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THEAGEOFCHIVALRY THEAGEOF CHIVALRY THESTORYOF MEDIEVALEUROPE,1000 TO1500 HYWELWILLIAMS NewYork•London ©2011byHywelWilliams Allrightsreserved.Nopartof thisbookmaybereproduced inanyformorbyany electronicormechanical means,includinginformation storageandretrievalsystems, withoutpermissioninwriting fromthepublisher,exceptby reviewers,whomayquote briefpassagesinareview. Scanning,uploading,and electronicdistributionofthis bookorthefacilitationofthe samewithoutthepermission ofthepublisherisprohibited. Pleasepurchaseonly authorizedelectroniceditions, anddonotparticipateinor encourageelectronicpiracy ofcopyrightedmaterials. Yoursupportoftheauthor’s rightsisappreciated. Anymemberofeducational institutionswishingto photocopypartorallofthe workforclassroomuseor anthologyshouldsend inquiriestoPermissionsc/o QuercusPublishingInc.,31 West57thStreet,6thFloor, NewYork,NY10019,orto [email protected]. ISBN978-1-62365-276-0 DistributedintheUnited StatesandCanadaby RandomHousePublisher Services c/oRandomHouse,1745 Broadway NewYork,NY10019 www.quercus.com Apastoralsceneisshownin thisimagefromtheTrès RichesHeuresduDucde Berry,a15th-centurybookof hours. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION THEOTTONIAN DYNASTYOFSAXON EMPERORS THERISEOFTHE CAPETIANS THENORMANSIN ENGLAND THEBIRTHOFTHE EUROPEANCITY-STATE THENORMANSINSICILY THEFIRSTCRUSADE THEINVESTITURE CONTEST THESTAUFERDYNASTY THEANGEVINEMPIRE THE12TH-CENTURY RENAISSANCE THETRIUMPHOFTHE CAPETIANS THETHIRDCRUSADE THEALBIGENSIAN CRUSADE THEGLORYOFISLAMIC SPAIN THEKINGDOMOF NAPLES THEHUNDREDYEARS’ WAR AVIGNONANDTHE SCHISM THEGOLDENAGEOF FLORENCE THERECONQUISTA SAINTS,RELICTSAND HERETICS MEDIEVALSOCIETY MEDIEVALCULTURE MEDIEVALWARFARE INDEX INTRODUCTION Threedistinctivecivilizations developedinwesternEurasia andNorthAfricafollowing thefifthcenturycollapseof theWesternRomanempire’s authority.TheGreekempire ofByzantiumwascentered ontheeasternMediterranean whilethecivilizationofIslam becamepredominantacross NorthAfricaandinthe MiddleEast.European civilizationincorporatedthe westernMediterranean territoriesbutitalsoacquired anewaxiswhichextended northwardstoincludeareas thathadbeenperipheralto classicalRomanantiquity. Thesethreecultureswerethe siblingcivilizationsofancient Rome,andwesternEurope cametodefineitselfasthe bastionofLatinChristendom asopposedtotheGreeks’ easternOrthodoxy.Upuntil atleasttheyear1000 Europe’slevelofcultural, intellectualandmaterial developmentwasclearly inferiortothatattainedby ByzantiumandtheIslamic states.Duringthecentralor “high”MiddleAgesthat extendedfromthe11thtothe 13thcenturiesthecontinent startedtorivalitstwo neighboringpowersinterms ofpoliticaleffectiveness, militarysuccessandcultural expansiveness.Bythe15th centuryEuropeanswere assertingsupremacyover theirerstwhilerivalsand superiors.Themeansby whichthisgreat transformationcametopass formthesubjectmatterofthis book. Socialstructureswere reorganizedataprofound levelinwesternEuropefrom c.500onward:thetraditions ofimperialRomenow yieldedtothoseofthe Germanicpeoples,suchas theFranksandtheLombards, whohadmigratedtothe southandwest.New kingdomswerethereby establishedinwestern Europe,andmonarchy’s institutionalauthorityturned formercitizensintosubjects. AprocessofChristianization wasencouragedby missionaries,sponsoredby rulersandoftenimposedon subjugatedpaganpeoples, andmonasticismbecamethe supremeexpressionof Europeanreligiouslife. “Europe”hadbeena geographicaltermsince Graeco-Romanantiquitybut thewordacquiredacultural andpoliticalsignificance duringCharlemagne’sreign askingoftheFranks(768– 814).Thescaleofhis victoriesgaveCharlemagnea dominionovermostofthe territorieswhichhadonce comprisedtheWestern Romanempire,andinthe year800hewascrowned emperorbyPopeLeoIII. Charlemagne’sheirsand successorshoweverfailedto maintainhisexpansionist momentum,andafterthe divisionoftheformer Carolingianempire(843) Europeankingsfoundit difficulttoraisethearmies neededtoenforcetheir authority.Acentury-long periodofstrainanddanger followedwithMagyar invasionsfromtheeastand Vikingincursionsfrom Scandinaviaundermining Europe’srecoveryandselfconfidence. Hardenedbythesebattles, Europeanmilitaryand politicalleaderswereableto regaintheinitiativebythe latetenthcentury,andthe papacy’sdecisiontograntan imperialcrowntotheGerman kingOttoIin962marksthe startoftheinstitutionwhich wouldlaterbetermedthe HolyRomanEmpire. Demographicgrowth,urban development,anda burgeoningsenseofnational identity—aswellasthe papacy’sassertionofitsown independentpower—arethe hallmarksofthecentral MiddleAges.Fromthe11th centuryonwardthechivalric code,whichinculcatedthe virtuesofvalor,courtesy, honorandloyalty,achieveda widespreaddiffusionamong theEuropeanélites. Chivalry’sinfluence transcendedtheethic’s militaryorigins,andits celebrationofthecultoflove, bothhumananddivine,hada profoundimpactonsocial conduct,religiousidealism andaestheticinspiration. Thephrase“mediumaevum” wascoinedduringtheearly 17thcenturybyFrenchand Englishhistoriansof jurisprudence,andits vernacularequivalents, “moyenage,”“MiddleAges” and“medieval,”were adoptedsubsequently.These authorsalsopopularizedthe notionthat“feudalism”— anotherwordtheyinvented— wastheuniversalformof sociallifeinwesternEurope bythe11thcenturyandthatit lastedforatleastanother300 years.Thetermsfeudum(or “fief”)andfeodalitas (servicesconnectedwiththe feudum)refertoaformof propertyholdingwhichwas especiallycommoninFrance andEngland.Butthewayin whichEuropeansocieties changedinthepost-Roman andmedievalcenturies inevitablyassumedmany differentguises,andan uniform“feudalsystem”did notexistatanystageinthe historyofmedievalEurope. Anassertionoflordship howeverdidbecome widespreadanditsexercise showedhowpoweratlocal, regionalandnationallevels couldbeestablishedbya mutualexchangeofvows betweensuperiorsand inferiors.Obligationsof servicemightthenbe incurredbythosesometimes called“vassals”andpromises ofprotectionwouldbemade bytherelevantlord. Duringthe14thcentury Europeanshadtocopewitha seriesofbothnaturaland man-madedisasters: widespreadfamines,the BlackDeathof1348and subsequentyears,aswellas themid-centurycollapseof Italianbanks.Technological changemeantthatwarfare becamebothmoreexpensive financiallyandincreasingly devastatinginitshuman impact.Expansionand developmenthaltedinboth thetownsandthe countryside,andEurope’s population,whichhadstood atsome70millionin1300, wasalmosthalved.European resilienceisnonethelessthe keyfeatureofthisrenewed timeoftrialwithfirstthe ruralareasandthentheurban centersbeingrapidly repopulated.Theintellectual, politicalandsocialchanges associatedwithaninitially Italianrenaissanceevolved outoflatemedievalsociety, andareinconceivableoutside thatcontext.Personal enterprise,intellectual curiosity,andinstitutional responsivenesstochange: thesedefiningcharacteristics ofEuropeancivilizationwere formedduringthemedieval centuriesanditwasthat legacyfromitspastwhich enabledtheculturetosurvive, evolveandflourish. HywelWilliams THEOTTONIAN DYNASTYOF SAXON EMPERORS 919–1024 ThecreationoftheGerman people’sfirstreichdominates thehistoryoftenth-century Europe.Charlemagne,king oftheFranks,revivedthe imperialtitleforthefirsttime sincethecollapseofthe WesternRomanempireinthe fifthcentury,andon ChristmasDay800hewas crownedemperorbythepope inRome.However,his dynasticsuccessorsfailedto maintaintheempire’s territorialunity.Byc.900the ancestralcoreof Charlemagne’sempirehad beensplitintoakingdomof theEasternFranks, correspondingtomuchof modernGermany,anda kingdomoftheWestern Franks,whoseboundaries anticipatedthoseofFrance. TheduchyofSaxonybecame theeasternkingdom’spower base. TheSaxonshadbeen tenaciouslypaganbefore Charlemagneconqueredthem inaseriesoffiercelateeighth-centurymilitary campaigns.Nowathoroughly Christianizedterritory,the duchyofSaxonywaskeyto Germany’sevolutionintoa powerthatembracedancient Romannotionsofempireand wasthedominantpartnerin itsalliancewiththepapacy. Atthebeginningofthetenth centuryEuropewasstill threatenedfromthenorthby theVikings,andthedanger ofinvasionfromtheeastby theMagyars,apaganand nomadicwarriorrace,posed majorchallengesuntilthe 950s.However,thearmiesof theGermanreich,latertobe termedtheHolyRoman Empire,heldthelineagainst thesethreatsandsetthescene fortheevolutionofmedieval Europeancivilization. In919HenryI,dukeof Saxonyandfounderofthe Ottoniandynasty,waselected “kingoftheGermans”byan assemblyofaristocrats meetingatFritzlar.The EasternFrankishduchiesof Franconia,Swabia,Bavaria andLotharingiasoon acknowledgedhiskingship. Henry’sheirswouldruleas hislinealsuccessors,andthe practiceofelectiontothe throne,althoughretained, becameaformality.Thenew king,dubbed“theFowler” becauseofhisfondnessfor huntingwildbirds,subdued theDanishVikings,andin 924heagreedaten-yeartruce withtheMagyarswhomhe thendefeatedattheBattleof Riadein933.Henry’srefusal tobemadekingwasamajor breakwiththetraditionsof “sacralkingship.”Buthewas determinedtoexercisepower onhisowntermsandtoavoid anysuggestionof indebtednesstotheChurch. However,Henry’sson,OttoI (“theGreat”),chosetobe anointedandconsecrateda kingwhenhewascrownedat Aachen’sPalatineChapelin 936.Thebishopsandabbots oftheGermankingdom becamehisvassals,andthese royalappointeesidentified stronglywithOtto’ssystem ofgovernmentandsupported theconsolidationofhis commandoveranoften fractiousnobility.This Germanreichskircheor imperialchurchwasalso instrumentalintheeastward expansionoftheOttonian dynasty.Theseesestablished inPoland,Bohemia,Moravia andHungaryoperatedas outpostsoftheecclesiastical centersatMainzand Magdeburg,Salzburgand Passau,andthenew bishopricswerepivotalin tryingtoimposeGerman cultureandenforcepolitical assimilationontheconquered Slavicpeoples.Thescaleof newbuildingprojects, togetherwiththedemandsfor militaryhardware,madethis anexpensivepolicy,butthe discoveryofsilverin Saxony’sHarzregionduring theearlytenthcenturyhad enrichedtheOttoniankings andhelpedtosubsidizetheir imperialventures. RIGHTA1903German mosaicofOttoI(“the Great”),whowascrowned anemperorbythepopein 962. CAMPAIGNSINTHE SOUTHANDEAST Otto’sambitionsextended southaswellaseast.In950 helaunchedamajor campaignacrosstheAlpsin supportofQueenAdelheidof Italywhowasbeing threatenedbytherebellionof Berengar,margraveofIvrea inthepeninsula’snorthwest. SuccessinbattleledtoOtto’s recognitionas“kingofthe Lombards”bytheItalian nobility.Thedecisivedefeat heinflictedontheMagyarsat theBattleoftheLechfeldon August10,955entrenched hisauthorityovertheGerman aristocracy.Theking’swar machinegainedanother crushingvictoryonOctober 16,955whenitdefeatedthe Obodrites,aSlavictribe establishedintheregionof MecklenburgontheBaltic coast.Thisgavethekingdom a30-yearperiodofpeaceon itseasternfrontier,during whichtimeatightsystemof lordshipwasimposedonthe SlavsbytheirGermanrulers. BELOWApenandwatercolor manuscriptillustration (c.1450)fromtheworkshop ofDieboldLaubershows EmperorOttoImeetingPope JohnXII. Berengarremainedambitious andinc.960heoccupiedthe papalstatesofcentralItaly. Ottorespondedbymarching hisarmyintoRometo safeguardthepositionofthe youngpope,JohnXII,who, onFebruary2,962,crowned theGermankinganemperor. TheDiplomataOttonianum, animperial-papalagreement issuedlaterthatsamemonth, gaveOttotherighttoconfirm electionstothepapacy.Pope Johnswiftlyrepentedofthis one-sidedpact,andafter makingpeaceoverturesto Berengarhewasdeposedin 963bytheChurchcouncil summonedbytheemperor. Fortheremainderofhisreign Ottowaspreoccupiedwith theItaliansouth,wherea numberoflocalprinces retainedtheirLombard identityasdescendantsofthe Germanictribethathad invadedtheregioninthe seventhcentury.Pandulf Ironhead,princeof BeneventoandCapua,was onesuchruler,andOtto enlistedhimashisallyinthe campaigntoexpelthe Byzantinesfromthe peninsula’ssouth.Ottoalso engineeredPandulf’s successionasprinceof Salernoandgrantedhimthe duchyofSpoleto,afiefdom (theterritorialdomainofa feudallord)whoseterritories extendedtotheeastofthe papalstates.AmajorantiByzantinepowerblockwas therebycreatedasthenew Germanreichconfrontedthe Greekempire. THEOTTONIAN DYNASTY 800Charlemagne,kingofthe FranksandoftheLombards, iscrownedemperorbyPope LeoIIIonChristmasDay. 