesbacktoCongress;whatwillitdoto
Negroes,andevenmoreimportantinthemindsofmany,whatwillitdotothenewindustry
?Thelatterquestionstruckdeepest,buttheformervoiceditselfloudest.
"Themassesoftheloyalpeoplemustbeasagreedtoariseagainstthisvetoofameasure,
intendedasabulwarkagainstslaveryandtreason,astheywereonthenightwhentheflagof
theUnionwasfirsthauleddownfromFortSumter,"saidtheChicago'Tribune**
Congressimmediatelyhitbackwithaconcurrentresolutionnot
toadmitSouthernCongressmentoeitherHouseuntilthestatusoftheSouthernstateswas
settled.ThishadpassedtheHouseofRepresentativesafterdilatorytacticsFebruary20,but
wasnotconsideredintheSenateuntilFebruary23,afterJohnson'sspeech.Itwaspassed
afterdebateMarch2,andthusStevens'originalresolutionofDecember4wasfinally
confirmed.
Hereevidentlytherewassmallgroundforcompromise.EitherJohnsonmustbowtothewill
ofthemajorityofhispartyinCongress,or,ledbyhim,theSouthwouldbeinthesaddlein
1866.ManywhohadcriticizedSumnerinDecember,nowwereonhisside.
ThePresidentandtheSouth,ontheotherhand,weregreatlyencouraged:despitethe
majoritywhichtheRepublicanshadinCongress,theycouldnotoverrideaPresidentialveto;
withthereactionthatJohnsonandtheSouthexpectedatthenextelection,theRepublicans
wouldlosepowerandtheSouth,unitedwithNorthernandWesternDemocracy,wouldrule.
TheSouthernersresumedtheirdrivetocompletetheirblackcodesandtheirprogramof
reducingtheNegrotoaservilecaste.
ThePresident,drunkwithhisnewfeelingofpower,showedhisentiremisapprehensionof
thenatureoftheforcesworkingagainsthim.Congressgirdeditselfforbattle,notmainly
becausethevirtualreenslavementoftheNegroarousedthem,butbecausethiswasthe
symptomofareassertionofpoweronthepartoftheSouthwhichmightaffectthedebt,the
tariffandthenationalbankingsystem.
ThePresidentandhissupportersweregoingtoinsistuponthefullpoliticalpowerofthe
South,unhamperedbyaFreedmen'sBureauorbyNegrocivilrights.Haditnotbeenforthe
presenceoftheNegro,thisattitudeoftheSouthcouldnothavearisen.Neverbeforein
modernhistoryhasaconqueredpeopletreatedtheirconquerorwithsuchconsummate
arrogance.TheSouthhidbehindthedarknessofthecoloredmenandthumbedtheirnosesat
thenation.
FortheNegro,AndrewJohnsondidlessthannothing,whenonceherealizedthatthechief
beneficiaryoflaborandeconomicreformintheSouthwouldbefreedmen.Hisinabilityto
pictureNegroesasmenmadehimopposeeffortstogivethemland;opposenationalefforts
toeducatethem;andaboveallthings,opposetheirrightstovote.Heevenwentsofarasto
changeplanswhichhehadthoughtoutandannouncedbeforehefacedtheNegroproblem.
Heoncesaidthatrepresentationoughttobebasedonvoters;butnosoonerdidhelearnthat
ThaddeusStevensadvocatedthesamething,thanhebecamedumbonthesubject,andhad
noadvicetooffer.HehadadvocatedtheconfiscationofthelandoftherichSouthernersand
penaltiesonwealthgainedthroughslavery.WhenherealizedthatNegroeswould
bebeneficiariesofanysuchaction,hesaidnotanotherword.Hewasathick-and-thin
advocateofuniversalsuffrageinthehandsofthelaborerandcommonman,untilherealized
thatsomepeopleactuallythoughtthatNegroesweremen.HeopposedmonopolyontheNew
Jerseyrailroads,untilCharlesSumnerjoinedhim.
TheCivilRightsBillwhichwastakenupnextmadeNegroescitizensoftheUnitedStatesand
punishedanypersonwhodeprivedthemofcivilrightsunderanystatelaw:"Theyshallhave
thesamerightineveryStateandTerritoryintheUnitedStatestomakeandenforce
contracts;tosue,bepartiesandgiveevidence;toinherit,purchase,lease,sell,hold,and
conveyrealandpersonalproperty;andtofullandequalbenefitofalllawsandproceedings
forthesecurityofpersonandpropertyasisenjoyedbythewhitecitizens,andshallbe
subjecttolikepunishment,pains,andpenalties,andtononeother,anylaw,statute,
ordinance,regulation,orcustom,tothecontrarynotwithstanding."
ItgavetotheDistrictCourtsoftheUnitedStatesjurisdictionincrimesandofifensesagainst
theact,gavethepowerofarresttoUnitedStatesmarshalsandDistrictAttorneys,and
providedfinesandpenalties.
DavidBingham,ofOhio,broughtupadifficulty.HeremindedCongressthatthefirsteight
amendmentstotheConstitutioncouldnotbeenforcedbytheFederalGovernmentsincethey
wereheldtobelimitationsupontheFederalpower,andthat,therefore,thepowertopunish
offensesagainstlife,libertyandpropertywasoneofthereservedpowersofthestate.He,
therefore,suggestedaconstitutionalamendmentwhichwouldpunishallviolationsofthebill
ofrightsbystateofficers.HeremindedtheHousethatevenwhenpropertyhadbeentakenby
thestateswithoutdueprocessofthelaw,therewasnoremedyintheFederalCourts,and
thatthishadbeenaffirmedinarecentcaseinMaryland.HisproposalwenttotheCommittee
ofFifteen.
TheCivilRightsBillpassedtheSenate,wasamendedintheHouse,andwasagreedtobyboth
Houses,March14,1866.ThedebateontheCivilRightsBillandtheFreedmen'sBureauBill
madeitclearthattheemancipationoftheslavesmeantincreasedrepresentationinCongress
andintheElectoralCollege,whenevertheSouthernstateswerereadmitted,andthatthis
increaseinpowerwouldtakeplacewhethertheNegroeswereenfranchisedornot.
Moreover,theCivilRightsActmightberepealed;theUnitedStatesmightbemadetopayall
orapartoftheConfederatedebt,andCongressmightrepudiatethedebt.Thedebate,
therefore,ontheCivilRightsBillmadethenecessityofaconstitutionalamendmentclear.
OnMarch27,PresidentJohnsonvetoedtheCivilRightsBillwithcuriouslogic.Hefeared
thatunderthisbillChinese,IndiansandGypsies,aswellasNegroes,mightbemadecitizens.
HedeclaredthatacitizenoftheUnitedStateswouldnotnecessarilybeacitizenofastate.He
againquestionedwhetheritwasgoodpolicytoactoncitizenshipofNegroes,sinceelevenof
thethirty-sixstateswereunrepresented.
"Fourmillionofthemhavejustemergedfromslaveryintofreedom.Canitbereasonably
supposedthattheypossesstherequisitequalificationstoentitlethemtoalltheprivileges
andequalitiesofcitizensoftheUnitedStates?"
OnewonderswhatAndrewJohnsonexpectedtheNegroestobe.Theywerenottobecitizens;
theywerenottobevoters;andyetherepeatedlyassuredthemthattheywerefree.Hewent
onwithanotherstrangeargument,declaringthatthebilldiscriminated"againstlarge
numbersofintelligent,worthyandpatrioticforeigners,andinfavoroftheNegro,towhom,
afterlongyearsofbondage,theavenuesoffreedomandopportunityhavejustnowbeen
suddenlyopened."Thus,hethoughtNegroeslessfamiliarwiththecharacterofAmerican
institutionsthanforeigners.Andyetforeignersmustwait"fiveyears"fornaturalizationand
be"ofgoodmoralcharacter."
HesaidthatifCongresscouldgivetheequalcivilrightsenumeratedtoNegroes,itcouldalso
givethemtherighttovoteandtherighttoholdoffice.Heobjectedtostateofficersbeing
liabletoarrestfordiscriminatingagainstNegroes.Heobjectedtotheinterferenceof
Congresswiththejudiciary,andassumingjurisdictionofsubjectswhichhadalwaysbeen
treatedbystatecourts.
Again,hereturnedtohisastonishingeconomics:
"ThewhiteraceandtheblackraceoftheSouthhavehithertolivedtogetherunderthe
relationofmasterandslave—capitalowninglabor.Now,suddenly,thatrelationischanged,
and,astoownership,capitalandlaboraredivorced.Theystandnoweachmasterofitself.In
thisnewrelation,onebeingnecessarytotheother,therewillbeanewadjustment,which
botharedeeplyinterestedinmakingharmonious.Eachhasequalpowerinsettlingtheterms,
and,iflefttothelawsthatregulatecapitalandlabor,itisconfidentlybelievedthattheywill
satisfactorilyworkouttheproblem.Capital,itistrue,hasmoreintelligence,butlaboris
neversoignorantasnottounderstanditsowninterests,nottoknowitsownvalue,andnot
toseethatcapitalmustpaythatvalue.
"Thisbillfrustratesthisadjustment.Itintervenesbetweencapitalandlabor,andattemptsto
settlequestionsofpoliticaleconomythroughtheagencyofnumerousofficials,whose
interestitwillbetofomentdiscordbetweenthetworaces;forasthebreachwidenstheiremploymentwillcontinue,andwhenitisclosedtheiroccupationwillterminate."
Hedeclaredthatthislawestablishes"forthesecurityofthecoloredracesafeguardswhichgo
infinitelybeyondanythattheGeneralGovernmenthaveeverprovidedforthewhiterace,"
and,therefore,discriminatesagainstthewhiterace.
Hedeclaredthebillasteptowardconcentratingalllegislativepowerinthenational
government."Aperfectequalityofthewhiteandcoloredracesisattemptedtobefixedby
FederallawineveryStateoftheUnion,overthevastfieldofstatejurisdictioncoveredbythe
enumeratedrights.InnooneofthesecananyStateeverexerciseanypowerofdiscrimination
betweenthedifferentraces."
Hethenfetcheduphisheavyartilleryof".SocialEquality"tostampedetheprejudiced.
"IntheexerciseofStatepolicyovermattersexclusivelyaffectingthepeopleofeachState,it
hasfrequentlybeenthoughtexpedienttodiscriminatebetweenthetworaces.Bythestatutes
ofsomeoftheStates,NorthernaswellasSouthern,itisenacted,forinstance,thatwhite
personsshallnotintermarrywitha.Negrooramulatto."Whilehedidnotbelievethatthis
particularbillwouldannulstatelawsinregardtomarriage,nevertheless,ifCongresshadthe
powertoprovidethatthereshouldbenodiscriminationinthemattersenumeratedinthe
bill,thenitcouldpassalawrepealingthelawsofthestatesinregardtomarriage!
Hecontinued:"Hitherto,everysubjectembracedintheenumerationofrightscontainedin
thisbillhasbeenconsideredasexclusivelybelongingtotheStates.Theyallrelatetothe
internalpoliceandeconomyoftherespectiveStates....IfitbegrantedthatCongresscan
repealallStatelawsdiscriminatingbetweenwhitesandblacksinthesubjectscoveredbythis
bill,why,itmaybeasked,maynotCongressrepeal,inthesameway,allstatelaws
discriminatingbetweenthetworaces,onthesubjectofsuffrageandoffice?"
Speakingofthegeneraleffectofthebill,hedeclareditinterfered"withthemunicipal
legislationofthestates,withtherelationsexistingexclusivelybetweenaStateandits
citizens,orbetweeninhabitantsofthesameState—anabsorptionandassumptionofpower
bytheGeneralGovernmentwhich,ifacquiescedin,mustsapanddestroyourfederative
systemoflimitedpowers,andbreakdownthebarrierswhichpreservetherightsofthe
States.Itisanotherstep,orratherstride,towardcentralization,andtheconcentrationofall
legislativepowersinthenationalgovernment."
ThePresident'svetooftheCivilRightsBilloffendedthenation.SenatorStewartdeclaredthat
thePresidenthadpromisednottoveto
thisbillandforthatreasontheSenatorhadvotedtosustainthevetooftheFreedmen's
BureauBill.SenatorTrumbullhadpubliclyannouncedthatthePresidentwouldnotvetothe
CivilRightsBill.HenryWardBeecherhadurgedhimtosignit.
EveninthePresident'scabinet,noneofthemembers,exceptSewardandWells,agreedwith
Johnson.Sumnerwrote:"Nobodycanyetseetheend.Congresswillnotyield.ThePresident
isangryandbrutal.Sewardisthemarplot.Inthecabinet,onthequestionofthelastveto,
therewerefouragainstittothreeforit;soeventhere,amonghisimmediateadvisers,the
Presidentisleftinaminority.Stantonreviewedatlengththebill,sectionbysection,inthe
Cabinet,andpronounceditanexcellentandsafebilleverywayfrombeginningtoend.But
thevetomessagewasalreadyprepared,andanhourlaterwassenttoCongress."44
ThetimeforthefinaltestbetweenJohnsonandCongresshadcome.Thereensuedsome
sharppoliticalmaneuvering.Morgan,WileyandStewartwerewonovertothemajorityand
Stockton,aJohnsonmanfromNewJersey,wasunseatedonatechnicality.ThusonApril6
and9Congressoverrodetheveto.TheCivilRightsBillbecamelaw,andJohnsonfaceda
Congressabletoworkitswill.
Therewasoneothermatter,besidesamendingtheConstitution,onwhichCongressmight
takesignificantaction.AccordingtothecurrentAmericancreed,fullprotectionofacitizen
couldonlybeaccomplishedbypossessionoftherighttovote.Thiswasnotwhollytrue,even
intheNorth,andwiththeballotinthehandsofwhitemen.Nevertheless,itstillretaineda
greatelementoftruth,foronlywithuniversalsuffragecouldthemassofworkersbeginthat
economicrevolutionwhichwouldeventuallyemancipatethem.Theywouldhavetousetheir
ballotatfirstinconjunctionwiththepettybourgeois;thatis,inconjunctionwiththesmall
propertyholder,whowasbeinghard-pressedbythenewconcentratedcapitalofindustry;in
conjunctionwiththesmallWesternfarmer,whowaspushedtothewallbytherailwayand
landmonopoly.Butarmedwiththeballot,thispreliminaryfightagainstthepowerofcapital
wouldclearthewayforthefinalfightwhichwouldmakedemocracyrealamongtheworkers.
WhiletheCommitteeofFifteenwasgropingitswaytoaction,therewasachancefor
Congresstoexpressitsrealfeelingontheballot.Theremightbeaquestioninthemindsof
constitutionalhair-splittersastohowfarCongresscouldcoercestatesindefiningtherightof
suffrage.ButCongressruleddirectlytheDistrictofColumbia.Congresshadtherightto
decideastothepoliticalfranchiseinterritories.Woulditnotbethefirststeptowardalogical
andconsistentendforCongresstoestablishNegrosuffrageintheDistrict,andinallterritorieswhichweresetup?Thus,amongthefirstbillsintroducedinthe39thCongresswere
billstogivetheNegrotherighttovoteintheDistrictofColumbia,andthisdemandwas
supportedbypetitionsandspeeches,andespeciallywell-writtenpetitionsfromtheeducated
NegroesoftheDistrict.
InJanuary,1866,therecameanotablepetitionfromthecoloredpeoplesignedbyJohnF.
Cook,awealthyoctoroonofafreeNegrofamily,andtwenty-fiveothercitizens.Itdidnot
comefromfreedmenorlaborers,butfrompropertyholdersofNegrodescent,manyofwhom
hadbeenbornfree.KelleyofPennsylvaniareaditinparttotheHouse:
"Weareintelligentenoughtobeindustrious,tohaveaccumulatedproperty,tobuildand
sustainchurchesandinstitutionsoflearning.Weareandhavebeeneducatingourchildren
withouttheaidofanyschoolfund,anduntilrecentlyhadformanyyearsbeenfurnishing,
unjustlyaswedeem,aportionofthemeansfortheeducationofthewhitechildrenofthe
District.
"Weareintelligentenoughtobeamenabletothesamelawsandpunishablealikewithothers
fortheinfractionofsaidlaws.Wesustainasfairacharacterontherecordsofcrimeand
statisticsofpauperismasanyotherclassinthecommunity,whileunequallawsare
continuallybarringourwayintheefforttoreachandpossessourselvesoftheblessings
attendantuponalifeofindustryandself-denialandofvirtuouscitizenship.
"Experiencelikewiseteachesthatthatdebasementismosthumanewhichismostcomplete.
Thepossessionofonlyapartiallibertymakesusmorekeenlysensibleoftheinjusticeof
withholdingthoseotherrightswhichbelongtoaperfectmanhood.Withouttherightof
suffrage,wearewithoutprotection,andliabletocombinationsofoutrage.Pettyofficersof
thelaw,respectingthesourceofpower,willnaturallydefertotheonehavingavote,andthe
partialitythusshownwillworkmuchtothedisadvantageofthecoloredcitizens."45
However,thereweresomespecialreasonsforavoidingthisticklishsubject.Afterall,
Washingtonwasthecapitalofthenation.IthadlongbeenacenterofSouthernsociety.To
givetheNegroespoliticalfreedomandpartialcontrolthere,wasalongstepandadecisive
one.
ThepeopleoftheDistricthastilyorganizedacounter-stroke,andpresentedtotheSenatea
communicationfromtheMayorinwhichheassertedthataspecialvotehadbeentaken
December21,"toascertaintheopinionofthepeopleofWashingtononthequestionofNegro
suffrage."Hemeant,ofcourse,thewhitepeople,andthevotewasoverwhelming:6,591
againstNegrosuffrageand35forit.Thecommunicationproceeded,inafineclimaxof
Southernrhetoric.
tosaythat"Thisunparalleledunanimityofsentimentwhichpervadesallclassesofthis
communityinoppositiontotheextensionoftherightofsuffragetothatclass,engendersan
earnesthopethatCongress,inaccordingtothisexpressionoftheirwishestherespectand
considerationtheywouldasindividualmembersyieldtothosewhomtheyimmediately
represent,wouldabstainfromtheexerciseofitsabsolutepower,andsoavertanimpending
futureapparentlysoobjectionabletothoseoverwhom,bythefundamentallawoftheland,
theyhaveexclusivejurisdiction."
Alongargumentensued,whichshowedthatCongresswasnotreadytodeclareitselfon
Negrosuffrage;furtheractionwaspostponedforanotheryear,andabillforNegrosuffragein
theDistrictofColumbiadidnotpassCongressuntilDecember,1866;itbecamealawin
January,1867.
Meantime,theCommitteeofFifteenhadmetfirstDecember26,1865.CharlesSumnerwas
consideredtooradicalontheNegroquestiontobeamemberofit,andsothecommitteewas
headedbyaConservative,FessendenofMaine,whowishedtostandbyPresidentJohnson,
andwasstrongly,sometimesevenbitterly,opposedtotheradicalismofSumner.Stevens,the
greatprotagonistofcurbingthepoliticalpoweroftheSouthandcompletelyemancipatingthe
Negro,wastheprimefigureinthecommittee.Then,therewereBinghamofOhio,themore
orlessconsciousdefenderofproperty;ConklingofNewYork,thesophisticated,exquisite
corporationlawyer;andBout-wellofMassachusetts.TherewerethreeDemocrats,ofwhom
themostdistinguishedwasJohnsonofMaryland,thestrongestBorderStaterepresentative
inCongress,handicappedbyalegalmind;andthenarrow-mindedRogersofNewJersey.
Asub-committeeoftheCommitteeofFifteencourteouslywaitedonPresidentJohnson,and
heconsentedtodonothingmoretowardReconstructionforthepresent,inordertosecure
harmonyofaction.OnDecember26,atthefirstmeetingoftheCommittee,Stevensbrought
forwardhisproposaltobaserepresentationonvoters.Andsingularlyenough,laterinthis
samemonth,JohnsoninaninterviewwithSenatorDixonofConnecticutsaidthatif,
however,amendmentsaretobemadetotheConstitution,changingthebasisof
representationandtaxation(andhedidnotdeemthematallnecessarytothepresenttime),
heknewofnonebetterthanasimpleproposition,embracedinafewlines,makingineach
statethenumberofqualifiedvotersthebasisofrepresentation,andthevalueofpropertythe
basisofdirecttaxation.Suchapropositioncouldbeembracedinthefollowingterms:
"'Representativesshallbeapportionedamongtheseveralstates
whichmaybeincludedwithinthisUnionaccordingtothenumberofqualifiedvotersineach
state.'...
"Suchamendment,thePresidentalsosuggested,wouldremovefromCongressallissuesin
referencetothepoliticalequalityoftheraces.ItwouldleavetheStatestodetermine
absolutelythequalificationsoftheirownvoterswithregardtocolor;andthusthenumberof
RepresentativestowhichtheywouldbeentitledinCongresswoulddependuponthenumber
uponwhomtheyconferredtherightofsuffrage.
"ThePresident,inthisconnection,expressedtheopinionthattheagitationoftheNegro
franchisequestionintheDistrictofColumbiaatthistimewasamereentering-wedgetothe
agitationofthequestionthroughouttheStates,andwasill-timed,uncalled-for,and
calculatedtodogreatharm.Hebelievedthatitwouldengenderenmity,contentionandstrife
betweenthetworaces,andleadtoawarbetweenthem,whichwouldresultingreatinjuryto
both,andthecertainexterminationoftheNegropopulation.Precedence,hethought,should
begiventomoreimportantandurgentmatters,legislationuponwhichwasessentialtothe
restorationoftheUnion,thepeaceofthecountry,andtheprosperityofthepeople."46
Here,surely,waslogicandunderstandinginplainsight.ButnotonlydidthePresident
eventuallydropthisproposal,butevenincommittee,oppositionappeared.Boutwell
suggestedatthethirdmeetingoftheCommittee,January9,thathepreferredtoretain
populationasthebasisofapportionment,withtheprovisionthatnostateshouldmake"any
distinctionsintheexerciseoftheelectivefranchiseonaccountofraceorcolor."Boutwellwas
fromMassachusetts,andNewEngland,throughBlaine,hadprotestedvigorouslyagainstthe
StevenspropositionintheHousethedaybefore,January8.Itwasacurioussituation,which
Blaineexplainedinpart;andinpart,hedidnot.
NewEnglandhadlostagoodproportionofitsmalepopulationbymigrationtotheWest,and
itdidnotallowwomentovote.NewEngland,moreover,hadalargeimmigrantpopulation
whichshewasusinginhermills,andonwhichapartofherrepresentationinCongresswas
based.Sheproposedtomakethispopulationstilllarger.Sheproposed,also,toreducethe
votingpowerofthislaboringpopulation,notonlybyconfiningthevotetothenative-born
andnaturalized,butalsobyaliteracyqualification.ThroughBlaine,therefore,spokethe
exploitingmanufacturer,andvoicedanideaasdifferentfromSumner'sasonecouldwell
imagine.Tobasepopulationonvoterswas,intheeyesofindustry,tokeepdownthe
representationoftheSouth,tobesure;butalsototransferthebalanceofpoliticalpower
fromtheEasttotheWest,andintheWestindustrywasnot
sosureofitsdictatorship.Consequently,theCommitteeofFifteenwascompelledtotake
stepsinanotherdirection.
OnJanuary12,Binghamintroducedaproposaltothecommitteeforaconstitutional
amendmentguaranteeingcivilrights.Itsaid:"TheCongressshallhavethepowertomakeall
lawsnecessaryandpropertosecuretoallpersonsineverystatewithinthisUnion,equal
protectionintheirrightsoflife,libertyandproperty."47Thisproposition,destinedto
becomepartofSection1oftheFourteenthAmendment,hadbeenintroducedearlyin
DecemberintheHouseofRepresentatives.
TheCommitteeofFifteenreferredtheBinghamproposaltoasubcommittee,consisting
whollyofRepublicans.Atthesametime,thecommitteeinsistedthatthebasisof
representationprovidedforintheConstitutionshouldbechanged.JohnsonofMaryland
adheredtotheStevensproposalofmakingvotersthebasis.NewEnglandandNewYork
objected,andthismatterwaslefttotheconsiderationofthesamesub-committee.Meantime,
threeotherpropositionsweresubmitted:
1.Representationshouldbebasedonpopulation,butifcoloredpeopleweredisfranchised,
theyshouldnotbecountedintheapportionment.(Morill.)
2.Representativesshouldbeapportionedaccordingtopopulation,exceptthatNegroes,
Indians,Chineseandothercoloredpersons,iftheywerenotallowedtovote,shouldnotbe
countedintheapportionment.(Williams.)
3.Representativesweretobeapportionedamongthestatesaccordingtothewholenumber
ofcitizensoftheUnitedStates;providedthatwheneverinanyState,civilorpoliticalrightsor
privilegesshouldbedeniedorabridged,onaccountofraceorcolor,allpersonsofsuchrace
orcolorshouldbeexcludedfromthebasisofrepresentationortaxation.(Conkling.)
OnJanuary16,aproposedFourteenthAmendmentwasconsideredintwoparts;thefirstpart
hadalternativepropositions:
A.Apportioningrepresentationaccordingtothenumberofcitizensandmaking"inoperative
andvoid"anylaws"wherebyanydistinctionismadeinpoliticalorcivilrightsorprivilegeson
accountofrace,creedorcolor."
B.ThealternativepropositionwastheConklingproposal.
ThesecondpartoftheamendmentwasBingham'sproposalthat:"Congressshallhavepower
tomakealllawsnecessaryandproper
tosecuretoallcitizensoftheUnitedStatesthesameequalprotection
intheenjoymentoflife,libertyandproperty."Thesepropositionswenttosub-committees
andwerereportedback
January20.TheCivilRightssectionofBinghamappearedinthestrongestandmostspecific
formwhichitevertook:"Congressshallhavepowertomakealllawsnecessaryandproperto
securetoallcitizensoftheUnitedStates,ineveryState,thesamepoliticalrightsand
privileges;andtoallpersonsineveryStateequalprotectionintheenjoymentoflife,liberty
andproperty."
Itwasvoted10-4toconsiderthispropositionofBingham'sseparately;andbyavoteof11-3,
thesecondresolutiononapportionmentwaschosenasaproposedFourteenthAmendment.
ThisexcludedfromrepresentationNegroeswhoweredeniedtherighttovote.Stevens
wishedtoamendthisbydeclaringwhowerecitizens.Conkling,however,movedtostrikeout
thephrase"citizensoftheUnitedStates,"andinsert"personsineverystate,excluding
Indiansnottaxed."Thiswasamovetoinsurethecountingoftheforeign-bornasapartofthe
basisofapportionment,andwasinaccordancewiththeNewEnglandidea.Stevens,
FessendenandBinghamwereagainstit,butitpassed11-3^
OnJanuary22,thissectiononapportionmentwasreportedtoCongressasaFourteenth
Amendment,andwasthefirsteffortoftheCommitteeofFifteentopreparefor
Reconstructionbyconstitutionalamendment.ThiswasbeforetheFreedmen'sBureauBillor
theCivilRightsBillhadpassedCongress,andthebillforsuffrageintheDistrictofColumbia,
whileithadpassedtheHouse,hadnotbeenconsideredintheSenate,andwasnotdestined
tobeforseveralmonths.ThisfactisasufficientanswertotheaccusationthattheCommittee
ofFifteenpurposelydelayedactionontheproblemsofReconstruction.Withinlessthana
monthafteritbeganwork,itlaiditsfirstpropositionbeforeCongress.
StevensreportedthisfirstformoftheFourteenthAmendmenttotheHouseandaskedrather
peremptorilythatitpassbeforesundown.Hisreasonwasthattherewerenumbersofstate
legislaturesinsessionandthattheycouldconsideritimmediately.Buthewasdisappointed.
Therewastoomuchoppositioninhisowngroup.Conklingelaboratedandmadespecificthe
argumentwhichStevenshadfirstbroughtforward:
Thefourmillionpeoplewhohadsuddenlybeenreleasedfromslavery,whilefallingwithin
thecategoryof"freepersons,"werenotyetpoliticalpersons."Thisemancipatedmultitude
hasnopoliticalstatus.Emancipationvitalizesonlynaturalrights,notpoliticalrights.
Enfranchisementalonecarrieswithitpoliticalrights,andtheseemancipatedmillionsareno
moreenfranchisednowthanwhentheywereslaves.Theyneverhadpoliticalpower.Their
mastershadafractionofpowerasmasters."Butsincetherelationshipofmasterandslave
wasdestroyed,thisfractionofpowercouldnolongersurviveinthemasters.Therewasonly
oneplacewhereitcouldlogicallygo,andthatwastotheNegroes;butsinceitwassaidthat
"theyareunfittohaveit...itisapowerastray,withoutarightfulowner.Itshouldbe
resumedbythewholenationatonce....Ifablackmancountsatallnow,hecountsasfivefifthsofaman,notasthree-fifths....Fourmillions,therefore,andnotthree-fifthsoffour
millions,aretobereckonedinherenow,"andinelevenstatesmostofthesefourmillions
werepresumedtobe"unfitforpoliticalexistence."SincetheframersoftheConstitutiondid
notforeseesuchcontingency,andexpectedthatemancipationwouldcomegraduallyandbe
accompaniedbyeducationandenfranchisement,theyprovidedfornosituationwhereby
elevenstatesmightclaimtwenty-eight(ortwenty-nine)representativesbesidestheirjust
proportion.
"Twenty-eightvotestobecasthereandintheElectoralCollegeforthoseheldnotfittositas
jurors,notfittotestifyinthecourt,notfittobeplaintiffinasuit,notfittoapproachthe
ballotbox.Twenty-eightvotes,tobemoreorlesscontrolledbythosewhooncebetrayedthe
Government,andforthosesodestitute,weareassured,ofintelligentinstinctasnottobefit
forfreeagency.
"Shallthisbe?Shallfourmillionbeingscountfourmillion,inmanagingtheaffairsofthe
nation,whoarepronouncedbytheirfellowbeingsunfittoparticipateinadministering
governmentinthestateswheretheylive...whoarepronouncedunworthyoftheleastand
mostpaltrypartinthepoliticalaffairs?Shallonehundredandtwenty-seventhousandwhite
peopleinNewYorkcastbutonevoteinthisHouseandhavebutonevoicehere,whilethe
samenumberofwhitepeopleinMississippihavethreevotesandthreevoices?Shallthe
deathofslaveryaddtwofifthstotheentirepowerwhichslaveryhadwhenslaverywasliving?
ShallonewhitemanhaveasmuchshareintheGovernmentasthreeotherwhitemenmerely
becauseheliveswhereblacksout-numberwhitestwotoone?Shallthisinequalityexist,and
existonlyinfavorofthose...whodidthefoulestandguiltiestactwhichcrimsonstheannals
ofrecordedtime?No,sir;notifIcanhelpit.
"Thisproposition,"hecontinued,"restsuponaprinciplealreadyimbeddedinthe
Constitution,andasoldasfreegovernmentitself,"aprinciple"thatrepresentationdoesnot
belongtothosewhohavenopoliticalexistence,buttothosewhohave.Theobjectofthe
amendmentistoenforcethistruth....EveryStatewillbeleftfreetoextendorwithholdthe
electivefranchiseonsuchtermsasitpleases,andthiswithoutlosinganythingin
representationifthetermsareimpartialastoall...."If,however,thereisfound"araceso
vileorworth-
lessthattobelongtoitisalonecauseofexclusionfrompoliticalaction,theraceisnottobe
countedhereintheCongress."48
ThusspokeNewYorkincoldcontrasttoThaddeusStevensbutwithquiteasmercilesslogic.
Thisargumentmadeitclearthatthebasisofrepresentationmustbechangedinsomeway,
unlesstheSouthwascomingbackwithincreasedpoliticalpower.Whatchangeshouldbe
made?TheWestwantedStevens'originalpropositionwhichhadearlybeenintroducedin
CongressbyStevenshimselfandalsoseparatelybytwoOhiorepresentatives,andwhich
basedrepresentationonvoters;butthispropositionwouldhaveincreasedthepowerofthe
MiddleandWesternstatesattheexpenseofNewEngland,andNewEnglandhadhadher
warningfromVoorhees.While,then,amajorityofRepublicansundoubtedlyfavoredthis,the
propositioncouldnotpassCongresswithoutthesupportofNewEngland,andtheWest
yielded.
EliotofMassachusettssubmittedanamendment,whichwaspracticallytheFifteenth
Amendment,butitwasagreedthatthiscouldnotpassCongress.Andso,finally,thereport
wassentbacktotheCommitteeofFifteen.
Meantime,onJanuary22,theBinghamAmendmentonCivilRightswasconsideredinthe
CommitteeofFifteenandreferredtoasubcommittee,afterBoutwellhadtriedtomakeits
wordingmilder,bysayingthat"Congressshallhavepowertoabolishanydistinctioninthe
exerciseoftheelectivefranchise."
OnJanuary27,thissectionwasreportedfromthesub-committeewithmodifications,and
appearednowinthefollowingwords:"Congressshallhavepowertomakealllawswhich
shallbenecessaryandpropertosecuretoallpersonsineverystatefullprotectioninthe
enjoymentoflife,libertyandproperty;andtoallcitizensoftheUnitedStatesthesame
immunitiesandalsoequalpoliticalrightsandprivileges."
Itwaspostponed;Binghamexplainedin1871that,afterpostponement,hehadintroduced
thissectionoftheamendmentintheCommitteeofFifteeninthewordsinwhichitnow
standsintheConstitution.Hehadchangedtheforminthehopethattheamendmentmight
besoframedthat"inallthehereafteritmightbeacceptedbythehistorianoftheAmerican
ConstitutionlikeMagnaChartaasthekeystoneofAmericanlegislation."Thedecisionof
Marshallvs.theCityCouncilofBaltimore,acelebratedcase,hadinducedhimtotakecounsel
withMarshall.Thus,curiouslyenough,constitutionalrestraintsdesignatedtoprotect
personswerechangedintoaformwhicheventuallymadetheFederalGovernmentthe
protectorofpropertyagainststateenactments:
"TheCongressshallhavepowertomakealllawswhichshallbenecessaryandproperto
securetothecitizensofeverystateallprivilegesandimmunitiesofcitizensintheseveral
states."49
Thissubstitute,whichBinghamreportedtothecommitteeFebruary3,wasadoptedinthe
CommitteeofFifteenandonFebruary10,byavoteof9-5,itwasreferredtoCongress.It
cameupbeforetheHouseofRepresentatives,February13,asaproposedconstitutional
amendmentandwasdebatedatlengthFebruary27-28,whentheHouserefusedtotableit,
butpostponedituntilApril.
WhentheCommitteeofFifteenreceivedtheamendmentonapportionmentbackfromthe
House,itmadetheminorchangeoftakingoutthereferencetodirecttaxes,whichwas
irrelevantandoflittleimportance.Sothat,again,January31,thepropositioncamebackto
theHouseofRepresentatives.
Stevenswasunequivocal:
"Idonotwantthem[theSouthernstates]tohaverepresentation—Isayitplainly—Idonot
wantthemtohavetherightofsuffragebeforethisCongresshasdonethegreatworkof
regeneratingtheConstitutionandlawsofthiscountryaccordingtotheprinciplesofthe
DeclarationofIndependence."50Again,SchenckofOhiotriedtobaserepresentationon
voters,butthiswasdefeated.Stevenssaidthathefavoredit,butthatitcouldnotpass
Congress.TheHousepassedthisformoftheFourteenthAmendment,January3,1866,and
sentittotheSenate.
Inthemeantime,thewholeaspectofthepoliticalsituationchanged.TheFreedmen'sBureau
BillhadpassedCongress,and,totheastonishmentofthecountry,hadbeenvetoed.TheCivil
RightsBillhadpassedtheSenate,andJohnsonhadmadehisspeechofFebruary22,
definitelyaligninghimselfnowwiththeSouthandtheirNorthernDemocraticallies,and
againsthisownparty.BlackCodeshadbeenpassedinMississippi,Alabama,SouthCarolina,
Florida,VirginiaandLouisiana.
Ontheotherhand,Northernbusinesswasafraid.
"Viewedasapracticalmatter,"askedtheNation,"whatwouldbetheeffectuponGovernment
securitiesoftheimmediateadmissiontoCongressof58SouthernRepresentativesand22
Senators,nearlyallofwhomcouldbecountedonasdeterminedrepudiationists?...Itwould
hardlybeasafethingforthenationalcredittohavesuchabodyofmeninCongress,
reenforcedastheywouldprobablybe,byaconsiderablenumberofNorthernmenreadytogo
foratleastqualifiedrepudiation."51
Seward,himself,itissaid,wasgreatlydisappointedandembarrassedbytheBlackCodesof
theSouth.HefoundthattheSouthwasgettingstrongerinJohnson'sconfidence.NemesisagaindoggedSeward'ssteps,aswhenbefore
hewasdefeatedforthePresidentialnominationbytheanti-slaverymentowhomhehad
givenaslogan.ItwasthenthatToombshadsneered:"Actaeonhadbeendevouredbyhis
dogs."Thedogswereatitagain.Blainesaysthat,"WhenCongressreassembledafterthe
holidays,therewasagreatchangeinitsattitude.ManyfearedthatthePresidentandthe
Democratstogetherwouldwin.