919HenryI(“theFowler”), dukeofSaxony,iselected kingoftheGermans. 933KingHenryIdefeatsthe MagyarsattheBattleof Riade. 936OttoI(“theGreat”), foundsQuedlinburgAbbey. 962OttoIiscrowned emperorbyPopeJohnXII. 982ThearmyofArabSicily defeatsOttoII’sforcesatthe BattleofStilo,Calabria.A rebellionofSlavictribes settledbetweentheOderand ElbeendangerstheGerman kingdom’seasternfrontier. 996OttoIII,Germanking andemperor,beginstorulein hisownright. c.1000CoronationofStephen I,Hungary’sfirstking,asa Christianmonarch. 1002DukeHenryofBavaria iselectedkingofthe GermansandreignsasHenry II. 1004HenryIIdefeatsArduin, MargraveofIvrea,whohas proclaimedhimself“kingof Italy.” 1024HenryII,thelastSaxon emperor,dies. MAINTAININGOTTO’S DYNASTY Otto’sdynasticambitions wereendorsedwhenan assembly,meetinginWorms in961,electedhissonkingof theGermans.ThefutureOtto IIwascrownedjoint-emperor withhisfatherbythepope sixyearslaterandwas thoroughlytrainedinthe businessofimperialwarand government.Hisfirstmajor challengecamein978when Lothair,kingofWest Francia,launchedaninvasion andoccupiedAachen.Otto retaliatedintheautumnby leadinghisarmyoverthe frontierandinflictingheavy lossesontheenemy.Apeace agreementwasarrivedatin 980,andwithhiswestern boundariessecuredOtto couldplananItalian campaign.Hecrossedthe Alpswithhisarmy,andon EasterDay981,accompanied byaretinueofcourtiersand seniorchurchmen,Otto enteredRome.Herehehelda magnificentcourtattendedby noblesdrawnfromacrossthe imperialterritories.Otto’s ambitions,however,lay furthersouth. DEFEATEDBYTHE ARABS TheArabpiratesknownas Saracensoperatedfrombases onthenorthAfricancoast, andtheyhadbeendisrupting theMediterraneansealanes foroveracentury.An alliancewithArab-ruled Sicilywasnowenablingthe Saracenstoattackthe southernItalianregionsof PugliaandCalabria,andthe Germanarmyadvancedfrom Romebentonconfrontation. PandulfIronhead’sheirshad fallenoutwitheachother,but Ottomanagedtosecuretheir recognitionofhisimperial authorityandproceededto annexPuglia—aregionstill controlledbytheByzantines. Militarycatastrophe followed.InJuly982,atStilo inCalabria,Otto’sarmywas destroyedbytheArabarmy ofSicilywhoseemir,AbualKasim,haddeclaredajihad orholywaragainstthe Germans.Theemperor managedtoescapeincognito onaGreekshipandreturnto Rome.Atanimperial assemblyheldinVeronahe securedrecognitionofhis infantsonaskingofthe Germans,andthenstartedto planaresumptionofthe southerncampaign. Emboldenedbythenewsof imperialdefeat,theSlavic tribessettledbetweenthe ElbeandtheOderon Germany’seasternfrontier nowseizedthechanceto rebel.Thismassiveand prolongedinsurrectionwasa majorsetbackfortheempire, anditsactiveeastward expansionwouldnotbe resumeduntilthe12th century.Ottolearnedofthe rebellionjustbeforehisdeath inRomeinDecember983— andtheeventwastohave long-termramificationsfor histhree-year-oldheir,Otto III. OTTOIII—AN ENLIGHTENEDAND PRAGMATICRULER AssoonasOttoIIIstartedto reignin996hedemonstrated adeepconvictionthatEurope formedaunityandthatthe strengthofhisreichshould thereforelieinits acknowledgmentofdiversity ratherthanintheimposition ofarigiduniformity.His keensenseofacommon Europeanculturewas reflectedinhisvenerationfor Charlemagne’smemory,and italsoowedmuchtohis Greekmother,Theophanu. TheemperormadeRomehis capital,andPopeSylvesterII, hisformertutortheFrench intellectualGerbertof Aurillac,becameareliable allyintheprocessof reformingthenotoriously nepotisticlate-tenth-century Church. Ottograspedthathis forebears’easternambitions werebeyondtheresourcesof hisempire’sGermancore.He alsothoughtitstrategically foolish,sincethesubjugated buthostilepeoplesmightwell turntoByzantiumfor support.Hetherefore developedafederalpolicyfor theeasternterritories.The rulersoftheselandswerestill expectedtohonorthe imperialtitle,buttheynow enjoyedaninternalautonomy withinalooserstructurethan OttoI’stightmodelof subjugation.InPoland, therefore,Ottocreatedan autonomousarchbishopricat Gnieznoaswellasitsthree suffraganseesatKolberg, CracowandBreslau,andhe alsoremittedthetribute paymentspreviouslymadeby Polishrulerstotheemperors. Thesechangesdemonstrated tothePolesthattheycould remainpartofthereligious communityoftheLatinWest withoutalsohavingto becomeculturallyGerman. Hungary’sruler,Stephen, wasdeeplyinfluencedbythis exampleand,encouragedby Otto,heoptedforloyaltyto theseeofRomewhenitcame totheChristianizationofhis recentlypagancountry. Accordingly,hewascrowned inaboutDecember1000as StephenI,thefirstkingof Hungary,withacrownsent himbythepope. OTTONIANRULERS919– 1024 HENRYI [“theFowler”] (876–936) r.919–36 OTTOI [“theGreat”] (912–73) r.936–73 OTTOII (955–83) r.973–83 OTTOIII (980–1002) r.983–1002 HENRYII (973–1024) r.1002–24 OttoIIIdiedin1002after contractingmalariainthe marshesnearRavenna. Followinghisdeathvarious factionssupportedrival candidatesforthesuccession. Theyear1002wasmarkedby violentdisputesamongthe imperialnobility,butthe dynasticprinciplewonthe dayasthebestguarantorof order.ThusitwasthatHenry, dukeofBavaria,adirect descendantofHenrythe Fowler,waselectedtorule. HenryIIhadathoroughly Ottonianviewofthe Church’srole:hewisheditto bepowerful,andheexpected ittousethatmightinsupport oftheempire.Likehis predecessors,Henryruled throughthebishops,whichis whyheopposedthemonastic clergy’sattemptstoestablish theirownjurisdiction independentofthe episcopate.Henrywasa genuineChurchreformer,but hisinitiativesalsosuitedhis owngoalsasastrong territorialruler.The impositionofclerical celibacy,forexample,meant thatthepowerfulclergyhad nochancetocreatetheirown familydynasties. FURTHERINSURGENCY INITALY HenrywasattractedtoItaly forthesamereasonsashis predecessors:theprestigeof anassociationwithRoman antiquity,thepowerthat camewiththeroleof protectoroftheChurchand theopportunitytofightthe peninsula’sdissident aristocrats.Thelatestofthese rebelswasArduinwho,like theequallytroublesome Berengarhalfacentury earlier,wasmargraveof Ivrea.Arduinhadseizedthe opportunitypresentedbyOtto III’sdeathand,likehis predecessor,proclaimed himselfkingofItaly.Henry’s armymarchedintoItalyin thespringof1004and crushedthemargrave’sforces atabattlefoughtnear Verona.Henrythenmarched ontoPavia,wherehewas crownedkingofthe Lombards.Hethenproceeded toburnmostofPaviatothe groundaspunishmentforits pastsupportforArduin. Itwasnecessarytoembarkon asecondItaliancampaignin 1013asaresultofArduin’s renewedmilitaryactivities.In thefollowingyearPope BenedictVIII,animperial allyintheprojectofChurch renewal,crownedHenry emperor.Henry’sthird,and mostambitious,Italian expeditionwastheresultofa directappealfromthepope, whofearedthatLombard rulersinthesouthwere flirtingwithByzantium. Henrydispatchedthree armiestothesouthin1022in ordertoasserthissovereignty overthewholeofItaly.He alsotookpersonalchargeof thesiegeofTroia,afortress onPuglia’snorthern boundary. Thefailureofthesiegewasa significantsetback,butthe submissionoftherulersof CapuaandSalerno demonstratedtheempire’s continuingabilitytoenforce itsauthoritydespitethe dauntingtaskofwagingsuch long-distancewars.Henry diedshortlyafterwardin 1024and,sincehehadno heirs,thelineofSaxon emperorslapsedwithhim. TheOttoniancenturywas over.TheGermanempire’s involvementwithItaly would,however,bethe centraldramaofEuropean warfareandpoliticsforthe nextthreecenturies. ABOVEAnink-on-vellum illustrationfromtheLiuthar Gospels(c.1000)ofOttoIII enthroned. THEOTTONIAN ARTISTICLEGACY TheOttonianrulers’artistic patronagewasdirected towardprojectsthatwould illustrateandreinforcetheir imperialideology.Religious foundations,suchasthe AbbeyofCorveyin Westphaliaandthe monasteryofReichenauon LakeConstance,benefited fromdirectroyal sponsorship,andthe illuminatedmanuscripts producedbytheirscriptoria containmagnificent representationsofthe emperorsbeingcrownedby Christ. ThestyleofOttonian manuscriptsbuiltonthe earlierCarolingian renaissance,anartisticand literarymovementwhich oweditsoriginsto Charlemagne’spatronage. Ottonianartnevertheless containeditsowndistinctive motifs,oftenreflecting Byzantineinfluences. Itinerancywasanintegral partofOttoniangovernment, andtherulershadnofixed capital.Theirpowerwas exercisedinsteadatanumber ofroyalresidences,episcopal citiesandreligious communities,andthe journeystheymadebetween thesecenterswerepublic demonstrationsofregal authority.Assemblies,legal proceedingsandpublic ceremonialswereheldat thesebuildingswhilethe kingswereinresidenceand, oftendesignedinthe Romanesquestyle,their architecturereflectedthe Ottoniangrandeur.Thisis particularlytrueofthegreat abbeyfoundedat QuedlinburgbyOttothe Greatin936tohonorhis father’smemory.Theabbey washometoacommunity consistingoftheunmarried daughtersofthehigher nobility,anditwasherethat theQuedlinburgAnnalswere compiledintheearly11th century.TheAnnalsprovide anaccountofthereignsof OttoIIIandHenryII,andthe authormaywellhavebeena canonessofthecommunity. Thepoetandplaywright Hroswitha(c.935–1002)was amajorfigureintheOttonian renaissance,andshespent mostofherlifeasamember ofanotherreligious communityinSaxony,the Benedictineabbeyat Gandersheim.Shewrotea seriesofproseromancesas wellassixcomediesbasedon theworkoftheLatinpoet Terence.Evenawriteras imaginativeasHroswitha couldnotescapethe contemporaryimpactof Ottonianpolitics,though,as isshownbyherverseeulogy ofOttoIandhis achievements. QuedlinburgAbbey, Germany,foundedbyOtto theGreatin936. THERISEOFTHE CAPETIANS 987–1179 ThekingdomoftheWestern Frankswascreatedbythe TreatyofVerdunin843,and membersoftheCarolingian dynastyreignedwithinthat territoryuntilthelatetenth century.Asanointedkings, theirauthority,likethatof theirCapetiansuccessors, hadasacramentalquality thatwasacknowledgedbythe princeswhoruledin significantcentersofpower suchasNormandy, Burgundy,Anjou,Poitouand Toulouse.Aquitaine, however,hadceasedtobe partoftheWestFrankish kingdomintheearlytenth century,andBrittanywas entirelyindependent. CapetianandCarolingian rulersconcededthenobility’s righttoruntheirown territoriesinreturnfor loyaltyandmilitary assistancewhenneeded. Despitetheseagreements betweenkingsandnobles, disputesconcerninglandand influencenonetheless recurredbetweenthe monarchyandtheeffectively independentdynasts.Asa result,thekings’unfettered authoritywasconfinedto theirpersonalfiefdomor “demesne”intheÎle-deFrance,anareaofthemiddle SeinecenteredonParisand BourgeswheretheCapetians actuallyownedland.The primacyaccordedthesereges Francorumwastherefore oftenmerelyceremonial,and untilthe13thcentury—when thetitle“kingofFrance”was firstused—theystruggledto assertthemselves. TheCapetianmonarchy eventuallypersuadedthe nobilitythatsolidaritywith theCrownwasintheirown bestinterests,andamore cohesivegoverningélite emergedasaresult.Butthe evolutionofawidespread nationalidentitywasavery long-termdevelopmentin medievalFrance,asinother partsofcontinentalEurope. Theloyaltiesandidentitiesof thegreatmassofthe populationwerelocaland particularratherthangeneral anduniform.Linguistic profusionemphasizedfurther thepluralityofcultureswhich barelycommunicatedwith eachother.Ifthenorthwas thelandofthelangued’oilit wasthelangued’octhat predominatedinthesouth, andoutofthesetwobroad linguisticgroupsthere emergedseveraldistinctive dialects,suchasNormanand Burgundian,Provençaland Languedocien.“Middle French”alsoexistedbythe 14thcentury,butthis standardizedlanguagemade fewinroadsinthesouth. RIGHTTheGrandes ChroniquesdeFrance,a richlyilluminatedsequenceof manuscriptsthatrelatethe historyoftheFrench monarchy,werecompiled between1274and1461.This detailfromtheChroniques, datedc.1335/40,showsHugh CapetatthecouncilofSt. Basle,heldnearRheimsin 991. THERISEOFTHE CAPETIANS 843TheTreatyofVerdun dividesCharlemagne’s formerempireintothree kingdoms:EastandWest Franciaareseparatedbya “middlekingdom”extending fromtheNorthSeatonorth Italy. 987Hugh“Capet,”founder oftheCapetiandynasty,is electedkingofWestFrancia. 1108AccessionofLouisVI totheFrenchthrone.He reassertsrightsoflordship overlandswithinthe Capetianroyaldemesnein theÎle-de-France. 1124LouisVIleadshisarmy toavictoryovertheforces commandedbytheGerman emperorHenryV. 1130sTeachersandstudents areestablishedintheareaof Parisianareaknownasthe LatinQuarter.AbbéSuger becomestheFrench monarchy’schiefadviser. 1148TheSecondCrusadeis abandoned;LouisVII’s participationundermines Capetianroyalfinances. 1152Themarriageof Eleanor,duchessof Aquitaine,andLouisVIIof Franceisannulled.She marriesHenry,countof Anjou,anddukeof Normandy,whosucceedsto theEnglishthronein1154as HenryII. 1180AccessionofKing PhilipIIAugustus. HUGH—CLAIMANTTO THETHRONE TheCarolingiansuccession hadbeenusurpedontwo occasionsbeforethereignof LouisV,thelastmemberof hisfamilytoruleinWest Francia,withOdoofParis andRobertI—bothmembers oftheRobertinedynasty— reigningaskingsin888–98 and922–23respectively. Hugh,thedukeoftheFranks, belongedtothesamefamily, andhisfatherRobertthe Greathadbeenguardianof LothairIV’sestatesduring theking’sminority. Surnameshadyettobe establishedasageneral conventionintenth-century Europe,andHugh“Capet” owedhisnicknametothe headshiporauthorityhe enjoyedamongthenobility whoelectedhimtosucceed LouisVinJune987.That prestigecametosignifythe startofanewphaseinthe historyofkingshipinWest Francia,andtheCapetian dynastywouldgoonto acclaimHughasits eponymousfounder. Hugh’sclaimtothethrone wassupportedbyhiscousin OttoII.Thatfamily connectionhaddeeproots, sincetheCapetians’ Robertineancestorshad originallybeenmembersof theEastFrankishnobility beforeestablishing themselvesinWestFrancia bythemid-ninthcentury.As crownedRomanemperors, theOttoniandynastycould nominateWestFrancia’s seniorclergy,andthese placemenenforcedtheir patrons’policybyrefusingto backthelaterCarolingian rulersofthewestern kingdom.Adalberon,the archbishopofRheims,was onesuchnomineeandhis supportforHughCapethad beencrucialattheassembly of987.AlthoughCharlesof Lorraine—KingLothair’s youngerbrother—hada legitimateCarolingianclaim tosucceedthechildlessLouis V,itwasnotdifficulttofind reasonswhyheshouldbe deniedacrown.Hehad falselyaccusedLothair’s queenofinfidelitywiththe bishopofLaon,andafter beingdrivenfromthe kingdomhepaidhomageto OttoIIwhomadehimduke oflowerLorrainein977.In theautumnof978an invasionforceledbyOtto andCharlescompelled LothairtoretreattoParis wherehewasbesiegeduntil HughCapet’sarmystepped inanddrovetheinvaders backacrossthefrontier. Charles’sambitionsdidnot ceaseonHughCapet’s accessiontothethrone, however,andhemanagedto takebothRheimsandLaon beforehewasseizedinthe springof991,afterwhichhe diedincaptivity. Hugh’sdeterminationto secureadynasticsuccession meantthatRobertII(“the Pious”)waselectedking duringhisfather’slifetime. Buthehadarguedthatthe successionneededtobe establishedbecausehewas planningacampaignagainst theArabforcesthatwere threateningBorrelII,the countofBarcelona.Hugh maywellhaveseenan opportunityhereforan extensionofhispower,but thenobilityrefusedtosupport himandthemilitary offensivenevermaterialized. Suchaninabilitytoenforce theroyalwillillustratesthe reallimitstoHugh’spower, aswellasexplainingthe king’sanxiouseagernessto gethissonconfirmedashis successor. ANUNEASYPEACE In1023RobertIIandthe GermanemperorHenryII arrivedatalandmark decision:theyresolvednotto pursueclaimstoeachother’s territories.Althoughan agreedboundarybetweenthe Frenchkingdomandthe Germanempirewasnowin place,thisearlyphaseof Capetianhistoryremained oneofdynasticinsecurity. Possessedofsofewlandsof hisown,Robertpursuedhis rightstoanyfeudalterritories thatbecamevacant.However, thefactthatthesewere invariablyalsocontestedby otherclaimantsembroiled himinnumerousmilitary campaigns.Hetriedtoinvade Burgundyin1003,butittook another13yearsbeforethe Churchrecognizedhistitleas theduchy’sruler. Furthermore,thecivilwars wagedagainsthimbyhis ownsons—HughMagnus, HenryandRobert—were prolongedandbitterstruggles centeredoninheritance rights.Thedynasticstyle meantthatHughMagnuswas crownedakinginhisfather’s lifetime,andfrom1017 onwardhewasco-ruler.But althoughearmarkedforgreat things,herebelledagainst RobertIIandafterhisearly deathin1025thetwo survivingbrotherscontinued withthecampaign.When Henrysucceededtothe throne,Robertmaintainedhis dissidenceuntilhewasgiven thedukedomofBurgundy.In anagethatwasaccustomed toviolenceRobertIof Burgundyremainednotable forhisuncontrollable behavior.Hesetasidehis wifeHelieofSemurin c.1046andthenkilledher father—havingalready arrangedforherbrother’s murder. Thequestionofhowtodeal withtheincreasingly powerfulduchyofNormandy preoccupiedbothHenryIand histwoimmediate successors.Henryhadhelped DukeWilliamtoasserthis authorityinternallyin1047, whenhewasthreatenedby rebelvassals.However, William’smarriageto Matilda,daughterofthe countofFlanders,threatened theFrenchCrownwitha pincer-likealliance,andthe twomilitarycampaignsthat Henrylaunchedin1054and 1057soughttosubjugatethe duchy.Theseendedinan unsurprisingfailure,and PhilipIreconciledhimselfto therealityofNormanpower bymakingpeace.Thereign ofLouisVIneverthelesssaw aresumptionoftheFrancoNormanconflictanda dramaticimprovementinthe fortunesofFrenchmonarchy, alongwithavigorous assertionofroyalrights. CAROLINGIANKINGSOF WESTFRANCIA954–87 LOTHAIRIV (941–86) r.954–86 LOUISV (967–87) r.986–87 THERESTORATIONOF ORDERINTHEÎLE-DE- FRANCE Bytheendofthe11th centurylargeareasofthe CapetiandemesneintheÎlede-Francewerecontrolledby feudallordswhoignored theirdutiesofvassalageand exercisedanindependent powerbyillegalandviolent means.Althoughthemilitary campaignsfoughtbyLouis onhisownlandslastedsome quarterofacentury,hehad succeededinreassertinghis feudalrightsbythe1130s, andorderlygovernmentwas restoredintheroyaldemesne. Louis’sforeignpolicywas justasstrenuous,andherehe couldtakeadvantageofa splitwithintheNormanélite whenWilliamClito,theson ofRobertCurthose,dukeof Normandy,rebelledagainst hisuncleHenryIandsought toreplacehimasrulerofboth EnglandandNormandy.In 1124Louis’sarmyandits allieswonagreatvictory overtheforcesofHenryV— theGermankingandemperor whohadbeenpersuadedby HenryIthatheshould attemptaninvasionof France.Thismartialsuccess recalledHughCapet’s prestigeandearnedLouishis acclamationasthesecond founderofhisdynasty’s authority. ABOVETheBattleofVal-èsDunes,inwhichHenryIand DukeWilliamquelleda Normanrebellionin1047,is depictedinthissection (c.1335/1340)fromthe GrandesChroniquesde France(1274–1461). Anarrangedmarriage betweenLouis’sinfantson andEleanorofAquitaine meantthattheFrenchCrown was,forawhile,reunited withtheduchyofthe southwest.Thatunion nonethelessprovedtobeone ofhistory’smostsignificant mésalliancesbecause, followingherdivorce, EleanormarriedHenry,count ofAnjou(whowasalso Normandy’sduke,following hisfatherGeoffrey’s conquestoftheduchyin 1144).Henry’saccessionto thethroneofEnglandas HenryIIthereforecreatedthe vastpowerblockofthe Angevinempire.Intheory, HenryheldNormandyand Anjouasavassalofthe Frenchmonarchyand,since hehadmarriedEleanor withoutseekinghissuzerain’s permission,Louisdeclared waronhim.Subsequent defeatsshowedhowmuch greaterweretheresources availabletoHenry,butif Louiscouldnotcompetein thatparticulartheaterofwar hispro-papalpoliciesgave himamorepositiveroleon theEuropeanstage.Atthe startofhisreignhehad rejectedthepapalnomineeto thearchbishopricofBourges, andLouis’sterritorieshad thereforebeenplacedfora whileunderapapalinterdict. Hisinterventioninthegreat quarrelbetweenPope AlexanderIIandtheGerman emperorFrederickI Barbarossanonetheless showedthedepthofLouis’s attachmenttothepapalcause. Alexanderhadbeenelected popebyamajorityofthe CollegeofCardinals,butthe minoritywhosupported CardinalOctavianbroke awayandelectedhimasPope VictorIV.Thisanti-popeand histwosuccessorsenjoyed Barbarossa’ssupport,andthe yearsofAlexanderIII’sexile in1162–65werespentin Francewhereheenjoyed Louis’swarmsupport.The alliancebetweentheChurch andtheFrenchCrown deepenedasaresult,andthe strongidentificationofthe Frenchclergywiththe monarchygaveLouisachain ofcommandthatenabledhis willtobeimposedinareas farfromthecoreroyal demesne CHRONICLINGATIME OFCHANGE ThefactthatbothLouisVI andLouisVIIsurviveinthe documentaryrecordsasreal personalitiesowesmuchto thepenoftheAbbéSugerof Saint-Denis(c.1081–1151), whowasasignificantcourtier bythelate1120sandthe monarchy’schiefadviser fromthemid-1130suntilhis death.Hewroteahistoryof LouisVII’sreignaswellasa detailedaccountofthe governmentalmachinery,and theseworksinturninspired themonksofSaint-Denisto embarkonthechroniclesthat giveaquasi-officialaccount ofthedevelopmentofthe Frenchnationalmonarchy duringthe12thcentury.The challengesfacingthekings remainedenormous,and LouisVII’sparticipationin thefiascooftheSecond Crusade,whichhadtobe abandonedin1148, underminedtheroyal