"Theleadingcommercialmen,whohadbecomewearyofwar,contemplatedwithpositive
dreadthereopeningofacontroversywhichmightproveasdisturbingtothebusinessofthe
countryasthestruggleofarmshadbeen,andwithoutthequickeningimpulsestotrade
whichactivewaralwaysimparts.Thebankersofthegreatcities,whosecapitalandwhose
depositsallresteduponthecreditofthecountryandwereinvestedinitspaper,believedthat
thespeedysettlementofalldissension,andtheharmoniouscooperationofalldepartments
ofthegovernment,wereneededtomaintainthefinancialhonorofthenationandto
reinstateconfidenceamongthepeople.Againstobstaclessomenacing,againstresistanceso
ominous,againstanarrayofpowersoimposing,itseemedtobeanactofboundlesstemerity
tochallengethePresidenttoacontest,toarraypublicopinionagainsthim,todenouncehim,
toderidehim,todefyhim."52
TheCommitteeofFifteenpausedtogetitsbearings.Inthefirstplace,whatwastheattitude
ofthecountrytowardNegrosuffrage?In1865,Wisconsinhadrejectedaproposaltolet
Negroesvote.Minnesota,thesameyear,haddefeatedaconstitutionalamendmentgiving
Negroesthesuffrage.Connecticut,also,in1865gaveamajorityof6,272againstNegro
suffrage.Later,in1867,OhiodefeatedNegrosuffrageby50,629.InMichigan,1868,anew
Constitution,omittingtheword"white,"wasdefeatedbyamajorityof38,849.Inthe
NebraskaConstitutionof1866,onlywhiteswereallowedthesuffrage.InNewYorkandsome
otherstates,therewasspeciallegislationonthevotingofNegroes,whichwasnotchanged.
Evidently,thecountrywasnotreadyforNegrosuffrage.
Moreover,thepinchofeconomicdifficultiesfollowingthewar,wasbeginningtobefelt.The
priceofgoldwhichwasat170in1864,roseto284in1865.Theincometaxhadbeen
increasedin1865.TheUnitedStateswaspayingoutvastsumsofinterestonitsannualdebt.
Cottonwashigh,sellingatforty-threecentsapoundin1865;itdroppedtothirtycentsonly
in1866,withacropof1,900,000bales,ascomparedwiththatmarvelouscropthat
precipitatedtheCivilWar,5,740,000balesin1861.Thepriceofagriculturalproductshad
increased,butnotnearlyasmuchasthepricesofmanufacturedgoods,andthefarmerswere
feelingthedifference.Gamblingandspeculationwerewide-spread.
TheUnitedStatesTreasurywastryingtoreducethecirculationofthedepreciated
greenbacks,andundertheActof1866,retiredsome$75,000,000;butearlyin1868,the
contractionofthecurrencywasprohibitedandtheWestbegantocryforinflation.AWestern
editorwroteSenatorTrumbullofIllinois:"YouallinWashingtonmustrememberthatthe
excitementofthegreatcontestisdyingout,andthatcommercialandindustrialenterprises
andpursuitsareengagingalargepartofpublicattention.Thetimesarehard;moneyisclose;
taxesareheavy;allformsofindustryhereintheWestareheavilyburdened;andinthe
struggletopaydebtsandlive,peoplearemoremindfulofthemselvesthanofanyofthefine
philanthropicschemesthatlooktomakingSamboavoter,jurorandofficeholder."53
Johnsonknewnothingoffinance,andlefttheTreasuryentirelytoMcCulloch,whowas
struggling,October31,1865,withanationaldebtthatstoodat$2,800,000,000.Therewas
stilldoubtofthelegaltenderconstitutionalityofthegreenbacks.Taxationwasenormousand
appliedtoalmosteveryavailablesubject.Therefacedthecountryatremendousproblemof
reorganizingthedebt,reestablishingthecurrencyandreducingtherevenue.
StevenshadrushedtheCommitteeofFifteenasfastasorfasterthanhismajoritywished.
ThefirstdraftoftheFourteenthAmendmentreachedtheSenateandwasattackedbyCharles
Sumner.Therewasnogreaterproofofhiscourage,andhislearningandkeennessofmind
wereunquestioned.FromthedayofhisgreatspeechonKansastohisunswervingadvocacy
ofcivilrightsforNegroesandtheirpoliticalenfranchisement,hetoweredabovehis
contemporaries.HewasunwillingtocompromiselikeStevens,andforthatreasonwasnot
madeheadofthegreatCommitteeofFifteen.Buttherewasnoquestionabouthisintegrity
andhisidealism.
SumnerhadnosympathywithanamendmentwhichmadethedisfranchisementofNegroes
possibleandregardeditas"anothercompromisewithhumanrights"andadiscriminationon
accountofraceandcolorwhichhithertohadbeenkeptoutoftheConstitution.Thusthefirst
propositionwhichNorthernindustrymade,metthedirectoppositionofabolition-democracy.
CharlesSumner,inatremendousspeechFebruary6,1865,laiddownthethesisthatunder
nocircumstancesshoulditbepossibletodisfranchiseamansimplyonaccountofraceor
color;thathereforthefirsttimewehadachancetorealizethedemocracywhichthefathers
oftheRepublicforesaw,andhespokepropheticwordsonfuturedisfranchisement.
"IamnotinsensibletotheresponsibilitywhichIassumeinsettingmyselfagainsta
propositionalreadyadoptedintheotherHouse,andhavingtherecommendationofa
committeetowhichthecountry
lookswithsuchjustexpectations,andtowhich,letmesay,Ilookwithsomuchtrust.But
aftercarefulreflection,IdonotfeelthatIcandootherwise....
"Thereareamongus,fourmillionsofcitizensnowrobbedofallshareinthegovernmentof
theircountry,whileatthesametimetheyaretaxedaccordingtotheirmeans,directlyand
indirectly,forthesupportoftheGovernment.Nobodycanquestionthisstatement.Andthis
bare-facedtyrannyoftaxationwithoutrepresentationitisnowproposedtorecognizeasnot
inconsistentwithfundamentalrightandtheguaranteeofarepublicangovernment.Instead
ofblastingityougoforwardtoembraceitasanelementofpoliticalpower.
"If,bythis,youexpecttoinducetherecentslave-mastertoconfertherightofsuffrage
withoutdistinctionofcolor,youwillfindthepropositionadelusionandasnare.Hewilldo
nosuchthing.Eventhebribeyouofferwillnottempthim.If,ontheotherhand,youexpect
toaccomplishareductionofhispoliticalpower,itismorethandoubtfulifyouwillsucceed,
whilethemeansyouemployareunworthyofourcountry.
"Therearetricksandevasionspossible,andthecunningslave-masterwilldrivehiscoachand
sixthroughyouramendmentstuffedwithallhisrepresentatives.Shouldhecheatyouinthis
matter,itwillonlybeaproperreturnfortheendeavoronyourparttocircumventhimatthe
expenseoffellow-citizenstowhomyouareboundbyeveryobligationofpublicfaith."54
Seldomhasagreatpoliticalprophecybeensostrikinglyfulfilled!
StevensintheHousehad,byhisdiplomacy,rangedbackofhispolicytheindustrialleadersof
theNorthwhofearedthatareturnoftheSouthwouldmeanattackuponthetariff,the
nationalbanks,thedebt,andthewholenewpost-wareconomicstructure.Sumnerinthe
Senate,ontheotherhand,tooklittleaccountofthepoliticalgame.Hesethisstrategyonthe
highgroundofdemocracy,anddemocracyforallmen,anditwashisoppositionthatkilled
thefirstdraftoftheFourteenthAmendmentwhichpermittedthedisfranchisementof
Negroesonpenaltyofreducedrepresentation.Stevenswithinfinitepainshadgottenthis
muchthroughtheCommitteeofFifteenandtheHouseofRepresentatives.Sumnerspokehis
convictionsdespitethedesertionoffriendsandparty.SenatorWilliamsofOregonexpressed
admiration,butcouldnotfollowhim."Theechoesofhisloftyandmajesticperiodswilllinger
andrepeatthemselvesamongthecorridorsofhistory."
Therewaswidediscussionthroughoutthecountry.Garrisonwasconverted,andtohim
Sumner'sspeechseemedunanswerable.ToWhittier,itwasirresistible;Phillips'voicewas
filledwithenthusiasm,
whileHenryWardBeechersaidthatthespeechrosefarabovetheoccasion,"coveringa
groundwhichwillabideafterallcontemporaryquestionsofspeciallegislationhavepassed
away."
TheproposedamendmentwentdowntodefeatonMarch9,receivingonly25votesagainst
22,insteadofthenecessarytwo-thirdsmajority.Sumner'swideinfluence,whileitdidnot
commandthefullsympathyofRepublicansorDemocrats,nevertheless,wasenoughtoblock
compromisebetweenNorthernindustryandtheabolition-democracy.Fessendenwasbitter
andStevensfurious.NomandemandedmoreforNegroesthanStevens,orwasmore
thoroughlyanadvocateofcompletedemocracy.But,ashesaid,"Thecontrolofrepublics
dependsonthenumber,notthequality,ofthevoters.Thisisnotagovernmentofsaints.It
hasalargesprinklingofsinners."
AstheheadoftheCommitteeofFifteen,hewastryingtogetapropositionforwhichatwothirdsmajorityofCongresswouldvote,andstartthecountryasfarontheroadtowards
democracyandabolitionofcasteaswaspossibleunderthecircumstances.Hecomplained
thathispropositionhad"beenslaughteredbyapuerileandpedanticcriticism."
AndrewJohnsonwasdeeplyincensedbySumner'sspeechandsneeredatitnextday."Iam
freetosaytoyouthatIdonotliketobearraignedbysomeonewhocangetuphandsomelyroundedperiodsanddealinrhetoric,andtalkaboutabstractideasofliberty,whonever
periledlife,liberty,orproperty.Thiskindoftheoretical,hollow,unpracticalfriendship
amountstobutverylittle."
HewasreceivingagroupofNegroeswhoweretryingbydirectappealeithertogethis
sympathyortoprobehisanimusagainsttherace.TheFreedmen'sBureauBillhadpassed,
butJohnsonhadnotyetindicatedwhatactionhewouldtake.TheCivilRightsBillandthe
firstdraftoftheFourteenthAmendmentwerebeforetheSenate.Perhapsthedelegation
hopedtoinfluencehim.
DouglasshadseenJohnsononinaugurationdayin1865whenPresidentLincolnhadpointed
Douglassouttohim."Thefirstexpressionwhichcametohisface,andwhichIthinkwasthe
trueindexofhisheart,wasoneofbittercontemptandaversion.SeeingthatIobservedhim,
hetriedtoassumeamorefriendlyappearance,butitwastoolate."55
IntheinterviewwithPresidentJohnson,February7,1866,therewerepresentGeorgeT.
DowningofRhodeIsland,WilliamE.MathewsofNewYork,JohnJonesofPhiladelphia,
JohnF.CookofWashington,JosephE.Otis,A.W.Ross,WilliamWhipper,JohnM.Brown,
AlexanderDunlap,FrederickDouglassandhissonLewis.
"Whatwassaidontheoccasionbroughtthewholequestionvirtu-
allybeforetheAmericanpeople.Untilthatinterviewthecountrywasnotfullyawareofthe
intentionsandpolicyofPresidentJohnsononthesubjectofreconstruction,especiallyin
respecttothenewlyemancipatedclassoftheSouth.Afterhavingheardthebriefaddresses
madebyhimtoMr.Downingandmyself,heoccupiedatleastthreequartersofanhourin
whatseemedasetspeech,andrefusedtolistentoanyreplyonourpart,althoughsolicitedto
grantafewmomentsforthatpurpose."56
ThePresidentshookhandswiththecoloredmenandthenGeorgeT.Downing,aleading
NegrofromNewport,RhodeIsland,openedthediscussion.HesaidtothePresident:"We
desireforyoutoknowthatwecomefeelingthatwearefriendsmeetingafriend."Hesaid
thattheyrepresentedcoloredpeoplefromthe"StatesofIllinois,Wisconsin,Alabama,
Mississippi,Florida,SouthCarolina,NorthCarolina,Virginia,Maryland,Pennsylvania,New
York,theNewEnglandstates,andtheDistrictofColumbia."Theywerenotsatisfiedwithan
amendmentprohibitingslaverybutwanteditenforcedbyappropriatelegislation.
"WeareAmericans,native-bornAmericans;wearecitizens....Weseenorecognitionof
colororraceintheorganiclawoftheland....Ithasbeenshowninthepresentwarthatthe
governmentmayjustlyreachitsstrongarmintotheStatesanddemandfromthosewhoowe
itallegiance,theirassistanceandsupport.Mayitnotreachoutalikearmtosecureand
protectitssubjectsuponwhomithasaclaim?"
ThenFrederickDouglasscameforwardandsaid:"Yournobleandhumanepredecessorplaced
inourhandstheswordtoassistinsavingthenation,andwedohopethatyou,hisable
successor,willfavorablyregardtheplacinginourhands,theballotwithwhichtosave
ourselves."
ThePresidentwasevidentlyembarrassedandfloundered.Hewasnotgoingtomakea
speech;hehadjeopardizedlife,libertyandproperty,notonlyforthecoloredpeople,butfor
thegreatmassofpeople.Hewasafriendofthecoloredman,but"Idonotwanttoadopta
policythatIbelievewillendinacontestbetweenraces,whichifpersistedinwillresultinthe
exterminationofoneortheother."
HerememberedhisspeechtoNashvilleNegroesbeforetheelectionandrepeatedhis
willingnesstobea"Mosestoleadhimfrombondagetofreedom,"butnotintoawarofraces.
Hesaidthatonecantalkabouttheballot-boxandjusticeandDeclarationofIndependence,
but"supposebysomemagictouchyoucansaytoeveryone,'Youshallvotetomorrow.'How
muchwouldthatamelioratetheirconditionatthistime?"
ThenthePresidentapproachedDouglassandsaid,"Nowletusget
closeruptothissubject."Hesaidheopposedslaverybecauseitwasamonopolyandgave
profitandpowertoanaristocracy.Bygettingclearofthemonopoly,theyhadabolished
slavery.
Douglassstartedtointerrupt,butthePresidentwasnotthrough.Hewentontoshowthe
positionofthepoorwhiteinrelationtotheslaveowners,andhowtheslavesdespisedthe
poorwhites.Douglassdeniedthispersonally,butthePresidentinsistedthatanyway,most
coloredpeopledid,andthismadethepoorwhitemanopposedbothtotheslaveandhis
master;andthat,therefore,therewasenmitybetweenthecoloredmanandthepoorwhite.
Alreadythecoloredmanhadgainedhisfreedomduringthewar,andifheandthepoorwhite
cameintocompetitionattheballot-box,a"warofraces"wouldresult.
Moreover,wasitpropertoputonapeople,withouttheirconsent,Negrosuffrage?"Doyou
denythatfirstgreatprincipleoftherightofthepeopletogovernthemselves?"HereDowning
interrupted."Applywhatyouhavesaid,Mr.President,toSouthCarolina,forinstance,where
amajorityoftheinhabitantsarecolored."ThePresidenttwisteduncomfortablyandsaidthat
themattertowhichhereferred"comesupwhenagovernmentisundergoingafundamental
change"andhepreferredtoinstanceOhioratherthanSouthCarolina.Wasitrighttoforce
Ohiotomakeachangeintheelectivefranchiseagainstitswill?
HecouldnottouchthequestionastowhetheritwasrighttopreventamajorityinSouth
Carolinafromrulingbecause,tohismind,nonumberofNegroescouldoutweighthewillof
whites.Hestumbledonwithoutmentioningthissuppressedminorpremiseandsaid,"Itisa
fundamentaltenetofmycreedthatthewillofthepeoplemustbeobeyed.Isthereanything
wrongorunfairinthat?"
Douglasssmiled,stillthinkingofSouthCarolina:"Agreatdealthatiswrong,Mr.President,
withallrespect."ButthePresidentinsisted:"Itisthepeopleofthestatesthatmustfor
themselvesdeterminethisthing.Idonotwanttobeengagedinaworkthatwillcommencea
warofraces."Thenheindicatedthattheinterviewwasatanend;hewasgladtohavemet
them,andthankedthemforthecomplimentpaidhim.
Douglassreturnedthethanks,andsaidthattheyhadnotcometoarguebutifthePresident
wouldgrantpermission,"Wewouldendeavortocontrovertsomeofthepositionsyouhave
assumed."Mr.Downing,too,suggestedpersuasivelythatthePresident,byhiskind
explanation,"musthavecontemplatedsomereplytotheviewswhichhehasadvanced."
Douglasscontinued,"Iwouldliketosayoneortwowordsinreply:Youenfranchiseyour
enemiesanddisfranchiseyourfriends....Myownimpressionisthattheverythingthatyour
Excellencywould
avoidintheSouthernstatescanonlybeavoidedbytheverymeasurethatweproposed....I
wouldliketosayawordorsoinregardtothatmatteroftheenfranchisementoftheblacksas
ameansofpreventingtheverythingwhichyourExcellencyseemstoapprehend—thatisa
conflictofraces."
ThePresidentnaturallydidnotwanttogivepublicitytoviewsofNegroesantagonistictohis
own,andsaidshortlythattherewereotherplacesbesidestheSouthfortheNegrotolive.
"But,"saidDouglass,"themastershavethemakingofthelawsandwecannotgetawayfrom
theplantation.""Whatpreventsyou?"askedJohnson.Douglassrepliedthat,"Hismaster
thendecidesforhimwhereheshallgo,whereheshallwork,howmuchheshallwork....He
isabsolutelyinthehandsofthosemen."
ThePresidentreplied,"Ifthemasternowcontrolshimorhisactions,wouldhenotcontrol
himinhisvote?"Douglassanswered:"LettheNegroonceunderstandthathehasanorganic
righttovote,andhewillraiseupapartyintheSouthernstatesamongthepoor,whowill
rallywithhim.Thereisthisconflictthatyouspeakofbetweenthewealthyslaveownerand
thepoorman."ThePresidentrepliedeagerly:"Youtouchrightuponthepointthere.Thereis
thisconflict,andhence,Isuggestemigration."
ThePresidentthenbowedhisdarkvisitorsout,sayingtheywerealldesirousof
accomplishingthesameendsbutproposedtodosobyfollowingdifferentroads.Douglass,
turningtoleave,said:
"ThePresidentsendsustothepeopleandwegotothepeople.""Yes,sir,"answeredthe
President,"Ihavegreatfaithinthepeople.Ibelievetheywilldowhatisright."5T
Afterwardsthecoloreddelegationpublishedareplytovariouspointsbroughtupbythe
President,andespeciallystressedthematterofenmitybetweentheNegroesandthepoor
whites:
"Thefirstpointtowhichwefeelespeciallyboundtotakeexceptionisyourattempttofounda
policyopposedtoourenfranchisement,upontheallegedgroundofanexistinghostilityon
thepartoftheformerslavestowardsthepoorwhitepeopleoftheSouth.Weadmitthe
existenceofthishostility,andholdthatitisentirelyreciprocal;butyouobviouslycommitan
errorbydrawinganargumentfromanincidentofslavery,andmakingitabasisforapolicy
adaptedtoastateoffreedom.ThehostilitybetweenthewhiteandblacksoftheSouthis
easilyexplained.Ithasitsrootandsapintherelationofslavery,andwasincitedonboth
sidesbythecunningoftheslavemasters.Thosemasterssecuredtheirascendencyoverboth
thepoorwhitesandblacksbyputtingenmitybetweenthem.
"Theydividedbothtoconquereach.Therewasnoearthlyreason
whytheblacksshouldnothateanddreadthepoorwhiteswheninastateofslavery,forit
wasfromthisclassthattheirmastersreceivedtheirslavecatchers,slave-driversand
overseers.Theywerethemencalledinuponalloccasionsbythemasterswheneverany
fiendishoutragewastobecommittedupontheslave.Now,sir,youcannotbutperceive,that
thecauseofthishatredremoved,theeffectmustberemovedalso.Slaveryisabolished.The
causeofthisantagonismisremoved,andyoumustseethatitisaltogetherillogical(and
putting'newwineintooldbottles')tolegislatefromslaveholdingpremisesforapeople
whomyouhaverepeatedlydeclaredityourpurposetomaintaininfreedom.
"Besides,evenifitweretrue,asyouallege,thatthehostilityoftheblackstowardsthepoor
whitesmustnecessarilyprojectitselfintoastateoffreedom,andthatthisenmitybetween
thetworacesisevenmoreintenseinastateoffreedomthaninastateofslavery,inthe
nameofheaven,wereverentlyask,howcanyou,inviewofyourprofesseddesiretopromote
thewelfareoftheblackman,deprivehimofallmeansofdefenseandclothehimwhomyou
regardashisenemyinthepanoplyofpoliticalpower?Canitbethatyourecommendapolicy
whichwouldarmthestrongandcastdownthedefenseless?Canyou,byanypossibilityof
reasoning,regardthisasjust,fair,orwise?Experienceprovesthatthosearemostabused
whocanbeabusedwiththegreatestimpunity....
"Onthecolonizationtheoryyouwerepleasedtobroach,verymuchcouldbesaid.Itis
impossibletosuppose,inviewoftheusefulnessoftheblackmanintimesofpeaceasa
laborerintheSouth,andintimeofwarasasoldierintheNorth,andthegrowingrespectfor
hisrightsamongthepeopleandhisincreasingadaptationtoahighstateofcivilizationinhis
nativeland,thattherecanevercomeatimewhenhecanberemovedfromthiscountry
withoutaterribleshocktoitsprosperityandpeace."58
TheCommitteeofFifteenbeganitsworkagain.TheindomitableStevensnevergaveup,
neverdespaired;ifhecouldnotgetallhewanted,hestoodfastandtookwhathecould.He
saidsadlyJune13,1866,intheHouseofRepresentatives,referringtotheproposed
FourteenthAmendmentwithitspermissiontodisfranchisetheNegro:"Inmyyouth,inmy
manhood,inmyoldage,Ihadfondlydreamedthatwhenanyfortunatechanceshouldhave
brokenupforawhilethefoundationofourinstitutions,andreleasedusfromobligationsthe
mosttyranicalthatevermanimposedinthenameoffreedom,thattheintelligent,pureand
justmenofthisRepublic,truetotheirprofessionsandtheirconsciences,wouldhaveso
remodeledallourinstitutionsastohavefreedthemfromeveryvestigeofhumanoppression,
ofinequalityofrights,oftherecognizeddegradationofthepoor,andthesuperiorcasteofthe
rich.Inshort,thatnodistinctionwouldbetoleratedinthispurifiedRepublicbutwhatarose
frommeritandconduct.Thisbrightdreamhasvanished'likethebaselessfabricofavision.'I
findthatweshallbeobligedtobecontentwithpatchinguptheworstportionsoftheancient
edifice,andleavingit,inmanyofitsparts,tobesweptthroughbythetempests,frostsand
thestormsofdespotism.
"Doyouinquirewhy,holdingtheseviewsandpossessingsomewillofmyown,Iacceptso
imperfectaproposition?Ianswer,becauseIliveamongmenandnotamongangels;among
menasintelligent,asdeterminedandasindependentasmyself,who,notagreeingwithme,
donotchoosetoyielduptheiropinionstomine.Mutualconcessionsisouronlyresort,or
mutualhostilities."59
TheCommitteeofFifteennowtriedtofindoutbyactualinquiryjustwhatthesituationin
theSouthwaswithregardtotheNegro.Itdidthis,notsomuchbecauseanyonewasin
doubt,asbecausethesituationoftheNegrowasthemostappealingthingthatcouldbeused
tobringamajoritytovotefortheindustrialNorth.Itwouldincreasethetremendousmoral
afflatuswhichmadethewarmoreandmoresymbolicinthemindsofthepeopleofthe
UnitedStatesofagreattriumphofhumanfreedom.Sub-committeesofthemaincommittee
tooktestimonyformonthsallovertheSouthandeventuallyissuedanunanswerablearrayof
evidence.
April20,RobertDaleOwenbroughtaproposalforaFourteenthAmendmenttoStevensin
theCommitteeofFifteen."Stevenspickedupmymanuscript,lookeditcarefullyover,and
then,inhisimpulsiveway,said:'I'llbeplainwithyou,Owen.We'vehadnothingbeforeus
thatcomesanywherenearbeingasgoodasthis,orascomplete.Itwouldbelikelytopass,
too;that'sthebestofit.Wehaven'tamajority,eitherinourcommitteeorinCongress,for
immediatesuffrage;andIdon'tbelievethestateshaveyetadvancedsofarthattheywouldbe
willingtoratifyit.I'lllaythatamendmentofyoursbeforeourcommitteetomorrow,ifyou
sayso;andI'lldomybesttoputitthrough.'"60
Previoustothistime,thethoughtwastobringinseveralseparateamendments,butnowthe
attitudewastounitethewholematterinonecomprehensiveamendment,sothatthe
propositionofApril21waspresentedasfollows:
"Section1.Nodiscriminationshallbemadebyanystate,norbytheUnitedStates,astothe
civilrightsofpersonsbecauseofrace,color,orpreviousconditionofservitude.
"Section2.FromandafterthefourthdayofJuly,intheyearone
thousandeighthundredandseventy-six,nodiscriminationshallbemadebyanystate,norby
theUnitedStates,astotheenjoymentofclassesofpersonsoftherightofsuffrage,because
ofrace,color,orpreviousconditionofservitude.
"Section3.UntilthefourthdayofJuly,onethousandeighthundredandseventy-six,noclass
ofpersons,astotherightofanyofwhomtosuffragediscriminationshallbemadebyany
state,becauseofrace,color,orpreviousconditionofservitude,shallbeincludedinthebasis
ofrepresentation.
"Section4.DebtsincurredinaidofinsurrectionorofwaragainsttheUnion,andclaimsof
compensationforlossofinvoluntaryserviceorlabor,shallnotbepaidbyanystatenorbythe
UnitedStates."
Binghammovedafifthsectiontotheamendment,alongthelinesofhispreviousefforts:
"Section5.Nostateshallmakeorenforceanylawwhichshallabridgetheprivilegesor
immunitiesofcitizensoftheUnitedStates;norshallanystatedepriveanypersonoflife,
libertyorpropertywithoutdueprocessoflaw,nordenytoanypersonwithinitsjurisdiction
theequalprotectionofthelaws."
TheBinghamproposalwasfirstadoptedandthenstruckoutbythecommittee.Itwasvoted7
to6toreportthefirstthreesectionstoCongress.Binghamtriedinvaintobringinhis
proposalasaseparateamendment.
ThusOwen'spropositionwasorderedsenttoCongressandhadagoodchanceofbeing
adopted;butFessenden,thechairman,wassickwithvarioloidanditwasdecidedtodelay
finalreportuntilhewasbetter.StevenstoldOwensthesequel:
"Ouractiononyouramendment[saidStevens]had,itseems,gottennoisedabroad.Inthe
courseoflastweekthemembersfromNewYork,fromIllinois,andfromyourstatetoo,
Owen—fromIndiana—held,eachseparately,acaucustoconsiderwhetherequalityof
suffrage,presentorprospective,oughttoformapartoftheRepublicanprogramforthe
comingcanvass.
"Theywereafraid,sosomeofthemtoldus,thatiftherewasa'niggerinthewood-pile'atall
(thatwasthephrase),itwouldbeusedagainstthemasanelectioneeringhandle;andsomeof
them—hangtheircowardice!—mightlosetheirelections.Byinconsiderablemajoritieseachof
thesecaucusesdecidedthatNegrosuffrageinanyshape,oughttobeexcludedfromthe
platform;andtheycommunicatedthesedecisionstous.
"Ourcommitteehadn'tbackboneenoughtomaintainitsground.Yesterday,thevoteonyour
planwasreconsidered,youramendmentwaslaidonthetable,andinthecourseofthenext
threehourswe
contrivedtopatchtogether—well,whatyou'vereadthismorning."C1
ThesectionswerechangedsoassimplytoexcludedisfranchisedNegroesfrombeingmade
thebasisofapportionment.Williamsthenpresentedanewsectionwhichallowedthe
Negroesgraduallytobeenfranchised,andthusgraduallytobecomeabasisofrepresentation.
"Representativesshallbeapportionedamongseveralstateswhich1maybeincludedwithin
thisUnionaccordingtotheirrespectivenum-;bers,countingthewholenumberofpersonsin
eachStateexcludingIndiansnottaxed.ButwheneverinanyStatetheelectivefranchiseshall
bedeniedtoanyportionofitsmalecitizens,notlessthantwenty-oneyearsofage,orinany
wayabridged,exceptforparticipationinrebellionorothercrime,thebasisofrepresentation
insuchStateshallibereducedintheproportionwhichthenumberofsuchmalecitizens
shallbeartothewholenumberofmalecitizensnotlessthantwenty-.oneyearsofage."This
wasadoptedasSectionIIofthefinalamendment.
Finally,onthissamedate,theCommitteereinserted,byavoteof10-3,Bingham's
propositiononcivilrightsasSectionI.Afterward,Conkling,beforetheSupremeCourt,
explainedthisaction.
"AtthetimetheFourteenthAmendmentwasratified,individualsandjointstockcompanies
wereappealingforcongressionalandadministrativeprotectionagainsttheinvidiousand
discriminatingstateandlocaltaxes.Oneinstancewasthatofanexpresscompany,whose
stockwasownedlargelybycitizensoftheStateofNewYork,whoicamewithpetitionsand
billsseekingactsofCongresstoaidthemin1resistingwhattheydeemedoppressivetaxation
intwostates,andoppressiveandruinousrulesofdamagesappliedunderstatelaws.That
complaintsofoppressioninrespectofpropertyandotherrights,madebycitizensof
NorthernstateswhotookupresidenceintheSouth,;wererife,inandoutofCongress."
TheCommitteethenconsideredSectionIII.Mr.Harrismovedtoinsertthefollowing:
"Untilthe4thdayofJuly,intheyear1870,allpersonswhovoluntarilyadheredtothelate
insurrection,givingitaidandcomfort,shallbeexcludedfromtherighttovotefor
RepresentativesinCongressandforelectorsforPresidentandVicePresidentoftheUnited
States."62
Thiswasfinallyadoptedbyavoteof8-7.TheCommitteethendiscussedthereadmissionof
theSouthernstateswiththeFourteenthAmendmentasacondition.Finally,theJoint
ResolutionandthebillconcerningthereadmissionoftheSouthernstateswereadoptedbyai
voteof12-3.ThisproposedamendmentandbillwerereportedtotheHouseApril30,debated
May8,9,and10,andpassedMay10.StevensdefendeditMay8andMay10.
"OurfathershadbeencompelledtopostponetheprinciplesoftheirgreatDeclaration,and
waitfortheirfullestablishmentuntilamorepropitioustime.Thattimeoughttobepresent
now.Butthepublicmindhasbeeneducatedinerrorforacentury.Howdifficultinadayto
unlearnit.Inrebuilding,itisnecessarytoclearawaytherottenanddefectiveportionsofthe
oldfoundations,andtosinkdeepandfoundtheunrepairededificeuponthefirmfoundation
ofeternaljustice.If,perchance,theaccumulatedquick-sandsrenderitimpossibletoreachin
everypartsofirmabasis,thenitbecomesourdutytodrivedeepandsolidthesubstituted
pilesonwhichtobuild.Itwouldnotbewisetopreventtheraisingofthestructurebecause
somecornerofitmightbefoundeduponmaterialssubjecttotheinevitablelawsofmortal
decay.Itwerebettertoshelterthehouseholdandtrusttotheadvancingprogressofahigher
moralityandapurerandmoreintelligentprincipletounderpinthedefectivecorner....
"Thispropositionisnotallthatthecommitteedesired.Itfallsfarshortofmywishes,butit
fulfillsmyhopes.Ibelieveitisallthatcanbeobtainedinthepresentstateofpublicopinion.
NotonlyCongressbutseveralStatesaretobeconsulted.Uponacarefulsurveyofthewhole
ground,wedidnotbelievethatnineteenoftheloyalStatescouldbeinducedtoratifyany
propositionmorestringentthanthis.Isaynineteen,forIutterlyrepudiateandscorntheidea
thatanyStatenotactingintheUnionistobecountedonthequestionofratification.Itis
absurdtosupposethatanymorethanthree-fourthsoftheStatesthatproposethe
Amendmentarerequiredtomakeitvalid;thatStatesnotherearetobecountedaspresent.
Believingthenthatthisisthebestpropositionthatcanbemadeeffectual,Iacceptit.Ishall
notbedrivenbyclamorordenunciationtothrowawayagreatcausebecauseitisnotperfect.
IwilltakeallIcangetinthecauseofhumanityandleaveittobeperfectedbybettermenin
bettertimes.ItmaybethatthattimewillnotcomewhileIamheretoenjoytheglorious
triumph;butthatitwillcomeisascertainasthatthereisajustGod...."
Stevensthenreferredtothepreviousdraftoftheamendment.
"Afterhavingreceivedthecarefulexaminationandapprobationofthecommittee,andhaving
receivedtheunitedRepublicanvoteofonehundredandtwentyRepresentativesofthe
people,itwasdenouncedas'utterlyreprehensible,'and'unpardonable';'tobeencounteredas
apublicenemy';'positivelyendangeringthepeaceofthecountry,andcoveringitsnamewith
dishonor.''AwickednessonalargerscalethanthecrimeagainstKansasorthefugitiveslave
law;gross,foul,outrageous;anincredibleinjusticeagainstthewholeAfricanrace';withevery
othervulgarepithetwhichpolishedcultivationcouldcommand....Iconfessmymortification
atitsdefeat.Igrievedespeciallybecauseitalmostclosedthedoorofhopefortheameliorationoftheconditionofthefreedmen.
Butmeninpursuitofjusticemustneverdespair.Letusagaintryandseewhetherwecannot
devisesomewaytoovercometheunitedforcesofself-righteousRepublicansand
unrighteouscopperheads.Itwillnotdoforthosewhoforthirtyyearshavefoughtthebeasts
atEphesustobefrightenedbythefangsofmoderncatamounts."63
ThaddeusStevenscontinuedhisspeech,May10:"Letnotthesefriendsofsecessionsingto
metheirsirensongofpeaceandgoodwilluntiltheycanstopmyearstothescreamsand
groansofthedyingvictimsatMemphis.Iholdinmyhandanelaborateaccountfromaman
whomIknowtobeofthehighestrespectabilityinthecountry,everywordofwhichIbelieve.
Thisaccountofthatfoultransactiononlyreachedmelastnight.Itismorehorribleinits
atrocity,althoughnottothesameextent,thanthemassacreatJamaica.TellmeTennesseeor
anyotherStateisloyalofwhomsuchthingsareproved!...
"Ah,sir,itwasbutsixyearsagowhentheywerehere,justbeforetheywentouttojointhe
armiesofCataline,justbeforetheyleftthisHall.Thoseofyouwhowereherethenwill
rememberthesceneinwhicheverySouthernmember,encouragedbytheirallies,cameforth
inoneyellingbody,becauseaspeechforfreedomwasbeingmadehere;whenweaponswere
drawn,andBarksdale'sbowie-knifegleamedbeforeoureyes.Wouldyouhavethesemen
backagainsosoontoreenactthosescenes?WaituntilIamgone,Iprayyou.Iwantnottogo
throughitagain.Itwillbebutashorttimeformycolleaguestowait....
"Now,sir,ifthegentlemenhadrememberedthescenestwentyyearsago,whennomandared
tospeakwithoutriskinghislife,whenbutafewmendiddoit—fortherewerecowardsin
thosedays,asthereareinthese—youwouldnothavefoundthemaskingtobringthesemen
in,andIonlywonderthatmyfriendfromOhio[Mr.Bingham]shouldintimateadesireto
bringthemhere."
Theannouncementofthevote,May10,was128to37,19notvoting.Itwasreceivedwith
applauseonthefloorandinthegalleries.Mr.ElridgeofWisconsinroseangrilytoaquestion
oforder."IwanttoknowifitisunderstoodthattheproceedingsofthisHousearetobe
interruptedbythosewhocomehereandoccupythegalleries."
"ThegentlemanfromWisconsin,"repliedthespeaker,"makesthepointoforderthat
expressionsofapprobationordisapprobationfrompersonsoccupyingthegalleriesarenotin
order.Thechairsustainsthepointoforder."ButMr.Elridgewasstillangry.
"Idonotwantourproceedingstobeinterruptedbythe'niggerheads'inthegalleries."
ThegallerieshissedandStevensasked,"Isitinorderformembersonthefloortodisturb
thoseinthegalleries?"
"Membersuponthefloorshouldnotinsultthespectatorsinthegalleries,"saidthespeaker.
64
TheFourteenthAmendmentcameupintheSenateApril30,butFessendenwasstillilland
noactionwastakenfortwoweeks.Finally,May23,HowardofMichiganbeganthedebate.
HedeclaredthattheobjectoftheFourteenthAmendmentwasprimarilytogiveCongressthe
powertoenforcetheguaranteesoffreedominthefirsteightamendmentstothe
Constitution.TheWest,ledbySherman,Doolittleandothers,triedtoreintroducevotersas
thebasisofrepresentation.NewEngland,throughSenatorWilsonofMassachusetts,was
opposedtostrikingfromthebasisofrepresentation2,100,000unnaturalizedforeignerswho
gavetheNorth17representatives.Shermandidnotagree."Ifitisrighttoexcludefour
millionsofblacksintheSouthernstateswhoaredeniedrepresentation,isitnotalsorightto
excludeallotherclassesineveryotherstatewhoaredeniedpoliticalpower?"
ThequestionofNegrocitizenshipwasdiscussed,andJulianofIndianaopposedthe
conservativestand;tofollowconservatismwewouldrecognizetherevoltingstatesasstillin
theUnion;itopposestheprotectionofthemillionsofloyalcoloredpeopleoftheSouth
throughtheagencyoftheFreedmen'sBureau;itopposestheCivilRightsBill;itopposes,
withallbitterness,thepolicyofgivingthefreedmentheballot.Ontheotherhand,radicalism
wouldholdtreasonacrime;itwouldbaserepresentationontheactualvoters;itfavorsthe
protectionofthecoloredpeopleoftheSouththroughtheFreedmen'sBureauandtheCivil
RightsBill;itdemandstheballotastherightofeverycoloredcitizen.
EvidentlythebreachbetweentheEastandWestwasgrowing,andcoupledwithSumner's
attitude,itlookedasthoughtheFourteenthAmendmentwasagaindoomed.TheRepublican
partyfellbackuponthecaucus.FromMay24toMay28,theSenatewasinsessionbutafew
hours,whichgavetheRepublicanstimetodiscussthewholematterinpartycaucus.The
partyatthattimeshowedcleardivisionintoconservative,industrialelements,like
Fessenden,TrumbullandMorgan;andtheabolition-democracy,ledbySumner,Wadeand
Yates.TheoppositionofSumnerandtheabolition-democracywasfinallyovercomebythe
plainfactsofthecase:thiswastheutmostthatcouldbegotfromCongressindefenseof
democracy.Wasitnotworthtaking?Whatcouldbehopedforinfurtherdelay?
Asaresultofthecaucuses,certainamendmentsweremade.Thesecondsectionwas
amendedtostrikeouttheword"citizen"andinsert"inhabitantsbeingcitizensoftheUnited
States."Anewfirstsectionwasinserted:"ThatallpersonsbornornaturalizedintheUnitedStatesandsubjectto
thejurisdictionthereof,arecitizensoftheUnitedStatesandofstateswhereintheyreside."
TheSenate'schangesthusconsistedindefiningwhowerecitizens,andinsubstitutingfor
disfranchisementofallparticipantsinsecessionuntil1870,theineligibilityofcertainhigh
officials;itopenedtheelectivefranchisetosuchpersonsasthestatesmaychoosetoadmit,
andadoptedthethirdsectioninitspresentform.
Wehavethusfollowed,aswellasrecordsletus,theinnerhistoryoftheReconstruction
measuresofCongressintheCommitteeofFifteenandothersources.Nowletuslookatthe
proceedingsofCongress,asnegotiationsonthesemattersroseamongtheleaders,hereand
thereandnowandthen,inaseaofstrugglingunorganizedaction.
Inthematterofcivilrights,thefinaldraftoftheFourteenthAmendmentsaid:
"AllpersonsbornornaturalizedintheUnitedStates,andsubjecttothejurisdictionthereof,
arecitizensoftheUnitedStatesandoftheStatewhereintheyreside.NoStateshallmakeor
enforceanylawwhichshallabridgetheprivilegesorimmunitiesofcitizensoftheUnited
States;norshallanyStatedepriveanypersonoflife,liberty,orproperty,withoutdueprocess
oflaw,nordenytoanypersonwithinitsjurisdictiontheequalprotectionofthelaws."
ThefirstpropositiononcivilrightswasintroducedintotheHousebyMr.Stevens,December
5,1865.OnDecember6,BinghamofOhioofferedanamendment.Boththeseresolutions
wenttotheCommitteeontheJudiciary.TwootherpropositionswereintroducedDecember
11.February1,1866,amotionwaspasseddirectingtheCommitteeofFifteentoinquireinto
thismatter.Williamssuggestedanamendment,February5,empoweringCongresstoenforce
"allobligations,prohibitionsordisabilitiesimposedbytheConstitutionontheseveral
states."66February13,1866,theCommitteeofFifteen,aswehavenoted,reportedtoboth
HousesaproposedamendmentbyMr.BinghamintheHouseandbyMr.Fessendeninthe
Senate.Bothmotionswereindefinitelypostponed,andtherewasastrongdesiretogetthe
wholefinalreportoftheCommitteeofFifteen.
OnMarch9,1866,whiletheSenatewasdiscussingtheapportionmentofrepresentatives,
SenatorYatesofIllinoismovedanamendmentforcivilandpoliticalrights,butitsecured
onlysevenvotes.TwootherandsimilarpropositionsweremadeintheSenatebutreceived
smallsupport.ThefirstsectionoftheresolutionreportedtotheHouseApril30,1866,
becameeventuallythecivilrightssectionoftheFourteenthAmendmentpassedbythe
House,buttheSenate,aswehaveseen,didnotadoptit.Severalattemptsweremadeto
amenditinthe
Senate:Mr.Wadeofferedasubstitutefortheentireresolution,butthewholeproposition
failed.WhenthesecondpropositioncamebeforetheSenate,May30,HowardofMichigan,in
behalfofSenatemembersoftheJointCommittee,presentedaseriesofresolutionswhich
hadbeenadoptedbytheRepublicancaucusasasubstitutefortheHouseAmendment.The
substitutewasaccepted.Thefirstchangewastoprefixthesewordstothefirstclauseofthe
amendment:"AllpersonsbornintheUnitedStatesandsubjecttothejurisdictionthereof,are
citizensoftheUnitedStatesandofthestatewhereintheyreside."
Later,FessendenofMainesecuredtheinclusionof"naturalizedpersons."SenatorJohnson
ofMarylandtriedunsuccessfullytostrikeouttheguaranteethatstatesshouldnotmakeor
enforceanylawtoabridgetheprivilegesofimmunityofcitizens.Disabilityforparticipation
insecessionwascoveredbySectionIII:"Nopersonshallbeasenatororrepresentativein
Congress,orelectorofPresidentandVice-President,orholdanyoffice,civilormilitary,
undertheUnitedStates,orunderanyState,who,havingpreviouslytakenanoath,asa
memberofCongress,orasanofficeroftheUnitedStates,orasamemberofanyState
legislature,orasanexecutiveorjudicialofficerofanyState,tosupporttheConstitutionof
theUnitedStates,shallhaveengagedininsurrectionorrebellionagainstthesame,orgiven
aidorcomforttotheenemiesthereof.ButCongressmay,byavoteoftwo-thirdsofeach
house,removesuchdisability."Fouramendmentsondisabilitiesforparticipationinthe
rebellionwereintroducedin1866.InthereportoftheCommitteeofFifteenApril30,1866,
therewasincludedathirdsectionbywhichallpersonswhovoluntarilyadheredtothelate
insurrectionwereexcludedfromtherighttovoteuntilJuly4,1870.Attemptsweremadeto
amendthisintheHouse.WhentheresolutionreachedtheSenatetherewere15(attemptsto
alterthissection.OnMay30,SenatorHowardofMichiganinbehalfoftheSenatemembers
oftheJointCommitteeonReconstructionpresentedanewdraftinwhichheproposedin
placeofthethirdsection,theprovisionwhichnowappearsintheFourteenthAmendment.
Manyeffortsweremadetoamendit.TheDemocraticSenatorsseemedtoprefertheHoward
substitutetotheHouseamendment.Thissectionpassed.Thequestionofsuffragefor
NegroeswascoveredbySectionII:"Representativesshallbeapportionedamongtheseveral
Statesaccordingtotheirrespectivenumbers,countingthewholenumberofpersonsineach
State,excludingIndiansnottaxed.Butwhentherighttovoteatanyelectionforthechoiceof
electorsforPresidentandVice-PresidentoftheUnitedStates,RepresentativesinCongress,
theexecutiveorjudicialofficersofaState,orthemembersofthelegislaturethereof,isdeniedtoany
ofthemaleinhabitantsofsuchState,beingtwenty-oneyearsofageandcitizensofthe
UnitedStates,orinanywayabridgedexceptforparticipationinrebellionorothercrime,the
basisofrepresentationthereinshallbereducedintheproportionwhichthenumberofsuch
malecitizensshallbeartothewholenumberofmalecitizenstwenty-oneyearsofageinsuch
State."
ThisquestionofNegrosuffragegaverisetofiveproposedamendmentsjustbeforetheCivil
War.AlltheseexcludedpersonsofNegrodescentfromtherighttovote,andmostofthem
excludedfromthemtherighttoholdoffice.
Intheopeningdaysofthe39thCongress,thereweresixpropositionstoguaranteetheright
tovotetoNegroes.TwoproposedaneducationalstandardinvotingforFederalofficials.
Boutwellproposedanamendmentmakingunlawfulanydistinctionintheelectivefranchise
onaccountofraceorcolor.AnotheramendmentproposedtogiveCongresspowertodefine
thequalificationsofvoters,andmembersofCongress,andofPresidentialelectors.
Henderson,January23,1866,proposedanamendmentdenyingthestatetherightto
discriminate
:againstvotersonaccountofraceorcolor.January22,1866,theproposalonthe
apportionmentofRepresentativesandabridgmentofRepresentativeswaspresentedbythe
CommitteeofFifteentothe
iHouse.ItwasrecommittedJanuary29,andreportedagainJanuary31.ItpassedJanuary31.
IntheSenate,therewerefiveattemptstoamendthisresolution.Sumnerpresenteda
resolutionmakingcolordiscriminationimpossible
1inthecourtroomorballot-box.Thiswasrejected,39to8.Howardproposedtoadmittothe
franchiseNegroesinthearmyandnavy,or
ithoseabletoreadandwrite,orthosewhohadpropertytothevalueof$250.Thiswasnot
actedon.Sumneragainattemptedtoamendtheresolutionbymakingillegaldiscrimination
onaccountofraceandcolor.Itwaslost,39-8.AsimilarproposalbyYatesofIllinoiswas
irejected.
ThreeotherpropositionstoamendtheConstitution,relativetothesuffrage,wereintroduced
beforethecloseofthisCongress.OnewasapropositionbyStewartofNevadaonMarch16;
thisforeshadowedthesubsequent"GrandfatherClause."ItadmittedtheSouthernstateson
severalconditions,oneofwhichwas:"Theextensionoftheelectivefranchisetoallpersons
uponthesametermsandconditions,makingnodiscriminationonaccountofrace,coloror
previousconditionofservitude;providedthatthosewhowerequalifiedtovoteintheyear;
i860bythelawsoftheirrespectivestatesshallnotbedisfranchisedby
reasonofanynewtestsorconditionswhichhavebeenormaybeprescribedsincethatyear.
"Thatwhentheaforementionedconditionshallhavebeencompliedwithandratifiedbya
majorityofthepresentvotingpopulation,ageneralamnestyshallbeproclaimed.
"Thatalltheloyalstatesberespectfullyrequestedtoincorporateintheirconstitutionsan
amendmentcorrespondingtotheoneabovedescribed.
"ThatitisnotintendedtoassertacoercivepoweronthepartofCongress,inregardtothe
regulationofthesuffrageinthedifferentstates,butonlytomakeanappealtotheirown
goodsenseandloveofcountry,withaviewtothepreventionofseriousevilsnow
threatened."
Sewardsaidin1870,"WhentheReconstructionquestionaroseabouttheFourteenth
Amendment,IproposedthatallpersonsbornintheUnitedStatesafterthedateofMr.
Lincoln'sproclamationabolishingslaveryshouldbeentitledtovoteonarrivingattheageof
twenty-oneyears,andthisshouldenterintoReconstruction."67
TheresolutionforthenewFourteenthAmendmentpassedtheSenateJune8,1866,byavote
of33-11;fivemembersnotvoting.TheamendedresolutionwasbroughtbeforetheHouse
andwascalledupJune13.Afteralimiteddebate,theamendmentsmadebytheSenatewere
concurredinbyavoteof120-32,thirty-twonotvoting.ThustheFourteenthAmendmentwas
senttothestatesforapproval.
AfterthePresident'svetooftheFreedmen'sBureauBill,manymemberswantedthequestion
immediatelyreconsidered,andthedayafterthePresident'sspeechofFebruary22,Senator
Wilsonintroducedabillwhichwasnotreported.Thelegislaturesofseveralstatesapproved
ofabill,bypetitionswhichurgedmaintainingtheBureau.ThePresidenttriedtocounteract
thisbysendingtwoagents,GeneralsSteedmanandFullerton,toinvestigatetheBureau.They
werebothinsympathywithhispolicyandmadeatouroffourmonths.Theycommended
HowardandbelievedthattheBureauhaddonemuchtopreserveorderandorganizefree
labor,butthatithadsometimesbeendishonestlyandinjudiciouslyadministered,andthatit
wastimeforittocometoanend.
Thisreportwaswidelycirculatedanddiscussed.Thechargeswereinvestigatedandpublic
confidenceintheBureauwasshaken.Nevertheless,May22,abilltocontinuetheBureau
wasintroduced.ItdifferedfromthebillofFebruary9,inlimitingtheBureautotwoyears.
LandheldunderSherman'sorderswastoberestoredtoformerownersandotherland
furnishedthedispossessedfreedmen.Armyofficerswereretainedintheserviceofthe
Bureau,andcommissionerswereauthorizedtocooperatewithagentsofbenevolent
associations;propertywastobeappropriatedfortheeducationofthefreedmen,andmilitaryprotectionoftheir
civilrightsguaranteed.
Afterdiscussion,thebillpassedtheHouseMay29,byvoteof96-32.IntheSenate,thebill
wasamendedandaconferencewasheld.Theconferenceagreedthatthequestionsarising
outofSherman'sordersshouldbeleftentirelywiththePresidentforsettlement.OnJune16,
thePresidentvetoedthebillandcalledtheFreedmen'sBureauapropositiontotransferfour
millionslavesfromtheiroriginalownerstoanewsetoftaskmasters.Byasevereexerciseof
partydiscipline,accordingtoBlaine,thenecessarytwo-thirdsvotewasprocuredineach
House,andthebillpassedoverthePresident'svetoonthesamedaythatitwasreceived.
Thusgovernmentguardianshipoffreedmenwasgivenatemporaryextensionundera
grudgingandpartlyinimicaladministration.ThedispositionofCongresstoyieldinpartto
thePresidentwasmanifest.
OnJune6,theCommitteeofFifteenwasreappointed.Sub-committeeshadbeentaking
testimonyallovertheSouth.
ThefinalreportoftheCommitteeofFifteenwasmadeJune18.Itmadeaneighthundred
pagebookand100,000copiesweredistributed.Itsmajorityandminoritysectionssummed
upthestrongestargumentsavailableforandagainsttheproposedmethodsof
Reconstruction.ThepartofthemajorityreportthattouchedtheNegrosaid:
"Slaveryhadbeenabolishedbyconstitutionalamendment.Alargeproportionofthe
populationhadbecome,insteadofmerechattels,freemenandcitizens.Throughallthepast
strugglethesehadremainedtrueandloyal,andhad,inlargenumbers,foughtonthesideof
theUnion.Itwasimpossibletoabandonthemwithoutsecuringthemtheirrightsasfreemen
andcitizens.Thewholecivilizedworldwouldhavecriedoutagainstsuchbaseingratitude,
andthebareideaisoffensivetoallright-thinkingmen.Hence,itbecameimportantto
inquirewhatcouldbedonetosecuretheirrights,civilandpolitical.Itwasevidenttoyour
committeethatadequatesecuritycouldonlybefoundinappropriateconstitutional
provisions....Theincreaseofrepresentationnecessarilyresultingfromtheabolitionof
slaverywasconsideredthemostimportantelementinthequestionsarisingoutofthe
changedconditionofaffairs,andthenecessityforsomefundamentalactioninthisregard
seemedimperative.
"Itappearedtoyourcommitteethattherightsofthesepersonsbywhomthebasisof
representationhadbeenthusincreasedshouldberecognizedbytheGeneralGovernment.
Whileslaves,theywerenotconsideredashavinganyrights,civilorpolitical.Itdidnotseem
justorproperthatallthepoliticaladvantagesderivedfromtheirbecomingfreeshouldbe
confinedtotheirformermasters,whohadfought
againsttheUnion,andwithheldfromthemselves,whohadalwaysbeenloyal....
"DoubtswereentertainedwhetherCongresshadpower,evenundertheamended
Constitution,toprescribethequalificationsofvotersinastate,orcouldactdirectlyonthe
subject.Itwasdoubtful,intheopinionofyourcommittee,whetherthestateswouldconsent
tosurrenderapowertheyhadalwaysexercised,andtowhichtheywereattached.Asthebest,
ifnottheonly,methodofsurmountingthedifficulty,andaseminentlyjustandproperin
itself,yourcommitteecametotheconclusionthatpoliticalpowershouldbepossessedinall
thestatesexactlyinproportionastherightofsuffrageshouldbegranted,withoutdistinction
ofcolororrace....
"Itappearsquiteclearthattheanti-slaveryamendments,bothtothestateandFederal
Constitutions,wereadoptedintheSouthwithre-luctancybythebodieswhichdidadopt
them,whileinsomestatestheyhavebeeneitherpassedbyinsilenceorrejected.The
languageofalltheprovisionsandordinancesofthesestatesonthesubjectamountsto
nothingmorethananunwillingadmissionofanunwelcometruth....
"Lookingstillfurtherattheevidencetakenbyyourcommittee,itisfoundtobeclearly
shown,bywitnessesofthehighestcharacter,andhavingthebestmeansofobservation,that
theFreedmen'sBureau,institutedforthereliefandprotectionoffreedmenandrefugees,is
almostuniversallyopposedbythemassofthepopulation,andexistsinanefficientcondition
onlyundermilitaryprotection,whiletheUnionmenoftheSouthareearnestinitsdefense,
declaringwithonevoicethatwithoutitsprotectionthecoloredpeoplewouldnotbe
permittedtolaboratfairprices,andcouldhardlyliveinsafety.Theyalsotestifythatwithout
theprotectionofUnitedStatestroopsUnionmen,whetherofNorthernorSouthernorigin,
wouldbeobligedtoabandontheirhomes.Thefeelinginmanyportionsofthecountry
towardstheemancipatedslaves,especiallyamongtheuneducatedandignorant,isoneof
vindictiveandmalicioushatred.Thisdeep-seatedprejudiceagainstcolorisassiduously
cultivatedbythepublicjournals,andleadstoactsofcruelty,oppression,andmurder,which
thelocalauthoritiesareatnopainstopreventorpunish.Thereisnogeneraldispositionto
placethecoloredrace,constitutingatleasttwo-fifthsofthepopulation,upontermsevenof
civilequality.Whilemanyinstancesmaybefoundwherelargeplantersandmenofthebetter
classacceptthesituation,andhonestlystrivetobringaboutabetterorderofthingsby
employingthefreedmenatfairwagesandtreatingthemkindly,thegeneralfeelingand
dispositionamongallclassesareyettotallyaversetothetolerationofanyclassofpeople
friendlytotheUnion,betheywhite
orblack;andthisaversionisnotinfrequentlymanifestedinaninsultingandoffensive
manner...."68
ThispartofthereportwassignedbytwelvemembersoftheCommittee.Theotherthree
memberssubmittedaMinorityReport.Itwasinthemain,theoldmetaphysicalargument,
signedbyJohnson,theconstitutionallawyerfromMaryland,Rogers,theextremeadvocateof
SouthernrightsfromNewJersey,andGrider.
"Theyareaskedtodisfranchiseanumerousclassoftheircitizens,andalsotoagreeto
diminishtheirrepresentationinCongress,andofcourseintheelectoralcollege,ortoadmit
totherightofsuffragetheircoloredmalesoftwenty-oneyearsofageandupwards(aclass
nowinaconditionofalmostutterignorance),thusplacingthemonthesamepoliticalfooting
withwhitecitizensofthatage.Forreasonssoobviousthatthedullestmaydiscoverthem,the
rightisnotdirectlyassertedofgrantingsuffragetotheNegro.Thatwouldbeobnoxiousto
mostoftheNorthernandWesternstates,somuchsothattheirconsentwasnottobe
anticipated;butastheplanadopted,becauseofthelimitednumberofNegroesinsuchStates,
willhavenoeffectontheirrepresentation,itisthoughtitmaybeadopted,whileinthe
SouthernStatesitwillmateriallylessentheirnumber.
"ThattheselatterStateswillassenttothemeasurecanhardlybeexpected.Theeffect,then,if
notthepurpose,ofthemeasureisforevertodenyrepresentativestosuchStates,or,ifthey
consenttothecondition,toweakentheirrepresentativepower,andthus,probably,securea
continuanceofsuchapartyinpowerasnowcontrolsthelegislationofthegovernment.The
measure,initstermsanditseffect,whetherdesignedornot,istodegradetheSouthern
States.Toconsenttoitwillbetoconsenttotheirowndishonor."
NeitherSumnernorStevenswassatisfiedwiththeFourteenthAmendment.Onthelastday
ofthesession,July28,1866,ThaddeusStevensmadehislastdefenseofNegrosuffrage.He
wasatthetimewornout;hishealthwasprecarious;hewasseventy-threeyearsofage,and
hehardlyexpectedtoreturntohisseatintheHouse.Withdeepsolemnity,hesought"'to
makeonemore—perhapsanexpiring—efforttodosomethingwhichshallbeusefultomy
fellowmen;somethingtoelevateandenlightenthepoor,theoppressed,andtheignorantin
thisgreatcrisisofhumanaffairs.'Theblackman,hedeclared,musthavetheballotorhe
wouldcontinuetobeaslave.Therewassomealleviationtothelotofabondman,but'a
freemandeprivedofeveryhumanright,isthemostdegradedofhumanbeings.'Withoutthe
protectionoftheballot-boxthefreedmenwere'themereserfs,'andwouldbecome'the
victimsoftheirformermasters.'Hedeclaredthatwhathehaddonehehaddonefor
humanity.'Iknowitiseasy,'
hesaid,'toprotecttheinterestsoftherichandpowerful;butitisagreatlabortoguardthe
rightsofthepooranddowntrodden—itistheeternallaborofSisyphus,forevertobe
renewed.Inthis,perhapsmyfinalactiononthisgreatquestion,Icanseenothinginmy
politicalcourse,especiallyinregardtohumanfreedom,whichIcouldwishtohaveexpunged
orchanged.Ibelievethatwemustallaccounthereafterfordeedsdoneinthebody,andthat
politicaldeedswillbeamongthoseaccounts.Idesiretotaketothebarofthatfinal
settlementtherecordwhichIshallthisdaymakeonthegreatquestionofhumanrights.
WhileIamsureitwillnotmakeatonementforhalfmyerrors,Ihopeitwillbesome
palliation.Arethereanywhowillventuretotakethelistwiththeirnegativesealuponit,and
whowilldaretounrollitbeforethatsternjudgewhoistheFatheroftheimmortalbeings
whomtheyhavebeentramplingunderfoot,andwhosesoulstheyhavebeencrushingout?"
69
Thiswasnot,infact,hislastspeech,butithadthetoneofafinalmessage.Congress
adjournedbeforeacongressionalplanofreconstructionreacheditsfinalform,butitsgeneral
outlinewasclear,andnofurthercompromisebetweenthecongressionalmajorityand
Johnsonwaspossible.
Already,thePresident'sattitudeontheFourteenthAmendmentandReconstructionhadled
totwosuicides,theresignationofthreemembersoftheCabinet;andalthoughStanton
remained,hisretentioncausedtheimpeachmentofAndrewJohnson.Sumner,muchagainst
hiswill,hadremainedsilentwhentheSenate,bypartycaucus,haddecideduponthe
FourteenthAmendment.OnthelastdayofCongress,hewrotetheDuchessofArgyll:
"ThesufferingattheSouthisgreat,throughthemisconductofthePresident.Hiscoursehas
kepttherebelspiritalive,anddepressedtheloyal,whiteandblack.Itmakesmeverysadto
seethis.Consideringthedifficultiesoftheirposition,theblackshavedonewonderfullywell.
TheyshouldhavehadaMosesasaPresident;buttheyhadfoundaPharaoh."70
ParticularlyhadthesituationinLouisianabecometense.TheNewOrleansriotofJuly30,
1866,confirmedtheAbolitionistsintheiropinionthatthereconstructedstateswereinthe
poweroftherebels,andthattheywereusingtheirpowertoputtheNegrobackintoslavery;
andthatnoman,whiteorblack,whowasfriendlytotheUnion,.wassafeintheSouth.There
werereportedathousandmurdersintheSouth,withfewofthecriminalsbroughttojustice.
AndthecountrywasconvincedthatthePresidenthaddisruptedtheUnionparty,andwas
conspiringwithDemocrats,NorthandSouth,todriveouttheRepublicans.
Intheelectionof1866,therewasonthesideofCongress,aUnionpartywithacenterblocof
Republicans;aleftwingofradicalAbolitionists,andarightwingofreactionaryWar
Democrats.AndrewJohnsontriedtounitetheWesternRadicalsandtheWarDemocratsinto
anewthirdparty,tobereenforcedeventuallybythereturnedSecessionists.Butbetween
extremedemocracyandreactiontherewasnocommonground.Heonlysucceededingetting
thesupportofafewoftheWarDemocrats,andthecopperheads,whowereeither
SouthernerslivingNorth,orNorthernmenwithSouthernprinciples.
Stateandnationalconventionsmet.JohnsonandhisfriendsstartedoutAugust14toforma
JohnsonParty.TheNationalUnionConventionmetinPhiladelphiawithstatesNorthand
Southrepresented.Aspecialwigwam,twostorieshigh,waserectedonGirardAvenue,seating
tenthousandpeople.Theinteriorwasdecoratedwithflags.HoraceGreeleycalleditabread
andbutterconvention,composedof99%ofrebelsandcopperheads.ThomasNastridiculed
theconventioninhiscartoonsinHarpersWeekly.
Theirdeclarationofprinciples,acceptedunanimously,declaredthewarhadmaintainedthe
ConstitutionandtheUnionunaltered,andthatneitherCongressnorthegeneral
Governmenthadanyauthoritytodenytheconstitutionalrightofcongressional
representationtoanystate.TheyurgedtheelectionofCongressmenwhowouldadmitall
"loyal"representativesfromtheSouth.Theyaffirmedtheinabilityofastateeithertosecede
orexcludeanyotherstatefromtheUnion,andtheconstitutionalrightofeachstatetodecide
foritselfthequalificationsforvoting,withinitsborders.TheyinsistedthattheConstitution
couldnotbelegallyamended,exceptwithallthestatesvotinginCongress,andactionbyall
thelegislatures.TheydeniedanydesireintheSouthernstatestorestoreslavery.They
proclaimedtheinvalidityoftherebeldebts,theinviolabilityoftheFederaldebt,andtheright
offreedmentothesameprotectionofpersonsandpropertyasaffordedtowhites.Theyurged
governmentaidforFederalsoldiersandtheirfamilies.Finally,theyexpressedwhole-hearted
endorsementofAndrewJohnson.
Theweaknessofthismeetingwasthat,first,itcontainedinfactfewRepublicans,mostofthe
delegatesbeingwell-knownDemocratswhohadopposedLincoln.Itwasdubbedthe
conferenceof"copperheads,"andamongthedelegateswereVallandighamandFernando
Wood.Secondly,themeetingwasnotfollowedupwithcarefulorganization.
NosoonerhadthisconventionadjournedthanSouthernLoyalistsmetinPhiladelphiaon
September3,toconferwithNorthernRepublicans,includingHoraceGreeley,JohnJacob
Astor,CarlSchurz,
FrederickDouglass,Brownlow,ThomasE.Benton,Morton,Cameron,andGerry.This
conferencemetintwoparts,oneNorthernandoneSouthern.
FrederickDouglasswaselecteddelegatefromRochestertoattendtheconvention.Itwasa
greathonorforablackmaninawhitecity.Onthetrain,hemetSouthernandWestern
delegates,includingGovernorOliverP.MortonofIndiana.Afterconsultation,acommittee
waitedonhim,andthroughaLouisianaspokesman,insistedontheirhighrespectforhim,
butalsoontheirfearthatitwasinexpedientforhimtoattendtheconvention,onaccountof
thecryofsocialandpoliticalequalitywhichwouldberaisedagainsttheRepublicanparty.
Douglassreplied:"Gentlemen,withallrespect,youmightaswellaskmetoputaloaded
pistoltomyheadandblowmybrainsout,astoaskmetokeepoutofthisconvention,to
whichIhavebeendulyelected."71
Hepointedoutthatthefactofhiselectionwaswidelyknown,andhisfailuretoattendwould
beinexplicable.Later,hewaswarnedagainstwalkingintheprocession,andforawhileit
lookedasifhewouldhavetowalkalone,untilTheodoreTiltonofNewYorkofferedtowalk
withhim.Inthatparade,hemetadaughterofhisformerowner!
Duringtheconvention,Speed,whohadjustresignedfromtheCabinet,calledthePresidenta
tyrant,andtheSouthernLoyalistsattackedJohnson,butsplitonNegrosuffrage.Apartofthe
conventionfinallyadoptedthisdeclaration:"...TheGovernmentbynationalandappropriate
legislation,enforcedbynationalauthority,shallconferoneverycitizenintheStateswe
represent,theAmericanbirthrightofimpartialsuffrageandequalitybeforethelaw.Thisis
theoneall-sufficientremedy.Thisisourgreatandpressingnecessity."72
GovernorBrownlowofTennessee,indiscussingNegrosuffrageatthissameconventionon
September3,1866,said:
"Somegentlemen,fromamistakenviewofmycharacter,saidtheywereafraidofNegro
Suffrage,andwantedtododgeit.Ihaveneverdodgedanysubject,norhaveIeverbeenfound
onbothsidesofanysubject.WhileIamsatisfiedwitheverythingdonehere,Iwouldgo
further.IamanadvocateofNegrosuffrage,andimpartialsuffrage.Iwouldratherassociate
withloyalNegroesthanwithdisloyalwhitemen.IwouldratherbeburiedinaNegro
graveyardthaninarebelgraveyard;andafterdeathIwouldsoonergotoaNegroheaventhan
awhiterebel'shell."73
TherefollowedinSeptembertwomilitaryconventions,oneinCleveland,September18,by
friendsofJohnson,whichdidnotmentionNegrosuffrage.ItdenouncedtheAbolitionists
andsaidthatthey
weretryingtoforceanotherwar.ItcontainedmanyDemocratsandafewconservative
Republicans.ConfederateofficersatMemphis,includingGeneralForrestofFortPillowfame,
sentsympathybytelegram,whichwasunfortunatepublicity.InanswertothisaNational
Conventionof"Citizens,SoldiersandSailors"washeldatPittsburgh,September25and26.
ThereweremanyvolunteerofficersofhighrankandJohnsonwasdenouncedandthe
FourteenthAmendmentadvocated.Thisconventionhadgreatinfluenceonpublicopinion
andpopularizedtheFourteenthAmendment.
Theissueintheelectionofthefallof1866,turnedonwhetherCongressshouldrecognize
SouthernstatesasreconstructedbyJohnson.Itwasnotapresidentialyear,butcongressmen
andstatelegislaturesweretobeelected.
TherealcampaignbeganinAugust,withthefourteenthofAugustconventionin
Philadelphia.ThisconventiongreatlyencouragedJohnson,andhewroteit,attacking
Congressforpreventingtherestorationofpeaceandunion,anddenyingthatitwasreallya
legalCongress."IfIhadwantedauthority,orifIhadwishedtoperpetuatemyownpower,
howeasilycouldIhaveheldandwieldedthatwhichwasplacedinmyhandsbythemeasure
calledFreedmen'sBureauBill."74
OnJuly4,hehadissuedanotherproclamationofgeneralamnesty,andonAugust20,he
declaredtheCivilWaratanend.Already,inthespring,hehadpromisedtolaythe
cornerstoneofamonumenttoStephenA.DouglasinChicago,andheleftWashington,
August28,onagreatcampaigntour,whichwastosweepthecountry.HetookGeneralGrant
withhimandmembersofhisCabinet,andSewardjoinedhiminNewYork.Johnsonstopped
atPhiladelphia,NewYork,Albany,andthenwentWestbywayofCleveland,ChicagoandSt.
Louis.
Itwasanextraordinaryandincreasinglypainfuleffort,bywhichJohnsondefinitelydefeated
himselfandhisownpoliticalpolicies.Heshowedgeniusforsayingthewrongthing.InNew
York,forinstance,heasked,"Areweprepared,afterthecostofwar,tocontinuethedisrupted
conditionofthecountry?WhyareweafraidoftherepresentativesoftheSouth?Somehave
grownfat,somehavegrownrichbytheaggressionanddestructionofothers."
InPhiladelphia,hedeclaredthatGodwasatailor,likehimself.AtClevelandhisaudience
becameamobwhilethePresidenthimselfincreasedthehubbub.Thecityauthoritieshad
madepreparationsforapolitereception,butasheproceededwithhisharangue,themob
tookcompletepossessionofthecrowd.Someonecried,"WhynothangThadStevensand
WendellPhillips?""Yes,"yelledJohnson,"whynothangthem?"75
Sometownshungoutblacksflagsandbanners,"Nowelcometotraitors."Bandsplayedthe
deathmarch;Johnsonshoutedindefiance.Hisegotismwasridiculed.Hewaschargedwith
beingdrunk,atraitorandademagogue.Onhereeled.AsBurgesssaid,"Thetripdegradedthe
presidentialoffice."TheNewYorkTribunewatcheditwitha"feelingofnationalshame,"and
calledit"thestumblingtourofaninebriateddemagogue."TheNewYorkWorldexcusedhim
byasking:"WhoofallpresidentshadbeenlowerthanLincolninpersonalbearing?"The
HeraldputtheblameonSeward'sshoulders,"theMephistophelesoftheadministration."
Lowellcalledthejourney"anindecentorgy";Rhodessayshewas"intoxicated"atCleveland,
whileSchoulerdeclareshewassober.TheculminationcameinSt.Louis,whereJohnson
declaredthatthebloodoftheNewOrleansriotwasonCongress,anddecriedthe"diabolical
andnefariouspoliciesofStevens,PhillipsandSumner."
ThemostcharitablethingthatthedefendersofAndrewJohnsoncansayofhimisthat
occasionallyhegotdrunk;fortoomuchliquoralonewouldexcusesuchextraordinary
conductandperformancesashisVice-Presidentialinauguration,hisspeechofFebruary22,
1866,hisexhibitionatCleveland,andhisSt.Louisdebauch.Ifhewasnotanoccasional
drunkard,hewasGod'sownfool.
"HereturnedtoWashington,"asSchurzsays,"anutterlydiscomfitedanddisgracedman,
havinggoneouttowinpopularsupport,andhavingearnedonlypublicdisgust."
TheroleofSewardduringthisepisodewaspathetic.Oneofthewitsofthetimespokeof
Seward'snewofficeofbear-leader."Unfortunatelyhewasveryunsuccessfuleveninthistask,
forhecoulddolittlemorethanapologizeforJohnson,andinafewcommonplacesentences
callupontheaudiencetosupportthePresidentinoppositiontoCongress.AtNiagara,hetold
thecrowdthatLincolnhadbeentraducedwhenalive,butafterhisassassinationallhearts
inclinedtothedeepestsorrow;anditwouldbethesameifJohnsonshouldbetakenoff.To
thecitizensofBuffalohestatedtheissueasfollows:'ThequestionisbetweenthePresident
andtheCongress.Ofallthathasbeendonetobringussoneartheconsummation[of
Reconstruction]youseethatnothinghasbeendonethatwasnotdonethroughthedirection,
agency,activity,perseveranceandpatriotismofAndrewJohnson,PresidentoftheUnited
States.WillyoustandbyCongress?OrwillyoustandbythePresident?'"
TheRepublicanstookeveryadvantageofthesituation.TheysawinJohnsontheinstinctof
thepoorwhitecroppingout."Hecannotshakeof!theboot-lickingproclivity,bornandbred
inhim,towardsthearistocracyoftheSouth.Miserablefool!"
Stevensmadebutonespeechinthecampaignof1866.Hesaidthathehadbeendirectedby
hisphysicianneithertothink,speaknorreaduntilthenextsessionofCongress;thathehad
followedtheordersnottoreadalmostliterally."Itistrue,Ihaveamusedmyselfwithalittle
light,frivolousreading.Forinstance,therewasaserialaccountfromdaytodayofavery
remarkablecircusthattraveledthroughthecountry,fromWashingtontoChicagoandSt.
Louis,andfromLouisvillebacktoWashington.Ireadthatwithsomeinterest,expectingto
seeinsocelebratedanestablishment,—onewhichfromitsheraldingwastobeatDanRice
andalltheoldcircusesthateverwentforth,—Iexpectedgreatwitfromthecelebrated
characterofitsclowns."76
Asthecampaignof1866progressed,theagitationinfavorofgrantingsuffragetotheNegro
asanecessaryprotectionofhisfreedombecamemarked.Firstofall,IndustryandTradewere
convincedthattheycouldnottrustthewhiteSouth.Therefore,themoreextremeideaswhich
Stevenshadadvocated,wereallowedtobebroadcast.Theirlogicwasstrongandtheir
methodspopular.Peoplehadfaithinlawsandwantedsomegreatenactmentinkeepingwith
thegreatnessofthewar.ItwasaripetimeforamendingtheConstitutionandinaugurating
finalreforms.Thesereformsmightbeinadvanceatthetime,buttheywereworthtrying,and
thereappearedtobenomiddlepath.