finances.Butinotherrespects therewasarealchangeof gear,withthecityofParis evolvingbothculturallyand economically.The commercialquarterknownas LesHallesstartedtooperate ontherightbankoftheSeine duringLouisVI’sreign.The marshesontheleftbankwere drained,andthisareabecame theheartofacelebrated academicquartier. Theproblemofthe successionhadlong tormentedLouisVIIina mannerentirelytypicalofhis Capetianforebears.Eleanor hadbornhimtwodaughters, asdidhissecondwife ConstanceofCastile.Itwas histhirdwife,Adeleof Champagne,whogavehim thesonandheirthathe craved,however.In1179, duringthelastyearofhis father’slife,PhilipII Augustuswascrownedat Rheimsinaceremonywhose precautionarynaturewould havebeenwellunderstoodby HughCapet. THEEARLYCAPETIAN DYNASTY987–1223 HUGHCAPET (c.940–96) r.987–96 ROBERTII [“thePious”] (972–1031) r.996–1031 HENRYI (1008–60) r.1031–60 PHILIPI (1052–1108) r.1060–1108 LOUISVI (1081–1137) r.1108–37 LOUISVII (1120–80) r.1137–80 PHILIPIIAUGUSTUS (1165–1223) r.1180–1223 GOTHICFRENCH ARCHITECTURE TheabbeyofSaint-Deniswas aMerovingianfoundation, anditwasthereforealready ancientwhenSugerdecided thattheRomanesque structurehadtoberebuilt. Sugerwasthefirstofthe ecclesiasticalstatesmenwho rosetogreatnessinthe serviceoftheFrenchCrown. Duringthefiveyears followinghiselectionas abbotin1122Sugerdevoted mostofhistimetothe administrationofSaint-Denis, andtheextensiveaccounthe wroteofthebuildingproject alsoplacestheabbeyinits historicalcontext.Asacenter oflearning,aroyalnecropolis andceremonialsetting,the abbeyhadreflectedthe policiesandsupportedthe interestsofsuccessivereges Francorum.IfSaint-Denis wastoremainrelevantatthe highestlevelsofgovernment itneededtohavea contemporarylook,andfor Sugerthatinevitablymeant adoptingtheGothicstyle. Sugerwasalsoaloyalservant tothemonarchyandhiswork atSaint-Denishadaims similartothoseof contemporaryFrench kingship:inbothcasesthe institution’spastwasbeing repackagedinordertosecure itsplaceinthefuture.Bythis timetheprinciplesofGothic architecturetypifiedby soaringspires,loftyribvaults andpointedarcheswere beingadoptedbymanyof northernFrance’s ecclesiasticalfoundations, andSaint-Deniswouldjoin theranksoftheGothic masterpieceserectedin Chartres,Laon,Bourgesand Rheims.Gothicarchitecture’s realizationinvolvedcomplex buildingplans,material wealthandawell-organized laborforce,andthebuilding projectsreflectedtheselfbeliefoftheecclesiasticaland courtlyélitewhowerein overallcharge.Thefactthat 12th-centurysummerswere alsoprovingtobeunusually longandwarmwasanadded bonus,andasaresultthe masonswholaboredonsite hadmoretimetogetthework done.ThebuildingofNotre DameontheÎledelaCité fromc.1163onwardwasa particularlyspectacular exampleoftheorganizational capacityandself-confidence oftheFrenchmonarchy. MauricedeSullywasthe bishopwhooversawthe work’sinitialphaseandhe alsostartedthebuildingof theHôtelDieu,ahospitalthat stoodadjacenttoNotre Dame. TheGothicclerestoryofthe BasilicaofSaint-Denis,in Paris,foundedbythe MerovingianKing,Dagobert I,intheseventhcentury,and burialplaceofsuccessive Frenchmonarchs. THENORMANSIN ENGLAND 1066–1135 TheNormanconquestofthe Englishpeopleisanevent withoutparallelinboththe historyofEnglandandof medievalEuropeasawhole. Nomorethan10,000knights —perhapsevenasfewas 5000ofthem—enforceda policyofmilitarysubjugation andwholesaleexpropriation oflandintheformerAngloSaxonkingdomduringthe generationthatfollowedthe BattleofHastingsin1066, withtheleadersofthenative populationbeingexcluded frompublicofficebecauseof theirethnicity.Oftenbrutal, theconquestofEnglandby theNormanswasalso efficientandwide-ranging, changingforeverthesystems ofgovernment,social structureandculture. TheAnglo-Saxonkingdom hadbeenoneofthegloriesof Europe’sChristian civilization.WhentheViking ancestorsoftheNormans werestartingtopenetratethe lowerSeinevalleyinc.900, Anglo-Saxonculturewas alreadyancient.Itsleaders couldcountamongtheir ancestorsroyalsaintsand martyrswhowerevenerated acrossthecontinent,and whosewitnesstestifiedtothe sacrednatureoftheauthority thatemanatedfromEngland’s throne.Neighboringpowers admiredtheroyalhouseof Wessex,England’sreigning dynastysincethelateninth century,andmarveledatthe efficiencyofthetaxcollectingbureaucracythat enrichedEnglishkings. Eleventh-centuryEurope suppliedabundantexamples ofnativepopulations subjectedtothecrueltyand violenceofaconquering invader.Buttheywereall pagans,whereastheAngloSaxonssharedwiththe NormanstheChristianfaith. WhathappenedinEngland duringthesecondhalfofthe 11thcenturywastherefore unprecedented,sinceittook placewithinChristendom. Contemporariesnotedthis fact,andtherewerealso papalprotests.Butalltono avail.Howandwhy, therefore,didtheNormans getawaywithit? THEADAPTABLE NORMANS ItwastheFrankswhogave theNordmannitheirfirst opportunitybycedingthem landsaroundthemouthofthe Seineinc.911.Fromthisbase theyextendedtheirgrip westwardto“Normandy,” whichsoonbecameoneof themosttightlycontrolled feudalstatesinEurope. ConversiontoChristianity andadoptionofcavalry warfaredidnotremovethe piraticalrestlessnessthat formedpartoftheNormans’ Scandinavianinheritance. TheNormanreadinessto learn,adaptandassimilate gavethemaswiftcommand overconqueredterritories. Theirevolutionofthemotteand-baileycastle,amound surroundedbyaditched enclosure,invariablymarked theNormans’implacable territorialpenetration.Their championingofreligious orthodoxywastypically authoritarian,buttheir supportforBenedictine monasticism,especiallythe foundationsatBecandCaen, turnedNormandyintoa pioneeringcenterof11thcenturyscholarship. ABOVEAdetailoftheBayeux TapestrydepictingHarold, kingofEngland,beinghitin theeyebyanarrowatthe BattleofHastingsin1066. THEINVASION’S ORIGINS NormaninterestinEngland datedbackto1002,when EthelredIImarriedEmma, thedaughterofNormandy’s DukeRichard.But contemporaryScandinavia hadalongertraditionof pursuingambitionsin England.AlfredtheGreat, kingofWessex,had containedtheDanishViking raidersandthenconsolidated hisauthorityasrulerright acrosstheEnglishsouthand west.Acenturylater, however,theDanesresumed theiroffensive,andthe DanishKingCnutbecame kingofEnglandafter Ethelred’sdeathin1016. English,Normanand Scandinavianpositioning ensued.Cnut’smarriageto thewidowedEmmasolidified hispowerbase,buttheirson Harthacnutdiedafterabrief reign.EthelredandEmma’s sonEdwardhadspentlong yearsinexileafterjoininghis maternalrelativesin Normandy.Hisaccessionto theEnglishthronein1042 restoredthelineofAngloSaxonkings,albeitwitha Normanslant,andEdward “theConfessor”proveda goodpatrontothemany Normanclergy,soldiersand officialswhotraveledwith himfromtheduchytothe Englishcourt.Thisclique arousedtheantagonismof EarlGodwine,England’s preeminentaristocrat,who forcedthekingtodismisshis Normanadvisersin1053. WhenEdwarddiedwithout issueatthebeginningof1066 theEnglisharistocracychose theearl’ssonandsuccessor HaroldGodwinsonasking, andhewasdulycrowned. TheScandinaviandimension toEnglishkingshiphadone finalcardtoplay:Harthacnut wassupposedtohave promisedMagnusIof Norwaythatifeitherdied withoutissuetheotherwould ruleaskinginbothcountries. HaraldIIIHardrada,kingof Norway,thereforepursueda claimtothethrone,and HaroldofEngland’s estrangedbrotherTostig Godwinson,theearlof Northumbria,supportedhim. Harold’sarmygainedagreat victoryovertheinvading NorwegianarmyattheBattle ofStamfordBridgenearYork onSeptember25,1066,inthe courseofwhichTostigand HaraldHardradawerekilled. Havingmarchedsouthfrom YorkshiretoSussex,the Englisharmywasalready exhaustedwhenitfoughtthe battlethatwasjoinedat HastingsonOctober14and whichendedinHarold’s defeatanddeath.TheEnglish aristocracyimmediately choseEdgarAthelingto succeedHarold,soWilliam stillhadtofighthiswayto theCrown.Hefailedtotake Londonathisfirstattempt fromtheeast,afterwhichhe advancedonthecapitalfrom thenorthwestbefore eventuallyreceivingthe submissionoftheEnglish aristocracyatBerkhamsted. ABOVEEthelredII,theking dubbed“unraed”or“bad advice”bycontemporaries,is shownholdingaswordinthe ChronicleofAbingdon (c.1220). TAKINGCONTROLOF TERRITORY ThecoronationofWilliamas England’snewkingtook placeatWestminsterAbbey onDecember25,1066.Itwas thepreludetoaseriesof campaignsofsubjugation.In 1067rebelsinKentattacked DoverCastleandarevolt spreadinWestMercia.In 1068Williamhadto negotiatethesurrenderof Exeter,andtherewerefurther revoltsbothinMerciaandin Northumbria.Harold’ssons weremeanwhileraidingthe WestCountryfromtheirnew basesinIreland,andin1069 arebellionspreadin Northumbriaafterthe massacreofseveralhundred Normansoldiersgarrisonedat Durham.Williamdefeated thenorthernrebelsinbattle nearYorkbeforepursuingthe remnantsintothecity,many ofwhoseinhabitantswere thenmassacred.Thearrival ofalargeDanishfleetoff England’seasterncoastinthe latesummerof1069inspired widespreadEnglish dissidence,andanallied Northumbrian-Danisharmy defeatedtheNormangarrison atYorkbeforeestablishing controloverNorthumbria. WilliamstoppedtheDanish penetrationintoLincolnshire, andafterretakingYorkhe boughtofftheDanes,who agreedtoleaveEnglandby thespringof1070.William’s armythenwagedarelentless campaignofdevastation acrossNorthumbriainthe winterof1069–70resulting inadeathtollofaround 150,000.Thefollowing springsawtheConqueror establishedinChester,from wherehecrushedremaining areasofMercianresistance. EasternEnglandsawfurther resistance,sincetheDanes initiallyrenegedontheir assurancestoleave.However, afurtherpaymentfinally securedtheirdeparture. DeprivedofDanishsupport therebels—ledbyHereward (“theWake”)intheIsleof Ely—werecrushedin1071. Wherevertheywent,Norman knightswantedtwothings: landandtitles.Thosewho wereprominentinthe Englishcampaignwereof higherbirththantheir compatriotswhowentto southernItaly,andtheir surnamesoftenreflectedthe familyfiefdomstheyalready heldinNormandy.Inan unusualmove,William claimedpersonalpossession ofallEnglishland,andthis meanthecoulddisposeofit ashesawfit.Theterritories ofEnglishnobleswhohad foughtanddiedwithHarold wereredistributedamong William’ssupporters.The patternofconfiscations explainsthepersistenceof majoranti-Normanrevolts thatledinturntoevenmore confiscationsduring1067– 71.Wherealandholderdied withoutissue,Williamand hisbaronsclaimedtheright tochoosetheheir,who tendedtobeNorman,while widowsanddaughterswho inheritedpropertywereoften madetomarryNorman husbands.Williamdistributed hisland-grantssothatan individual’sholdingswere spreadthroughoutthe country.Anoblewho revoltedwouldthereforefind itdifficulttodefendallhis territoriessimultaneously, andthesystemencouraged groupsolidaritybybringing thenobilityintocontactwith eachotherratherthan retreatingintoaregional powerbase.Theloyaltyof thisélitegroupmeantthat WilliamcouldruleEngland fromNormandyby implementingthepractice knownasgovernment“by writ,”andthiswasthesystem followedbyhisNorman successorsonthethrone. After1072thekingreturned toNormandysincehisduchy facedseriousexternalthreats, andhevisitedEnglandonjust fourfurtheroccasions. THENORMANSIN ENGLAND 1042Edward(“the Confessor”)iscrownedking ofEnglandonreturningfrom hisexileinNormandy. 