Thus,asthecampaignwenton,Negrosuffrageoccupiedamoreandmoreimportant
position.Stevens,Wade,Sumner,Chase,SchurzandChandlerwereinfavorofit.Tomany
Northernersithadbeenatfirstunthinkable,butmoreandmoretheybecameconvinced.The
NationurgedfullNegrosuffrageandNegrocivilrights,butopposedtheexclusionofwhite
leadersfromoffice.
"Thedoctrinethat'thisisawhiteman'sgovernmentandintendedforwhitemenonly,'is,as
thePerrysprofessit,asmonstrousadoctrineaswaseverconcocted."Toallowthestatesto
reorganizeonthisbasis,theNationadded,"willmaketheverynameofAmericandemocracy
ahissingandabywordamongthenationsoftheearth....Tohavethistheoryofthenature
ofourgovernmentboldlythrustinourfacesnow,aftertheeventsofthelastfouryears,by
menwhohavecomered-handedfromthebattlefield,andtowhosegarmentsthebloodofour
brothersandsonsstillclings;andtoknowthatthePresident,whoowesinpartatleasthis
abilitytobePresidenttothevalorandbloodofcoloredtroops,concurswiththeminthis
scandalousrepudiationofdemocraticprinciples,arethingswhichthecountry,wetrust,will
findithardtobear."77
Forabriefperiod—forthesevenmysticyearsthatstretchedbetweenJohnson's"Swinground
theCircle"tothePanicof1873,the
majorityofthinkingAmericansoftheNorthbelievedintheequalmanhoodofNegroes.They
actedaccordinglywithathoroughnessandclean-cutdecisionthatnoagewhichdoesnot
sharethatfaithcanintheslightestcomprehend.Theydidnotfreedraftanimals,nor
enfranchisegorillas,norwelcomemoronstoCongress.Theysimplyrecognizedblackfolkas
men."TheSouthcalledforwar,"saidJamesRussellLowell,"andwehavegivenittoher.We
willfixthetermsofpeaceourselvesandwewillteachtheSouththatChristisdisguisedina
duskyrace."78
Thencamein1873-76suddenandcompletedisillusionnotatNegroesbutattheworld—at
business,atwork,atreligion,atart.AbitterprotestofSouthernpropertyreenforced
Northernreaction;andwhileafterlongyearstheAmericanworldrecoveredinmostmatters,
ithasneveryetquiteunderstoodwhyitcouldeverhavethoughtthatblackmenwere
altogetherhuman.
ThereweremenintheSouthandformerslaveholderswhoknewthetruthandspokeit.They
knewthattherecouldbenosalvationfortheSouthintimeoreternity,untiltheformerslave
wentforthasaman.ButtheintrenchedintoleranceoftheSouth,coupledwiththeawful
griefatthedeathoftheflowerofSouthernmanhood,letsuchprophetsspeakbutfewwords.
TheyspokehereandthereinnearlyeverySouthernstate,buttheyweresoonthreatenedinto
silence;andthereprevailedabitterhatredandcryforvengeancefrompeoplewhocouldnot
brookdefeatbecausetheyhadbeenusedtovictory,andhadtheslave-bornhabitof
arrogance.Fortheirgrief,nonehadgreatersympathythanthebulkoftheirformerslaves.
Theyservedandevensuccoredtheirformermasters;andyet,upontheseandtheirfellows,
waseventuallyplacedthewholewrathoftheSouthwhichitcouldnotturntowardtheNorth.
Andespeciallyitfelluponthosefreedmenwhofelttheirfreedom;whowereupliftedbynew
ambition;whoshowedthegatheredresentmentoftwohundredyearsofwhipping,kicksand
cuffs;infine,onthemwhohadrollingintheirearsGod'sgreat:"Deposuitpotentes—"
"HehathputdowntheMightyFromtheirseatsAndhathexaltedthemOflowdegree!"
Afterthefinalelectionsof1866,theRepublicanshad143membersintheHouse,andthe
Democrats49.AllstatesgavestrongmajoritiestotheRepublicanparty,excepttheBorder
StatesofMaryland,DelawareandKentucky.IntheSouth,Democraticcandidateswereuniversallysuccessful.NotcountingtheSouth,theRepublicansintheSenatehadatwo-thirds
majority,andnearlyathree-fourthsmajorityintheHouse.
Throughthewinterof1866-1867,notwithstandingtheresultsoftheelectionsof1866,the
SouthrejectedtheFourteenthAmendment.Virginiagaveonevoteinfavor;NorthCarolina,
11outof148;SouthCarolina,1vote;Georgia,2outof169;Alabama,10outof106;Texas,5,
andArkansas,3;Florida,MississippiandLouisianawereunanimouslyagainstit.
ThustheSouthdefiedCongress,anddemandedthatthedisfranchisedNegroshouldbe
countedasbasisofrepresentation.TheSouthwasencouragedinthisstandbythePresident.
TheGovernorofAlabamatelegraphedhimthattherejectionoftheFourteenthAmendment
couldbereconsideredbyhisstate,butJohnsondiscouragedhim.Thisincreasedthestrength
oftheRepublicansintheNorth.
ThePresident'smessageofDecember4,1866,withalltheearmarksofSeward,wascalmand
skillful.Hesaidthatthewarwasended,andthatthenationshouldnowproceedasafree,
prosperousandunitednation.HehadalreadyinformedCongressofhiseffortsforthe
gradualrestorationoftheStates.AllthatremainednowwastheadmissiontoCongressof
loyalSenatorsandRepresentatives.WhileCongresshadbeenconsideringthis,thePresident
hadappointedvariouspublicofficials,andtheThirteenthAmendmenthadbeenpassed.Yet
CongresshesitatedtoadmittheSouthernstatestorepresentation,andaftereightmonths,
onlyTennesseehadbeenadmitted.Hewishedtoleavethewholematterofsuffragetothe
StatesandhewassignificantlysilentontheBlackCodes.
Thesecondsessionofthe39thCongressbeganDecember3.TheSenateaskedforareporton
theconditionoftheSouthernstates,sincethePresidenthadsaidpracticallynothingaboutit.
ThePresidentreplied,December19,1866:
"AsaresultofthemeasuresinstitutedbytheExecutive,withtheviewofinducinga
resumptionofthefunctionsoftheStatescomprehendedintheinquiryoftheSenate,the
peopleofNorthCarolina,SouthCarolina,Georgia,Alabama,Mississippi,Louisiana,
Arkansas,andTennessee,havereorganizedtheirrespectiveStategovernments,andare
yieldingobediencetothelawsandgovernmentoftheUnitedStateswithmorewillingness
andgreaterpromptitudethanunderthecircumstancescouldreasonablyhavebeen
anticipated.TheproposedamendmenttotheConstitution,providingfortheabolitionof
slaveryforeverwithinthelimitsofthecountry,hasbeenratifiedbyeachoneofthosestates,
withtheexceptionofMississippi,fromwhichno
officialinformationhasyetbeenreceived;andinnearlyallofthemmeasureshavebeen
adoptedorarenowpending,toconferuponfreed-menrightsandprivilegeswhichare
essentialtotheircomfort,protection,andsecurity.InFloridaandTexas,thepeopleare
makingcommendableprogressinrestoringtheirStategovernments,andnodoubtitis
entertainedthattheywill,atanearlyperiodbeinaconditiontoresumealloftheirpractical
relationstotheFederalGovernment.
"ItistruethatinsomeoftheStatesthedemoralizingeffectsofthewararetobeseenin
occasionaldisorders;butthesearelocalincharacter,notfrequentinoccurrence,andare
rapidlydisappearingastheauthorityofcivillawisextendedandsustained.Perplexing
questionswerenaturallytobeexpectedfromthegreatandsuddenchangeintherelations
betweenthetworaces;butsystemsaregraduallydevelopingthemselvesunderwhichthe
freedmanwillreceivetheprotectiontowhichheisjustlyentitled,andbymeansofhislabor
makehimselfausefulandindependentmemberofthecommunityinwhichhehashis
home."
ThetransubstantiationofAndrewJohnsonwascomplete.Hehadbegunasthechampionof
thepoorlaborer,demandingthatthelandmonoplyoftheSouthernoligarchybebrokenup,
soastogiveaccesstothesoil,SouthandWest,tothefreelaborer.Hehaddemandedthe
punishmentofthoseSouthernerswhobyslaveryandwarhadmadesuchaneconomic
programimpossible.SuddenlythrustintothePresidency,hehadretreatedfromthisattitude.
Hehadnotonlygivenupextravagantideasofpunishment,buthedroppedhisdemandfor
dividingupplantationswhenherealizedthatNegroeswouldlargelybebeneficiaries.Because
hecouldnotconceiveofNegroesasmen,herefusedtoadvocateuniversaldemocracy,of
which,inhisyoungmanhood,hehadbeenthefiercestadvocate,andmadestrongalliance
withthosewhowouldrestoreslaveryunderanothername.
Thischangedidnotcomebydeliberatethoughtorconsciousdesiretohurt—itwasratherthe
tragedyofAmericanprejudicemadeflesh;sothatthemanborntonarrowcircumstances,a
rebelagainsteconomicprivilege,diedwiththeconventionalambitionofapoorwhitetobe
theassociateandbenefactorofmonopolists,plantersandslavedrivers.Insomerespects,
AndrewJohnsonisthemostpitifulfigureofAmericanhistory.Amanwho,despitegreat
powerandgreatideas,becameapuppet,playeduponbymightyfingersandselfish,subtle
minds;groping,self-made,unletteredandalone;drunk,notsomuchwithliquor,aswiththe
headywineofsuddenandaccidentalsuccess.
Mywildsoulwaitedonasfalconshover.IbeatthereedyfensasItrampledpast.Iheardthe
mournfulloonInthemarshbeneaththemoonAndthen,withfeatherythunder,thebirdof
mydesireBrokefromthecoverFlashingsilverfire.HighupamongthestarsIsawhis
pinionsspire.
ThepalecloudsgazedaghastAsmyfalcondroppeduponhim,andgriptandheldhimfast.
WilliamRoseBenet
1.Hall,C.A.,AndrewJohnson,p.22.
2.Hall,C.A.,AndrewJohnson,p.21.
3.Winston,AndrewJohnson,pp.xiv,xvi,24,25.
4.Winston,AndrewJohnson,p.172;CongressionalGlobe,36thCongress,2ndSession,
P-13545.Winston,AndrewJohnson,p.118.
6.Winston,AndrewJohnson,p.108.
7.Hall,AndrewJohnson,p.27;Moore,SpeechesofAndrewJohnson,p.294.
8.Hall,AndrewJohnson,p.117;Winston,AndrewJohnson,p.252
9.McPherson,HistoryofUnitedStatesDuringReconstruction,pp.46,47.
10.Winston,AndrewJohnson,pp.228,229.
11.Moore,SpeechesofAndrewJohnson,p.xli.
12.Winston,AndrewJohnson,pp.260,261.
13.Winston,AndrewJohnson,p.515.
14.Warmoth,War,PoliticsandReconstruction,p.26.
15.Pierce,MemoirsandLettersofCharlesSumner,IV,p.276.
16.Pierce,MemoirsandLettersofCharlesSumner,IV,p.244.
17.Pierce,MemoirsandLettersofCharlesSumner,IV,pp.242-243,245.
18.Fleming,DocumentaryHistoryofReconstruction(ChasetoJohnson),Vol.I,pp.142,
.14319.Pierce,MemoirsandLettersofCharlesSumner,IV,p.246.
20.Schurz,Reminiscences,III,pp.202,203.
21.Schurz,Reminiscences,III,pp.201-204.
22.Beale,TheCriticalYear,p.68.Footnote.
23.McPherson,HistoryofUnitedStatesDuringReconstruction,pp.19,20.
24.Pierce,MemoirsandLettersofCharlesSumner,IV,pp.267-268.
25.Pierce,MemoirsandLettersofCharlesSumner,IV,pp.258-259.
26.McPherson,HistoryofUnitedStatesDuringReconstruction,p.49.
27.McPherson,HistoryofUnitedStatesDuringReconstruction,pp.50,51.
28.Winston,AndrewJohnson,p.314.
29.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,p.6.
30.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,p.30.
31.Winston,AndrewJohnson,p.381.
32.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,pp.74,75.
33.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,p.154.
34.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,p.43.
35.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,pp.90,91.
36.Cf.Pierce,CharlesSumner,IV.Noteatbottom,p.272.
37.Pierce,Freedmen'sBureau,p.59(forSectionsI-VI);Flack,TheAdoptionofthe
FourteenthAmendment,p.13(JohnsHopkinsUniversityStudies,XXVI).
38.ReportofCommitteeonReconstruction,PartIII,pp.65,66(JudgeHumphreys).
39.SpeechofMarch19,1867.
40.Winston,AndrewJohnson,p.343.
41.Seward,Worlds,VII,p.532.
42.McPherson,HistoryofU.S.DuringReconstruction,pp.60,61.
43.Cf.Oberholtzer,AHistoryoftheU.S.SincetheCivilWar,I,p.171.
44.Pierce,CharlesSumner,IV,p.276.
45.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,p.183.
46.McPherson,HistoryofUnitedStatesDuringReconstruction,pp.51,52.
47.ThisaccountoftheCommitteeofFifteenmainlyfollowsKendrick,Journalofthe
JointCommitteeofFifteenonReconstruction.
48.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,pp.356-358.
49.Article4,Section2,oftheConstitution.
50.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,p.536.
51.NewYorkNation,Jan.11,1866.
52.Blaine,TwentyYearsofCongress,Vol.II,pp.146-147.
53.Beale,TheCriticalYear,p.229.
54.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartI,p.673.
55.LifeandTimesofFrederic!^Douglass,p.442.
56.LifeandTimesofFrederic^Douglass,p.467.
57.McPherson,HistoryofUnitedStatesDuringReconstruction,pp.52-55.
58.LifeandTimesofFrederic^Douglass,pp.467-468.
59.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartIV,p.3148.
60.Kendrick,JournaloftheJointCommitteeofFifteenonReconstruction,p.300.
61.Kendrick,JournaloftheJointCommitteeofFifteenonReconstruction,p.302.
62.Flack,AdoptionoftheFourteenthAmendment(JohnsHopkinsUniversityStudies,
XXVI,p.128).
63.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartIII,pp.2459,2544-2545.
64.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartIII,p.2545.
65.CongressionalGlobe,39thCongress,1stSession,PartIV,p.2987.
66.Ames,AmendmentstotheConstitution,p.220.
67.Seward,Wor\s,III,p.24.
68.McPherson,HistoryofUnitedStatesDuringReconstruction,pp.88-93.
69.McCall,ThaddeusStevens,p.275-76.
70.Pierce,CharlesSumner,p.359.
71.LifeandTimesofFrederickDouglass,p.474.
72.McPherson,HistoryofUnitedStatesDuringReconstruction,p.242.
73.Warmoth,WarPoliticsandReconstruction,p.50.
74.McPherson,HistoryofUnitedStatesDuringReconstruction,pp.129,133,137.
75.Oberholtzer,HistoryofU.S.AftertheCivilWar,Vol.I,pp.405,406.
76.Morse,ThaddeusStevens,pp.282,283.
77.NewYorkNation,Sept.28,1865.Cf.NewYorkHerald,Sept.20,1865.
78.NorthAmericanReview,Vol.102,p.520.
IX.THEPRICEOFDISASTER
Thepriceofthedisasterofslaveryandcivilwarwasthenecessityofquicklyassimilatinginto
Americandemocracyamassofignorantlaborersinwhosehandsaloneforthemomentlay
thepowerofpreservingtheidealsofpopulargovernment;ofoverthrowingaslaveeconomy
andestablishinguponitanindustryprimarilyfortheprofitoftheworkers.Itwasthisprice
whichintheendAmericarefusedtopayandtodaysuffersforthatrefusal
Theyear1867comes.Theelectionof1866hassenttothe40thCongressaRepublican
majorityof42against11intheSenateand143against49intheHouse.Thedecisivebattleof
Reconstructionlooms.Abolition-democracydemandsforNegroesphysicalfreedom,civil
rights,economicopportunityandeducationandtherighttovote,asamatterofsheerhuman
justiceandright.IndustrydemandsprofitsandiswillingtouseforthisendNegrofreedomor
Negroslavery,votesforNegroesorBlackCodes.
TheSouth,beateninwar,andsociallyandeconomicallydisorganized,wasknockingatthe
doorsofCongresswithincreasedpoliticalpowerandwithadeterminationtorestoreland
monopoly,andtoreorganizeitsagrarianindustry,andtoattempttorestoreitscapitalby
reducingpublictaxationtothelowestpoint.Moreover,ithadnotgivenuptheideathatthe
capitalwhichithadlostthroughthelegalabolitionofslavery,shouldandmightbe
reimbursedfromtheFederalTreasury.Especiallyitwasdeterminedtouseforitsownends
theincreasedpoliticalpowerbasedonvotelessNegroes.Finally,therewastheWest,
beginningtofearthegripoflandandtransportationmonopoly,rebellingagainstthepowerof
Easternindustry,andstaggeringundertheweightofpublicdebtandpublictaxation.
InthemidstoftheseelementsstoodAndrewJohnson,withthetremendouspowerwhich
layinhishandsascommander-in-chiefoftheArmy,wiriTlKcfiargepatronagewhicharose
throughtheexpansionofgovernmentalfunctionsduringthewar,andwithastubbornwill
andaresourcefulandastuteSecretaryofState.Logically,AndrewJohnsonasanearlyleader
oflandreform,andofdemocracyinindustryforthepeasant-farmerandthelaboringclass,
wasinpositiontoleadthedemocracyoftheWest.Butperversely,hehadbeeninducedby
flattery,byhisSouthernbirth,andhisdislikeofNewEnglandpuritanism,toplacehimselfattheheadoftheSoutherners.Betweentheprogramofthe
SouthandthatoftheWest,then,therewasabsolutelynopointofalliance.TheSouth
representedtheextremeofreactionarycapitalismbaseduponlandandontheownershipof
labor.ItshowednosignofanymoresympathywiththelabormovementintheNorthorthe
extensionofdemocraticmethodsthanithadbeforethewar.Therewasnotasinglelabor
voiceraisedintheSouthernpost-warclamor.YetJohnsoncouldnotseethis.Hecontinued
toflirtwithWesternliberalismattheverytimehewassurrenderingcompletelytoSouthern
reactionandultra-conservatism.
InhisadvicetotheSouth,henolongercontemplatedNegrosuffrageinanyform,andhesaid
nothingofpoorwhites.In1867,Negrovoteswererefusedinthemunicipalelectionsin
Virginia.JudgeMooreaskedPresidentJohnsonconcerningtherightoffreedmento
participateintheseelections,butJohnsongavenoanswer.Ontheotherhand,inan
interviewwithCharlesHalpine,March5,hesoughtagaintomakealliancewiththeWestern
unrest.Hesaid:"Tothepeoplethenationaldebtisathingofdebttobepaid;buttothe
aristocracyofbondsandnationalsecuritiesitisapropertyofmorethan$2,500,000,000,
fromwhicharevenueof$180,000,000ayearistobereceivedintotheirpockets.Sowenow
findthatanaristocracyoftheSouth,basedon$3,000,000,000inNegroes,whowerea
productiveclass,hasdisappeared,andtheirplaceinpoliticalcontrolofthecountryis
assumedbyanaristocracybasedonnearly$3,000,000,000ofnationaldebt—athingwhichis
notproducinganything,butwhichgoesonsteadilyeveryyear,andmustgoonforalltime
untilthedebtispaid,absorbingandtaxingattherateofsixorsevenpercentayearforevery
$100bondthatisrepresentedinitsaggregation.
"Thewaroffinanceisthenextwarwehavetofight;andeveryblowstruckagainstmyefforts
toupholdastrictconstructionofthelawsandtheConstitutionisinrealityablowinfavorof
repudiatingthenationaldebt.ThemanufacturersandmenofcapitalintheeasternStatesand
theStatesalongtheAtlanticseaboard—amerestriporfringeonthebroadmantleofour
country,ifyouwillexaminethemap—theseareinfavorofhighprotective,and,infact,
prohibitorytariffs,andalsofavoracontractionofthecurrency.Butagainstbothmeasures
theinterestsandvotesofthegreatproducingandnon-manufacturingStatesoftheWest
standirrevocablyarrayed,andaglanceatthemapandthecensusstatisticsofthelasttwenty
yearswilltelleveryonewhoisopentoconvictionhowthatwarmustend."1
Thiswasamaladroitargument.Itplacedthenationaldebtagainstthelossofslaveproperty
asequallysinisterphenomena.Itsuggestedpartialrepudiationandthusfrightenedand
antagonizedinvestors.
Itrightlyprotestedagainsttheextravaganceofwar-timefinance,butthisprotestcamefroma
manwhowasnowtheacknowledgedleaderofpropertyandreactionintheSouth.Whatbasis
ofalliancecouldtherebebetweenthosedeterminedtocontrolandexploitfreedlaborinthe
SouthandthosewhowishedtofightexploitationandmonopolyintheWest?
Moreover,inhisefforttoconciliateandleadtheWest,Johnsonattackedthemostpowerful
enemybeforehim.Thatenemywasnotabolition-democracy,ashefalselyconceived.Itwasa
tremendous,new,andrisingpoweroforganizedwealthandcapitalistindustryintheNorth.
Monopolyprofitsfrominvestmentswereincreasing,anddestinedtoincrease,andtheir
increasedependeduponahighprotectivetariff,thevalidityofthepublicdebt,andthe
controlofthenationalbanksandcurrency.AllofthesethingswerethreatenedbytheSouth
andbyAndrewJohnsonasleaderoftheSouth.Ontheotherhand,humanitarianradicalism,
sofarastheNegrowasconcerned,wasnotonlycompletelyharnessedtocapitalandproperty
intheNorth,butitsprogramforvotesforNegroesmoreandmorebecamemanifestlythe
onlyprotectionuponwhichNorthernindustrycoulddepend.TheAbolitionistswerenot
enemiesofcapital.
"TheAmericanAbolitionistsweretypicalbourgeois-democraticrevolutionistsunderspecific
Americanconditions.Theyfelttheirmovementlinkedupwiththegreathumanitariancauses
oftheday(the'laborquestion,'the'peacequestion,'theemancipationofwomen,
temperance,philanthropy)andwiththebourgeoisrevolutionarymovementinEurope.'He
hailedtherevolution(of1848)inFrance,'Moor-fieldStoreytellsofSumner,'andsimilar
outbreaksinothercountriesaspartsofthegreatmovementforfreedom,ofwhichtheantislaveryagitationinAmericawasanotherpart.'"2
ButtheformerAbolitionistsweregraduallydeveloping.UndertheleadershipofStevensand
Sumner,theywerebeginningtorealizetheeconomicfoundationoftherevolutionnecessary
intheSouth.TheysawthattheNegroneededlandandeducationandthathisvotewould
onlybevaluabletohimasitopenedthedoorstoafirmeconomicfoundationandreal
intelligence.IfnowtheycouldgettheindustrialNorth,notsimplytogivetheNegrothevote,
buttogivehimlandandgivehimschools,thebattlewouldbewon.Here,however,theywere
onlypartiallysuccessful.Stevenscouldnotgetthemtolistentohisplanoflanddistribution,
andSumnerfailedinhisefforttoprovideforanationalsystemofNegroschools.Butthey
couldanddidgettheaidofindustry,commerce,andlaborforNegrosuffrage,andthisvast
stepforwardtheygladlytook.Publicopinionfollowedphilanthropy,butitwasguidedbyBig
Business.
Inthemeantime,thenationwasinthemidstofthetransitionperiod.Nothingcouldbe
settleduntilthefateoftheFourteenthAmendmentwasknown,andduringthistimeof
waiting,fromJuly16,1866,untilJuly20,1868,thestatusoftheSouthanditsrelationtothe
Unionwasunsettled.Slowly,thenationvotedontheFourteenthAmendment,destinedto
curbthepoliticalpoweroftheSouth.MostofNewEnglandandtwoWesternstatesratifiedit
inthesummerandfallof1866.BeforeJanuary,sevenSouthernstatesrejecteditalmost
unanimously,andinthefirstthreemonthsof1867,thewholeSouthandtheBorderStates
hadpronouncedagainstit.Theysaid,ineffect,noNegrocitizensnorvoters;noguarantyof
civilrightstoNegroes;andallpoliticalpowerbasedonthecountingofthefullNegro
population.TheNorth,by1868,hadratifiedtheFourteenthAmendmentunanimously,
althoughNewJersey,OhioandOregonmadeattemptstoreversetheirdecision,when
Democratsgainedpowerinthosestates.
Therewasnotonlythevastfinalproblemofeconomicsandgovernment—therewasan
immediatetransitionproblem.Intheintervalduringwhichthenationwasawaitingthefate
oftheFourteenthAmendmenttotheConstitution,whatwastobethestatusoftheSouth?
TheSouthwasinthemidstofindustrial,civilandpoliticalanarchy.Crime,force,and
murder,disorganizedandwanderinglaborers,unorganizedindustry,werewidelyinevidence.
TheUnitedStatesasasovereignnationcoulddeclaretheSouthernstates,whererebellion
hadoccurred,unorganizedterritory,andcouldrulethembycivilgovernment,backedby
Federalpolice.BythosewhoregardedtheConstitutionasafetich,thismightbepronounced
sacrilegious,buttoordinaryhumanbeingsitwasbyfarthebestandsanestthingthatthe
nationcouldhavedone,anditwouldhavesavedtheUnitedStatesandthewholeworld
untoldinjury,retrogressionandworldwar.
ThiswastheplanofbothStevensandSumner,andconstitutionallawyershavepronouncedit
reasonable.Withsomereluctance,thenationrefusedtodothiswhiletheSouthandits
friendshowledinopposition.Itwas,onewouldhavethought,anunhallowedattempttorock
thefoundationsoftheuniverseandoverthrowthekingdomofAlmightyGod.Therefusalof
thenationwaschieflybecausethenewindustry,themoney-makingfinanciersand
organizersofavasteconomicempire,hesitatedatagovernmentguardianshipoflaborand
controlofindustryonascalethatmightembarrassfuturefreedomofexploitation,and
certainlywouldincreasepresenttaxation.
Manyadvocatesofabolition-democracywerealsodoubtful.Theywerestillunderthe
"freedom"cryoftheeighteenthcenturyand
obsessedbytheAmericanAssumptionofthenineteenth.Theywerestill,onthewhole,afraid
ofthefulllogicofdemocracyandtheabilityofthestatetosecureservantsashonestand
efficientasprivateindustry.Onlytheirmostcourageousleadersdaredall.
Theeasiestwayout,then,wastoprolongthemilitaryrulealreadyestablishedasanecessity
ofthewar.Thiswascheapestandeasiest;butalsoitwasofnecessitytemporary.Itmustbea
steptowardcivilruleanditmustinauguratecivilrule.ThelawofMarch2,1867,wasenacted.
ItprovidedforNegrosuffrage.Whatelsecouldithaveprovidedfor?Ifithadconfinedthe
votetowhites,notonlywouldtheanti-Negrolegislationbeconfirmed,butthegiftof
additionalpoliticalpowertotheSouthtobeusedagainstNorthernindustryandagainst
democracywouldbeoutrightandirrevocable.Johnsonvetoedthebill,andwhenitwas
passedoverhisveto,hadrecoursetoexecutiveactionwhichwouldnullifyit.Eventuallyit
wasthisthatledtotheattempttoimpeachhim.
Letusnow,moreindetail,studythefactsofthisdevelopment.Thesecondsessionofthe
39thCongressassembledinDecember,1866,withadistinctmandatefromthepeople.This
mandatecalledforthereorganizationoftheSouthernstatesonthebasisoftheFourteenth
Amendment,andforthedefinitenessofthismandatetheSouthhadonlyitselfandAndrew
Johnsontoblame.
From1864to1868,byasuccessionofelections,withwidepublicityonbothsides,and
unusuallyfulldiscussion,nationalpublicopinionhadcometothesedecisionsbyalarge
majority.
1.TheemancipatedslavemustbeprotectedbecausehehadhelpedsavetheUnionwhich
slaveryhaddisrupted.
2.Thefirstprotectionfortheslavewasalegalstatusoffreedom.ThistheSouthopposedin
thefifteenformerslavestates,includingtheBorderStates.Fourflatlyrefusedtoacceptthe
ThirteenthAmendment.Threeothersacceptedbutonlyonconditionthatfreedomshould
notimplyfullcivilandpoliticalrights.EightstatesacceptedtheThirteenthAmendment,but
fiveoftheseandthethreewhichacceptedoncondition,actedunderpressurefromJohnson,
andtheiractionexpressedtheopinionofaminorityoftheformervotingpopulation,andfor
thisreasonthesestatesfearedtorefertheiractiontopopularapproval.
3.Alegalstatusoffreedomwithoutactualcivilrightswouldmeanalmostnothing.The
answeroftheSouthtoaproposalofcivilrightswastheBlackCodes,whichestablishedanew
statusofslaverywithamodifiedslavetrade.
4.TheFreedmen'sBureauandtheCivilRightsBillrepresentedanattemptatFederal
interventiontoenforcefreedombyFederallaw.
TheSouthbitterlyopposedtheseattemptsonthepartofthenationalgovernmentand
declaredwithJohnsonthatsuchattemptswereunconstitutional.
5.Tosetthispointatrest,theFourteenthAmendmentwasproposedwhichmadeNegroes
citizens,guaranteedthemcivilrightsbynationallaw,andpoliticalrights,iftheywere
countedasabasisofrepresentationinCongress.TheSouthpromptlyrejectedthisoverture
unanimously,exceptinTennessee,andtherethemajorityofwhitevotershadtobe
disfranchisedbeforetheacceptancewascarriedthrough.
Butbehindallthis,andexplainingthisinterestintheNegroonthepartofmostNortherners,
wasagrowingconvictionthatanarrogantSouthwasreturningtoCongresswithincreased
politicalpower;thatitsleaderswereessentiallythesamemenwhohaddisruptedtheUnion
andprecipitatedacostlyandbloodywar;thattherewasnoreasontosupposethatthesemen
hadchangedtheirconvictionsintheslightestorsurrenderedforamomenttheir
determinationtodominatethecountry,andfightmonopolyinindustrywithmonopolyin
agriculture.
Inthefaceoftheirfatalfailure,Southernersweredemandingincreasedpoliticalpower,and
thatpoliticalpowercouldandinallprobabilitywouldbeusedforeverythingdisadvantageous
tothemajorityofthenation:itwouldbeusedagainstthespreadofdemocraticideals;it
wouldbeusedforfurtherincreasingthepoliticalpoweroftheSouth;itwouldbeused
againstindustry,property,andcapitalasbuttressedbythetariff,thenationalbanks,andthe
publicdebt.
Itwasinvainthatbefore,duringandsincethewar,theNorthhadofferedtocompromise
withthisunyieldingbloc.TherewasonlyonedefenseagainstthepoweroftheSouthand
whilethatwasrevolutionaryandhithertoundreamedof,itwastheonlyway,anditcouldnot
bestoppedbythestubbornnessofonenarrow-mindedman.ThatwasNegrosuffrage.
SenatorShermanofOhiosaidMarch11,1867:"AyearagoIwasnotinfavorofextending
enforcedNegrosuffrageupontheSouthernstates."3ButtherejectionoftheFourteenth
Amendmentledhimtogivehissupport.
TherewasevidentlyanunderstandingamongtheRepublicanSenatorsandRepresentatives
thatifthelegislaturesoftheSouthernstatesorganizedunderJohnson'sschemeof
ReconstructionacceptedtheFourteenthAmendmentandthuswouldsaythateitherthey
wouldallowtheNegrotovoteor,incasetheydidnotallowhim,wouldforegorepresentation
baseduponhisnumbers;thenthesestateswouldberecognizedandadmittedtoCongress.
Thiswasmorethanfairto
theSouth.CharlesSumnertobesurewouldnotconsenttoitandStevensdidnotlikeit;but
theindustrialNorthwaswillingtothrowtheNegrooverontheseterms.4
However,withtheexceptionofTennessee,theSouthernstatesrejectedtheFourteenth
AmendmentalmostunanimouslyandinsistedupontheBlackCodes,andaccompaniedtheir
demandbywidespreadviolence.
MeantimeinminormeasuresthesentimentforNegrosuffragewasseentobecrystallizing.
Coloradohadsoughtadmissionin1866andhadlessthan100Negroes,Sumneropposedthe
applicationbecauseofthesmallpopulationandchieflybecausethesuffragewasconfinedto
whitemales.HespokeMarch12and13,April17,19and24onthesubject.Thebillpassedthe
SenatedespiteSumner.IntheHouse,theattempttostrikeouttheword"white"asa
qualificationforvoterswasdefeated.ThePresidentvetoedthebillonaccountofinsufficient
population.
Nextsession,Sumner'samendmentprevailed,butthePresidentagainvetoedthebill.
Sumnermadeatthecloseofthesessionanunsuccessfulattempttomakethesamecondition
inthebilltoadmitNebraskabutfailed;thePresidentdidnotsignthatbill.Atthenext
session,thebillwithNegrosuffragewaspassedoverthePresident'sveto.Sumneropposed
theadmissionofTennesseebecauseNegroesweredeniedtherighttovote.Hefailedto
influencepublicsentimentbutmadehisopponentsapologetic.5
SumnerwrotetoF.W.Bird,January10,1867:"Ithinkyouwillbesatisfiedwiththeresulton
NebraskaandColorado.Thedeclarationthatthereshallbenoexclusionfromtheelective
franchiseonaccountofcolorisnotintheformwhichIpreferred;butyouhavethe
declaration,whichtomymindisagreatgain.Isitnot?Andthusendsalongcontest,where
atfirstIwasalone.Mr.StewartofNevada,whoissittingnearme,saysthat'itcannotbesaid
nowthattheRepublicanpartyisnotcommittedtoNegrosuffrage.'Youhave(1)TheDistrict
Bill;(2)TheNebraskaBill;(3)TheColoradoBill;and(4)TheTerritorialBillpassedtoday,
declaringthatintheterritoriesthereshallbenoexclusionfromthesuffrageonaccountof
color."
InFebruary,1867,fromtheCommitteeofFifteen,Stevenspresentedtheleading
Reconstructionmeasure.Thismeasuredeclaredthatlifeandpropertywerenotsafeinthe
formerConfederatestates,andthatgoodorderhadtobeenforceduntilloyalgovernments
couldbelegallyestablished.ItdividedtheConfederatestatesintofivemilitarydivisions:one,
Virginia;two,NorthandSouthCarolina;three,Georgia,AlabamaandFlorida;four,
MississippiandArkansas;five,
LouisianaandTexas.Ageneralwithsufficientforceswastobeassignedtoeachofthese
districts.ThesegeneralsmightusetheUnitedStatescivilcourtstoenforcethelaws,butif
thesewerenoteffective,theymightgovernthroughmilitarycommissions.Thesentencesof
commissionsmustbeapprovedbythecommandingofficers.UnitedStatescourtsshould
issuenowritsofhabeascorpusagainsttheactsofthesecommissions.
Thisbillestablishedmartiallaw,afterthePresidenthaddeclaredthewarwasended.Itput
theappointingofthedistrictmilitarymastersinthehandsoftheGeneraloftheArmy
insteadofthePresident,andsuspendedthewritofhabeascorpus.Congresshesitatedat
thesethorough-goingterms.BlainesuggestedanAmendmentwhichwouldprovideawayof
escapefrommartialrulebypromisingadmissionwhenastateadoptedtheFourteenth
AmendmentandprovidedforNegrosuffrage.Stevensrefusedtoacceptthisandthebillwas
passedFebruary13.
TheSenatebegantoconsiderthebillFebruary15,andstayedinsessionuntilthreeo'clockin
themorning.Resortwashadtoapartycaucus,theRepublicanSenatorsmeetingat11a.m.,
February16.Sherman,Sumner,Fessendenandfourotherswereputonasub-committeeto
revisetheHousebill,andremainedinsessionagreaterpartoftheafternoon.Thebillwas
changedsoastorestoretheappointmentofheadsofthemilitarydistricts,andadoptthe
Blaineamendment.TheHousehadalreadypassedEliot'sbilladmittingLouisianawithNegro
suffrageandSumnerwishedthattakenasamodel.SumneraskedforNegrosuffragebutonly
oneofhiscommitteesupportedhim.At5p.m.thecaucusmetandSumnerrenewedhis
proposition,excludingdiscriminationastoraceandcolorforthebasisofsuffrage.Itwas
carriedinthecaucus,15to13or14.ThisactioncommittedtheRepublicanstothe
requirementofsuffrageirrespectiveofraceorcolorintheelectionofdelegatestothe
Reconstructionconventions,andasthebasisofsuffragefortheconstitutionsoftherebel
states.SenatorWilsonofMassachusettssaidthat"thenandthereinthatsmallroom,inthat
caucus,wasdecidedthegreatestpendingquestionoftheNorthAmericancontinent."6Itwas
acceptedbythecaucus,althoughFessendenwasgreatlydispleased.Heleftthecaucusand
soughttodefeatitbypersonalappeals.ThisledtoanacrimoniousdebateinCongress,
February19,butthebillpassedafteranight'ssessionat6:22Sundaymorning,February17.
CongresshadadifficulttimepassingthisReconstructionbill.TheHouserejectedtheSenate
billandtimewasflying.FinallyagreementwasreachedFebruary20andCongressexpiredby
limitationonMarch4.TheessentialpartsofthebillonNegrosuffrageremained.
ThePresidentbytakingthefulltimeallowedbylawinreturninghisvetowouldleaveonly
twodaysforCongresstopassthebilloverhisveto.JohnsonandSewardimmediatelysaw
thisandthevetowashelduptothelastmoment,reachingtheHouseontheafternoonof
March2.ThePresidentsaidthatthebillplacedthepeopleoftenstatesunderthecomplete
dominationofmilitaryrulers;thesestateshadmadeprovisionsforthepreservationoforder,
yetitwasproposedtoputthemundermilitarylaw;"theNegroeshavenotaskedforthe
privilegeofvoting,andthevastmajorityofthemhavenoideaofwhatitmeans";wecarried
onafouryears'wartopunishthe"crimeofdefyingaconstitution;ifwenowourselvesdefy
theconstitutionweprovethattheywereinfactfightingforNegroliberty."
Stevensdemandedimmediateconsiderationofthevetobutallowedjihortstatementsfrom
Democraticmemberswhodeclaredthisbilladeathknellofrepublicanliberty.
Oneopponentdeclaredthatthebillshouldnotpassunlesshewas"overpoweredfrom
physicalexhaustion,orrestrainedbytherulesoftheHouse."Stevens,inclosingthedebate,
saidthathehadlistenedtothegentlemen,becauseheappreciated"themelancholyfeelings
withwhichtheyareapproachingthisfuneralofthenation,"butashedesiredthepassageof
thebillheaskedMr.Blainetomoveasuspensionoftherules.Mr.Blaineaccordinglymade
themotion,andafteranineffectualattemptatfilibustering,thebillwaspassedovertheveto
byavoteof135yeasto48nays.TheSenatespeedilytooksimilaraction,andthe
Reconstructionbillbecamealaw.
Asfinallypassed,thebillsetupthefivedistricts,declaringthatnoadequateprotectionfor
lifeandpropertyexistedthere.ThePresidentinsteadoftheGeneraloftheArmywasto
assignanarmyofficertoeachofthesedistricts.Thesecommandersmightrulebymartial
law,butsentenceofdeathhadtobeapprovedbythePresident.Toescapefromthisregime,
theremustbeuniversalsuffragewithoutregardtoraceorcolor,andtheframingofastate
constitutionwithaconventioncomposedofdelegatesnotdisqualifiedbyparticipationin
rebellion.Theconstitutionsoadoptedmustprovideforuniversalsuffrage,andthis
constitutionmustberatifiedbyamajorityofthevoters.Theconstitutionmustalsobe
approvedbyCongress.ThestatecouldnotbeadmitteduntiltheFourteenthAmendmenthad
beenapprovedbythree-fourthsofthestatesoftheUnitedStates.ThusCongressavoided
makingtheadmissionofthestatesconditionalupontheirindividualacceptanceofthe
FourteenthAmendment.
StillAndrewJohnsonwasnotbeaten;ascommander-in-chiefofthearmyhecouldexecute
theReconstructionlegislationandhecouldthrowitsinterpretationintothecourtswitha
goodchanceoffavorabledecision;justasthefalteringattemptofCongresstogivetheNegroeslandwasatlast
utterlynullifiedbyJohnson'sedictsofrestoration,sotherewasequalchancetofrustrate
Congressinrestoringstates'functions.
CongresstriedtotieJohnson'shandswiththeTenureofOfficeBill.Itwasintroducedin
December,1866.TheConstitutiongavethePresidentnoexpresspowertodismisspersons
fromoffice.Butcustomandlogichadallowedit.TheRepublicansfearedthatbydismissal
fromofficeJohnsonwouldgaincontroloftheentireexecutivedivisionofthegovernmentat
atimeofcrisis.ThebillproposedthatallofficersappointedwiththeconsentoftheSenate
couldberemovedonlywiththeconsentoftheSenate,exceptinthecaseofcabinetofficers.
TheHouseinsistedonincludingcabinetofficersandfinallythebillwaspassedprovidingthat
cabinetofficersshouldholdtheirofficesduringthetermofthePresidentbywhomtheywere
appointedandonemonththereafter;duringthattimetheycouldberemovedonlywiththe
consentoftheSenate.ThismeasurewenttothePresidentonthe20thofFebruary,together
withtheReconstructionbill,andwasvetoedMarch2.Thevetoargued,fromstatutesand
uniformpractice,thatCongresshadnopowertoforcethePresidenttoretaininofficeagainst
hisjudgmentsubordinateswhomhehadappointed.
Johnsonsaidwithcuriouslogic:"Wheneveradministrationfails,orseemstofail,insecuring
anyofthegreatendsforwhichrepublicangovernmentisestablished,thepropercourse
seemstobetorenewtheoriginalspiritandformsoftheConstitutionitself."Whowastobe
thejudgeofthe"originalspirit"—AndrewJohnsonortheCongress?Whichwastoyield?
Congressmustyieldtoonestubborn,narrow-mindedmanoritwasforcedbythenecessityof
controllingtheExecutive,toadoptthisrevolutionarymeasure.
SumnersaidinDecember,1866:
"ItispossiblethatthePresidentmaybeimpeached.Ifwegoforwardandsupersedethesham
governmentssetupintherebelstates,weencountertheappointingpowerofthePresident,
whowouldputinofficemenwhosympathizewithhim.Itisthisconsiderationwhichmakes
ardentrepresentativessaythathemustberemoved.Shouldthisbeattempted,anew
questionwillbepresented."T
ThroughfearofJohnson'sactions,the40thCongressassembledinspecialsession
immediatelyafteradjournmentofthe39th,sothatCongresswaspracticallyincontinuous
sessionandtherewasnointerregnumduringwhichJohnsoncouldexercisehisuncurbed
power.
ThenewCongressimmediatelypassedasupplementaryReconstructionbilltoimplementthe
mainmeasure.Thisbilllaiddownaplanofregistrationforallmalecitizens,twenty-one
yearsofageandover,
whocouldtaketheoathofloyalty,andmadeitthedutyofthecommandinggeneralstoorder
electionsandchoosedelegatesforconstitutionalconventions.Ifthevotersfavoredsuch
conventions,constitutionsweretobeformedandifadoptedtransmittedtoCongress.The
wholemachineryofelectionwasplacedinthehandsofthecommandinggenerals.
Thevetoofthissupplementalbillcameimmediately.ThePresidentineffectdeclaredthatthe
riseofthemassesofblacklabortopoliticalpowerwas"anuntriedexperiment"which
"threatened"thewhiteswith"evenworsewrongs"thandisfranchisementforattempted
rebellion,andmade"theirconditionthemostdeplorabletowhichanypeoplecanbe
reduced."Andthisfromthelife-longmanofthepeopleandchampionoftherightsofthe
poor!
ItwasbadenoughwhenJohnsonconfinedhimselftospeeches,asatAntietam,butwhenhe
cametoaction,Congresswasfurtheraroused.First,June20,heissuedliberalinstructions
concerningtheloyaloathandthedutyofcommandinggenerals.Hedecidedonadviceofhis
AttorneyGeneral,Stanbery,thatthosetakingtheoathofloyaltywerejudgesoftheirown
honestyandcouldnotbequestionedbytheBoardofRegistration;thatactual
disfranchisementforrebellioncouldonlybemadevalidbylaworcourtdecision.Disloyal
sentimentsalonedidnotinvolvedisfranchisement.
Moreover,inappointinggenerals,Johnsonevidentlyproposedtoappoint,asfaraspossible,
generalswhoweresympatheticwiththeSouth.InJulyheremovedSheridanfromLouisiana
andTexasandappointedfirstGeneralThomas,aVirginiaDemocrat,inhisplace,andfinally
GeneralHancock,aloyalfollowerofJohnson.TheremovalofSheridancausedgreat
excitement.TheLoyalLegionheldagreatmeetingaskingfortheimmediatesummoningof
CongressandthedepositionofthePresident.HereplacedGeneralSicklesintheCaro-linas
withGeneralCanby.SheridanandSicklesweregivenpostsintheNorth.
TheseinstructionswerepublishedJune20andCongressrepliedbytheActofJuly19,1867.
ThisactspecificallyincludedVirginia,NorthCarolina,LouisianaandArkansasinthestatesto
bereconstructed;itprovidedthatalltheso-calledgovernmentsintheSouthshouldbe
subjecttotheordersoftheDistrictCommandersandtheGeneralofthearmyandnotofthe
President.ThebillmadetheBoardsofRegistrationjudgesoffactinregardtopersonsseeking
totaketheoathofloyaltyanditextendedthetimelimitforregistrationofvoters.
ThebillpassedtheHousesJuly13,andwasvetoedJuly19.Johnsonprotestedagainstthe
attemptoftheFederalGovernmenttocarryonstategovernments,andespeciallyagainstthe
invasionoftheconstitutionalpowersofthePresident.Hiswordswerebitter:"WhilstIholdthechiefexecutive
authorityoftheUnitedStates,whilsttheobligationrestsuponmetoseethatallthelawsare
faithfullyexecuted,Icanneverwillinglysurrenderthattrustorthepowersgivenforits
execution.Icannevergivemyassenttobemaderesponsibleforthefaithfulexecutionof
laws,andatthesametimesurrenderthattrustandthepowerswhichaccompanyittoany
otherexecutiveofficer,highorlow,ortoanynumberofexecutiveofficers."Thebillwas
passedoverthevetobybothHousesbyoverwhelmingmajorities,andtalkofimpeachment
startedanew.
ThediscussionwhichhasragedroundtheReconstructionlegislationisofthesame
metaphysicalstripecharacterizingallfetich-worshipoftheConstitution.Ifonemeansby
"constitutional"somethingprovidedforinthatinstrumentorforeseenbyitsauthorsor
reasonablyimplicitinitswords,thentheReconstructionActswereundoubtedly
unconstitutional;andso,forthatmatter,wastheCivilWar.Infact,themainmeasuresof
governmentduring1861-1870were"unconstitutional."Theonlyactionpossibly
contemplatedbytheauthorsoftheConstitutionwassecession;thataction,theconstitutional
fathersfearedanddeprecated,buttheirinstrumentdidnotforbiditanddistinctlyimpliedthe
legalityofastatewithdrawingfromthe"moreperfectunion."
CertainlynoonecouldarguethatthefounderscontemplatedcivilwartopreservetheUnion
orthattheConstitutionwasapro-slaverydocument.Yet,unconstitutionally,theSouthmade
itapro-slaverydocumentandunconstitutionallytheNorthpreventedthedestructionofthe
Uniononaccountofslavery;andafterthewarrevolutionarymeasuresrebuiltwhat
revolutionhaddisrupted,andformedanewUnitedStatesonabasisbroaderthantheold
Constitutionanddifferentfromitsoriginalconception.
Andwhynot?Nomoreidioticprogramcouldbelaiddownthantorequireapeopletofollow
awrittenruleofgovernment90yearsold,ifthatrulehadbeendefinitelybrokeninorderto
preservetheunityofthegovernmentandtodestroyaneconomicanachronism.Insucha
crisislegalistsmayinsistthatconsistencywithprecedentismoreimportantthanfirmand
far-sightedrebuilding.Butmanifestly,itisnot.Rule-following,legalprecedence,andpolitical
consistencyarenotmoreimportantthanright,justiceandplaincommon-sense.Throughthe
cobwebsofsuchpoliticalsubtlety,Stevenscrashedandsaidthatmilitaryrulemustcontinue
intheSouthuntilorderwasrestored,democracyestablished,andthepoliticalpowerbuilton
slaverysmashed.Furtherthanthis,bothheandSumnerknewthatlandandeducationfor
blackandwhitelaborwasnecessary.
OnthefirstdayofthesecondsessionoftheThirty-NinthCongress,Sumnerwasonhand
withhisbillforestablishinguniversalsuffrageintheDistrictofColumbia.Hehadaccepteda
placeontheCommitteeoftheDistrictofColumbia,inadditiontohisotherduties,tosecure
Negrosuffrage.TheCommitteereportedabillinDecember,1866.Readingandwritingasa
qualificationwasmovedasanamendmentbutwasrejectedbyavoteof15-19.Sumnervoted
"No."ThebilldidnotreachafinalvotebutcameupagainDecember10,1867,whenitpassed
afterfourdays'debatebyavoteof32-13.ThenextdayitpassedtheHouse,andwenttothe
President.
JohnsonandSeward,intheveto,kepthammeringattheoldthesis.Northernstateswillnot
allowNegrosuffragetobeforceduponthemagainsttheirwill.TheNegropopulationofthe
Districthasrecentlybeengreatlyincreasedbymigration.Theirrightscanbeprotectedinthe
Districtwithouttherightofsuffrage,justasmuchasinPennsylvania,OhioandIndiana,
whichrefuseNegroestherighttovote.Becauseofslavery,theNegroisnotaswellfittedto
voteastheintelligentforeigner.Andyetfiveyears'residenceandaknowledgeofour
governmentarerequiredofthelatter.
Thebillwasre-passedoverthePresident'sveto,January7,andafteritcamethefirstproposal
toimpeachthePresident."Agreatstepalongthepathtouniversalsuffragewithoutcolor
distinctionshasjustbeentakenintheHouseofRepresentatives,initssessionofthe18th.
ThebillgivingtherighttovotetotheblacksintheDistrictofColumbiapassedwitha
majorityof114to54.Ananxiouscrowd,ofwhitesandblacksmixed,filledthegalleriesofthe
HouseandalltheapproachestotheCapitol,andthepassageofthebillwashailedwitha
greatoutburstoffrenziedapplause."8
Threedaysafterthe40thCongressopened,Sumnerofferedaseriesofresolutionstoprovide
homesandschoolsforfreedmen.ThissupplementedtheFreedmen'sBureaulawand
providedapermanentpolicyofnationalaidtoeducationandeconomicredressoftherobbery
ofslavery.Theresolutionsdidnotcometoavote;Sumnerthentriedtoamendthe
ReconstructionActsofMarch22andJuly19byprovisionsforfreeschoolsintheSouth
withoutdiscriminationastorace.Atievotedefeatedthiseffort,althoughamajorityofthe
Republicansstoodbyhim.HetriedagainandfailedJuly11andJuly13."Hisdisappointment
athisfailurein1867tosecureschoolsandhomesforthefreedmenwassokeenthatheleft
theSenatechamber,andwhenhereachedhishouse,hisgrieffoundventintears."9
CharlesSumner,frustratedinthesedemands,continuedtodirectthelineofattackwhichhe
hadinitiatedduringtheCivilWar.HehadinmindreliefforfreeNegroesintheNorthaswell
asfreedmen
intheSouth,andhewasdeterminedthatpettyraceprejudiceintheNorthshouldnotescape
attentionbecauseofthefightagainstslaveryanditsaftermathintheSouth.
Earlyinthespringof1867,March11,Stevensintroducedasetofresolutionsforthe
enforcementoftheConfiscationActofJuly17,1862,withpreambleasfollows:"Whereasitis
duetojustice,asanexampletofuturetimes,thatsomeproperpainshouldbeinflictedonthe
peoplewhoconstitutedthe'ConfederateStatesofAmerica,'bothbecausetheydeclaredan
unjustwaragainsttheUnitedStatesforthepurposeofdestroyingrepublicanlibertyand
permanentlyestablishingslavery,aswellasforthecruelandbarbarousmannerinwhich
theyconductedsaidwar,inviolationofallrulesofcivilizedwarfare,andalsotocompelthem
tomakecompensationforthedamageandexpensecausedbysaidwar,therefore:Beit
enactedthatallpubliclandsbelongingtothetenstatesthatformedtheso-called
'ConfederateStatesofAmerica,'shallbeforfeitedbysaidstatesandbecomevestedforthwith
intheUnitedStates."Themeasurefurtherprovidedasfollows:"Section2,thatthePresident
shouldproceedatoncetocondemnthepropertyforfeitedundertheaforesaidActofJuly17,
1862;section3,thatacommissionofappraisersbeappointedtoappraisesaidproperty;
section4,thatthelandsoseizedandcondemnedshouldbedistributedamongtheslaveswho
hadbeenmadefreebythewarandconstitutionalamendments,andwhowereresidingon
saidlandonthe4thofMarch,1861,orsince:toeachheadofafamily40acres;toeachadult
malewhetherheadofafamilyornot,40acres;toeachwidow,headofafamily,40acres;to
beheldbytheminfeesimple,buttobeinalienablefortenyearsaftertheyshouldbecomeso
seizedthereof.Section5providedfortheraisingofthesumoffiftydollarsforeach
homesteader,tobeusedfortheerectionofabuildingonhishomestead;andthatthefurther
sumoffivehundredmilliondollarsberaisedforthepurposeofpensioningtheveteransof
theUnionarmy."Thebillcontainedseveralothersectionsdealingwiththesubjectin
connectionwiththemainfeaturesasabovesetforth.
StevenscalledupthismeasureforconsiderationbytheHouseonMarch19,whenhemade
oneofhischaracteristicspeeches,brilliantandpungent;ageseemsnevertohavehadany
effectuponhismentalvigornoranytendencytomodifyhissharpinvectives.Saidhe:"Iam
abouttodiscussthequestionofpainofbelligerenttraitors....Thepainoftraitorshasbeen
whollyignoredbyatreacherousexecutiveandasluggishCongress....Iwishtomakeanissue
beforetheAmericanpeopleandseewhethertheywillsanctiontheperfectimpunityofa
murderousbelligerentandconsentthatloyalmenof
thisnationwhohavebeendespoiledoftheirpropertyshallremainwithoutremuneration,
eitherbyrebelpropertyorthepropertyofthenation.Tothisissue,Idesiretodevotethe
smallremainderofmylife....Nocommitteeorpartyisresponsibleforthisbill.Whatever
merititpossessesisduetoAndrewJohnsonandmyself."
AndrewJohnsondidnotfalterandbegantopinhisfaithonthefallelectionsof1867.On
September7,1867,JohnsonextendedfullpardontoConfederates.Hisformerproclamation,
accordingtotheTribune,had"leftaboutonehundredthousandcitizensoutsidetheamnesty,
butthisoneleavesoutoneortwothousand."
UndoubtedlyatthistimeJohnsonwasbeingurgedtowardstrongercounter-revolutionary
measures.HeentertainedtheideaoforderingthemilitarygovernorsofthefiveSouthern
districtstoenrollasvoterstheformerConfederateswhomhehadincludedinhislast
ProclamationofAmnesty.ClemenceausaidthatwhensomeofhisSouthernfriendscalledon
him,headmittedfranklythatonlythefearofbeingdeposedpreventedhimfromactingand
headvisedthemtotakethematterintocourt.
TocourttheSouthflew.Johnson'sprovisionalgovernorofMississippitriedinthenameof
hisstatetoenjointhePresidentfromexecutingtheReconstructionlaws.TheSupremeCourt
foundinApril,1867,thatitsinterferencewouldbeimproper.ThereuponGovernorJacksonof
GeorgiasoughttoenjointheSecretaryofWar,theGeneraloftheArmy,andtheDistrict
CommanderinGeorgia;butthecourtdecidedithadnojurisdiction.AsecondtimeGeorgia
wenttotheSupremeCourtandfailed.Finally,latein1867,W.H.McCardleofMississippi,
arrestedbymilitaryauthorityundertheReconstructionacts,appealedfromtheCircuittothe
SupremeCourt,butCongressoverthePresident'svetorepealedthestatutewhichallowed
suchanappeal,andbythisrevolutionaryproceduremadegooditssupremepowerin
ReconstructionovercourtandPresident.
RadicalnewspaperspublishedinOctoberastatementthatthePresidenthadtoldcertain
friendsinTennesseethathewouldresistbyforceifCongressattemptedtoimpeachhim.
Johnsondeniedthathehadsaidanythingofthesort,butRepublicansmademuchofthefact
thatJohnsonhadorderedcannonfurnishedtoSwann,GovernorofMaryland,wholike
JohnsonhadbeenelectedbytheRepublicansandhadgoneovertotheDemocrats.Swann
askedthegovernmenttofurnishhimwithcannon.JohnsongaveStantontheordertodeliver
theweaponsneeded.Stantonflatlyrefused.WhenGeneralGranttookhisplaceasSecretary
ofWar,theGovernorofMarylandrenewedhisrequest,whichwasagaingrantedbyJohnson
andagainrefusedbyGrant.Finally,Swannmadeuphismindtobuythe
cannon.MostoftheofficersservinginSwann'smilitiawereformerConfederates.
Duringthefallcampaignof1867,therewasfearofpanicintheaironaccountofthevast
circulationofgreenbacksandbanknotestotheextentofabilliondollars.Withmoney
fluctuatinginvalue,tradebecamealottery.Higherprotectionwasputonsteelandwoolen
goods.Butcuriouslyenough,theDemocratsingeneralavoidedthetariffissue.Theydidnot
followJohnson'sattackonfinancebecausetheysawitsinconsistencywiththereactionof
propertyintheSouth.Leavingtheeconomicargument,theyembracedwithavidityrace
prejudiceandconcentratedtheircampaignonthis.
Clemenceausaid,"ThebestpointofattackfortheDemocratsistheNegroes.AnyDemocrat
whodidnotmanagetohintinhisspeechthattheNegroisadegenerategorilla,wouldbe
consideredlackinginenthusiasm.Theideaofgivingpoliticalpowertoalotofwildmen,
incapableofcivilization,whoseintelligenceisnohigherthanthatoftheanimal!Thatisthe
themeofallDemocraticspeeches."10Withthis,ofcourse,wentfetichworshipofthe
Constitution.
Johnsonlookedforwardwithhope.OctoberelectionstookplaceinOhioandPennsylvania
andshowedreactiontowardtheDemocrats.
InOhio,R.B.Hayes,afterwardpresident,ranagainstAllanG.Thurman,andNegrosuffrage
playedalargepart.Hayesdeniedtheassertionthatthegovernmentwasawhiteman's
government."ItisnottheGovernmentofanyclassorsectornationalityorrace....Itisnot
theGovernmentofthenativebornoroftheforeignborn,oftherichmanorofthepoorman,
ofthewhitemanorofthecoloredman—itistheGovernmentofthefreeman."The
"monstrousinconsistencyandinjusticeofexcludingone-seventhofourpopulationfromall
participationinaGovernmentfoundedontheconsentofthegoverned"washeldtobe
impossible.Therewasnonecessaryantagonismbetweenthetworaceswhichcouldnotbe
brokendownbyjusticeandequality.11
Hayeswonbylessthan3,000votes,ascomparedwithaRepublicanmajorityof42,000in
1866.Also,atthesametime,thevotersrejectedtheNegrosuffrageamendmentby38,000
votes,andelectedaDemocraticlegislature.Therewere,however,certainotherelements.The
Republicanshadsoughttodisfranchisedesertersfromthearmy,andBenWadehadaroused
thebitterhostilityofSouthernelementsinsouthernOhio.
Ohioexpresseditselfagainstthehightariff"tofillthepocketsofEasternmonopolists,"and
infavorofagriculturallabor,showingthepeculiarcontradictioninthemindsofthevoters.
JohnsontelegraphedOhio:"Ohiohasdoneitsdutyanddoneitintime.GodblessOhio."
PennsylvanialostnearlythewholeofitsRepublicanmajorityofthirtythousand.InNew
Yorkcannonwerekeptfiringfortwodays.
MostofthestateelectionscameinNovember,andshowedsomereactiontowardthe
DemocratsbutnotsogreatasinOctober.TheRepublicanswoninMassachusetts,Michigan,
Wisconsin,Kansas,Minnesota,MissouriandIllinois,butwerecompletelydefeatedinNew
York,NewJerseyandMaryland.
NewJerseyrefusedtostrikeouttheword"white"fromtherequirementsforsuffrage;inNew
York,theRepublicansdidnotdaretosubmittopopularvotetheproposaltodropthe
propertydiscriminationagainstNegrovoters.Marylandadoptedanewregistrylawwhich
gavethevotetowhitesonly.
Ontheotherhand,during1867,IowaandDakotaadmittedNegroestotheballot,and
Minnesotain1868.InthislatteryearNegroeswerevotinginalltheNewEnglandstates
exceptConnecticut,inIowa,MinnesotaandDakota—atotalof8Northernstates.TheSouth
anditsfriendshadarighttochargethat8otherNorthernstatesrefusedtoenfranchisea
classtowhichtheywereforcingtheSouthtogivethevote.
InthethirdannualmessageofAndrewJohnson,December3,1867,allmaskingoftheNegro
problemisremoved.Heisnolongerevasiveastotherelationoftheblackworkertothe
whiteworkerandhiswholeeconomicargumentisdrownedinracehate.Thereisno
suggestionthatNegrosoldiersorNegropropertyownersorNegroeswhocanreadandwrite
shouldhaveanypoliticalrights.Hebaseshiswholeargumentflatlyontheinferiorityofthe
Negrorace.
"Itisthegloryofwhitemen,"heproclaimsmagniloquently,"toknowthattheyhavehad
thesequalitiesinsufficientmeasuretobuilduponthiscontinentagreatpoliticalfabricand
topreserveitsstabilityformorethanninetyyears,whileineveryotherpartoftheworldall
similarexperimentshavefailed.Butifanythingcanbeprovedbyknownfacts,ifallreasoning
uponevidenceisnotabandoned,itmustbeacknowledgedthatintheprogressofnations,
Negroeshaveshownlesscapacityforgovernmentthananyotherraceofpeople.No
independentgovernmentofanyformhaseverbeensuccessfulintheirhands.Onthe
contrary,wherevertheyhavebeenlefttotheirowndevicestheyhaveshownaconstant
tendencytorelapseintobarbarism.IntheSouthernStates,however,Congresshas
undertakentoconferuponthemtheprivilegeoftheballot.Justreleasedfromslavery,itmay
bedoubtedwhetherasaclasstheyknowmorethantheirancestorshowtoorganizeand
regulatecivilsociety.Indeed,itisadmittedthattheblacksoftheSoutharenotonly
regardlessoftherightsofproperty,butsoutterlyignorantofpublicaffairsthattheirvoting
can
consistinnothingmorethancarryingaballottotheplacewheretheyaredirectedtodeposit
it.
"Thegreatdifferencebetweenthetworacesinphysical,mentalandmoralcharacteristicswill
preventanamalgamationorfusionofthemtogetherinonehomogeneousmass.Ifthe
inferiorobtainstheascendencyovertheother,itwillgovernwithreferenceonlytoitsown
interests—foritwillrecognizenocommoninterest—andcreatesuchatyrannyasthis
continenthasneveryetwitnessed.AlreadytheNegroesareinfluencedbypromisesof
confiscationandplunder.Theyaretaughttoregardasanenemyeverywhitemanwhohas
anyrespectfortherightsofhisownrace.Ifthiscontinuesitmustbecomeworseandworse,
untilallorderwillbesubverted,allindustrycease,andthefertilefieldsoftheSouthgrowup
intoawilderness.Ofallthedangerswhichournationhasyetencountered,noneareequalto
thosewhichmustresultfromthesuccessoftheeffortnowmakingtoAfricanizethehalfof
ourcountry."
ItiseasytobelievenowthattheideathatAndrewJohnsonandtheSouthplannedacoup
d'etatwasfanciful.Thepointisthatsaneandthoughtfulmenatthetimewidelybelievedit.
Nomatterhowincredibleitmayseemtous,wemustrememberthatthiswasagenerationto
whichithadseemedincrediblethattheSouthshouldsecede.Theyhadseentheincredible
happenatfearfulcost.Itmighthappenagain.TheRepublicans,therefore,refusedtobe
frightenedbytheelectionsof1867.CarlSchurzsaidthat"IthinkthatIdonotexaggeratethat
anoverwhelmingmajorityoftheloyalUnionmen,NorthandSouth,sawinPresident
Johnsonatraitorbentuponturningoverthenationalgovernmenttotherebelsagain,and
ardentlywishingtoseehimutterlystrippedofpower,notsomuchforwhathehaddone,but
forwhat,astheythought,hewascapableofdoingandlikelytodo."
Impeachmentproceedingsnowhurriedforward.TheyhadbeguninDecember,1866.On
February28,1867,theCommitteeonJudiciaryhadrefusedtorecommendimpeachmentof
thePresidentbutaskedforfurtherinvestigation.March2,theReconstructionActpassed,
andMarch7,impeachmentwasmovedforthesecondtimeintheHouse.Johnsonhad
notifiedtheSenateofthesuspensionofSecretaryStantoninDecember,1867.Earlythenext
year,theSenaterefusedtoconcur,Grantgaveuptheoffice,andStantonresumedhisduties.
StantonwasdismissedagaininFebruary,1868,andtheimpeachmentofJohnsonwas
determineduponinMarch.
ThebeginningoftheattempttoimpeachPresidentJohnsonwasamemorablescene.
ThaddeusStevensmadehisspeechFebruary16,1868.Hewashopelesslybrokeninhealth,
andahushedandexpectant
audiencelistenedtoeveryword.Hespokewithforceandsolemnity."Idoubt,"saidCharles
Sumner,"ifwordswereeverdeliveredtomoreeffect."12Hewasadyingmanandthiswas
hislastword.
Whoin1867representedtheconsideredwillofthepeopleoftheUnitedStates?Certainlynot
AndrewJohnson,backedbyNortherncopperheadsandthesupportersofafutileattemptat
secession.Justascertainlytwo-thirdsofthemembersofCongress,withtheSouthexcluded
asithadbeenexcludedforsixterribleyears,hadaclearrighttoexpresstherepeatedly
registeredpopularwill.
Theproblemwasadifficultone.WhencanarulerruleintheUnitedStates?Thenationby
overwhelmingmajorityhaddeclaredforunion,foremancipationtopreservetheUnion,for
noincreaseinthepoliticalpowerofthewhiteSouth,andforNegrosuffragetopreventthis
increasedpoliticalpowerandrewardNegroloyalty.
Thisclearwillofthemajorityofthepeople,representedinCongress,wasfrustratedbya
Presidentwhorepeatedlyrefusedtoobeytheplainmanclateofthepartywhichelectedhim.
JohnsonvirtuallydeclaredCongressillegalbecausetheSouthwasunrepresented.Congress
deniedthatacriminalcouldbehisownjudge.Whocouldsettlethisdispute?Bythewhole
theoryofpartygovernment,aPresidentmustbeatleastingeneralaccordwithhisparty.His
utmostpowershouldnotgobeyondasuspensoryvetocompellingaplebiscite.Yetno
presidentinthehistoryoftheUnitedStatesuptothistimehadusedthevetopowerlike
AndrewJohnsontoopposetheexpressedwillofthenation.Intwenty-threecases,he
opposedhiswilltothewillofCongress,whileAndrewJackson,hisclosestcompetitor,made
onlyelevenvetoesandpocketvetoes.Partyresponsibilityingovernmentwasabsolutely
blockedatatimeofcrisis.Underany,evenpartial,theoryofsuchresponsibility,Johnson
wouldhavebeencompelledtoresign;buttheantiquatedconstitutionalrequirementsofa
systemoflawsbuiltforanotherageandforentirelydifferentcircumstanceswerenowbeing
appliedtounforeseenconditions.
TheConstitutionmadetheremovalofthePresidentcontingentuponhiscommitting"high
crimesandmisdemeanors."Herethencameaplainquestionofdefinition:wasitacrime,in
thejudgmentofthepeopleoftheUnitedStatesin1867,foraPresidenttoblockthe
overwhelmingwillofasuccessfulmajorityofvotersduringaperiodofnearlythreeyears?
Stevensandthosewhofollowedhimsaidthatitwas.TheydidnotallpretendthatJohnson
waspersonallyacriminalwithtreasonabledesigns,althoughsomebelievedeventhat;onthe
otherhanditwascleareventomanyofJohnson'sfriendsthathewas"anunfitpersontobe
PresidentoftheUnitedStates."13They
alldidassertthathehadbrokentherulesbywhichresponsiblegovernmentcouldbecarried
on.
ThetrialstartedMarch30,1868,andendedMay6.Overtwo-thirdsofthemembersofthe
UnitedStatesHouseofRepresentatives,35outof54Senators,andthegreatmajorityofthe
votersofthenation,outsidetheformerslavestates,agreedthatJohnsonshouldberemoved
fromoffice.Whethertheywererightorwrong,thefailurelegallytoconvictJohnsonhas
remainedtofrustrateresponsiblegovernmentintheUnitedStateseversince.Butno
PresidentsinceJohnsonhasattemptedindefinitelytoruleindefianceofCongress.
Theleadersofabolition-democracystillpressedon.Sumnerwasespeciallyactiveand
destinedforseveralmoreyearsofactivework.
ThaddeusStevenswasneardeath,buttotheveryendhefoughton.Hewishedtoask
CongresstodeclarebylawthatnostatehadtherighttoforbidcitizensoftheUnitedStates
fromtakingpartinthenationalelections.
ThaddeusStevensdiedAugust11,1868,threeweeksaftertheratificationoftheFourteenth
Amendmentwasannounced,andinhislastbreathandevenafterdeath,stoodtruetohis
principles."Twocoloredclergymencalled,andaskedleavetoseeStevensandpraywithhim.
Heorderedthemtobeadmitted;andwhentheyhadcometohisbedside,heturnedandheld
outhishandtooneofthem.Theysangahymnandprayed....Itwasthenwithintenminutes
ofmidnight,andtheendwastocomebeforethebeginningofthenewday.Helaymotionless
forafewminutes,thenopenedhiseyes,tookonelook,placidlyclosedthem,and,withouta
struggle,thegreatcommonerhadceasedtobreathe."14
ThaddeusStevenswasburiedinacoloredgraveyard.Uponthemonumentthereisthe
followinginscription,preparedbyhimself:"Ireposeinthisquietandsecludedspot,notfrom
anynaturalpreferenceforsolitude,butfindingothercemeterieslimitedastoracebycharter
rules,Ihavechosenthis,thatImightillustrateinmydeaththeprincipleswhichIadvocated
throughalonglife,[the]EqualityofManbeforehisCreator."
AsCharlesSumnersaid:"Alreadyhetakeshisplaceamongillustriousnames,whicharethe
commonpropertyofmankind.Iseehimnow,asIhavesooftenseenhimduringlife.His
venerableformmovesslowlyandwithuncertainsteps;butthegatheredstrengthofyearsis
inhiscountenanceandthelightofvictoryonhispath.Politician,calculator,time-server,
standaside!aherostatesmanpassestohisreward!"15
Asaresultofthelegislationofthe39thand40thCongresses,theUnitedStatesin1867took
aportentousforwardstepindemocracy.
Forthemassofthenation,itwasasteptakenundercompulsionoffear,withoutdeep
forethoughtandwitharatherdidacticfollowingoutofcertainconventionalprincipleswhich
madeuniversalsuffrageseemnaturalandinevitable.TotheSouth,itwasthepriceofthat
disasterofslaveryandwarwhichspelleditshistoryfrom1830to1865;anditwastheonly
priceadequatetothatfatalmistake.
TothosemenwhowereguidingAmericanindustrytowardanewandfatefulpath,the
Southernexperimentwassimplyapoliticalmovebywhichtheysilencedandheldincheck
thetremendouspoliticalpowerbuiltonslavery,whichinmanywaysandforagenerationhad
threatenedthenationandcheckeditseconomicdevelopment.
Toafewfar-seeingleadersofdemocracythisexperimentappearedinitstruerlight.Itwasa
testofthewholetheoryofAmericangovernment.Itwasadictatorshipbackedbythemilitary
armoftheUnitedStatesbywhichthegovernmentsoftheSouthernstatesweretobecoerced
intoacceptinganewformofadministration,inwhichthefreedmenandthepoorwhiteswere
toholdtheoverwhelmingbalanceofpoliticalpower.Assoonaspoliticalpowerwas
successfullydeliveredintothehandsoftheseelements,theFederalgovernmentwasto
withdrawandfulldemocracyensue.
Thedifficultywiththistheorywasthefailuretorealizethatsuchdictatorshipmustlastlong
enoughreallytoputthemassofworkersinpower;thatthiswouldbeinfactadictatorshipof
theproletariatwhichmustendureuntiltheproletariatoratleastaleadingunitedgroup,with
clearobjectsandeffectivemethod,hadeducationandexperienceandhadtakenfirmcontrol
oftheeconomicorganizationoftheSouth.Unfortunately,thepowersettobeginthis
dictatorshipwasthemilitaryarmofagovernmentwhichmoreandmorewasfallingintothe
handsoforganizedwealth,andofwealthorganizedonascaleneverbeforeseeninmodern
civilization.
TheneworganizationofNorthernwealthwasnotcomparabletothepettybourgeoisiewhich
seizedpoweraftertheoverthrowofEuropeanfeudalism.Itwasanewruleofassociatedand
federatedmon-archsofindustryandfinancewieldingavasterandmoredespoticpowerthan
Europeankingsandnobleseverheld.ItwasdestinedtosubduenotsimplySouthern
agrarianismbutevenindividualwealthandbrainsintheNorthwhichwerecreatinganew
pettybourgeoisieofsmallmerchantsandskilledartisans.
Itwasinconceivable,therefore,thatthemastersofNorthernindustrythroughtheirgrowing
controlofAmericangovernment,weregoingtoallowthelaborersoftheSouthanymorereal
controlofwealthandindustrythanwasnecessarytocurbthepoliticalpoweroftheplanters
andtheirsuccessors.AssoonastheSouthernlandholders
andmerchantsyieldedtotheNortherndemandsofaplutocracy,atthatmomentthemilitary
dictatorshipshouldbewithdrawnandadictatorshipofcapitalallowedunhamperedsway.