1066Followingthelaunchof aninvasionforceledbyDuke WilliamofNormandy, HaroldII(Harold Godwinson),lastAngloSaxonkingofEngland,is killedinbattleatHastingson October14.Williamis crownedkinginWestminster AbbeyonDecember25. 1085KingWilliamordersthe nationwidecompilationof Englishlandholdingswhich becomesknownasthe DomesdayBook. 1089DeathofArchbishop LanfrancofCanterbury, whoserevenuesarethen seizedforCrownuseby WilliamII(WilliamRufus). 1100HenryIsucceedstothe Englishthroneandissuesthe CharterofLibertieswhich confirmsthenobilityinits traditionalfreedoms. 1105Resumptionofthe armedstrugglebetween HenryIandhisbrother Robert,dukeofNormandy. 1107TheConcordatof London:thepapacyconcedes substantialcontroloverthe ChurchinEnglandtothe EnglishCrown. 1135Anarchyfollowsthe deathofHenryI. EFFICIENTNORMAN BUREAUCRACY TheDomesdayBook,a compilationoflandholdings orderedin1085byWilliam, recordsthatbythisdatethe nativeEnglishownedjust fivepercentoftheircountry’s territory,andhardlyanyof themretainedpublicoffice. Theshiresorshareswere Anglo-Saxonadministrative units,andtheywererunby theshirereeve,orsheriff, whowasaccountabletothe highlyeffectivecentral bureaucracywithits sophisticatedarchivalsystem. HenryIestablishedthe treasury.Locatedin Westminster,itbecamethe heartofgovernment, althoughtheinstitution evolvedoutofthecentral accountingofficewhichthe Anglo-Saxonmonarchyhad runinWinchester.Having seizedthegovernmental structure,theNormansbentit totheirownwillbystaffingit withtheirownpeople.Afew Englishmenwereappointed sheriffs,butafter1075 Normansmonopolizedthe earldoms.Therewasasimilar purgeamongthesenior clergy:by1096therewasnot asingleEnglishbishop,and veryfewabbotswere English.Loyalchurchmen werecrucialtoEngland’s Normangovernmentandthis formofepiscopalrule representedanEnglish applicationofWilliam’s methodsinNormandywhere, personallypresidingover synods,hehadsecureda Churchadministration notablypliantandfreeof corruption. KINGSOFENGLAND 1016–1154 CNUTTHEGREAT (c.985–1035) r.1016–35 HAROLDI [“HaroldHarefoot”] (c.1015–40) r.1035/37–40 HARTHACNUT (1020–42) r.1040–42 EDWARDTHECONFESSOR (c.1003–66) r.1042–66 HAROLDII [HaroldGodwinson] (c.1022–66) r.1066 WILLIAMI [“theConqueror”] (c.1027–87) r.1066–87 WILLIAMII [WilliamRufus] (1056–1100) r.1087–1100 HENRYI (1068/9–1135) r.1100–35 STEPHEN (1096–1154) r.1135–54 WILLIAMIIAND ROBERT —QUARRELSOME BROTHERS TheConqueror’sdecisionto dividehisinheritance betweenRobert,whobecame Normandy’sduke,and WilliamRufus,whobecame England’sWilliamIIin1087, alsodividedopinionamong theAnglo-Normannobility. Thosewhoalsoheldlandsin Normandythoughtthatthere shouldbejustonerulerfor bothareastocountertherisk ofdividedloyalties, especiallysincethetwo brotherswerenotoriously quarrelsome.Therebellion mountedbysomeofthem againstRufusin1088aimed atplacingRobertonthe Englishthrone.Thiswas swiftlysuppressed,however, andin1091thekinginvaded Normandy,forcinghis brothertoyieldsomeofhis lands.Thetwowere subsequentlyreconciled,and whenthedukeneededmoney togooncrusadein1096he pledgedthedukedomtohis brotherinexchangeforasum of10,000marks.Thishuge sumamountedtoabouta quarteroftheentireannual revenueraisedbytheEnglish Crownandwaspaidby William’simpositionofa specialtax.Williamthen ruledasregentinNormandy duringRobert’sabsence whichlasteduntilSeptember 1100,amonthaftertheking’s death. WilliamRufus’srelations withtheChurchwere turbulent.Thekingquarreled violentlywithLanfranc, ArchbishopofCanterbury, whoserevenueswereseized whenhediedin1089and appropriatedforCrownuse. Lanfranc’ssuccessorAnselm maintainedhisopposition, andongoingintoexilein 1097heappealedtothepope forsupport.ButUrbanIIwas involvedinamajordispute withtheGermanemperor HenryIVandcouldillafford tomakeanotherenemy.He thereforeendorsedthestatus quoinEngland.William madeastatementrecognizing thepope’sauthority,andin returnhewasallowedtokeep therevenuesofthe archbishopricofCanterbury sinceAnselmremainedin exile. HENRYI—ANASTUTE OPERATOR AsWilliamtheConqueror’s fourthson,HenryIwasnot expectedtoruleeitherin EnglandorNormandy,and hisscholarlyeducationledto himbeingknownas “Beauclerc.”Buthewasan acutestrategist.Taking advantageofthefactthathis brotherRobertwasawayon crusade,in1100heseizedthe royaltreasuryatWinchester shortlyafterburyingWilliam Rufusthere.Sincethe baronagehadcolludedwith himinsideliningRobert,the kinggratifiedthembyissuing theCharterofLiberties,a documentthatbothaffirmed aristocraticfreedomsand correctedWilliamRufus’s abusesofpower.Thecharter alsorecordedtheking’s formalgrantofthelawsof EdwardtheConfessor,as amendedbyWilliamthe Conqueror,totheEnglish people.Verylittlenew legislationwasinfactissued eitherbyWilliamorhissons, andtheConqueror—agreat admirerofEdward’slaws— hadappliedthemasthebasis ofEnglishcommonlaw. Formalrestorationofthese lawsprovedtobequite compatiblewiththe entrenchmentofNorman royalauthority,especially throughtheuseofHenry’s establishmentofthe exchequer,aninstitution specificallydesignedto combattaxfraudand corruption. Henry’sreignmarkedthe highpointoftheAngloNormandynasty’s administrativemachine.The ConcordatofLondon(1107) representedamajorpapal concessiontotheEnglish Crown’sinstitutionalcontrol overtheEnglishChurch,and Henry’sreignwitnessedan Englishassimilationof Normanauthority.Unlikehis fatherandbrothers,Henry couldspeakEnglishfluently. Marriagetohisfirstwife linkedhimwiththeancient nobility,sinceshewasEdgar Atheling’sniece. Nevertheless,Normandy remainedimportanttohim. Roberthadfirstagreedto recognizehisbrother’sright toruleinEngland,but hostilitiesthenresumed. AlthoughRobertwas capturedattheBattleof Tinchebrai(1106)and remainedaprisonerforthe last28yearsofhislife, Henry’scontroloftheduchy wasnotsecureuntilthedeath in1128ofRobert’sson WilliamClito.Appropriating Normandyasapossessionof theEnglishCrown,Henry ruledtheduchythroughhis titleasEngland’sking. Viceroysgovernedinhis nametherewhilehewasin England,andwhenhewasin Normandytheclose-knit nobilityadministeredhis kingdom.Thesenetworkshad beentheverybasisof NormanorderinEngland, andthoughappearingso adamantine,theyfractured afterHenry’sdeath.The Englishnobilityrejectedthe claimofHenry’sdaughter Matildaandplacedhis nephewStephenofBloison thethronein1135.Anarchy followed,andtheAngloNormanorderthathadonce seemedsoentrenchedlooked setfordissolution. ABOVEStatueofHenryIof England(r.1100–1135), CanterburyCathedral, England. MEMORIALIZING EDWARDTHE CONFESSOR ThedevelopmentofEdward theConfessor’sposthumous reputationshowshow subsequentroyalregimes triedtoassimilatetheAngloSaxonpastandsoughtto ensureitscontinuitywith theirownauthority. Ananonymousauthorin c.1067completedaLifeof KingEdward,commissioned byhiswidowEdith.The secondpartofthatwork describeseventsthat demonstratetheking’s holinessandhismiracleinducingprowess.Itwasthis sectionthatwasthenworked upbyOsbertdeClare,a Benedictinemonkat WestminsterAbbey,inhis moreexplicitly hagiographicalLifeof Edward,whichwasfinished bythelate1130s. Beliefinkings’abilityto healthesickbytheirtouch waswidespreadinmedieval Europe,andepisodesthat illustrateEdward’spowersin thatregardareincludedbyde ClareinhisLifeofEdward. Asprior,andthenabbot,of Westminster,deClarewasa well-connectedfigureandhe spentsometimeinRome lobbyingforEdward’s canonization.Saintswere dividedintotwocategories bythemedievalChurch: martyrswhohaddiedforthe faithandconfessorswhohad witnessedtoit.Thekingwas formallycanonizedbythe papacyin1161,andthereby acquiredhissoubriquet. Edward’sremainswerethen placedinashrineat WestminsterAbbeyina ceremonythattookplacein 1163withAelred(1110–67), abbotoftheCistercian monasteryatRievaulxin Yorkshire,preachingthe sermon.Aelredwrotehisown versionofEdward’slife,and hismanyotherworksinclude aGenealogyoftheKingsof theEnglishwhichwaspartly intendedtoshowthatHenry II(r.1154–89)wasatrue descendantofAnglo-Saxon kings.Henrywasavigorous promoterofEdward’s reputation,andbythelate 12thcenturytheConfessor waswidelyrecognizedas England’spatronsaint. TheWiltonDiptych. HenryIII(r.1216–72)was devotedtothecultofthe Confessor,andhedecidedto honorhispredecessorby replacingtheoriginal Romanesquestructureof WestminsterAbbeyraisedby Edwardinthelate1040swith theGothicbuildingthat survivestoday.Healso orderedtheconstructionofa magnificentshrinetoreplace theearlierone,andthe Confessor’sbodywas broughttoitsnewplaceof restinasolemnprocessionon October13,1269.EdwardIII (r.1327–77),averymartial figure,decidedthatEdward shouldbereplacedas England’spatronsaintby George,anobscuresoldier saintofthethirdcenturywho hasbeenlinkedtothethen Greek-speakingeastern regionofAsiaMinor.Butthe Confessorwascentraltothe elevatedrolethatRichardII (r.1377–99)claimedfor Englishkingshipandwhichis illustratedintheWilton Diptytch,commissionedto accompanythekingonhis travels.Ontheleftthe ConfessorisjoinedbyJohn theBaptistandEdmund,king andmartyr,astheypresent thekneelingRichardtothe VirginandtheinfantChrist who,encircledbyangels,are portrayedonthediptytch’s rightpanel.Bythesideofthe SaviorandVirginstandsan angelholdingapennant bearingtheCrossofSt. George.Thesenseofthe scenesuggeststhattheking haspresentedEnglandinto theVirgin’scareand protection,andthepresence byEdwardtheConfessor’s sideofEdmund,thekingof EastAngliakilledbythe invadingDanesin868,is highlysuggestive.Edmund wasmuchveneratedbythe Anglo-Normanaristocracy, andthatpopularitywasused tosupportthepost-Conquest regime’sclaimthatitwas offeringcontinuitywiththe Anglo-Saxonpast.Onthe backofthediptytcha heraldicshieldincorporates twocoatsofarmssideby side:thatofthekingsof England,andthatofthe Confessor—whichwas devisedforhimafterhistime, sincearmorialbearingswere onlyinventedinthemid-12th century.Bysuchmeansthe Confessorlivedon. THEBIRTHOF THEEUROPEAN CITY-STATE 1073–c.1300 Fromthe11thcentury onwardurbancenters concentratedincentraland northernItaly,aswellasin partsofFranceand southwestGermany,were startingtogrowbothinsize andinstitutionalimportance. Themarketsandcraftguilds locatedinthesetownsand citieswereattheheartof WesternEurope’seconomic development,andthenew prosperitywasreflectedin risingpopulationlevels.An equallynovelmovementwas evidentamongcitizenswho wishedtoassertgreater controlovertheirown destinies:like-minded individualsorganized themselvesinto“communes,” groupingssustainedbyoaths ofmutualdefense. The11thcenturysawthe adventofcommunesinboth ruralandurbansettings.For example,adjacentvillagesin northernFrancecombinedto formcommunesthat guaranteedthesecurityof localroads,andthelater SwissConfederationowedits origintothecommunes establishedinthealpine valleys.Butitwastheancient townsbuiltbytheRomans thatprovidedthecommune withitsmostcharacteristic settingwithwalled fortificationsprotectingthe populationfromtheworld outside.Thecommunes helpedtogivephysical securitytotownspeopleand theirgoods,andalsohelped safeguardthelivelihoodsof travelerswhowerefrequently