Weseethismoreclearlytodaythanthenationof1868,oranyofitsleaders,couldpossibly
envisageit;buteventhen,NorthernindustryknewthatuniversalsuffrageintheSouth,in
thehandsofNegroesjustfreedfromslavery,andofwhitepeoplestillenslavedbypoverty,
couldnotstandagainstorganizedindustry.Theypromptlycalculatedthatthesamemethod
ofcontrollingthelaborvotewouldcomeinvogueintheSouthastheywerealreadyusingin
theNorth,andthattheindustrywhichusedthesemethodsmustinthemeantimecooperate
withNorthernindustry;thatitcouldnotmovethefoundationstonesuponwhichNorthern
industrywasconsolidatingitspower;thatis,thetariff,themoneysystem,thedebt,and
nationalinplaceofstatecontrolofindustry.Thiswouldseemtobewhatthemastersof
exploitationwerecountinguponanditcertainlycametrueinthebargainof1876.
Thusbysingularcoincidenceandforamoment,forthefewyearsofaneternalsecondina
cycleofathousandyears,theorbitsoftwowidelyandutterlydissimilareconomicsystems
coincidedandtheresultwasarevolutionsovastandportentousthatfewmindseverfully
conceivedit;forthesystemswerethese:first,thatofademocracywhichshouldbyuniversal
suffrageestablishadictatorshipoftheproletariatendinginindustrialdemocracy;andthe
other,asystembywhichalittleknotofmasterfulmenwouldsoorganizecapitalismasto
bringundertheircontrolthenaturalresources,wealthandindustryofavastandrichcountry
andthroughthat,oftheworld.Forasecond,forapulseoftime,theseorbitscrossedand
coincided,buttheircentralsunswereathousandlight-yearsapart,eventhoughtheblindand
ignorantfuryoftheSouthandthecomplacentPhilistinismoftheNorthsawthemasone.
Reconstructionwasaneconomicrevolutiononamightyscaleandwithworldrwide
reverberation.Reconstructionwasnotsimplyafightbetweenthewhiteandblackracesinthe
Southorbetweenmasterandex-slave.Itwasmuchmoresubtle;itinvolvedmorethanthis.
Therehavebeenrepeatedandcontinuedattemptstopaintthiseraasaninterludeofpetty
politicsornightmareofracehateinsteadofviewingitslowlyandbroadlyasatremendous
seriesofeffortstoearnalivinginnewanduntriedways,toachieveeconomicsecurityandto
restorefatallossesofcapitalandinvestment.Itwasavastlabormovementofignorant,
earnest,andbewilderedblackmenwhosefaceshadbeengroundinthemudbytheirthree
awfulcenturiesofdegradationandwhonowstaggeredforwardblindlyinbloodandtears
amidpetty
division,hateandhurt,andsurroundedbyeverydisasterofwarandindustrialupheaval.
Reconstructionwasavastlabormovementofignorant,muddledandbewilderedwhitemen
whohadbeendisinheritedoflandandlaborandfoughtalongbattlewithsheersubsistence,
hangingontheedgeofpoverty,eatingclayandchasingslavesandnowlurchingupto
manhood.ReconstructionwastheturnofwhiteNorthernmigrationsouthwardtonewand
suddeneconomicopportunitywhichfollowedthedisasteranddislocationofwar,andan
attempttoorganizecapitalandlaboronanewpatternandbuildaneweconomy.Finally
Reconstructionwasadesperateeffortofadislodged,maimed,impoverishedandruined
oligarchyandmonopolytorestoreananachronismineconomicorganizationbyforce,fraud
andslander,indefianceoflawandorder,andinthefaceofagreatlabormovementofwhite
andblack,andinbitterstrifewithanewcapitalismandanewpoliticalframework.
Allthesecontendingandantagonisticgroupsspokedifferentandunknowntongues;tothe
Negro"Freedom"wasGod;tothepoorwhite"Freedom"wasnothing—hehadmorethanhe
hadusefor;totheplanter"Freedom"forthepoorwaslazinessandfortherich,controlofthe
poorworker;fortheNorthernbusinessman"Freedom"wasopportunitytogetrich.
Yet,withinterpretation,agreementwaspossiblehere;NorthandSouthagreedthatlaborers
mustproduceprofit;thepoorwhiteandtheNegrowantedtogettheprofitarisingfromthe
laborers'toilandnottodivideitwiththeemployersandlandowners.WhenNorthernand
Southernemployersagreedthatprofitwasmostimportantandthemethodofgettingit
second,thepathtounderstandingwasclear.Whenwhitelaborerswereconvincedthatthe
degradationofNegrolaborwasmorefundamentalthantheupliftofwhitelabor,theendwas
insight.
Notonlydidallthosefactorsbecloudthisextraordinaryseriesofmovementssothatthe
truthofthematterinitselfwasbafflingtoobserversandinterpreters—butoverallhas
spread,tothisday,acloudoflyingandslanderwhichleaveshistoriansandphilosophers
aghastandhasresultedinacurrenttheoryofinterpretationwhichpicturesallparticipantsas
scoundrels,idiotsandheroes—acombinationhumanlyimprobableanddemonstrablyuntrue.
OnecannotstudyReconstructionwithoutfirstfranklyfacingthefactsofuniversallying;of
deliberateandunboundedattemptstoproveacaseandwinadisputeandpreserveeconomic
masteryandpoliticaldominationbybesmirchingthecharacter,motives,andcommonsense,
ofeverysinglepersonwhodareddisagreewiththedominantphilosophyofthewhiteSouth.
Thecampaignofslanderagainst"carpetbaggers"rosetoaclimaxwhichincludedevery
NorthernpersonwhodefendedtheNegro,andeveryNorthernpersonintheSouthwhowas
connectedwiththearmyorFreedmen'sBureauorwiththeinstitutionsoflearning,orwho
admittedtherightoftheNegrotovoteordefendedhiminanyway.Itwasthegeneral,almost
universal,beliefthatpracticallywithoutexceptionthesepeoplewereliars,jailbirds,criminals
andthieves,andthehatredofthemrosetoacrescendoofcursesandfilth.Later,this
universalattackuponthecarpetbaggerswasmodifiedconsiderably,anditwasadmittedthat
therewereamongthemsomedecentandhigh-mindedmen,althoughmostofthemstillwere
regardedasselfishstealersofpublicfunds.
Ontheotherhand,sofarastheNegrowasconcerned,almostnoexceptionswereadmitted.It
waseasiertotraducehimbecauseeveryonewasreadytobelievetheworstandnoreplywas,
forthemoment,listenedto.TherewasnotasinglegreatblackleaderofReconstruction
againstwhomalmostunprintableallegationswerenotrepeatedlyanddefinitelymade
withoutanyattempttoinvestigatethereliabilityofsourcesofinformation.
Forthefirsttimeinnationalhistoryinterstatemigrationbecameacrime.Hundredsof
thousandsofSouthernershadgoneNorthandWestandhadbeenwelcomedandintegrated
intothevariousstatesdespitetheirdivergentideasandalienheredity.Butwhentherecamea
comparativelysmallnumberofNorthernersintotheSouth,theywerereviledunlessthey
conformedabsolutelyinthoughtandactionwithadeadpast.
TheNorthernwhiteswereofmanyclasses:formersoldiersandofficers,lingeringinthe
SouthinconnectionwiththearmyortheFreedmen'sBureau,orasinvestorsandfarmers.
TheywerereenforcedbyanarmyofmenwhocameSouthwithsmallcapitalandinmany
casessucceededinmakingtheirfortune.MostofthesehadnoespeciallovefortheNegroes.
Theyhadcomeintoawhiteman'swar,andnowthattheNegrowasfree,theywereperfectly
freetousehimandtoorganizehisindustrialandpoliticalpowerfortheirownadvantage.
ManyofthesewereagentsforcapitalandwentdownfromtheNorthwithsomethingofthe
psychologyofmoderninvestmentinconqueredorcolonialterritory:thatis,theybroughtthe
capital;theyinvestedit;theyremainedinchargetooverseetheprofits;andtheyacquired
politicalpowerinordertoprotecttheseprofits.
Ontheotherhand,therewereteacherswhocamedownfromtheNorth,armychaplains,
socialworkersandothers,whowhole-heartedlywentintothenewdemocracytothelimit.
Extraordinarypersonsstoodforthinthisrole,likeGeneralFiskandErastusCravathat
Nashville,
EdmundWareatAtlanta,GeneralArmstrongatHampton,anddozensofothers.Theywere
crusadersinagreatcauseandmeticulouslyhonest.Naturally,theirnumberswere
comparativelysmall.Theyreachedprimarilystudents,teachersandpreachersamongthe
Negroesandonlyincidentallytheclassoffieldhands.
Itwasabattlebetweenoligarchywhosewealthandpowerhadbeenbasedonlandandslaves
ontheonehand;andontheother,oligarchybuiltonmachinesandhiredlabor.Thenewly
organizedindustryoftheNorthwasnotonlytriumphantintheNorthbutbeganpressingin
upontheSouth;itsadvanceguardwasrepresentedbythosesmallNortherncapitalistsand
officeholderswhosoughttomakequickmoneyinraisingcottonandtakingadvantageofthe
low-pricedlaborandhighcottonpricesduetothewarfamine.
Thelaboronthemarket,insteadofbeingownedliketheslavesorexcludedfromcompetition
likethepoorwhites,suddenlyfounditselfbidforandofferednotonlymoneywages,but
politicalpowerandsocialstatus.Thebiddershadnorealizationatfirsthowhightheirlabor
bidswereinSoutherncustom;theywereofferingsomethingbelowthecurrentpriceoflabor
inallcivilizedlands;theNorthernUnitedStates,England,France,mostofGermanyand
partsofItalyweregivinglaborsomevoiceingoverningandamoneywagecontract.
Totheplantationplanterssuchawagecontractwaseconomicheresyandsocialrevolution.It
wasblasphemyandeternaldamnationtothem,andtheyfoughtbyeveryconceivableweapon
—politicalpower,socialinfluence,murder,assassinationandsystematiclying.
Themassofpoorwhiteswereinananomalousposition.Thoseofthemwhowereintelligent
orhadduringslaveryaccumulatedanycapitalorachievedanyposition,hadalwaysattached
themselvesinsympathyandinteresttotheplanterclass.Thismeantthatthemassof
ignorantpoorwhitelaborhadpracticallynointelligentleadership.Onlyhereandtherewere
theremen,likeHintonHelper,whowereactualleadersofthepoorwhitesagainstthe
planters.Thepoorwhitewasinaquandarywithregardtoemancipation.Hehadviewed
slaveryasthecauseofhisowndegradation,buthenowviewedthefreeNegroasathreatto
hisveryexistence.SupposethatfreedomfortheNegromeantthatNegroesmightrisetobe
landholders,plantersandemployers?Thepoorwhitesthusmightlosethelastshredof
respectability.Theyhadbeenusedtoseeingcertainclassesoftheblackslavesabovethemin
economicprosperityandsocialpower.Butafterall,theywerestillNegroesandslaves.Now
thatfreedomhadcome,poorwhiteswerefacedbythedilemmaofrecognizingtheNegroesas
equalsorofbendingeveryefforttostillkeepthembeneaththewhitemassinincomeand
socialpower.
Hereandtherecertainleadersappearedamongtheplanters,amongthemoreintelligentof
thepoorwhites,andevenamongthemasses,wholookedtowardpoliticalcombinationand
economicalliancewiththeNegro.Suchpersons,theSouthernerscalled"scalawags,"butthey
wereinfactthatpartofthewhiteSouthwhosawavisionofdemocracyacrossraciallines,
andwhowerewillingtobuildupalaborpartyinoppositiontocapitalistsandlandholders.
Theywere,therefore,especiallytobefearedandwereendlesslyreviled.Theywereforcedinto
certainextremepositionsascomparedwiththecarpetbaggerandtheplanter.Menlike
HunnicuttofVirginiaaskednotonlypoliticalrights,butfullsocialequalityfortheNegroes,
andtauntedplantersandthecarpetbaggerswhentheydidnotdareadvocatethis.
WhenAndrewJohnsonsaidinhisvetooftheReconstructionbill,March2,1867:"The
Negroeshavenotaskedfortheprivilegeofvoting;thevastmajorityofthemhavenoidea
whatitmeans,"hewasexaggerating.Negroeshadcertainlyvoted,notonlyintheNorthbut
inSouthCarolinaintheeighteenthcenturyandinNorthCarolina,LouisianaandTennessee
inthenineteenth.TheyhadaskedtovoteintheSouthrepeatedlysinceEmancipation.The
differencethatnowcamewasthatanindefinitelylargernumberofNegroesthaneverbefore
wasenfranchisedsuddenly,and99%ofthembelongedtothelaboringclass,whereasbylaw
theNegroeswhovotedintheearlyhistoryofthecountrywereforthemostpartproperty
holders,andprospectiveifnotactualconstituentsofapettybourgeoisie.
Whenfreedomcame,thismassofNegrolaborwasnotwithoutintelligentleadership,anda
leadershipwhichbecauseofformerraceprejudiceandthepresentColorLine,couldnotbe
divorcedfromthelaboringmass,ashadbeenthecasewiththepoorwhites.Thegroupof
intelligent,freeNegroesinWashington,Richmond,CharlestonandespeciallyNewOrleans,
hadaccumulatedsomewealthandsomeknowledgeofgroupcooperationandinitiative.
Almostwithoutexception,theyacceptedthenewresponsibilityofleadingtheemancipated
slaves,unselfishlyandeffectively.FreeNegroesfromtheNorth,mostofwhomhadbeen
bornintheSouthandknewconditions,camebackinconsiderablenumbersduring
Reconstruction,andtooktheirplaceasleaders.TheresultwasthattheNegroeswerenot,as
theyaresometimespainted,simplyamassofdenselyignoranttoilers.Therankandfileof
blacklaborhadanotableleadershipofintelligenceduringReconstructiontimes.
Itwas,however,aleadershipwhichwasnotatallclearinitseconomicthought.Onthe
whole,itbelievedintheaccumulationof
wealthandtheexploitationoflaborasthenormalmethodofeconomicdevelopment.Butit
alsobelievedintherighttovoteasthebasisanddefenseofeconomiclife,andgraduallybut
surelyitwasforcedbythedemandofthemassofNegrolaborerstofacetheproblemofland.
ThustheNegroleadersgraduallybutcertainlyturnedtowardemphasisoneconomic
emancipation.TheywantedtheNegrotohavetherighttoworkatadecentrateofwages,and
theyexpectedthattherighttovotewouldcomewhenhehadsufficienteducationand
perhapsacertainminimumofpropertytodeserveit.Itwasthisamongotherthingsthatwas
thecauseofthetremendouspushtowardeducationwhichtheNegroesexhibited.
Ontheotherhand,theirdesireforeconomicenfranchisement,forrealabolitionofslavery,
hadbeenaffrontedbytheBlackCodes.Theywerescaredandhamperedintheverybeginning
oftheirfreedombytheseenactmentsandbythewayinwhichtheseandotherlawswere
executed.
ThegovernmentrepliedbeforethedeathofAbrahamLincolnwithgovernmentguardianship
intheshapeoftheFreedmen'sBureau.Thisbureauneverhadarealchancetoorganizeand
functionproperly.Itwashastilyorganized.Ithadtousethepersonsathandandonthe
groundlargelyforitspersonnel.Ithadatfirstnogovernmentappropriationsandintheend
onlylimitedappropriationsanditwasalwaysfacedbytheprobabilityofquickdissolution.It
wassurroundedfromthebeginningbythespiritwhichenactedtheBlackCodes.Southerners
weredesperatelyopposedtoitbecauseitstoodbetweenthemandtheexploitationoflabor
towardwhichtheywereimpelledbytheirlossesandthehighpriceofcotton.Iftheyhadbeen
allowedtoexploitanddriveblacklaborafterthewar,manySouthernersdespitetheirlosses
couldhavepartiallyrecoupedtheirfortunes.Butherecameanorganizationwhichdemanded
moneywagesofemployerswhohadnomoney,anddemandedthemoderntreatmentoflabor
fromformerslavedrivers.
BesidetheFreedmen'sBureauandbeforeit,therewasthechancefortheNegroestoseekthe
adviceoftheirformermastersandinmanycasesthiswaswillinglyandwiselygiven,
particularlyinthecaseofmastersreadytoassistaneweconomicregime;butitwashindered
byseveralconsiderations.First,anynewunionbetweenformermastersandNegroeswas
rekindlingtheoldenmityandjealousyofthepoorwhitesagainstanycombinationofthe
whiteemployerandtheblacklaborerwhichwouldagainexcludethepoorwhite.Theplanter,
therefore,hadtobecarefulofanyopensympathyorcooperationwiththeblacklaborer.
Alreadyhisrankshadbeendecimatedbywarandhissocialstatusthreatenedbypoverty.
Then,
too,insofarastheblacklaborerwasguidedbytheFreedmen'sBureau,byNorthern
philanthropyandbyNortherncapital,hebroughtuponhimselfthebitterenmityofthe
formermaster;sothatonthewhole,whiletherewasconsiderableadviceandhelpfromthe
formermaster,inthelongrunitdidnotandcouldnotamounttomuch.
Then,too,wemustrememberthattheseformerslaveholdersdidnotbelievethatNegroes
couldadvanceinfreedom.Theyknew,ofcourse,thatsomecould,butevenifthesecould,
howcouldwhitemenandmasterscooperatewiththem?Thewholetrendofteachinghad
beenthatthiswasutterlyimpossible.IfNegroessucceededandinsofarastheydid,itwould
leadstraighttosocialequalityandamalgamation;andiftheydidnotsucceeditwouldleadto
deteriorationincultureandcivilization.
Therealeconomicbattle,then,layfinallyinaseriesofattemptedcompromisesbetween
planters,carpetbaggers,scalawags,poorwhitelaborersandNegroes.First,theplanters
movedtowardthepoliticalcontrolofNegroestofixtheireconomiccontrol.Thisthepoor
whiteshadofcoursefearedandtheirfearswerevoicedrepeatedlybyAndrewJohnson.Many
peopleintheNorthlookeduponthisasapossibleandthreateninganswertothe
enfranchisementoftheblacks.Thecombinationwasfrustratedbecausethecarpetbaggers
offeredtheNegroesbetterterms;offeredthemtherighttovoteandtoholdofficeandsome
economicfreedom.Whenthiseconomicfreedomlookedtowardlandholdingandhigher
wages,itcouldbeaccomplishedonlyattheexpenseoftheemployingclass,andsofaras
Negrolaboraccepted,asithadtoaccepttheofferofthecarpetbaggersandscalawags,it
alienatedtheplanters,andnotonlythat,butitfrightenedthepoorwhites.
Hereagain,asinthecaseofslavery,therewasacombinationinwhichthepoorwhites
seemedexcluded,unlesstheymadecommoncausewiththeblacks.Thisunionofblackand
whitelabornevergotarealstart.First,becauseblackleadershipstilltendedtowardtheideals
ofthepettybourgeois,andwhiteleadershiptendeddistinctlytowardstrengthening
capitalism.Thefinalmovewhichrearrangedallthesecombinationsandledtothe
catastropheof1876,wasacombinationofplantersandpoorwhitesindefianceoftheir
economicinterests;andwiththeuseoflawlessmurderandopenintimidation.Itwasa
combinationthatcouldonlyhavebeenstoppedbygovernmentforce;andthearmywhich
wastheagentoftheFederalGovernmentwassustainedintheSouthbytheorganizedcapital
oftheNorth.Allthatwasnecessary,then,wastosatisfyNorthernindustrythatthenew
combinationintheSouthwasessentiallyacombinationwhichaimedatcapitalistic
exploitationonconventionalterms.Theresultwasthewithdrawalofmilitarysupportand
therevolutionarysuppressionnot
onlyofNegrosuffragebutoftheeconomicdevelopmentofNegroandwhitelabor.
ItwasnotuntilaftertheperiodwhichthisbooktreatsthatwhitelaborintheSouthbeganto
realizethattheyhadlostagreatopportunity,thatwhentheyunitedtodisfranchisetheblack
laborertheyhadcutthevotingpowerofthelaboringclassintwo.WhitelaborinthePopulist
movementoftheeightiestriedtorealigntheeconomicwarfareintheSouthandbring
workersofallcolorsintounitedoppositiontotheemployer.Buttheyfoundthatthepower
whichtheyhadputinthehandsoftheemployersin1876sodominatedpoliticallifethatfree
andhonestexpressionofpublicwillattheballot-boxwasimpossibleintheSouth,evenfor
whitemen.TheyrealizedthatitwasnotsimplytheNegrowhohadbeendisfranchisedin
1876,itwasthewhitelaboreraswell.TheSouthhadsincebecomeoneofthegreatestcenters
forexploitationoflaborintheworld,andlaborsufferednotonlyintheSouthbutthroughout
thecountryandtheworldover.
Curiousandcontradictoryhasbeenthecriticismandcommentaccompanyingthisgreat
controversyandrevolutionof1866-1876.Floodsoftearsandsentimenthavebeenexpended
onthesufferinganddisillusionmentoftheslavebaron,whiletheequallygreatlossesof
NorthernandSouthernlaborhavebeenforgotten.Andaboveall,theplightofthemost
helplessvictimsofthesituation,theblackfreedmen,hasbeentreatedwithcallousand
hardenedjudgments,cementedwithhate.TheNorthernbusinessmanhasjustlybeen
accusedofbeingmotivated,duringthisperiod,chieflybygreedandprofit.Buttheprofitand
greedoftheslaveholderwhichcausedthewholecatastrophe,andoftheplanterwhoforced
anunjustandstilldangeroussolution,hasbeensickliedo'erwithsentiment.
Inallthis,oneseestheoldsnobberyofclassjudgmentinnewform—tearsandsentimentfor
MarieAntoinetteonthescaffold,butnosignofgrieffortheguttersofParisandthefieldsof
France,wherethevictimsofexploitationandignorancelayrottinginpiles.
TheSouth,afterthewar,presentedthegreatestopportunityforarealnationallabor
movementwhichthenationeversaworislikelytoseeformanydecades.Yetthelabor
movement,withbutfewexceptions,neverrealizedthesituation.Itneverhadtheintelligence
orknowledge,asawhole,toseeinblackslaveryandReconstruction,thekernelandmeaning
ofthelabormovementintheUnitedStates.
AfterLincoln'sassassination,theGeneralCounciloftheInternationalWorkingmen's
Association,underKarlMarx,sentanaddresstoAndrewJohnson:
"AfteragiganticCivilWar,whichifweconsideritscolossalextensionanditsvastscenesofaction,seemsincomparisonwiththeHundredYears'Warand
theThirtyYears'WarandtheTwenty-threeYears'WaroftheOldWorldscarcelytohave
lastedninetydays,thetask,Sir,devolvesuponyoutouprootbylawwhattheswordhas
felled,andtopresideoverthemoredifficultworkofpoliticalreconstructionandsocial
regeneration.Theprofoundconsciousnessofyourgreatmissionwillpreserveyoufromall
weaknessintheexecutionofyoursternduties.YouwillneverforgetthattheAmerican
peopleattheinaugurationoftheneweraoftheemancipationoflaborplacedtheburdenof
leadershipontheshouldersoftwomenoflabor—AbrahamLincoln,theone,andtheother,
AndrewJohnson."16
In1865,September,anotheraddressoverthesignatureofMarxdeclaredboldly:"Injustice
againstafractionofyourpeoplehavingbeenfollowedbysuchdireconsequences,putanend
toit.Declareyourfellowcitizensfromthisdayforthfreeandequal,withoutanyreserve.If
yourefusethemcitizens'rightswhileyouexactfromthemcitizens'duties,youwillsooneror
laterfaceanewstrugglewhichwilloncemoredrenchyourcountryinblood."
TheNationalLaborUnionofworkerswasorganizedatBaltimore,Maryland,August20,1866.
Thereweresixtydelegatesandontheirbannerwasinscribed"Welcometothesonsoftoil
fromtheNorth,East,SouthandWest."Anaddresswasissuedoncooperation,tradeunions,
apprenticeship,strikes,laborofwomen,publiclandandpoliticalaction.AstotheNegroes,
theunionadmittedthatitwasunabletoexpressanopinionwhichwouldsatisfyall,butthe
questionmustnotbeallowedtopassunnoticed.TheNegroworkerhadbeenneglected.
CooperationoftheAfricanraceinsystematicorganizationmustbesecured.Otherwise,
Negroesmustactasscabs,asinthecaseofthecoloredcaulkers,importedfromVirginiato
Boston,duringthestrikeonthe8-hourquestion.Thereshouldbenodistinctionofraceor
nationality,butonlyseparationintotwogreatclasses:laborersandthosewholivebyothers'
labor.Negroesweresoontobeadmittedtocitizenshipandtheballot.Theirballotstrength
wouldbeofgreatvaluetounionlabor.Iflabordidnotacceptthem,capitalwouldusethe
Negrotosplitwhiteandblacklabor,justastheAustriangovernmenthadusedrace
dissension.SuchalamentablesituationshouldnotbeallowedtodevelopinAmerica.Trade
unions,eight-hourleagues,andothergroupsshouldbeorganizedamongNegroes.
Herewasafirsthaltingnote.Negroeswerewelcomedtothelabormovement,notbecause
theywerelaborersbutbecausetheymightbecompetitorsinthemarket,andthelogical
conclusionwaseithertoorganizethemorguardagainsttheiractualcompetitionbyother
methods.ItwastothislatteralternativethatwhiteAmericanlaboralmostunanimously
turned.
ThiswasmanifestatthesecondannualmeetinginChicagoin1867,wheretheNegro
problemwasdebatedmorefranklyandlesssuccessfully.ThePresidentcalledattentionto
Negroeswhoseemancipationhadgiventhemanewpositioninthelaborworld.Theywould
nowcomeincompetitionwithwhitelabor.Hesuggestedthatthebestwaytomeetthis
situationwastoformtradeunionsamongNegroes.AcommitteeofthreeonNegrolaborwas
selected.TheCommitteeonNegroLaborreportedthathavinghadthesubjectunder
consideration,andafterhavingheardthesuggestionsandopinionsofseveralmembersof
thisconvention—proandcon—theyhadarrivedatthefollowingconclusions:
"That,whilewefeeltheimportanceofthesubject,andrealizethedangerinthefutureof
competitioninmechanicalNegrolabor,yetwefindthesubjectinvolvedinsomuchmystery,
anduponitsowidediversityofopinionamongstourmembers,webelievethatitis
inexpedienttotakeactiononthesubjectinthisNationalLaborCongress.
"Resolved,thatthesubjectofNegrolaborbelaidovertillthenextsessionoftheNational
LaborCongress...."
Thereportofthiscommitteebroughtawhirlwindofdiscussionwhichlastedthroughoutthe
wholeday:
"TheNegrowillbeartobetaughthisduty,andhasalreadystoodhisgroundnoblywhena
memberofatrades'union....
"Didnotliketoconfesstotheworldthattherewasasubjectwithwhichtheywereafraidto
cope....
"Thisveryquestionwasattherootoftherebellion,whichwasthewarofthepoorwhitemen
oftheSouth,whowereforcedbytheslaveholdersintothewar....
"InNewHaven,therewereanumberofrespectablecoloredmechanics,buttheyhadnot
beenabletoinducethetrades'unionstoadmitthem....Wasthereanyunioninthestates
whichwouldadmitcoloredmen?
"Thecoloredmanwasindustrious,andsusceptibleofimprovementandadvancement....
"Therewasnoneedofenteringonanydiscussionofthematter.
"Therewasnonecessityforthefoistingofthesubjectofcoloredlabor,ortheappointmentof
acommitteetoreportthereon....Theblackswouldcombinetogetherofthemselvesandby
themselves,withouttheassistanceofwhites.Godspeedthem;butletnotthewhitestryto
carrythemontheirshoulders....
"Timeenoughtotalkaboutadmittingcoloredmentotrades'unionsandtotheCongress
whentheyappliedforadmission....
"Whitesstrikingagainsttheblacks,andcreatinganantagonismwhichwillkilloffthetrades'
unions,unlessthetwobeconsolidated.Thereisnoconcealingthefactthatthetimewill
comewhentheNegro'willtakepossessionoftheshopsifwehavenottakenpossessionof
theNegro.Iftheworkingmenofthewhiteracedonotconciliatetheblacks,theblackvote
willbecastagainstthem.'
"ThecapitalistsofNewEnglandnowemployforeignboysandgirlsintheirmills,tothe
almostentireexclusionofthenative-bornpopulation.Theywouldseektosupplanttheseby
coloredworkers....
"Littledangerofblackmenwantingtoentertrades'unionsanymorethanGermanswould
trytojointheEnglishsocietiesinAmerica"17
Thewholequestionwasfinallydodgedbytakingrefugeinthefactthattheconstitution
invited"alllabor."
Sylvis,PresidentoftheInternationalLaborMovement,spokeoutin1868onslavery:
"Whateverouropinionsmaybeastoimmediatecausesofthewar,wecanallagreethat
humanslavery(propertyinman)wasthefirstgreatcause;andfromthedaythatthefirstgun
wasfired,itwasmyearnesthopethatthewarmightnotenduntilslaveryendedit.Noman
inAmericarejoicedmorethanIatthedownfallofNegroslavery.Butwhentheshacklesfell
fromthelimbsofthosefourmillionsofblacks,itdidnotmakethemfreemen;itsimply
transferredthemfromoneconditionofslaverytoanother;itplacedthemupontheplatform
ofthewhiteworkingmen,andmadeallslavestogether.IdonotmeanthatfreeingtheNegro
enslavedthewhite;Imeanthatwewereslavesbefore;alwayshavebeen,andthatthe
abolitionoftherightofpropertyinmanaddedfourmillionsofblackslavestothewhite
slavesofthecountry.Wearenowallonefamilyofslavestogether,andthelaborreform
movementisasecondemancipationproclamation."18
InthemeetingoftheNationalLaborUnioninNewYorkin1868,therewasnomentionof
Negroes,butin1869atPhiladelphiaamong142representatives,thereappearednineNegroes
representingvariousseparateNegrounionsandorganizations.Thispointedawayoutwhich
laboreagerlyseized.Contrarytoalllaborphilosophy,theywoulddividelaborbyracialand
sociallinesandyetcontinuetotalkofonelabormovement.Throughthisseparateunion,
Negrolaborwouldberestrainedfromcompetitionandyetkeptoutofthewhiteraceunions
wherepoweranddiscussionlay.AresolutionwasadoptedsayingthattheNationalLabor
Unionwouldrecognizeneithercolor
norsexinthequestionoftheriseofalllabor,andthecoloredlaborerswereurgedtoform
theirownorganizationsandsenddelegatestothenextconference.TheNegroesresponded
anddeclaredthatallNegroeswantedwasafairchanceandnoonewouldbetheworseofffor
givingit.IsaacMyers,theirleader,said:"Thewhitelaboringmenofthecountryhavenothing
tofearfromthecoloredlaboringmen.Wedesiretoseelaborelevatedandmaderespectable;
wedesiretohavethehighestrateofwagesthatourlaborisworth;wedesiretohavethe
hoursoflaborregulatedaswelltotheinterestofthelaborerastothecapitalist.Mr.
President,Americancitizenshipfortheblackmanisacompletefailureifheisproscribed
fromtheworkshopsofthecountry."19
In1869,theGeneralCounciloftheNationalWorking-Men'sAssociationsentalettersigned
byKarlMarxtothePresidentoftheNationalLaborUnion.
"TheimmediatetangibleresultoftheCivilWarwasofcourseadeteriorationofthecondition
ofAmericanWorkingmen.BothintheUnitedStatesandinEuropethecolossalburdenofa
publicdebtwasshiftedfromhandtohandinordertosettleitupontheshouldersofthe
workingclass.Thepricesofnecessaries,remarksoneofyourstatesmen,haverisen78per
centsincei860,whilethewagesofsimplemanuallaborhaverisen50andthoseofskilled
labor60percent.'Pauperism,'hecomplains,'isincreasinginAmericamorerapidlythan
population.'Moreoverthesufferingsoftheworkingclassareinglaringcontrasttothenewfangledluxuryoffinancialaristocrats,shoddyaristocratsandotherverminbredbythewar.
StilltheCivilWarofferedacompensationintheliberationoftheslavesandtheimpulse
whichittherebygaveyourownclassmovement.Anotherwar,notsanctifiedbyasublime
aimorasocialnecessity,butlikethewarsoftheOldWorld,wouldforgechainsforthefree
workingmeninsteadofsunderingthoseoftheslaves."20
Sylvis,PresidentoftheInternationalLaborMovement,acknowledgedthisletterbutsaid
nothingaboutslavery,confininghimselftoattackingthemoniedaristocracy.
ThusAmericanlaborleaderstriedtoemphasizethefactthatherewasanewelement;new
notinthesensethatithadnotbeenthere,—ithadbeenthereallthetime—butnewinthe
sensethattheNegroworkermustnowbetakenaccountof,bothinhisowninterestand
particularlyintheirinterest.Hewasacompetitorandaprospectiveunder-bidder.Then
difficultiesappeared;thewhiteworkerdidnotwanttheNegroinhisunions,didnotbelieve
inhimasaman,dodgedthequestion,andwhenheappearedatconventions,askedhimto
organizeseparately;thatis,outsidethereallabormovement,inspite
ofthefactthatthiswasacontradictionofallsoundlaborpolicy.
AstheNegrolaborersorganizedseparately,therecameslowlytorealizationthefactthathere
wasnotonlyseparateorganizationbutaseparationinleadingideas;becauseamongNegroes,
andparticularlyintheSouth,therewasbeingputintoforceoneofthemostextraordinary
experimentsofMarxismthattheworld,beforetheRussianrevolution,hadseen.Thatis,
backedbythemilitarypoweroftheUnitedStates,adictatorshipoflaborwastobeattempted
andthosewhowereleadingtheNegroraceinthisvastexperimentwereemphasizingthe
necessityofthepoliticalpowerandorganizationbackedbyprotectivemilitarypower.
Ontheotherhand,thetradeunionmovementofthewhitelaborintheNorthwasmoving
awayfromthatideaandmovingawayfrompolitics.Theyseemedtoseeamorepurely
economicsolutionintheirdemandforhigherwagesandshorterhours.IraStewartspokefor
"menwholaborexcessively...robbedofallambitiontoaskforanythingmorethanwill
satisfytheirbodilynecessities,whilethosewholabormoderatelyhavetimetocultivatetastes
andcreatewantsinadditiontomerephysicalcomforts."21ButStewartwasnotthinkingof
Negroesandonlyoncebarelymentionedthem:
"ThatwerejoicethattherebelaristocracyoftheSouthhasbeencrushed,thatwerejoicethat
beneaththegloriousshadowofourvictoriousflagmenofeveryclime,lineageandcolorare
recognizedasfree.Butwhilewewillbearwithpatientendurancetheburdenofthepublic
debt,weyetwantittobeknownthattheworkingmenofAmericawillinfutureclaimamore
equalshareinthewealththeirindustrycreatesinpeaceandamoreequalparticipationinthe
privilegesandblessingsofthosefreeinstitutions,defendedbytheirmanhoodonmanya
bloodyfieldofbattle...."
NotawordwassaidofNegrosuffrageandtheneedofthelaborvote,blackandwhite,ifthe
demandsoflaborweretoberealized.Indeed,attheverytimethatSouthernlaborwasabout
tobeenfranchised,Northernlaborrealizedthattherighttovotemeantlittleunderthe
growingdictatorshipofwealthandcorporatecontrol.Itmadelittledifferencewhatlawswere
madeaslongastheirinterpretationbythecourtsandadministrationwasdictatedbycapital.
Someproposed,therefore,tofighttheirbattleoutdirectlywiththeemployer,ontheone
battlegroundofeconomicbargaining,withstrikes,violenceandsecretorganizationasthe
methods.
TheNationalLaborUnionveeredfromconsumers'andproducers'cooperationintoafightto
controlcreditsandcapitalandafterwardthroughtheGreenbackpartyintoanattempttogain
theseendsbymanipulatingmoney.Withfallingpricesandunemploymentdirectly
afterthewar,andrisingpricesandnormalemploymentin1868-1873,laborleadersbecame
increasinglypettybourgeoisandturnedtheirbacksonblacklabor.Farmersorganizedthe
Grangebutnotforblackfarmtenantsandlaborers,notforthestrugglingpeasantproprietors
amongthefreedmen.TheKnightsofLabordidnotturntheirattentiontoNegroesuntilafter
1876.
Therewas,too,norapprochementbetweentheliberalrevoltagainstbigindustryand
Northernlabor.HoraceGreeley,apioneerofthelaborleaders,drewlittlelaborsupport.The
laborleaderswentintothelaborwarof1877havingliterallydisarmedthemselvesofthe
powerofuniversalsuffrage.Andthusin1876,whenNorthernindustrywithdrewmilitary
supportinthe3outhanc[refusedtosupportlongerthedictatorshipoflabor,theydidthis
withoutanyoppositionoranyintelligentcomprehensionofwhatwashappeningonthepart
oftheNorthernwhiteworker.