threatenedwithattacksby bandits—aswellasbythe assaultsofdominantnobles whoheldthemselvestobe abovethelaw.Adesirefor revengethereforeledthe communestolaunch retaliatoryattacksontheir enemies,butitwasthemore politicalandeconomicfocus oftheiractivitythat encouragedgreaterurban independence. TAMINGTHE ARISTOCRACY Thechartersgrantedtotowns bymonarchsgavethemthe righttoholdmarketsandto runtheirowncivicand financialadministration withoutbeingsubjectedto interferencebylocallords. Europeankingsandemperors whowishedtoelevatetheir centralauthoritytherefore foundthetownstobeuseful alliesinacommoncause:the attemptattamingthe territorialnobility.England’s powerful12th-century monarchywasabletoimpose itsauthoritywithoutrelying onsuchlocalalliances, however,andtheimpactof thecommunalmovementin Englandwastherefore restrictedtotheworkofthe guildsthatregulated craftsmenandmerchants. France’sCapetianmonarchs cametoenjoyacomparable institutionalsuccess.Butthe lackofanequivalentcenter ofpowerinGermanyand Italymeantthatconurbations intheseareasbecame increasinglyautonomous.As aresult,manytownsdevised theirown,oftentightly regulated,internalsystemsof government. ABOVEAmap,dated1549, showingtheBavariantownof Nördlingenwhoseencircling medievalwallremainsin placetoday. THEGROWTHOF GERMANTOWNS TheGermantownsofancient Romanfoundationwere mostlyintheRhineand Danuberivervalleys,and manyofthesewereepiscopal sees.Duringthetenthcentury successiveGermanemperors haddelegatedjuridicaland administrativepowerstothe bishopswhotherefore appointedofficersinthe towns’government.Thegreat wallsoriginallyraisedto surroundthesecentersof populationhadinmanycases survived,andthisexplains whytheGermantermburgh orfortificationwasusedto describesettlementsthatwere soclearlydividedfromthe surroundingcountryside. Legaloffensesweremore severelypunishediftheyhad beencommittedwithinthis privilegedarea,andits inhabitants,includingthose whohadfledtotheburgh fromruralareas,couldonly beprosecutedinthetown’s owncourts.Such arrangementsemphasizedthe ancienttowns’specialstatus, andthesameprovisions wouldalsoapplytothenew townsestablishedbythe bishopsandnobilityonthe landstheyownedinthe centerofGermany. RIGHTAgrisaille (monochrome)illustration showinglifeinalate medievaltown.(From ChroniquesetConquetesde CharlemagnebyDavid Aubert,c.1458). Vibrantmarketsinboththese typesofGermantowns,as wellasthepossibilityof practicingtheirskillsas craftsmen,encouragedthe migrationofserfswhooften lefttheruralareaswithout seekingtheirlord’s permission.Urbancourts cametoaccepttheprinciple thataserfwhohadstayedfor ayearandadaywithinhis chosentownwashencefortha freeman.Populationflows fromthecountryside increasedaccordingly,and theattemptsbysomebishops tocontinuetreatingthese arrivalsasserfsledthe emperorHenryVtodeclare, inhischartersforSpeyerand Worms,thatserfdomshould ceaseinalltowns.Therewas, therefore,arealenoughbasis tothecommonGerman sayingStadtluftmachtfrei (“cityairmakesonefree”). Thusencouragedatthevery highestlevelofimperial government,theGerman townsacquiredthe institutionsofselfgovernment,includingthe Ratortowncouncil.Headed bytheBurgermeisteror mayor,theystartedtocreate theirownlegislationandto raisemoneybyimposingan exciseduty.Groupsoftown merchantsalsobegantoissue thelegislationthatgoverned theirtradingactivities. THEBIRTHOFTHECITYSTATE 1073ThecityofWorms affirmsitsindependenceby providingtheemperorHenry IVwithrefugeatatimewhen Germanprincesarerebelling againstimperialauthority. 1155ArnoldofBresciais burnedtodeathhaving soughttoreviveancient Romanrepublicaninstitutions whileleadingthecommune ofRomeinthelate1140s. 1162FollowingFrederickI Barbarossa’sattackonthe cityofMilanarevoltdirected againsttheemperorspreads toothernorthItaliantowns, thatcombinetoform(c.1167) themilitaryallianceknownas theLombardLeague. 1176TheLombardLeague inflictsadefeaton Barbarossa’sforcesatthe BattleofLegnano. 1248TheemperorFrederick IIisdefeatedattheBattleof Parma. 1250Apopularrebellionin Florenceexpelstherepublic’s nobilityfrompower. 1294ElectionofBenedetto CaetaniasPopeBoniface VIII.Thepro-papalGuelph partydividessubsequently intoa“Black”anda“White” faction.BlackGuelphs supportBoniface’s interpretationofpapal authority.WhiteGuelphs advocatetheextensionof constitutionalrightsin Florence. CURBINGCLERICAL POWER Bishopsoftentookadim viewofthesedevelopments, andinthe13thcenturythey beganlobbyingtheimperial courttoissuedecreeslimiting thepowersoftheRat.These attemptsatrestoringthe episcopalinitiativeproved futile,andtheestablishment ofcraftguildshadlongsince entrenchedthecauseoftown independenceamongthe widerurbanpopulation. Craftsmensuchasbakers, butchersandshoemakerswho broughttheirproduceto marketshadbeensubjectedto qualitycontrolbytown authoritiessinceCarolingian times,andthe“masters”were theindividualswho representedtheirfellow craftsmenatsuchinspections fromtheninthcentury onward.Thesepractitioners subsequentlyclaimedthe righttoelecttheirmasteras wellastoplayarolein framingtheby-laws regulatingtheproductionand saleoftheirwares.These successfulattemptsatselfregulationencountered furtheroppositionfrom bishopskeenonmaintaining theirownauthority. Nevertheless,thecraftguilds’ societies—sometimescalled thebruderschaftorfraternity, andwhichweredevotedto social,philanthropicand religiousactivity—were keenlysupportedbythe Church.Episcopalopposition totradingself-regulation wanedaccordingly,andthe craftguildsthatspreadfrom theirGermanoriginsto neighboringlandsbecamea distinctivefeatureofWestern Europeanurbanexistence. Thefactthatthebishops owedtheiroriginalauthority intheGermantownstoan imperialdelegationofpower provedusefulifitbecame necessarytodefendurban autonomy.In1073,for example,thecitizensof Wormsrebelledsuccessfully againsttheirbishopinorder toprovideaplaceofrefuge fortheemperorHenryIVata timewhenhefacedaGerman princelyrevolt.Bishopscould thereforeberemindedon occasionsthattheywerein factmererepresentativesof theimperialauthorityrather thanlordsexercisingpower intheirownname.TheVogt wasanofficialwhopresided overeachtown’schiefcourt oflawastheseniorlegal officerappointedbythe bishop,buthereceivedthe banorpowerofexecuting justicedirectlyfromtheking oremperor.Andduringthe periodwhentheemperorheld adietorimperialcouncilina particulartown,heandhis circleofofficialsresumed controlofallthepowersthat hadoncebeendelegatedto thelocalitybyhisimperial predecessor.The independenceofthe“imperial freecities”ofmedieval Germany,suchasBasel, Speyer,Regensburg,Worms andCologne,wasbasedon theseearlydevelopments,and theirnumbersweregreatly augmentedwhentheStaufer dynastyestablishedtownson itsowndemesnelandinthe 12thandearly13thcenturies. Independencenonetheless provedtobequitecompatible witholigarchy.Asmall numberofrichfamilies dominatedthetowns’ councils,whichincludedthe craftsmenwhoseguilds soughttoexcludecompetition byadoptingprotectionist measures. ITALIANCITY-STATES’ STRUGGLEFOR AUTONOMY Fromthe11thtothe13th centuriesnorthernItalywas Europe’smostdensely populatedregionaswellas therichest.Itwasalsohome toamyriadofvigorously independentcity-states,each ofwhichwouldeventually succumbtoasystemof politicalcontrolexercisedby asinglepowerfulindividual (theSignoria)despitethe maintenanceofrepublican constitutionalforms.Italian politicalturbulencetookits cuefromthenobilitywho,in contrasttotheirGerman equivalents,establishedtheir headquartersinthetownsthat consequentlywitnessed intenseconflictsbetweenthe capitaniorgreaternobility, thevalvassoriorlesser nobility,andthepopoloor massofthepopulationwho includedaffluentmerchants. Lombardy’sprosperousand well-fortifiedtownswerein thefrontlineofthestruggle tomaintainItaliancity-state independenceagainstthe expansionistambitionsof Germanemperors. Geographyalsoexplainstheir centraleconomicrole.ThePo valleyconnectedthetrading networksoftheMiddleEast withWesternEurope,which waswellservedbythe itinerantLombardmerchants —manyofwhomalsoacted asbankerstotheHolySee. Temporalauthorityexercised bybishopswasanearly casualtyofthecity-states’ assertiveness,butthepapacy wasnonethelessawillingally inthejointstruggleagainst thethreatfromtheGerman north.Thatdangerdidnot stopthesestatesfrom competingagainsteachother initiallyforregional predominance,withthe allianceheadedbyMilan clashingwiththegroupof townsledbyCremonaand Como.FrederickIBarbarossa soughttotakeadvantageof thisdivisionwhilepursuing whathetooktobehis imperialrightsinnorthItaly, buthismilitaryonslaughton thecityofMilanin1162led toageneraluprisingthat unitedtheregionina commonhostility.The LombardLeague,which includedmostnorthernItalian cities,inflictedadecisive defeatonBarbarossa’sarmy attheBattleofLegnanoin 1176.FrederickIIwas subjectedtosimilar humiliationwhenheinsisted ontheunconditional surrenderofMilanandits allies;hisimperialarmywas routedbytheLombard LeagueattheBattleofParma in1248.Thesedefeatswere significanteconomicallyas wellasstrategically;military powerfinancedby commercialwealthhad provedsuperiortoanarmy raisedbyland-basedfeudal kingship. ABOVESimoneMartini’s contemporaryportrayalof GuidoricciodaFogliano,in Siena’sPalazzoPublico, showstheSieneseconquestof thecastlesofMontemassiand Sassofortein1328. Theconstitutionsofthe independentItaliancity-states attheheightoftheirinfluence inthe13thcenturyharked backtothepeninsula’searlier historyofRoman republicanism,withthe commune’sthreecomponents beingrepresentedbyelected consulswhoalsopresided overthelawcourts. Sovereigntywasvestedina consiliumgeneraleorpopular assemblycomposedofmale citizenswho,electedona franchiserestrictedbymostly propertyqualifications, debatedissuesandselected officials.Serviceinthelocal militiawasanearuniversal obligation,andthemajority ofthemalepopulationwere thereforeinvolvedinpublic lifetosomedegree.Manyof theserepublicsalso administeredaterritoryof dependenttowns,butmost remainedsmallinscale. Florence,withitspopulation ofsome100,000in1300was certainlylargeby contemporarystandards;the figureof15,000inhabitants forPaduaatthattimewas nearertheaverage. Althoughtheirconstitutions lookedrepublican,thereality wasthatpoweratthehighest levelswithintheItaliancitystateswasalmostinvariably exercisedbyasmallnumber ofinfluentialindividuals. Thisgroupingwasitself subjecttofactionalsquabbles, butthesewentsomewayto beingresolvedbythe appointmentofapodestaor chiefmagistratewhocame fromoutsidethecityandwho thereforestoodabovethe locality’squarrelingélite. Thisofficialwasusuallya noblemanandhiselevation, asinthecaseoftheVisconti inMilan,theGonzagaat Mantua,andtheCarraraof Padua,ledtoone-manrule.If thiswasthecharacteristic patternfromthelate13th centuryonwardinthenorth ofItaly,thetownsof Tuscany,includingFlorence, managedtoretainnotjust theircommunesandconsuls butalsosomeoftherealityof republicanlibertyuntilwell intothe14thcentury.Such republicansurvivalsalso preservedtheconflictsthat hadbecomeendemictothese city-statearrangements,and asthecommunecameunder thecontroloftherich,sothe lowerordersamongthe popolostartedtoestablish theirownorganizations.A popularrebellionof1250in Florencesawthepopolo electingtheirownleaderas wellas12other representatives,andthe republic’snobilitywere expelledfrompowerinthe firstofaseriesofrevolutions andcounterrevolutionsthat continuedforwellovera century. THEVENETIANSYSTEM OFGOVERNMENT Venice’ssteadyevolutionas anindependentstateruledby aclose-knitgroupof patriciansgaveitremarkable stability.Executivepower, therighttosummonan assembly(theconcio),and theappointmentoftribunes andjustices:allwerevested inthedogeordukeinthe earlyeighthcenturyshortly aftertherepublicassertedits independenceofthe Byzantineempire.Other Italiancity-statesmight experimentwithrepublican politics,butVenice’sruling classsteadilyrestrictedthe rightsofitssubjects. Theconciowasonlyrarely summonedfromthelate12th centuryonward.Insteadit wasreplacedbyagreat councilofsome450members chosenbydelegateselected bythecity’ssixwards.This wasthebodythatappointed stateofficials,andeachofthe wardsalsoproduceda memberforthesix-man executivecouncil.Eleven aristocratswhowere themselveschosenbythe nobilityelectedthedogefor life,andthefactthatnodoge couldelecthissuccessor accentuatedtheVenetian government’soligarchic nature.In1296membership ofthegreatcouncilwas restrictedtothedescendants ofasmallnumberof aristocrats.Thefailureof BajamonteTiepolo’s1310 conspiracytodeposethe rulingdogeledtothe establishmentofthe notoriouslysecretive ConsigliodeiDiecior CouncilofTen,theexecutive thatreallyranVenicefrom thattimeonward. UnlikeotherItaliancity- states,Venicehadnot sufferedfromtheintrusions ofaruralaristocracywho broughttothetownsand citiesinwhichtheysettled theverysubstantialbaggage oftheirownwell-established patternsoffeuding,rivalry andbloodshed.Thebusiness ofVenicewasbusiness.Its aristocratswerenotmembers ofafeudalnobilitybut successfulmerchantswho sharedacommoninterestin commerceandinthe maintenanceofastable politicalregimethatallowed themtobecomeevenricher. Thatformidablesolidarity createdanenduringéliteand, sinceVenice’searliestorigins werebarelyseventhcentury, thecityhadnoancient republicanhistorythatmight beevokedinprotestatthe irreversiblediminutionof liberty. Rome,ontheotherhand,was theveryfountainheadofthe republicantradition,butit wastheallianceof aristocraticinfluencewith papalpoliticsthat predominatedinthecity’s domesticpolitics.The communeofRome,underthe leadershipofthemonk ArnoldofBrescia,soughtto revivetheancientrepublicin thelate1140s.ColadiRienzo attemptedasimilarfeatin 1347byexpellingthe aristocracyfromthecityand proclaiminghimselfa tribune.Butthesewereshortlivedexperimentsthatended infailure.Itwastiarasand nottribunesthatmatteredin medievalRome. ABOVEApresentationis madetothedogeofVenicein this1534paintingbyParis Bordone(1495–1570). GUELPHSAND GHIBELLINES Aristocraticfactionalism, popularrebellionsandthe relationshipbetweenItalian andGermancultureall combinedtoensurethelong- termuseoftheterms “Guelph”and“Ghibelline.” Welf,thefamilynameof Bavaria’sdukes,and Waiblingen,theStaufer family’scastleinSwabia, mayhavebeenusedas rallyingcriesduringthe BattleofWeinsberg(1140) foughtduringtheGerman civilwarthatbrokeoutwhen thesetwogreatdynasties competedfortheimperial title. TheItaliancampaignsof FrederickIBarbarossa(r. 1152–90)agenerationlater sawthetwotermscrossing theAlpsandassumingan Italianateform.Barbarossa wasaStauferandhis followers,whoembracedthe causeoftheempire,became knownastheGhibellini. DefendersoftheItalian cities’independenceadopted thetermGuelphasalabel describingananti-Staufer, andhenceanti-imperial, position.Thepapacy’s associationwiththecitiesin opposingtheStaufenmeant thatGuelphbecamealabel denotingthosewhosupported thepapalcauseingeneral. Thewordssubsequently becamepartoftheinternal Italianpoliticalstruggleand wereusedaspartylabelswith differentcitiescompeting againsteachotherinthelate 12thandthroughoutthe13th century. Geographyandstrategy, ratherthanconsistent ideology,determinedwhether acityshouldbe“Guelph”or “Ghibelline.”Eitherlabel couldbeusedsolongasit helpedtodefineanddefenda city’spursuitofits independence.Acityinthe north,wheretheempirewasa realthreat,tendedtobe Guelph.ButacentralItalian citythreatenedbyan expansionofpapalterritorial powerwasmorelikelytocall itselfGhibelline.Sizeaswell asregionalposition determinedaffiliations. Florencewasfarenoughfrom RometocallitselfGuelph, andthemuchsmallerSiena— threatenedbytheexpansion ofitsneighbor—was thereforeGhibelline. TheremovaloftheStaufer dynastyfromtheimperial throneinthemid-13th centuryendedoneparticular externalthreat,butItaly’s Guelph-Ghibellinestruggle continued.Different occupationalgroups,guilds andareaswithinthecities werenowusingthelabelsto describeandjustifytheir factionalism,andthese viciousconflicts supplementedthetraditional intercitystruggle.Florence wasnowrivenbetweenthe twoparties,anditwashere thattheGuelphsthemselves splitinreactiontothe electionin1294ofBenedetto CaetaniasPopeBoniface VIII.BlackGuelphsstill supportedthepapacy,butthe WhiteGuelphs,whoincluded DanteAlighieri,opposed Boniface’sparticularly aggressiveexpositionofthe papacy’stemporalpower. Dantewasexiledwhenthe BlackGuelphsseizedpower inFlorencein1302,andhis eventualdisillusionwiththe entirepoliticalscenesupplies theimmediatebackgroundto hiscompositionTheDivine Comedy. Amapillustrationofthetown ofWeinsbergin1578. THENORMANSIN SICILY 1016–1184 Atthebeginningofthe11th centuryNormanmercenaries hadbeguntoreachthe southernItalianmainland—a regionwheretheGreek empirewasfacingrebellions fromlocalLombardleaders. ConflictsbetweenLombard princes,aswellasthe ultimatelysuccessfulstruggle toejecttheGreeksfromthe south,gavetheNorman knightstheiropportunity.In recognitionoftheirmilitary servicetheyweregranted fiefdomsthatbecamethe basisoftheirown independentpowerandledto theestablishmentofa Normankingdomthat includedtheislandofSicily aswellasthesouthernItalian peninsula. BeforetheNorman intervention,Pugliaand Calabria,locatedrespectively atthe“heel”and“toe”ofthe Italianpeninsula,constituted aByzantineprovince.They wereseparated,however,by thesouthernhalfofthe independentLombard principalityofSalerno.Tothe northoftheseterritorieslay twootherLombard principalities,Beneventoand Capua,aswellastheduchy ofAmalfi,anareaalongthe westerncoastthatwas effectivelyindependent despiteowingallegianceto Byzantium.Theeasternport ofBariwastheGreek province’scapital,andthe rebellionthatstartedherein 1016wasthefirstexampleof militaryactionbyajoint Lombard-Normanforce.The Greeksretaliatedbybuilding themilitaryfortressofTroia attheApenninePassinorder toguardaccesstothePuglian plain.Thisfortification greatlyalarmedthepapacy which,astherepresentative ofLatinChristianity,hadits ownculturalandreligious reasonsforwishingtoexpel theGreeksfromItaly.The earliestNormanmercenaries toarriveinItalymayindeed haveenjoyedsomepapal supportasaresult.Troia symbolizedaresurgent Byzantium,andsome Lombardprinceshad submittedtotheGreeks followingthecounteroffensive.PopeBenedict thereforeappealedtothe Germanemperortosendan armytothesouth,and althoughthecampaignof 1022failedtotakeTroia, HenryIIwasabletoreassert imperialauthorityoverhis Lombardvassals. Subsequentmilitarydisputes betweentheLombardsgave employmenttoopportunistic Normanknightswhosesole consistentaimwastoprevent thedominanceofanysingle Lombardprince.Theyear 1030sawthecreationofthe firstNormanprincipalityin southernItalywhenSergius IV,dukeofNaplesanda nominalvassaloftheGreeks, grantedthecountyofAversa asafiefdomtohisally RanulfDrengot.This concessionwasatremendous coupfortheNormans,and thecountybecamea convenientrendezvousforthe arrivingmercenaries.A furtherhonorawaitedRanulf in1037whentheemperor ConradIIrecognizedhistitle and,consequently,the countshipofAversawasheld directlyfromtheemperor.In thefollowingyearRanulf invadedCapua,andasa resulthisterritorybecame partoftheCapuan principality. RIGHTAmosaicdepictsthe coronationofRogerIIby Christ,inthechurchofSt. MaryoftheAdmiral, commonlyknowas“La Martonora,”Palermo,Sicily. KingofSicilyfrom1130,he wasthesecondsonofCount RogerIofSicily(1031– 1101). THERISEOFTHE HAUTEVILLES Bythisstage,however, anotherNormanclan,the Hautevillefamily,were havinganimpactonthesouth ofItaly.GuaimarIV,rulerof Salerno,hademployedsome ofitsmembersinthe campaignof1038–40waged bytheGreekarmyandhis ownLombardforceagainst Arab-ruledSicily,and WilliamdeHautevillegained hisnicknameof“IronArm” duringthatstruggle.Onthe mainland,however,itwasthe fightagainsttheGreeksthat mattered,andaNormanforce gainedamajorvictoryover theByzantinearmyatthe BattleofMonteMaggiore, foughtnearCannaeonMarch 16,1041.Guaimarremained akeyNormanallybutthe mercenarieswerealsonow coalescingaroundWilliam IronArm,andinSeptember 1042hewaselectedtheir leader.Thedealthatwas subsequentlystrucksuitedall parties.WilliamdeHauteville andhiscircleproclaimed Guaimaras“dukeofApulia andCalabria,”whiletheyin turnreceivedlandsinthe regionsurroundingMelfithat weredividedinto12baronies andheldasfiefs. TheHautevillebrothers, William,Drogoand Humphrey,weretherefore nowterritorialnoblesrather thanmeremercenaries.Two Normandynastieshadbeen establishedinthesouth,and thedeHautevilles,likethe Drengots,becamedirect vassalsoftheHolyRoman Emperor.Thebrothers pursuedthesouthern campaignsagainst Byzantium,andtheir victoriesinCalabriaalso empoweredtheirhalf-brother, Robert“Guiscard”(“the resourceful”),whowas destinedtotakehisfamily’s fortunestonewheights.The papacy,alarmedbytheriseof Normanpower,sponsoreda coalitionforcethatincluded equallydisenchanted Lombardleaders,anditwas thisarmythatconfrontedthe unitedNormansatCivitateon June18,1053.Robert Guiscard’sstrategicbrilliance andpersonalbraveryplayeda keyroleinaNormanvictory, andpapalrealismdictatedan eventualrapprochement.In 1057,onsucceeding Humphreyascountof Apulia,RobertGuiscard abandonedhisloyaltytothe empireandbecameavassal ofthepope,whoinreturn grantedhimthetitleofduke. BELOWThisdetailfromthe illuminatedmanuscript NuovaCronicawrittenbythe FlorentineauthorGiovanni Villani(c.1275–1348), depictsPopeNicholasII investingRobertGuiscardas dukeofApuliaandCalabria. RichardDrengothad succeededtothecountshipof Aversain1049,and continuedhisrelative’spolicy ofaggressionagainst neighboringLombard territories.Heconqueredboth GaetaandCapuaandthen pushedattheSalerno principality’snorthern borders.AsprinceofCapua, Richardpursuedalternately aggressiveandpeaceful policiesinrelationtothe papacywhoselandshe borderedtothenorth,buthis ineffectivesuccessorsbecame dependentonHauteville patronagebythelate11th century.Beneventototheeast ofCapuasuccumbedtothe Hautevillesbystages followingthevictoryat Civitate.Itthenbecamea basefortheclan’spenetration ofcontiguouspapalterritories thatcontinueduntil1080, whentheHautevilles undertooktorespectpapal territory. THENORMANSINSICILY 1016OutbreakofaLombardNormanrebellioninBari, capitaloftheGreekempire’s provinceinsouthernItaly. 