LaborandNegrohistoryillustratetheseparadoxes.Forinstancein1869,therecameupthe
celebratedcaseofLewisH.Douglass,thesonofFrederickDouglass,whoworkedinthe
governmentprintingofficeandwasnotallowedtojointhePrinters'Union.Ratherthanface
thequestion,thematterwaspostponedforthreeyearsandallsortsofexcusesgiven.This
andothercasesledandpracticallycompelledtheNegroestoformnotonlyseparatelocal
tradeunionsbuttoworktowardaseparatenationalorganization.Whitelaborwasorganizing
tofightagainstthenewindustrialoligarchy,whichwasgrowingintheNorth;butitwasthis
sameoligarchywhichinitsownself-defensehadforcedtheSouthtoacceptNegrosuffrage,
allyingitselftemporarilywiththeabolition-democraticmovementintheNorth.
Thisplacedthewhiteandblacklabormovementinasingularlycontradictoryposition.The
allianceoftheblacklabormovementwiththeRepublicanPartywassimplythepoliticalside
ofaneconomicfact.TheRepublicanPartyhadgiventheblackmantherighttovote.This
righttovotehewasgoingtousetobetterhiseconomicandsocialposition.Toopposethe
RepublicanParty,then,wastoopposehisowneconomicenfranchisement.
Ontheotherhand,thewhiteLaborPartyhadalliedthemselveswiththeDemocrats,chiefly
becausetheDemocraticPartyhadopposedthe"Know-nothingParty."Theanti-foreign
immigrationmovementwasnowtheonlyorganizedpoliticaloppositiontothegreat
industrialforcesrepresentedbytheRepublicansintheNorth.Itrepresentedinsomedegree
andvoicedtheradicaldemandsoftheWestforlowtariffandcheapmoney;butitwasatthe
sametimeviolentlyopposedtothenewenfranchisementofblacklaborintheSouth.These
twosetsoffactsaloneputwhiteandblacklaborindirectopposition,
andbecausetheirleadersdidnotaltogetherunderstandthebasisofthisopposition,itmade
theattempttoachieveacommonplatformforwhiteandblackworkersexceedinglydifficult,
especiallywhentheanomalouspositionoftheNorthernNegroworkerwastakeninto
account.
Negroleaders,naturally,resentedtheattackmadebywhitelabororganizationsonthe
RepublicanParty.NordidtheyunderstandhowfarthisnewSouthernlaborgovernmentwas
dependentonNorthernindustrialreactionandcapitalisticoligarchy.Northernlaborwas
equallyignorantanddidnotdreamthatintheSouththeRepublicanPartywasparexcellence
thepartyoflabor.
ThismattercametoacrisisatthemeetingoftheNationalLaborUnioninCincinnatiin1870.
AnumberofNegroeswerepresent,includingIsaacMyers,JosiahWeirsandPeterH.Clark.
JohnM.Langstonwantedtospeak,butthelaborleadersopposedhimbecausehewasa
Republicanpolitician.Themotiontogranthimtheprivilegetospeakwaslostbyavoteof29
to23.Therewasexcitement.WeirsremarkedthataDemocrathadbeenallowedtospeakand
thatheregardedtheRepublicanPartyasafriendoftheworkingman.Myerslaudedthe
Republicansamidcriesofapprovalanddisapproval.SenatorPinchback,coloredleaderof
Louisiana,wasalsodeniedtheprivilegeofthefloor.Nevertheless,intheresolutionsadopted
aftermuchdebate,itwassaid,"Thehighestinterestofourcoloredfellow-citizensiswiththe
workingmen,who,likethemselves,aretheslavesofcapitalandpoliticians."
TheNegroes,especiallytheNorthernartisans,triedtokeepintouchwiththewhitelabor
movement.InSeptember,1870,SellaMartin,acoloredman,wentasdelegateofthecolored
workerstotheWorldLaborCongressinParis.In1871,theInternationalWorking-men's
Association,withitsheadquartersinLondon,andundertheinfluenceofKarlMarx,beganto
organizelaborintheUnitedStatesonalargescale,andinaparadeheldinNewYorkin1871,
Negroorganizationsappeared.
Theinternationalmovement,however,tooknorealrootinAmerica.EventhewhiteNational
LaborUnionbeganlosinggroundandceasedtobeactiveafter1872.Themainactivityofthe
InternationalwasintheNorth;theyseemedtohavenodreamthattheplaceforitsmost
successfulrootingwasinthenewpoliticalpoweroftheSouthernworker.
Negroes,however,increasedtheirattemptstoorganizeandtothinkingroups.In1865,an
EqualRightsLeaguemetinPennsylvaniaandtriedtoinfluenceNegroestosecurerealestate
andgivetheirsonsbusinesseducation.
IntheDistrictofColumbia,in1867,ameetingofcoloredworkerstookplace.Theyasked
Congresstosecureequalapportionmentofemploymenttowhiteandcoloredlabor.Their
petitionwasprintedandacommitteeoffifteenwasappointedtocirculateit.In1868a
similarpetitionwassenttoCongressaskingforequalshareinworkonpublicimprovements
authorizedbylaw.TherewasastatecoloredconventioninIndianain1865,anotheronein
Pennsylvaniain1866,andinJuly,1869,aNegroconventionwasheldinLouisville,Kentucky,
asaresultoftheagitationforimmigrantworkers.Atthislastconventiontherewere250
delegateswhodiscussedpolitical,economicandeducationalmatters.Theyaskedforthefinal
abolitionofslavery,equaleducation,rightsinthecourts,equalityoftaxation,theratification
oftheFifteenthAmendment.Theyrecommendedthepurchaseoflandandthelearningof
trades.
AnationalconventionofNegroesmetinWashingtoninJanuary,1869.Thisconventionwas
morereallynationalthanmostNegroconventionshitherto.Itwasnotsimplyaconventionof
SouthernNegroesasthatatLouisville,norofNorthernNegroeslikethevariousconventions
atPhiladelphiaandNewYork.In1869,Negroes,representinganumberoftrades,metin
BaltimoreinJulytoformastateorganization.Later,coloredrepresentativesinthesamecity
urgedNegroestoenterthemovementfortheformationoflaborunions.IntheWashington
convention,therewereanumberofcoloreddelegatesfromtheSouth,includingHenryM.
Turner,ablackpoliticalleaderofGeorgia,andinall,130delegates,includingmanymenof
intelligenceandability,cametogether.FrederickDouglasswaselectedpermanentPresident
andresolutionswerepassedinfavoroftheFreed-men'sBureau,anationaltaxforNegro
schools,universalsuffrage,andtheopeningofpubliclandespeciallyintheSouthfor
Negroes.ThereconstructionpolicyofCongresswascommendedandtherewasoppositionto
colonization.
Thiswasnotprimarilyalaborconvention,butitillustratedtheconnectionintheNegroes'
mindsbetweenpoliticsandlabor.Theywerebeginning,moreandmoreclearly,toseethat
theirvotemustbeusedfortheireconomicbetterment,andthattheirrighttoworkandtheir
incomedependedupontheiruseoftheballot.Theywereconsequentlygropingforleadership
inindustryandvoting,bothwithinandwithouttherace.Intheirconceptionoftheballotas
themeanstoindustrialemancipation,theywereaheadoftheNorthernlabormovement.But
intheirknowledgeofthelurkingdangersofthepowerofcapital,theywerefarbehind.This
JanuaryconventionwasfollowedthesameyearbyanationalNegrolaborconvention
sponsoredbytheBaltimoremeetingwhichassembledinWashingtonin
December.ThishadbeencalledbyNegroartisansoftheNorth,andwasagainnationalinits
membership.ThisnationallaborconventionassembledinUnionLeagueHall,Washington,
December,1869.Therewere159delegatespresent,andIsaacMyerscalledthemeetingto
order.
Whilethecommitteeswereatwork,JamesH.Harrisaddressedtheconvention.Hewasan
astuteandcourageousReconstructionleaderofNorthCarolinaandsawpoliticsandlaborin
clearalliance.Hestatedthatseveralmillionsofcoloredmenwerelookingtotheconvention
withmuchinterest,andthattheSouth,havingpassedthroughapoliticalreconstruction,
neededanotherreconstructionintheaffairsofthelaboringclasses.JohnM.Langstonspoke
ofthetreatmentofNegroesinpublicplacesandattheirwork.Heespeciallyscoredthe
Printers'UnionforitsactiontowardLewisH.Douglass.RemarksweremadealsobyRichard
Trevellick,thePresidentofthewhiteNationalLaborConvention,andA.M.Powell,theeditor
oftheAnti-SlaveryStandard.
TheconventionwaspermanentlyorganizedwithJamesM.HarrisofNorthCarolinaas
President.Committeeswereappointedoneducation,finance,business,platformandaddress,
femalelabor,homesteads,travel,temperance,cooperativelabor,banksavings,and
agriculture.Theplatformoftheconventioncoveredthefollowingsubjects:
1.Thedignityoflabor.2.Apleathatharmonyshouldprevailbetweenlaborandcapital.3.
Thedesirabilityofaninterchangeofviewsbetweenemployersandemployees.4.Temperance
inliquorconsumption.5.Education,"foreducatedlaborismoreproductiveandcommands
higherwages."6.PoliticallibertyforallAmericans.7.Theencouragementofindustry.8.The
exclusionfromthetradesandworkshopsregardedas"aninsulttoGod,injurytous."9.
Immigrantlaborshouldbewelcomed,butcoolielaborwasaninjurytoallworkingclasses.
10.Theestablishmentofcooperativeworkshops,buildingandloanassociations.11.Gratitude
totheagenciesinterestedinNegroeducation.12.Protectionofthelawforall.13.The
organizationofworkingmen'sassociationswhichshouldcooperatewiththeNationalLabor
Union.14.Capitalmustnotberegardedasthenaturalenemyoflabor.
Atthethirdday'ssession,aspecialcommitteeoffivewasappointedtodraftaplanforthe
organizationofmechanicsandartisans,inordertosecurerecognitionfortheminthe
workshipsofthecountry.Langstonaddressedthemeetingconcerninghisobservationsinthe
South.TherehehadfoundskilledworkersamongtheNegroesingold,silver,brass,iron,
wood,brick,mortarandthearts.Hestatedthatall
theseworkmenwereaskingforthemselvesandtheirchildrenwasthatthetradesshouldbe
opentothemandthatnoavenueofindustryshouldbeclosed,whetherinworkshops,
printingoffices,factories,foundries,railroads,steamboats,warehousesorstores.
Onthefifthday,aresolutionwaspassedwhichurgedthedelegatestocallandorganizestate
laborassociationssothattheymightworkinfullcooperationwithacommitteewhichwasto
conductitsworkasalaborbureau.Thisbureauwasplannedtoserveasaclearinghousefor
allquestionsofNegrolaboranditwastoaidinopeningnewlaboropportunities.IsaacMyers
wasselectedpermanentPresidentoftheorganization,andinhisacceptancehestatedthathe
expectedtorelyupontheLaborBureauinreachingtheNegroworkingmenoftheUnited
States.
Itisinterestingtonotethatthisconventionwasmorerepresentativeofthelargegroupsthan
thefirstgeneralconvention,anditdeservesforthisreason,aswellasforitswork,tobe
calledthefirstorganizednationalgroupofNegrolaborers.Manypoliticalandreligious
leaderswerenotpresentatitssessions.TheseabsenteesincludedDouglass,Garnett,William
WellsBrown,PurvisandWhipper.Thedefiniteresultsofthismeetingincludedthe
organizationofapermanentnationalLaborUnionandaBureauofLabor.Beforethesessions
wereendeditwasstatedthattherewere23statesrepresentedand203accrediteddelegates
inattendanceduringtheperiodoffivedays.
TheAmericanWor\ingmanofBostoncalledattentiontothefactthatthisseparateNegro
organizationhadbeenformedandthewritersaid:"Theconventionofcoloredmenat
Washingtonlastweekwasinsomerespectsthemostremarkableoneweeverattended.We
hadalwayshadfullfaithinthecapacityoftheNegroforself-improvement,butwerenot
preparedtosee,freshfromslavery,abodyoftwohundredmen,sothoroughlyconversant
withpublicaffairs,soindependentinspirit,andsoanxiousapparentlytoimprovetheirsocial
condition,asthemenwhorepresentedtheSouth,inthatconvention."
ThereweresomewhitefraternaldelegatespresentandLangstonattackedthemasemissaries
oftheDemocraticParty,butSellaMartinrepliedandtoldtheconventionplainlythatthey
couldnotaffordtorepelthesympathyofwhitefriendsofthelaborcause,andthatthe
interestsofthelaboringclasses,whiteandblack,onthiscontinent,wereidentical.Ofthe
presidingofficer,thewriterintheAmericanWor\ingmansays:
"Andherewefeelimpelledtosaythatinallourexperienceintumultuouspublicassemblies,
wehaveneverseenapresidingofficershowmoreexecutiveabilitythanMr.Harris,and
certainlyhedoesnotoweittowhiteblood,asheisevidentlyafull-bloodedNegro,so
farascolorandfeaturesareanyevidenceofbeingso.Hissuccesswaslargelyowing,we
think,tothefactthathepossessedtheentireconfidenceoftheconvention,aswellas
superiorabilityfortheposition."
Heissorrythataseparateunionhasbeenformed."Butweareconvincedthatforthepresent
atleast,theycouldnotdobetter.Itisuselesstoattempttocoverupthefactthatthereisstill
awidegulfbetweenthetworacesinthiscountry,andforatimeatleasttheymusteachin
theirownwayworkoutasolutionofthislaborproblem.Atnoverydistantdaytheywill
becomeunited,andworkinharmonytogether;andwewhohaveneverfelttheironasthey
havemustbeslowtocondemnthembecausetheydonotseeaswedoonthislabor
movement.Forourselves,weshouldhavefeltbettersatisfiedhadtheydecidedtojointhe
greatnationalmovementnowinprogress,butfreshastheyarefromslavery,lookingasthey
naturallydoontheRepublicanPartyastheirdeliverersfrombondage,itisnotstrangethat
theyshouldhesitatejoininganyothermovement.Althoughtheydidnotdistinctlyrecognize
anypartyintheirplatform,yetthesentimentwasclearlyRepublican,iftheirspeecheswere
anyindication.Still,strangeasitmayseem,partieswereignoredintheirplatform,andthis
coursewastakenmainlythroughtheinfluenceandvotesoftheSoutherndelegates."
Theresolutionsofthisbodystressededucationasoneofthestrongestsafeguardsofthe
republic;advocatedindustrioushabits,andthelearningoftradesandprofessions,and
declared:
"Thattheexclusionofcoloredmenandapprenticesfromtherighttolaborinanydepartment
ofindustryorworkshops,inanyofthestatesandterritoriesoftheUnitedStates,bywhatis
knownas'tradesunions,'isaninsulttoGod,injurytous,anddisgracetohumanity;whilewe
extendafreeandwelcomehandtothefreeimmigrationoflaborofallnationalities,we
emphaticallydeemimported,contract,coolielabortobeapositiveinjurytotheworking
peopleoftheUnitedStates—isbutthesystemofslaveryinanewform,andweappealtothe
CongressoftheUnitedStatestorigidlyenforcetheActof1862,prohibitingcoolie
importations,andtoenactsuchlawsaswillbestprotectfreeAmericanlaboragainstthisor
anysimilarformofslav-ery.
Theyrecommendedtheestablishmentofcooperativeworkshops,buildingandloan
associations,thepurchaseofland"asaremedyagainsttheirexclusionfromotherworkshops
onaccountofcolor,asameansoffurnishingemployment,aswellasaprotectionagainstthe
aggressionofcapital,andastheeasiestandshortestmethodofenablingeverymanto
procureahomesteadforhisfamily;andtoaccomplishthisendwewouldparticularlyimpress
thegreatestimportanceoftheobservanceofdiligenceinbusiness,andthepracticeofrigideconomyinour
socialanddomesticarrangements.
"Resolved,thatweregardeducationasoneofthegreatestblessingsthatthehumanfamily
enjoys,andthatweearnestlyappealtoourfellowcitizenstoallownoopportunity,nomatter
howlimitedandremote,topassunimproved;thatthethanksofthecoloredpeopleofthis
countryisduetotheCongressoftheUnitedStatesfortheestablishmentandmaintenanceof
theFreedman'sBureau,andtoMajorGeneralHoward,commissioner;ReverendJ.W.
Alvord,andJohnM.Langston,Esq.,generalinspectors,fortheircooperativelaborsinthe
establishmentandgoodgovernmentofhundredsofschoolsintheSouthernStates,whereby
thousandsofmen,womenandchildren,havebeen,andarenowbeingtaughttherudiments
ofanEnglisheducation...andweappealtothefriendsofprogressandtoourcitizensofthe
severalstatestocontinuetheireffortstothevariouslegislaturesuntileverystatecanboastof
havingafreeschoolsystem,withnodistinctionindisseminationofknowledgetoits
inhabitantsonaccountofrace,color,sex,creedorpreviouscondition."
ThelowwagesoflaborintheSouthwerecited,andaccordingtotheNewYorkTribune,
December11,1869,itwassaid:
"Toremedythis,labormustbemademorescarce,andthebestwaytodothatwastomake
laborerslandowners.Congressistobeasked,therefore,tosubdividethepubliclandsinthe
Southintotwenty-acrefarms,tomakeoneyear'sresidenceentitleasettlertoapatent,and
alsotoplaceinthehandsofaCommissionasumofmoney,notexceedingtwomillion
dollars,toaidtheirsettlement,andalsotopurchaselandsinstateswherenopubliclandsare
found,themoneytobeloanedforfiveyears,withoutinterest.Congresswillalsobeaskednot
torestoretoSouthernrailroadsthelapsedlandgrantsof1856,andtorequirethatTexas,
priortoreadmissiontorepresentation,shallputherpubliclandsundertheoperationsof
provisionssimilartotheUnitedStatesHomesteadLawof1866...."
"...Mr.DowningfromtheCommitteeonCapitalandLabor,submittedthefollowing....
Yourcommitteewouldsimplyrefertotheunkind,estrangingpolicyofthelabor
organizationsofwhitemen,who,whiletheymakeloudproclaimsastotheinjustice(asthey
allege)towhichtheyaresubjected,justifyinjustice,sofarasgivinganexampletodosomay,
byexcludingfromtheirbenchesandtheirworkshopsworthycraftsmenandapprenticesonly
becauseoftheircolor,fornojustcause.Wesaytosuch,solongasyoupersisttherein,we
cannotfellowshipwithyouinyourstruggle,andlookforfailureandmortificationonyour
part;noteventhesacrednameofWendellPhillipscansaveyou,howevermuchwerevere
himandcherishto$66BLACKRECONSTRUCTION
wardhimnotonlyprofoundrespect,butconfidenceandgratitude"
InFebruary,1870,theBureauofLaborissuedanaddresstothecoloredpeoplewhich
stressedtheneedoforganizingNegrolabor,andsaidthatthelackoforganizationwasthe
causeoflowwages.ItstatedthefollowingpurposesoftheColoredNationalLaborUnionand
theBureauofLabor:
"1.Toencourageandsuperintendtheorganizationoflabor.
"2.Tobringaboutlegislationwhichwouldsecureequalitybeforethelawforallandenforce
thecontractsforlabor.
"3.Tosecurefundsfrombankersandcapitalistsforaidinestablishingcooperative
associations.
"4.Toovercometheoppositionofwhitemechanicswhoexcludedworkersfromtheirunions
andshops.
"5.Toorganizestatelaborconventions.
"6.Toorganize,wherethereweresevenormoremechanics,artisansandlaborersofany
particularbranchofindustry,separatelaborassociationsandtoadvertisetheirlaborinthe
dailypapers.
"7.Toencourageindependenteffortincreatingcapital,buyingtools,buildinghouses,forging
iron,makingbrick.
"8.Toownahomestead.
"TheaddresswassignedbyIsaacMyers,President,andG.T.Downing,Vice-President...."22
Localorganizationswereformed,meetingsheld,andaweeklypaper,TheNewEra,wasmade
thenationalorgan.OnFebruary21,aplanwasadoptedtosendanagentSouthtoorganize
Negrolabor.IsaacMyers,PresidentoftheUnion,wasselected.HeheldameetinginNorfolk,
Virginia,urgingtheunionofwhiteandcoloredworkmeninthesametrade.Otherlabor
meetingstookplacein1870inNewYorkandtheDistrictofColumbia.
ThesecondannualmeetingoftheNationalLaborUniontookplaceJanuary9,1871,with
delegatesfromNorthandSouth,includingAlabama,Virginia,TexasandNorthCarolina.
Congresswaspetitionedforanationalsystemofeducationwithtechnicaltraining.The
conventiondesiredtoseeindustriesandfactoriesbecausetheSouthwasconfinedtoafew
staples,whichcreatedignoranceandpovertyamongbothwhiteandcoloredlaborersand
amongtheowningclassesfearthatindustrywouldhelpelevatethestatusofthelaborer.
ThenextannualmeetingoftheNationalLaborUnionwascalledatColumbia,South
Carolina,coincidentalwiththeSouthernconventionwhichwasapoliticalgathering.Here
therebegantoappearrivalrybetweentheeconomicandpoliticalobjectsoftheNegro.The
NewEra,nationalorganoftheNationalLaborUnion,inquiredinto
therealobjectsofthismeeting.Itwantedtoknowifthisunionwasanothernamefor
communism,orifitwasacoloredoffshootoftheInternational,whichintendedeventuallyto
imposeamobocracyonAmerica?
TheconventionatColumbiawaspresidedoverbyH.M.TurnerofGeorgia.Committeeswere
appointedoneducationandlabor,onprinting,finance,civilrights,organization,
immigration,andonSouthernoutrages.Thecommitteeontheaddressmadeareportwhich
calledforpoliticalrights,justice,protectionofthecourts,andadvancementintheindustrial
arts.
In1872,inApril,aSouthernstates'conventionassembledatNewOrleanswithFrederick
Douglasspresiding.Evidently,theNationalLaborUnionwassteadilybecomingpoliticalinits
influencesandleadership.EffortsweremadetoshowthatNegrolaborcouldonlyachieveits
endbypoliticalorganization.FrederickDouglasswroteaneditorialtothiseffect,and
concludedwiththewords:"TheRepublicanPartyisthetrueworkingmen'spartyofthe
country."ThissoundedstrangefortheNorthbutitwasatthetimetrueoftheSouth.The
NationalLaborUnionissuedanaddresstoitsstateunions,sayingthatwhileitwasnota
politicalorganization,itregardeditasthedutyofeverycoloredmantobeinterestedinthe
RepublicanPartyandstandbyit."'Byitssuccess,westand;byitsdefeat,wefall.Tothat
partyweareindebtedfor•theThirteenth,FourteenthandFifteenthAmendments,the
homesteadlaw,theeight-hourlawandanimprovededucationalsystem.'Thepresidentsof
thestatelaborunionsweredirectedtoreadthisaddressbeforetheirorganizations."
AstheNegroesmovedfromunionismtowardpoliticalaction,whitelaborintheNorthnot
onlymovedintheoppositedirectionfrompoliticalactiontounionorganization,butalso
evolvedtheAmericanBlindspotfortheNegroandhisproblems.Itlostinterestandvital
touchwithSouthernlaborandactedasthoughthemillionsoflaborersintheSouthdidnot
exist.
Thuslaborwentintothegreatwarof1877againstNortherncapitalistsunsupportedbythe
blackman,andtheblackmanwenthiswayintheSouthtostrengthenandconsolidatehis
power,unsupportedbyNorthernlabor.SupposeforamomentthatNorthernlaborhad
stoppedthebargainof1876andmaintainedthepowerofthelaborvoteintheSouth;and
supposethattheNegrowithnewanddawningconsciousnessofthedemandsoflaboras
differentiatedfromthedemandsofcapitalists,hadusedhisvotemorespecificallyforthe
benefitofwhitelabor,SouthandNorth?
IfthebasicproblemofReconstructionintheSouthwaseconomic,thenthekernelofthe
economicsituationwastheland.Thiswasclear
tothesophisticatedleadershipofStevensandtothephilanthropyofSumnerandOliver
Howard;butitwasequallycleartotheignorantandinexperiencedofthefreedslaves.
TheNorthernlaborleadersandthemassoftheNorthwereslowinrealizingthatthecenter
oftheSouth'slaborproblemwastheland,andnotasyetindustry.HereintheSouth,after
thewar,wasachancetokeeptheeconomicbalancebetweenfarmandfactory.Andifithad
beendone,theresultwouldhavebeenfatefulforthenationandfortheworld.
TheNegrounerringlyandinsistentlyledtheway.ThemainquestiontowhichtheNegroes
returnedagainandagainwastheproblemofowningland.Itwasridiculedasunreasonable
andunjusttotheimpoverishedlandholdersoftheSouth,andasapartofthedesirefor
revengewhichtheNorthhad.Butinessenceitwasnothingofthesort.
Againandagain,crudelybutlogically,theNegroesexpressedtheirrighttothelandandthe
deepimportanceofthisright.Andasusualherethegovernmentplayedfastandloose
becauseithadtwoirreconcilableideasinmind.ThaddeusStevensandCharlesSumnerwere
perfectlyclear;theNegroesmusthavelandfurnishedthemeitherforanominalsumorasa
gift,andthislandshouldbefurnishedbythegovernmentandpaidforeitheroutoftaxation,
orasStevensrepeatedlyinsisted,asanindemnityplacedontheSouthforcivilwar.
Moreover,for250yearstheNegroeshadworkedonthisland,andbyeveryanalogyin
history,whentheywereemancipatedthelandoughttohavebelongedinlargeparttothe
workers.
Ontheotherhand,totheorganizedindustryoftheNorth,capitalinmachinesorlandwas
sacred;theydidnotwishtoappeartopunishtheSouthbytakinganymoreofitsalready
partlyconfiscatedcapital.Theydidnotwanttosetanexampleofconfiscationbeforeanation
victimizedbymonopoly;andtheywerebitterlyopposedtogivingcapitaltoworkersor
redistributingwealthbypublictaxation.Theresultwasthatthenationmovedbackwardand
forwardaccordingastooneortheotherideagainedtheupperhand.SirGeorgeCampbell
said:
"AllthatisnowwantedtomaketheNegroafixedandconservativeelementinAmerican
societyistogivehimencouragementto,andfacilitiesfor,makinghimself,byhisown
exertions,asmalllandowner;todo,infact,forhimwhatwehavesoughttodofortheIrish
farmer.LandinAmericaissomuchcheaperandmoreabundant,thatitwouldbeinfinitely
easiertoeffectthesameobjectthere.Iwouldbynomeansseektowithdrawthewhole
populationfromhiredlabor;onthecontrary,theNegroinmanyrespectsissomuchathis
bestin
thatfunction,thatIshouldlooktoalargeclassoflaborersremaining;butIamatthesame
timeconfidentthatitwouldbeaverygreatbenefitandstabilitytothecountryifalarge
numbershouldacquirethriftandindependentpositionaslandowningAmericancitizens."23
MostwritersandspeakersthoughtofthelandproblemsofarastheNegrowasconcernedas
anincidentalthing;itwassomethingthat"wouldcome."Ontheotherhand,theformerslave
holdersknewthatlandwasthekeytothesituationandtheytrieddesperatelytocenter
thoughtonlaborratherthanonlandownership."Oneuniversalopinionisthattheyshallnot
beallowedtoacquireorholdland.Ihaveheardthatexpressedfromthefirst.Theysaythat
unlessNegroesworkforthemtheyshallnotworkatall."24
Thefreedslavesweredesperatelypoor;thepoorwhiteshadalwaysbeenpoorexceptinsofar
astheywerepensionersoftheplanters.Howcouldindustrybesetgoingagainandwhatwas
therelationoffreeNegrolabortothisindustry?Ofcourse,thefullrealizationoffreedom
couldnotbeaccomplishedinaminute.Unlesscropswereraisedandthewheelsofindustry
started,emancipationwouldhavebeenanexperimentsocostlythatnonationcouldhave
supportedit.Andwemustrememberthatintheendandasalogicalmatterofdollarsand
cents,emancipationpaid.Thisissomuchamatterofcommonknowledgetodaythatwe
forgethowbitterlyandwithwhatabsolutecertaintytheSouthandevenmanyintheNorth
declaredthatfreeNegrolaborwaseconomicallyimpossible.
WhattheyinsistedonduringReconstructionwaslabor,continuous,steadylabortocontinue
productionofhigh-pricedcrops.Whattheyslurredoverorrefusedtodiscusswastheobject
ofthislaborandthedistributionofitsproduct.Oflaborfortheeconomicbenefitofthe
laborerexcepttotheextentofthelowestpossiblewagethatwouldsustainhimtheyhadno
conception;andtoanytransferofcapitalinlandtothelaborerasabasisofhisrightto
demandafairershareoftheproducts,theywerebitterlyopposed.
ThewhiteSouthbelievedthatitwasbeingdeliberatelyinsultedinapettyspiritofvengeance
bytheNorth.Butthiswasachildishwayofattributinghumanemotionstoaneconomic
situation.TheNorthasawholeharborednothoughtsofvengeance.Sumnerwreckedhis
careeronadeedofforgiveness;andStevenspunishedtheslavesystemanditspromoters
onlyinsofarastheystillinterferedwithfreedom,orkepttheill-gottencapitalaccumulatedby
exploitingslaves.
ThepartyofNorthernindustrywatchedthebeginningsofdemocraticgovernmentinthe
Southwithdistrust.TheydidnotexpectNegrosuffragetosucceed,buttheydidexpectthatit
wouldsooncompeltheSouthernoligarchytocapitulatetothedictatorshipofindustry.Theirhopeswere
fulfilledin1876.
Theabolition-democracyfacedtheSouthernconventionsof1867withfear.Itwasthe
greatesttestofdemocracythatthenationhadknown.EvenafterthegreatReformBillof
1832,Englandhadlessthanonemillionvoters.Itwasnotuntil1867thatamillionormore
skilledlaborersinEnglandgotthevote.
Here,atthestrokeofthepen,morethanonemillionNegroesweregiventherighttovote,of
whomprobablythree-fourthscouldnotreadorwrite;andatthesametimemorethanone
millionwhitesweregiventhesameright,andatleastone-thirdofthemwereequally
illiterate.Thiswasadesperateventureforcedbyaslave-mindedregime;ithadrefusedto
grantcompletephysicalfreedomtoblackworkers;itrefusedthemeducationandaccessto
thelandandinsistedondominantpoliticalpowerbasedonthenumberofthesesameserfs.
Underthesecircumstancestheexperimenthadtobemade.Fortosurrendernowwastohave
sacrificedbloodandbillionsofdollarsinvain.
But,itwastheAmericanBlindspotthatmadetheexperimentallthemoredifficult,andtothe
Southincomprehensible.ForseveralgenerationstheSouthhadbeentaughttolookuponthe
Negroasathingapart.Hewasdifferentfromotherhumanbeings.Thesystemofslavelabor,
underwhichhewasemployed,wasradicallydifferentfromallothersystemsoflabor.There
couldbenocomparisonbetweenlaborproblemsintheSouthandintheNorth;betweenthe
Negroandwhitelaborer.
"Itmustbeconfessedthattherepresentativesofthewhiteoligarchyarehavingahardtime,
beingforcedtoconsidertheirownformerslavesnolongerasNegroes,'niggers,'thatistosay,
membersofacategoryunrecognizedinanynaturalhistory,somewherebetweenmenand
monkeysintheanimalscale,butasmen,whohave,asJeffersonphrasedit,equalrightswith
theminthefreedevelopmentoftheirtalentsandinthepursuitofhappiness;or,inother
words,ascitizensonanequalfootingwiththemselves."25
"TheNorthernDemocratsencouragedresistanceonthepartoftheSouth,andyetsomeof
themsawthesituationclearly.Theintrinsicdifficultiesofthesituationarenottobedenied.
TherulingclassesoftheSouthernpeoplehadattemptedtodisrupttheUnioninorderto
establishtheirownindependence.Theoverthrowoftheirarmieshadnotchangedtheir
opinionsnortheirfeelings.Necessitycompelledtheirsubmission,butnecessitycouldnot
makethemloveaunionwiththevictoriousNorth,normakethemcordiallyrecognizeand
supporttherightsofthefreedmen."26
Duringthewinterandspringof1867-1868inaccordancewiththe
legislationofCongress,Southernconventionsmetandadoptednewconstitutions.These
constitutionsprovidedforequalcivilrights,establisheduniversalsuffrageanddisfranchised
disloyalwhites.Aftertheframingoftheseconstitutions,theywerevotedonbythepeople.
Also,stateofficersandmembersofthelegislaturewerechosenatthesameelectionandby
thesamevoters.Thearmycommandersdidtheirbesttobringoutthevoteandtocounteract
variousdevicesforkeepingNegroesawayfromthepolls.Thepollswerekeptopentwoand
threedaysandinGeorgiaevenfivedays.
OfficialsoftheFreedmen'sBureauhelpedintheenforcementoftheReconstructionActs.
TheactofMarch23providedthatregistrationandelectionsshouldbeconductedbyboards
ofthreeloyalofficersorpersonsappointedbythedistrictcommander.Theywererequiredto
takethe"IronCladOath."Bureauofficialswereoftenappointedasmembersoftheseboards
andNegroeswereoftenused.ThebureauofficialsadvisedNegroesaboutregistrationand
votinganddisabusedtheirmindoffearsoftaxationormilitaryserviceorreenslavement.
Theypromisedtoprotectthemincaseofaboycottofemployersagainstthosethatvoted.
Thusin1867theretookplaceintheSouthaseriesofelectionsinwhichanewelectorate
registeredandexpresseditsdesireastoconstitutionalconventionstoreconstructthestates.
Onemillion,threehundredandsixty-threethousand,sixhundredandfortypersonsvoted,of
whom660,181werewhites,and703,459wereNegroes,ascomparedwithatotalvoteof
721,191whitesvotingini860.27
Registered
TotalWhiteColoredVote
Virginia120,101105,832225,933
NorthCarolina...106,72172,932179,653
SouthCarolina..46,88280,550127,432
Georgia96,33395,168191,501
Alabama61,295104*518165,813
Florida11,91416,08928,003
#Mississippi62,36277,328139,690
*Arkansas49,72217,10966,831
Louisiana45,21884,436129,654
Texas59,63349,497109,130
Total660,181703,4591,363,640
*Divisionbyraceestimated;totalofficial.
VoteonHolding
Atfirst,theplantersthoughttodefeatReconstructionbyrefusingtovoteandthusmaking
thewholeexperimentafailureattheverystart.Manyleadingwhites,smallintotalnumber
butlargeininfluenceandinformerwealthandpower,weredisfranchised,perhaps200,000
inall.
Ontheotherhand,thepoorwhitesmusthavevotedwidely,especiallywhenwenotethe
largewhitevoteinmostofthestatesdespitewar,mortality,abstentionsanddisabilities.Itis
probablethatin1868notonlydidNegroesvotefreely,butmorepoorwhitesthaneverbefore
exercisedthefranchise.Democracyforthefirsttimeinatleastacenturysucceededoligarchy
intheSouth.Thevotingofnearlythree-fourthsofamillionNegroeswasespecially
significantandrepresentedaverylargeproportionof,perhaps,amillioneligibleblackvoters.
TheelectionswhichreconstructedtheSouthundertheCongressionalplanwerefairand
honestelections,andprobablyneverbeforeweresuchdemocraticelectionsheldintheSouth
andneversincesuchfairelections.Indeed,asaspecialchampionoftheSouthsays:"Itwould
behardtodenythat,sofarastheordinaryciviladministrationwasconcerned,theruleofthe
generalswasasjustandefficientasitwasfar-reaching.Criticismanddenunciationoftheir
actswerebitterandcontinuous;butnoveryprofoundresearchisnecessaryinorderto
discoverthattheanimusoftheseattackswaschieflypolitical."28
Asaresultoftheelections,constitutionalconventionsweredecidedoninalltheSouthern
statesandthefollowingnumberofmembersoftheConventionselected:
Delegates—1868perCent
StateBlac\WhiteTotalNegro
SouthCarolina764812461
Louisiana49499850
Florida18274540
Virginia258010524
Georgia.^3313717019
Mississippi178310017
Alabama189010817
Arkansas8586612
NorthCarolina1511813311
Texas9819010
Astheseconventionswerebeingvotedon,thepresidentialelectionapproached.The
campaignbeganinMay,1868.TheRepublicannationalplatformdidnotdaretostand
squarelyforNegrosuffragebutevolvedthisillogicalcompromise:"TheguarantybyCongress
ofequalsuffragetoallloyalmenattheSouthwasdemandedbyeveryconsiderationofpublicsafety,ofgratitude,andofjustice,andmustbemaintained;whilethe
questionofsuffrageinalltheloyalstatesproperlybelongstothepeopleoftheseStates."29
GrantandColfaxwerenominated.Colfaxdeclaredthatpeacehadbeenpreventedby
"executiveopposition,andbyrefusalstoacceptanyplanofreconstructionprofferedby
Congress.Justiceandpublicsafetyatlastcombinedtoteachusthatonlybyanenlargement
ofsuffrageinthoseStatescouldthedesiredendbeattained,andthatitwasevenmoresafeto
givetheballottothosewholovedtheUnionthantothosewhohadsoughtineffectuallyto
destroyit."
In1865-1868,theDemocraticPartycontrolledfrom44percentto50percentofthevotersin
theNorth,sothatifthewhitepeopleoftheSouthhadbeenincluded,undoubtedlythe
DemocraticPartywouldhavebeeninthemajority.BytheexclusionoftheSouth,the
DemocraticPartyhadbeenbeatenin1866,andin1867hadcarriedonlyMarylandand
Kentucky,Connecticut,NewYork,Pennsylvania,NewJerseyandCalifornia;nevertheless,on
thewhole,theDemocraticvoteincreased,ascomparedwiththeRepublican.
Theelectionsof1867madeitclearthatiftheDemocratswonin1868,theentiresystemof
Reconstructionwouldbechanged.ThebusinesselementsoftheNorth,therefore,whilenot
willingtofollowabolition-democracytotheextreme,wereevenlesswillingtoput
ReconstructionentirelyinthehandsofSoutherners.Congress,therefore,preparedtoclinch
itspoliticalholdontheSouth,andreconstructSouthernstatesonabasisofNegrosuffrage.
While,then,theconservativeandcommercialelementsintheNorthwentintothe
RepublicanParty,ontheotherhand,formerDemocratsbegantoreturntotheDemocratic
Party,wheretheywerereceivedwithmoreorlesssuspicion.Meetingsbegantobeheldby
Democraticleaderstodeterminecandidatesandprocedure.OnJacksonDay,January8,
1868,ameetingwasheldinWashington,atwhichPresidentJohnsonspokeandmany
Democraticleaders.ThismeetingwasdominatedbytheWarDemocrats,ratherthanby
Copperheads,andemphasiswaslaiduponcooperationbetweentheWarDemocratsandthe
Johnsonadministration,ontheonehand,andtheDemocraticorganizationontheother.
Newmeasuresandnewmenweresought.AugustBelmont,thebanker,waschairmanofthe
NationalCommittee.NewYorkwaschosenastheseatoftheconvention,andageneral
invitationwasissuedtoformerDemocrats.
TheNewYorkHeraldenumeratedtheelementsofthenewdemocracy:merchantswho
opposedtheprotectivetariff,theunemployed,theforeignborn,theCatholics,thewomen
opposedtoNegrosuffrage,theopponentsofmilitarycontrolintheSouth.Manypapers
warned
thepro-SouthernelementsintheDemocraticPartynottoopposetheloyalsentimentinthe
nation.TheSpringfieldRepublican,Julyi,mentioned"themerestupid,causeless,aimless
hatredoftheNegro"intheDemocraticParty.
TheoppositionoftheDemocratstoNegrosuffragewasnotclearlyexpressed.Evidently,the
tideinfavorofdemocracyhadrisensohighinthecountrythatasapartytheDemocratsdid
notdareopposeit.Theparty,therefore,wouldnotcomeoutflatlyinoppositiontoNegro
suffragebutsimplydeclaredthatsuffragewasaquestiontobesettledbythestates.TwentytwostateDemocraticconventionswereheldin1868.ElevenoftheseopposedNegrosuffrage
anywhere.OnlytheconventionofSouthCarolinainAprilapprovedit.Tenotherconventions
eitherweresilentonthesubjectorannouncedtheirbeliefthatthiswasamatterofstate
control.
ThevariousstateplatformsillustratedlocalNorthernthought.CaliforniaDemocratsdeclared
thatthey"nowandalwaysconfideintheintelligence,patriotism,anddiscriminatingjustice
ofthewhitepeopleofthecountrytoadministerandcontroltheirGovernment,withoutthe
aidofeitherNegroesorChinese."30
TheDemocratsofWashingtonterritoryagreedwithCaliforniainopposingtheextensionof
theelectivefranchisetoNegroes,IndiansandChinese.
TheOhioDemocratsdeclaredthattheattempttoregulatesuffrageinOhiowas"subversiveof
thefederalConstitution."TheDemocratsofPennsylvaniawereopposedtoconferringupon
theNegrotherighttovote.MostoftheRepublicanconventionsapprovedtheFifteenth
Amendment.AminorityreportoftheVirginiaConservativescalledforwhitecontroland
said:"Wecalluponwhitemen,whethernativeoradoptedcitizens,tovotedownthe
Constitution,andtherebysavethemselvesandtheirposterityfromNegrosuffrage,Negro
office-holding,anditslegitimateconsequence—Negrosocialequality."
Thiswasatimeofchangingofpoliticalallegiance.TheJohnsonmovementcollapsed.
ConservativeRepublicans,likeFessendenandTrumbull,unitedwiththeRepublicans.
Seward,McCulloch,andWelles,formersupportersofLincoln,stoodstaunchlybyPresident
Johnson.OtherRepublicans,liketheBlairs,Doolittle,andChase,driftedtowardthe
Democrats.ButtheDemocraticParty,byitsactionduringthecampaign,repelledmanyofthe
Conservativesonaccountofitsattitudeonmoney,anditsradicalattitudeonReconstruction.
Stateandlocalelectionsinthespringof1868encouragedtheDemocrats.TheRepublican
votewasreducedinNewHampshire;inMichiganNegrosuffragewasdefeatedbyavoteof
110,000to71,000,andtheDemocratstriumphedinConnecticut.
Beforethewar,SalmonP.ChasewasaprominentAbolitionist,andafterthewar,aRadical
Republican.HeadvocatedNegrosuffrage,andinMay,1865,madeatriptotheSouthto
investigatethepositionoftheNegro.InCharleston,hespoketotheNegroes,andurgedthem
todeservethesuffrage,eveniftheydidnotgetit.
Ontheotherhand,ChasedidnotlikethemilitarygovernmentsoftheSouth,andfavored
staterightsasagainsttheincreasedpoweroftheFederalGovernment.Hesaidonce:"While
wefreedtheNegro,weenslavedourselves."BecomingChiefJustice,hepresidedatJohnson's
impeachmentandfavoredJohnsonpossiblyonaccountofhisdislikeofBenjaminF.Wadeof
Ohio.WadewouldhavebecomePresidentifJohnsonhadbeenimpeached.Chase'sdaughter
Katewassaidtohavemadesomefierydeclarationsat"theideaofthathorridBenWade
beingputovermyfather."Forhisstandinthistrial,hewaspracticallyreadoutofthe
RepublicanParty,andbecameaformidablecandidatefortheDemocraticnomination.
TheChasesupportershadheadquartersinNewYork,andhisdaughterwasthereinperson.It
wassuggestedthatChaseshoulddeclareReconstructionactsunconstitutional"asthe
SupremeCourtwouldprobablydecide."Thisstatement,ofcourse,Chasecouldnotmake,and
hehadtowarnhisdaughteragainsttoogreatactivity.AsmallgroupofsometwentyNegroes
assistedtheChasemovement,andarguedthatChasewouldcarrymanySouthernNegro
votes.Afteralongdeadlock,SeymourofNewYork,theformerCopperheadGovernorofDraft
Riotfame,wasnominatedchieflybecausehefailedtoswinghisfollowerstoChase,ashehad
promised.
Theplatformoftheconventionrecognizedslaveryandsecessionasclosedquestions.It
demandedtheimmediaterestorationofallstates,amnestyforallpoliticaloffenses,andthe
regulationofsuffrageinthestatesbytheircitizens.Itaskedfortheabolitionofthe
Freedmen'sBureauandallagenciesforNegrosupremacy.ItsaidthattheRepublicans,
insteadofrestoringtheUnion,haddissolvedit,subjectingtenstatestomilitarydespotism
andNegrosupremacy;andthatthecorruptionoftheRadicalPartyhadbeenunprecedented.
TheNewYorkHeraldcalledSeymour"theembodimentofcopper-headism."Greeleydeclared
thatSeymourhadproposedresistingsecessionbyforce;haddeclaredthatiftheUnioncould
onlybemaintainedbyabolishingslavery,thentheUnionshouldbegivenup;hadgiven
grudgingsupporttothegovernmentwhilewargovernor,andhadopposedthedraft.TheNew
YorkSunsaidthatherepresentedfairlytheaveragesentimentofhisparty.Seymouraccepted
theplatformbutdidnotdiscussitindetail.HeattackedCongressionalReconstruction,but
pointedoutthatnoviolentchangecouldtakeplacesincethe
RepublicanswouldcontinuetocontroltheSenate.FrederickDouglass,writinginthe
Independent,August20,1868,saidthatSeymour'sletterofacceptance"wassmoothasoil
andasfair-seemingashypocrisyitself,containingeverydispositiontodeceivebutwithout
theability.Itwascunningandcowardly."Seymourmadenoreferencetofinanceorsuffrage.
Blair,theDemocraticcandidateforVicePresident,wasawildMis-souriangiventodrink,
whoopenlyadvocatedthatthenewPresident"dispersethecarpetbaggovernments"byforce
assoonashispartytriumphed.
PresidentJohnsonwasdisgustedandchagrinedatnotreceivingthenominationandsaidthat
Seymourhadnotliftedafingertosustainhisadministration.Inthecampaign,hewasfinally
inducedtogivesomesupporttotheDemocraticticket.Seymour,ontheotherhand,
practicallyofferedJohnsonanappointmentifheshouldbeelected.Sewardtooklittlepartin
thecampaign,althoughhespokeoncefortheRepublicanticket,andincludedpraisefor
PresidentJohnson.
ThusthecampaignstartedwithcontradictionsinsidetheDemocraticParty.Seymour
opposedthegreenbackideabeforethenationalconvention,andthenranonaplatformthat
advocatedit.Blairadvocatedrevolution;HamptonopposedNegrosuffrage,andappealedto
Negrovoters.Chaseaskeduniversalsuffrage,andremandedthequestiontothestates.There
werechargesthattheDemocratsproposedtorepudiatethenationaldebtandpayfor
emancipatedslavesandpropertylostduringthewar.SouthernDemocratswereprominent.
Toombs,Cobb,andForresttookpart.TheNewYorkNationsaidthat"theseSouthernerswere
ofmoreservicetotheRepublicansthanalloftheiroratorsandliterature."Manyofthem
wereaccusedofincendiaryspeeches.VanceofNorthCarolinawasaccusedofsayingthat
SeymourandBlairwouldwinwhattheConfederatesfoughtfor.HillofGeorgiadeclaredthat
theSouthwasgoingtoregulateitsowninternaldemocraticaffairsinitsownway.Toombs
declaredthatiftheDemocratswerevictorious,theReconstructiongovernorandlegislators
wouldbemadetovacateatonce.HowellCobbsaidthatthoseincontroloftheSouthern
stateswouldbeousted,whileAlbertPikeofArkansaswroteintheMemphisAppeal:"Theday
willcomewhentheSouthwillbeindependent."31
ViolenceandintimidationwerewidespreadintheSouthduringthiselection,andbriberyand
fraudwereprevalentintheNorth.InPhiladelphia,aSupremeCourtjusticeissuedoverfive
thousandnaturalizationpaperswithintwoweeks.
TheNation,November12,chargedthatGeorgiaandLouisianawerecarriedby"organized
assassination,andNewJerseyandNewYork
byfraud."TheDemocraticmajorityof165inOregonwasdue,itwassaid,tovotersbroughtin
fromneighboringstates.LateinOctober,therewasamovementtogetSeymourtowithdraw
andsubstituteChaseorJohnson.TheNewYorkWorldledthemovement,butnothingcame
ofit.Grantwaselectedby214electoralvotesto80forSeymour,and3,012,833to2,703,249
popularvotes.ThusGrantreceived52.71%.SeymourcarriedDelaware,Georgia,Kentucky,
Louisiana,Maryland,NewJersey,NewYorkandOregon.Virginia,MississippiandTexasdid
notvote.Duringthiscampaign,NegrosuffragewasdefeatedinMissouriby74,053to55,236.
InMinnesota,itwascarried.InNevada,itwascarriedbytheRepublicanlegislature.
AtChristmas,1868,PresidentJohnsonproclaimedgeneralamnesty,pardoningeveryperson
engageddirectlyorindirectlyintherebellion.Hislastpresidentialmessagewasan
interestingandrathercuriousargument.Hedeclared,ineffect,thatthedictatorshipoflabor,
attemptedintheSouthundertheReconstructionacts,hadledtocorruptionandbloodshed
and,therefore,preventedtheriseofindustryintheSouth,whichwastherealsolutionofthe
raceproblem.Hebelievedthatthebondholdershadalreadyreceivedanamountlargerthan
theprincipalwhichtheyowedandthat,hereafter,theinterestpaidshouldbeappliedtothe
reductionofthatprincipal.
JohnsonthusillustratedagainthewayinwhichthecolorproblembecametheBlindspotof
Americanpoliticalandsocialdevelopmentandmadelogicalargumentalmostimpossible.
TheonlypowertocurtailtherisingempireoffinanceintheUnitedStateswasindustrial
democracy—votesandintelligenceinthehandsofthelaboringclass,blackandwhite,North
andSouth.
Thechiefactofthethirdsessionofthe40thCongresswastheFifteenthAmendment.Early
in1867,twoamendmentsonthesuffragewereintroduced:onewhichprohibitedanycolor
distinction,andtheotherrequiring$250propertyqualificationoranadditionaltax.The
victoryoftheRepublicanPartyin1868madethepassageoftheFifteenthAmendment
paramount.
In1868,elevenamendmentswereintroducedtoextendtherightofsuffragetothefreedmen.
Oftheseamendments,sevenwerepresentedintheHouseandfourintheSenate.Allexcept
onewerereferredtotheCommitteeonJudiciaryineachHouse.TheHouseCommitteeon
theJudiciaryreportedJune11,1869,aproposedFifteenthAmendment.Thiscausedlong
debateintheHouseandmanyproposedmodifications.Amongthepropositionswasthatno
educationalattainmentorpossessionofpropertyshouldbemadethetestofanycitizen's
righttovote.Theresolutionproposedbythecommitteewith
aminorchangewaspassedbytheHousebyavoteof150-42,January30,1869.
Meantime,theSenatehadbeendiscussingasimilarpropositionandmanymodificationshad
beenproposed.January30,onreceptionoftheHouseAmendment,theSenatediscussedit.
Eightotheramendmentswereoffered,andsomefifteensubstitutepropositions.Finally,a
substitutesuggestedbyWilsonwasadoptedbyavoteof31-27.Itread:
"NodiscriminationshallbemadeinanyStateamongthecitizensoftheUnitedStatesinthe
exerciseoftheelectivefranchiseorintherighttoholdofficeinanyState,onaccountofrace,
color,nativity,property,educationorreligiouscreed."32
ThiswasamendedsoastoinsureCongresspowertodirectthemannerin*whichtheelection
shouldbeconducted,andthustheSenateagreedtotheHousepropositionwithamendments.
TheHouserefusedtoconcur.TheSenatedeclinedtorecedeandthemeasurefailed.
Thereupon,February17,1869,theSenateresumedconsiderationofitsownresolutionand
elevenamendmentswereproposedandrejected.Finally,theFifteenthAmendmentwas
passed35-11,initspresentform,exceptthatthewords"toholdoffice"wereaddedafter"the
righttovote."
February20,theHouseconsideredthisproposalandtherewerefiveattemptstoamendit,of
whichonewassuccessfulandadded"nativity,propertyandcreed,"totheother
qualifications.ItthenpassedtheHouse140-37.TheSenaterejectedtheHouseamendment
andaskedforconference.Finally,thepresentFifteenthAmendmentwasagreedupon,andit
passedtheHouse145-44,andtheSenate39-13.Itwasthusrecommendedtothestates
February26,1869.
SomeAmericansthinkandsaythatthenationfreedtheblackslaveandgavehimavoteand
that,unabletouseitintelligently,helostit.Thatisnotso.TowinthewarAmericafreedthe
slaveandarmedhim;andthethreattoarmthemassoftheblackworkersoftheConfederacy
stoppedthewar.Nordoesthisfactforamomentdenythatsomeprophetsandmartyrs
demandedfirstandlasttheabolitionofslaveryasthesoleobjectofthewarandatanycostof
lifeandwealth.So,too,someAmericansdemandednotsimplyphysicalfreedombutvotes,
land,andeducationforblacks,notonlyinordertocompasstheeconomicemancipationof
labor,butalsoastheonlyfulfillmentofAmericandemocraticideals;butmostAmericans
usedtheNegrotodefendtheirowneconomicinterestsand,refusinghimadequatelandand
realeducationandevencommonjustice,desertedhimshamelesslyassoonastheirselfish
interestsweresafe.Nordoesthis
foramomentdenythatunselfishandfar-seeingAmericans,pooraswellasrich,bysupplying
publicschoolswhentheNegroesdemandedthemandestablishinghigherschoolstotrain
teachers,savedtheNegrofrombeingentirelyreenslavedorexterminatedinanunequaland
cowardlyrenewalofwar.Wearethehewersanddelverswhotoilforanother'sgain,—Thecommonclodsandthe
rabble,stuntedofbrowandbrain.Whatdowewant,thegleaners,oftheharvestwehave
reaped?Whatdowewant,theneuters,ofthehoneywehaveheaped?
Whatmatterifkingorconsulorpresidentholdstherein,Ifcrimeandpovertyeverbelinks
inthebondman'schain?Whatcareththeburden-bearerthatLibertypackedhisload,If
Hungerpressethbehindhimwithasharpandreadygoad?
JamesJeffreyRoche
1.McPherson,HistoryofUnitedStatesDuringReconstruction,pp.141,142.
2.Herberg,TheHeritageoftheCivilWar,p.8.
3.CongressionalGlobe,40thCongress,1stSession,p.55.
4.Pierce,MemoirsandLettersofCharlesSumner,Vol.IV,pp.311,312.
5.Pierce,MemoirsandLettersofCharlesSumner,Vol.IV,pp.285-290.
6.Pierce,MemoirsandLettersofCharlesSumner,Vol.IV,pp.313,314.
7.Pierce,MemoirsandLettersofCharlesSumner,Vol.IV,p.307.
8.Clemenceau,AmericanReconstruction,i86yi8jo,p.65.
9.Pierce,MemoirsandLettersofCharlesSumner,Vol.IV,p.317.
10.Clemenceau,AmericanReconstruction,1865-1870,pp.104,131.
11.Porter,OhioPolitics,p.244.
12.McCall,ThaddeusStevens,AmericanStatesmen,p.336.
13.Burgess,Reconstruction,p.191.
14.McCall,ThaddeusStevens,AmericanStatesmen,pp.352-353.
15.McCall,ThaddeusStevens,AmericanStatesmen(footnote),p.336.
16.Schliiter,Lincoln,LaborandSlavery,pp.196,197,200.
17.CommonsandAndrews,DocumentaryHistoryofAmericanIndustrialSociety,IX,
pp.185,186,187,188.
18.Schliiter,Lincoln,LaborandSlavery,p.235.
19.Wesley,NegroLaborintheUnitedStates,pp.162,163.
20.Schliiter,Lincoln,LaborandSlavery,pp.231,232.
21.CommonsandAndrews,DocumentaryHistoryofAmericanIndustrialSociety,Vol.
IX,pp.243,256,268,285.
22.Wesley,NegroLaborintheUnitedStates,pp.180,187.
23.Campbell,BlackyandWhiteintheSouthernStates,p.160.
24.Haynes,intheReportoftheJointCommitteeonReconstruction,1866,PartIV,
p.62.
25.Clemenceau,AmericanReconstruction,1865-1870,pp.291-292.
26.Cox,ThreeDecadesofFederalLegislation,pp.378,379.
27.Dunning,EssaysontheCivilWarandReconstruction,p.188.TheregistrationfiguresbystatesareaftertheMcPhersonHistoryofUnitedStatesDuringReconstruction,p.
374.Othersourcesgiveslightlydifferenttotalsinsomecases.
28.Dunning,EssaysontheCivilWarandReconstruction,p.174.
29.McPherson,HistoryofUnitedStatesDuringReconstruction,pp.364,366.
30.McPherson,HistoryofUnitedStatesDuringReconstruction,pp.479,483,486.
31.Coleman,Electionof1868,pp.311-312.
32.Ames,AmendmentstotheConstitution,Vol.II,pp.233,235.
X.THEBLACKPROLETARIAT*INSOUTHCAROLINA
Howintheyearsfrom1868-1876,inastatewhereblacksoutnumberedwhites,thewillofthe
massofblacklabor,modifiedbytheirownandotherleadersanddimmedbyignorance,
inexperienceanduncertainty,dictatedtheformandmethodsofgovernment
AgreatpoliticalscientistinoneoftheoldestandlargestofAmericanuniversitieswroteand
taughtthousandsofyouthsandreadersthat"Thereisnoquestion,now,thatCongressdida
monstrousthing,andcommittedagreatpoliticalerror,ifnotasin,inthecreationofthisnew
electorate.ItwasagreatwrongtocivilizationtoputthewhiteraceoftheSouthunderthe
dominationoftheNegrorace.Theclaimthatthereisnothinginthecoloroftheskinfrom
thepointofviewofpoliticalethicsisagreatsophism.Ablackskinmeansmembershipina
raceofmenwhichhasneverofitselfsucceededinsubjectingpassiontoreason;hasnever,
therefore,createdanycivilizationofanykind."1
HereisthecruxofallnationaldiscussionandstudyofReconstruction.Theproblemis
incontinentlyputbeyondinvestigationandhistoricproofbythedictumofJudgeTaney,
AndrewJohnson,JohnBurgessandtheirconfreres,thatNegroesarenotmenandcannotbe
regardedandtreatedassuch.
Thestudentwhowouldtestthisdictumbyfactsisfacedbythissetbarrier.Thewholehistory
ofReconstructionhaswithfewexceptionsbeenwrittenbypassionatebelieversinthe
inferiorityoftheNegro.ThewholebodyoffactsconcerningwhattheNegroactuallysaidand
did,howheworked,whathewanted,forwhomhevoted,ismaskedinsuchacloudof
charges,exaggerationandbiasedtestimony,thatmoststudentshavegivenupallattemptat
newmaterialornewevaluationoftheold,andsimplyrepeatedperfunctorilyallthecurrent
legendsofblackbuffoonsinlegislature,goldenspittoons
*TherecordoftheNegroworkerduringReconstructionpresentsanopportunitytostudy
inductivelytheMarxiantheoryofthestate.Ifirstcalledthischapter"TheDictatorshipofthe
BlackProletariatinSouthCarolina,"butithasbeenbroughttomyattentionthatthiswould
notbecorrectsinceuniversalsuffragedoesnotleadtoarealdictatorshipuntilworkersuse
theirvotesconsciouslytoridthemselvesofthedominionofprivatecapital.Thereweresigns
ofsuchanobjectamongSouthCarolinaNegroes,butitwasalwayscoupledwiththeideaof
thatday,thattheonlyrealescapeforalaborerwashimselftoowncapital.
forfieldhands,briberyandextravaganceonanunheard-ofscale,andthecollapseof
civilizationuntilanoutragednationroseinwrathandendedtheridiculoustravesty.
Andyettherearecertainquitewell-knownfactsthatareirreconcilablewiththistheoryof
history.CivilizationdidnotcollapseintheSouthin1868-1876.Thechargeofindustrial
anarchyisfacedbythefactthatthecottoncrophadrecoveredby1870,fiveyearsafterthe
war,andby1876theagriculturalandevencommercialandindustrialrebirthoftheSouth
wasinsight.Thepublicdebtwaslarge;butmeasuredindepreciatedcurrencyandestimated
withregardtowarlosses,andtheenlargedfunctionsofanewsociety,itwasnotexcessive.
Thelegislationofthisperiodwasnotbad,asisprovenbythefactthatitwasretainedforlong
periodsafter1876,andmuchofitstillstands.
Onemustadmitthatgeneralizationsofthissortareliabletowideerror,butsurelytheycan
justifiablybebalancedagainsttheextremechargesofahistorywrittenforpurposesof
propaganda.Andaboveall,nohistoryisaccurateandno"politicalscience"scientificthat
startswiththegratuitousassumptionthattheNegroracehasbeenprovenincapableof
moderncivilization.SuchadogmaissimplythemodernandAmericanresidueofauniversal
beliefthatmostmenaresub-normalandthatcivilizationisthegiftoftheChosenFew.
Sincethebeginningoftime,mostthinkershavebelievedthatthevastmajorityofhuman
beingsareincorrigiblystupidandevil.Theproportionofthinkerswhobelievedthishas
naturallychangedwithhistoricalevolution.InearliesttimesallmenbuttheChosenFew
wereimpossible.BeforethemiddleclassofFrancerevolted,onlytheAristocracyofbirthand
knowledgecouldknowanddo.AftertheAmericanexperimentaconsiderablenumberof
thinkersconceivedthatpossiblymostmenhadcapabilities,except,ofcourse,Negroes.
Possiblyneverinhumanhistorybeforeorsincehavesomanymenbelievedinthemanhood
ofsomanymenasaftertheBattleofPortHudson,whenNegroesfoughtforFreedom.
Allmenknowthatbysheerweightofphysicalforce,themassofmenmustinthelastresort
becomethearbitersofhumanaction.Butreason,skill,wealth,machinesandpowermayfor
longperiodsenablethefewtocontrolthemany.Buttowhatend?Thecurrenttheoryof
democracyisthatdictatorshipisastopgappendingtheworkofuniversaleducation,equitable
income,andstrongcharacter.Butalwaysthetemptationistousethestopgapfornarrower
ends,becauseintelligence,thriftandgoodnessseemsoimpossiblydistantformostmen.We
rulebyjunta;weturnFascist,becausewedonotbelieveinmen;yetthebasisoffactinthis
disbeliefisincrediblynarrow.Weknowperfectlywellthatmosthumanbeingshaveneverhadadecenthumanchance
tobefullmen.Mostofusmaybeconvincedthatevenwithopportunitythenumberofutter
humanfailureswouldbevast;andyetrememberthatthisassumptionkepttheancestorsof
presentwhiteAmericalonginslaveryanddegradation.
Itisthenone'smoraldutytoseethateveryhumanbeing,totheextentofhiscapacity,
escapesignorance,povertyandcrime.Withthishighidealheldunswervinglyinview,
monarchy,oligarchy,dictatorshipsmayrule;buttheendwillbetheruleofAll,ifmayhapAll
orMostqualify.TheonlyunforgivablesinisdictatorshipforthebenefitofFools,
Voluptuaries,gildedSatraps,ProstitutesandIdiots.Theruleofthefamished,unlettered,
stinkingmobisbetterthanthisandtheonlyinevitable,logicalandjustifiablereturn.To
escapefromultimatedemocracyisasimpossibleasitisforignorantpovertyandcrimeto
ruleforever.
TheopportunitytostudyagreathumanexperimentwaspresentinReconstruction,andits
carefulscientificinvestigationwouldhavethrownaworldoflightonhumandevelopment
anddemocraticgovernment.Thematerialtoday,however,isunfortunatelydifficulttofind.
LittleefforthasbeenmadetopreservetherecordsofNegroeffortandspeeches,actions,
workandwages,homesandfamilies.Nearlyallthishasgonedownbeneathamassof
ridiculeandcaricature,deliberateomissionandmisstatement.Noinstitutionoflearninghas
madeanyefforttoexploreorprobeReconstructionfromthepointofviewofthelaborerand
mostmenhavewrittentoexplainandexcusetheformerslaveholder,theplanter,the
landholder,andthecapitalist.Thelosstodayisirreparable,andthispresentstudylimpsand
gropesindarkness,lackingmostessentialstoacompletepicture;andyetthewriteris
convincedthatthisisthestoryofanormalworkingclassmovement,successfultoan
unusualdegree,despitealldisappointmentandfailure.
SouthCarolinahasalwaysbeenpointedtoasthetypicalReconstructionstate.Ithad,ini860,
412,320Negroesand291,300whites.Evenatthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,the
200,000whiteswerematchedby150,000Negroes,andtheinfluxfromtheBorderandthe
directAfricanslavetradebroughtamassofblackslavestosupportthenewCottonKingdom.
TherehadalwaysbeensmallnumbersoffreeNegroes,alittleover3,000atthebeginningof
thecentury,andnearly10,000ini860.
"Slaverywasthedrivingforceofthestate'sindustrialandsociallife;itwastheinstitution
whichmadeSouthCarolinadifferentfromthestatesoftheNorth;itwastheprincipalreason
whythewhitemanhoodofthestatehadfoughtsodesperately."2
Theeconomiclosswhichcamethroughwarwasgreat,butnotnearlyasinfluentialasthe
psychologicalchange,thechangeinhabitandthought.Imaginethe54thMassachusetts
ColoredRegiment,headingtheUniontroopswhichenteredCharleston,andsinging"John
Brown'sBody."Anunwritesfromthatcityconcerningthechangeswhichhavecome,and
whichseemtoherunspeakable:
"Couldyoubutseethesedelicateladiesinhousesvoidoffurniture,reducedtothewash-tub
andthecook-pot,yourheartwouldbleed."TherewereotherCarolinawomen—not,tobe
sure,"ladies"—towhomthechancetowashandcookforthemselvesspelledheaveninthese
days.
ThehatredoftheYankeewasincreased.ThedefeatedSouthernleaderswerepopularheroes.
NumbersofSouthernersplannedtoleavethecountry,andgotoSouthAmericaorMexico.
Andyet,theslaveholdershadnotlostallbyanymeans.Therewere638personsinSouth
CarolinawhowerelaterpardonedbyPresidentJohnsonbecausetheyhadtaxableproperty
worthmorethan$20,000.Theyhadtheirland,theirtools,andwhilecertaincitieshadbeen
wreckedandpillaged,thegreatmassoftheplantationshadnotbeentouched.Therailroads
hadbeeninjuredbutnotdestroyed.Mostoftheeighteencottonfactorieswerenottouched.
Thelaborsituation,theprospectoffreeNegroes,causedgreatapprehension.Itwasaccepted
asabsolutelytruebymostplantersthattheNegrocouldnotandwouldnotworkwithouta
whitemaster.
"Thenigger,sir,isasavagewhomtheAlmightyMakerappointedtobeaslave.Asavage!
Withhimfree,theSouthisruined,sir,ruined...."
Ontheotherhand,theseapprehensionswerenotfulfilled.WilliamHenryTrescotsaid:
"WhenNegroesheardthatfreedomwascoming,therewasnoimpatience,no
insubordination,noviolence.Theyhavereceivedtheirfreedomquietlyandsoberly.They
remainedprettysteadilyonthefarmsoftheirmasters,averygeneraldispositionbeing
manifesttoadjustthetermsofcompensationonareasonablebasis."
Onegreatandreallosswhichthestatesufferedwasthe12,922menkilledinbattle,anddead
ofwounds."PerhapsitcanbeconcludedthatthelackofdistinctiveachievementsbySouth
Carolinianssincethewarisinnosmallmeasureduetothisloss."
Itwasestimatedbythecensusthatlandvaluesdeclined60%between1860-1867,andthatall
farmproperty,between1860-1870,decreasedfrom$169,738,630to$47,628,175.InMay,
1865,ameetingwasheldinCharleston,andacommitteewassenttotalkwithPresident
Johnson.HeaskedthemtosubmitalistofnamesfromwhichhemightselectaProvisional
Governor,andhefinallyselectedBenjaminF.Perry.Thiswas,onthewhole,anunfortunateselection.Perrywasadevoted
followerofJohnson,andbelievedthatJohnsonhadthepowerandbackingtoputhispolicies
through.HeimmediatelysucceededinhavingallNegrotroopswithdrawn,andhewascertain
thattheNorthwaswithhimandJohnsoninstandingforapurelywhiteman'sgovernment.
TheJohnsonconventionmetandtooksomeadvancesteps.Byasmallmajority,theydid
awaywithpropertyqualificationsformembersofthelegislature,butrefusedtocount
Negroesasbasisofapportionment.Thiswasablowattheformerslaveholders,andastep
towarddemocracysofarasthewhiteswereconcerned,butitwascoupledwithabsolute
refusaltorecognizetheNegroes.Perryinsistedonlettingpropertyretainitsrightof
representationinthelegislature,despitetheoppositionofPresidentJohnson.
TheconventionwantedtoabolishslaveryonlyonconditionthatNegroesbeconfinedto
manuallabor,andthatslaveownersbecompensated.Theyweregiventounderstand,
however,thatJohnsonwouldnotacceptthis,andtheyfinallydeclaredthatsincetheslaves
hadbeenemancipatedbytheUnitedStates,slaveryshouldnotbereestablished.Inthe
electionsforthisconvention,therewaslittleinterest.Onlyaboutone-thirdofthenormal
votewascastonthecoast,andinland,therewere,inmanycases,noelectionsatall.
Intheelectionwhichfollowedagainonly19,000voteswerecast.Ex-GovernorOrrreceiveda
smallmajority,andwouldhavebeenbeatenbyWadeHampton,ifHamptonhadnotrefused
theuseofhisname.Orrwasamanofstrikingpersonality,andhadoncebeenSpeakerofthe
UnitedStatesHouseofRepresentatives.
ThelegislaturewhichmetafterthiselectionpassedoneofthemostviciousoftheBlack
Codes.Itprovidedforcorporalpunishment,vagrancyandapprenticeshiplaws,openlymade
theNegroaninferiorcaste,andprovidedspeciallawsforhisgoverning.
"Neitherhumanitynorexpediencydemandedsuchsharpdistinctionsbetweentheracesin
imposingpunishments.TherestrictionofNegrotestimonytocasesinwhichtheracewas
involvedwasnotcommonsense.Thefreeadmissionofsuchtestimonyinallcaseswouldnot
haveinvolvedthesurrenderofpowerbythewhitessincetheyweretobethejudgesandjury.
Theoccupationalrestrictions,insteadoftendingtorestoreorder,createdtheimpressionthat
thedominantracedesiredtoexcludetheblacksfromusefulemployment.Itwasimpractical
forapoverty-strickencommonwealthtohaveprojectedsuchelaborateschemesofjudicial
andmilitaryreorganization."3
Therewasincreaseddifficultyintheeconomicsituation.Thewarhadendedlateinthespring
of1865,sothatthecropsofthatyear
wereshort,andtherewerecropfailuresforthenexttwoyears.Allthiscomplicatedmatters.
Inadditiontothis,thesplendidstartwhichtheNegroeshadonthelandsofPortRoyal,and
ontheSeaIslands,wasinterrupted.Johnson'sproclamationandordersof1865providedfor
theearlyrestorationofallpropertyexceptpropertyinslavesandsuchofthePortRoyallands
ashadbeensoldfortaxes.Thelandlordshurriedtogettheirpardonsandtotakebacktheir
lands.TheNegroesresistedsometimeswithphysicalforce.Whensomeofthelandlords
visitedEdistoIsland,theNegroestoldthem:
"YouhadbettergobacktoCharleston,andgotoworkthere,andifyoucandonothingelse,
youcanpickoystersandearnyourliving."
Butthesewhitemenwerenotusedtoearningtheirownliving.Theywereusedtohaving
Negroesdothatforthem,andnowtheyhadtheFederalGovernmentbackoftheirclaims.
GeneralHowardcamedowntofacilitatethetransferandexplaintheconditiontothe
Negroes.Stilltheblackfolkweredissatisfied.TheydrewupapetitiontoPresidentJohnson,
askingforatleastanacreandahalfofland.Theplantersbecameoverbearingandthe
Negroesangry.Saxton,whohadplacedthemontheland,wasdismissed,andHoward
deprivedofhispower.Sothatfinally,byFederalforce,Negroeswerecompelledtoleavemost
ofthelandsandtomakecontractsascommonlaborers.ThethirdFreedmen'sBureauBill
gavethistheforceoflaw.ThousandsofNegroesmigratedtoFloridaduring1866-1867,
becauseofthelanddifficulties,thelaborcontracts,andthecropfailures.Twothousandfive
hundredmigratedtoLiberia.
Landholdersusedforce,fraudandboycottagainstfarmlabor.Itwasdeclaredin1868thatin
SouthCarolina:
"Thewhitesdonotthinkitwrongtoshoot,staborknockdownNegroesonslight
provocation.Itisactuallythoughtagreatpointamongcertainclassestobeabletoboastthat
onehaskilledorbeatenaNegro."4
ThefollowingresolutionswerepassedatpublicmeetingsofplantersinSouthCarolina:
"Resolved,Thatifinconsistentwithviewsoftheauthoritiestoremovethemilitary,we
expresstheopinionthattheplanofthemilitarytocompelthefreedmantocontractwithhis
formerowner,whendesiredbythelatter,iswise,prudent,andabsolutelynecessary.
"Resolved,Thatwe,theplantersofthedistrict,pledgeourselvesnottocontractwithany
freedmenunlesshecanproduceacertificateofregulardischargefromhisformerowner.
"Resolved,Thatundernocircumstanceswhatsoeverwillwerentlandtoanyfreedmen,nor
willwepermitthemtoliveonourpremisesasemployees."5
IntheAbbevilledistrictofSouthCarolinaitwassaid:
"Hereaplanterworkednearlyonehundred(100)handsnearCokesburg,ten(10)ofthemon
theSouthCarolinarailroadforsix(6)months(theplanterreceivingtheirwages),andthe
remainderonhisplantation,raisingacropofcorn,wheat,rice,cotton,etc.Afterthecropwas
harvestedthelaborerswerebroughttoCharleston,where,beingdestitute,theyhadtobe
rationedbythegovernment.Aftertheirarrivalinthiscitytheplanterdistributedfiftydollars
($50)amongthem.Thelargestamountanyonereceivedwasonedollarandtwenty-five
cents(fi.25)andfromthatdowntofiftycents(50^),somereceivingnothing.Onepeckofdry
cornaweekwastheonlyrationfurnishedthefarmhands."6
Meantime,thegrowthofsentimentinfavorofNegrosuffragewasquickenedbecauseofthe
actionofSo