1030ThecountyofAversa becomesthefirstNormanheldprincipalityinsouthern Italy. 1041ANormanarmydefeats theByzantineforceatthe BattleofMonteMaggiore. 1061RobertGuiscardandhis brotherRogerexpelaGreek militaryexpeditionthathad beenbesiegingMelfi,Puglia. 1071Bari,thelastWestern EuropeanoutpostofGreek power,fallstotheNormans. 1072PalermofallstoRobert Guiscard,whosebrother Rogeristhengrantedthetitle “countofSicily.” 1077RobertGuiscardde Hauteville,dukeofApulia, conquerstheLombard principalityofSalerno. 1112RogerIIstartstoruleas countofSicily.Heinvades Puglia(1126)followingthe deathofitsNormanduke, establisheshisauthorityin southernItaly,andiscrowned king(1130). 1184Constance,the posthumouslyborndaughter ofRogerII,marriesHenry VI,sonandheirtoEmperor FrederickIBarbarossa. STRUGGLINGFOR CONTROLONTHE ITALIANMAINLAND TheSalernoprincipalityhad enjoyedalongperiodof splendorandrichesunderthe Lombards.Itssubjugationby RobertGuiscardin1077, alongwiththeconquestof neighboringAmalfi,gavethe Normanstheirbiggestvictory sofar.ThecityofSalerno wassouthernItaly’sgreatest cityanditbecameafocal pointfortheexerciseoftheir authority.However,control ofAmalfiprovedelusive, withrevoltsandlocal dissidenceonlydyingout aftertheduchy’sfinal subjugationbytheNormans in1131. Inthelate1050s,shortlyafter RobertGuiscard’saccession, Pugliaseemedsecurely NormanbuttheGreeks retainedcontrolofmuchof Calabria,aregionwhere culturalHellenismrandeep. By1060Robert,together withhisyoungestbrother Roger,hadtakenmostofthe CalabrianGreekcities,and theyagreedtosharepowerin theregion.ButByzantium refusedtogiveupwithouta fight,andtheendoftheyear sawthearrivalinPugliaofa largeGreekarmythatthen besiegedMelfi.In1061the twoNormanleaderswere abletoexpelthisByzantine force,buttheGreekarmy basedatBariposedamajor challengedespiterepeated Normanattacksduringthe late1060s.Bariwasthelast outpostofGreekpowerin WesternEurope,and followingitsseizurein1071 Normanambitionsseemed uncontainable. SICILY—JEWELINTHE NORMANCROWN TheislandofSicily’smixed populationofGreek Christians,ArabsandJews wereruledbyArab conquerorswho,however, werequarrelingwitheach otherinthemid-11thcentury. Onceagain,theNormans tookadvantageofdissension amongarulingélite.Roger andRobertcrossedthestraits ofMessinainMay1061,with RobertGuiscardhavingbeen investedwiththe(very theoretical)titleof“dukeof Sicily”whenhebecamea papalvassal.After conqueringandfortifying Messina,theirswiftprogress througheasternSicilywas easedbyanalliancewithone ofthelocalemirs.Butthe Normanarmywasdefeatedat Enna,theformidablefortress attheisland’scenter,and evacuationfollowed. Subsequentcampaigns witnessedadeepeningofthe Normanpresenceonthe island,andin1072boththe cityofPalermoandits militarycitadelfelltothe armycommandedbyRobert Guiscard.Rogerbecame countofSicilyunderhis brother’soverallsuzerainty andwastorulemostofthe islandwiththeexceptionof PalermoandhalfofMessina, whereRobertretained authority.Araboccupation nonethelessremained widespread,andRoger’s subsequentsuccessesoverthe localemirsatTrapaniin1077 andatTaorminain1079had tobesupplementedbya systematiccampaignof conquestthatstartedin1085. Syracuseonlycapitulatedin thespringof1086aftera year-longsiege,andSicily couldnotbesaidtobe securelyNormanuntilthefall ofNotointheisland’s southeastin1091. BELOWThe12th-century NormanCastellodiVenerein Erice,Sicily,isbuiltona sheercliffface,anideal situationforadefensive fortification. WhileRogerwas consolidatingNormanSicily, hisbrotherhadbeenpursuing hisambitionsacrossthe AdriaticintheGreekcontrolledBalkans.Robert Guiscard’sarmyleftBrindisi inMay1081,andthebattle foughtinOctoberat Dyrrhachiumagainstthe Greekarmyledbythe emperorAlexiusendedinone ofthegreatestofallNorman victories.Theprospectofa Normanbeingenthronedin Constantinoplenowseemed realistic,butatthiscrucial junctureRobertreturnedto RometosupportPope GregoryVII,whowasbeing besiegedbytheGerman emperorHenryIV.Robert’s sonMarkBohemond conqueredThessalybutfailed tomaintainauthorityoverthe Normanconquestsof1081– 82.Roberthimselfdiedin 1084whileattemptingto restoreNormancontrolin CorfuandCephalonia,and BohemondreturnedtoItaly whereheandhishalf-brother RogerBorsaweredisputing thesuccessiontotheirfather. TheislandofSicilywasthe jewelinwhatbecamethe Norman’sMediterranean crown,andCountRoger’s son,whosharedhisname, succeededtothetitlein boyhoodbeforeassumingthe reinsofgovernmentin1112. RogerIIthensidelinedhis Guiscardcousinswhowere facingbaronialrebellionsin theirsouthItaliandomains. Havinggiventhemmilitary support,hereceivedinreturn controloftheirSicilian territories.Rogerhad inheritedCalabrianterritories fromhisfather,andina dramaticmoveheinvaded Pugliain1126followingthe deathofitsNormanduke. SouthernItalywasnowhis, andRogersubsequently gainedtheauthorityuniqueto aking.In1130therewasa disputedpapalelectionand Rogersupportedtherebel popeAnacletusII,whose emissarydulycrownedhim thatyearinPalermo.After Anacletusdiedin1138Roger capturedtherivalpope InnocentII,whothenobliged himbyconfirmingthekingly titlein1139. Thepapacy’sSicilian associationhadbeen unusuallycloseeversince UrbanIIappointedRogerIan apostoliclegatein1098.This gavethecounttherightto appointbishopsandcollect churchrevenuesintheisland but,farfrombeinga concessionofitsauthority, thepapacysawitasamere expedient.Arabemirshad ruledtheislandforcenturies, andevenunderRogerII westernSicily’spopulation washeavilyArabic.The Churchthereforecouldnot enforceLatinChristianityon itsown,andtheNorman rulersoversawthenew episcopaladministration establishedatPalermo, SyracuseandAgrigento. Nonetheless,thepapacy insistedthatkingsofSicily wereitsvassalsandthatthe officeofapostoliclegate, claimedbyRogerIIashis father’ssuccessor,couldnot beinherited.Still,Rogernow hadhiscrown,andpopes agreedthatRogerwas“king ofSicily,oftheduchyof Apulia,andtheprincipalityof Capua.”In1131he establishedmilitarycontrol overAmalfiwhich,although partofNormanPugliasince 1073,hadtriedtoretainsome autonomy.In1139theduchy ofNapleswasincorporated withinRoger’skingdom, whichbynowwasamajor Europeanpower. IMPOSING BUREAUCRATIC POWER RogerII’sstrategieshadone consistentaim:thathis kingdomshouldberunasa singleandindependent territorialunit.Hemight delegatesomepowersto feudallords,butmilitary servicewasexpectedin return.Furthermore,since Rogercontrolledtherightsof inheritancetofiefs,hecould barvassalshedeemed unsuitable.Onlytheking’s courts,ratherthanthoseof abbotsandcounts,couldtry capitalcases.Justiciars— judgesappointedbythe Crown—traveledintothe remotesouthernItalian countrysidetodispense Roger’sjustice.Baronial powerremainedsignificant onmostofthemainland,but thingsweredifferentonthe islandofSicilyandin Calabria.Sincemostofthe islandconsistedofroyal demesnelandunderdirect governmentcontrol,theking wasalsoitslandlord.A Normanbureaucracy controlledthetowns’ administration,theactivities oftheirmerchantsandthe organizationofsupplies.The monarchyalsohadextensive rightsoversaltproduction, whileironandsteel manufacturewasanexclusive regalianright.Thisgave Rogeranunusually concentrateddegreeof economicpowerregulatedby acivilservicebuilton Normanfoundationsand supplementedbyGreekand Arabinfluences. TheemperorJustinian’s heritagewasamajor intellectualresourcefor Roger,sincehisjurists showedhowrebellionagainst adivinelyinstitutedrulerwas aformofsacrilege.The emperor’slawcodes—the basisofRomanlaw—were circulatedwidelyin11thcenturysouthernItaly,and theyheavilyinfluenced Roger’sowncode promulgatedattheAssizesof Arianoin1140.Notionsof lordship,bynowcommonin WesternEurope,couldalso bepressedintoservice.In 1129Rogerassembledhis baronsatMelfiincentral southernItalyandproclaimed alandpeaceatthis parliamentumorgatheringof nobles.Thiswasavery Normanbaronial endorsementofafeudal overlord.Andthemixtureof influencesdeployedto confirmRoger’sruledidnot endthere.Ifheseemedlikea Greekbasileusorkingtohis Greeksubjects,hisArabones lookedonhimasthelatest emirsetoverthem. Sicily’sagriculturalfertility andbuoyanttradeproduced therevenuesthatenabled Rogertoreignoverthe Mediterranean’smost sophisticatedcourtlymilieu. Hismonarchyalsobribedon agrandscale—especiallyin LombardywhereSicily neededthelocaltownsto maintaintheirresistanceto theencroachingGerman emperors.IfLombardyfell,it wasthoughtthatSicilywould benext.Themarriagein1184 ofRoger’sposthumous daughterConstancetoHenry VI,sonandheirtothe GermanemperorFrederickI Barbarossa,changedthe politicalandmilitary landscapeofthecentral Mediterranean.Sicilyandthe empirewerereconciledbya personalunionbetweenthe dynastyofSicilianNormans andthatoftheStaufen, althoughSicily’sCrown retaineditsindependence withintheempire.The marriageproducedthe emperorFrederickII,who inheritedtheabilitiesofboth hisgrandfathersaswellas theirdefiningambitions: Barbarossa’ssouthward thrustintoItalyandRoger’s exaltednotionofasupreme kinship. APOLICYOF LATINIZATION Sicily’sunusuallypolyglot naturemeantthatRoger’s governmenthadtoissueits documentsinGreek,Latin andArabiciftheking’swill wastobeunderstood.The culturalvarietyofhis kingdomwasfurtherreflected initsruler’sharem,Saracen bodyguardandArabchef. Muslimpoetsbenefitedfrom royalpatronage,andSicily wasanimportant12thcenturycenterforthe translationofGreektextsinto Latin.Roger’schief intellectualinterestlayin science,andhecommissioned thenorthAfricanMuslimalIdrisitoproducetheKitab Rujar(BookofRoger),which aimedtodescribetheknown world’snaturalresources. Thisdiscistheprefaceto Muhammadal-Idrisi’sworld atlas,theTabulaRogeriana, whichwasproducedin1154. Royalpolicywas, nonetheless,directedtoward makingSicilyculturallymore Latinattheexpenseofits earlierArabandGreek components,andRoger’s aimswerehardly multicultural.Theking’s smatteringofArabichelped himtonegotiatetrade agreementswiththeFatimid rulersofEgypt,andhe promotedsomeMuslimsat hiscourt.Thatpatronagewas, however,Roger’smethodof keepingthelocalGreekand Normannobilityintheir place,andMuslimspromoted tothehighestlevelsinhis servicewereexpectedto converttotheLatinchurch. Palermo’sPalatineChapel showstheSiciliancultural mix:aLatinchurchdesign,a typicallyArabicstalactite roof,andByzantinemosaics thatportrayRogerasanew Davidreturnedtoruleon Earth.Heclaimedtoruleas God’sowndeputywithinthe Siciliankingdom,andwhen attendingmajorchurch servicesRogerwasboth dressedasakingandrobed asapriest.Onthesehigh festivalsheworeatunicand dalmaticmadeofSicilian silk.Theking’smantle,just likehissilkshoesand stockings,wasdeepred—a colorevokingthepurple wornbytheemperorsof ancientRomeand Byzantium.Theroyaltombs hecommissionedmadethe sameinsistentpoint,since theyweremadeofporphyry, thepurplemarbleusedby Romanemperors.Roger’s calculatedfusionoftemporal mightwithspiritualauthority wasintendedtoinspireawe, andthezestwithwhichhe developedtheiconographyof powershowedatypically Normanblendofwilinessand aggression. THEFIRST CRUSADE 1071–1109 InMarch1095ambassadors fromtheGreekemperor AlexiusICommenus deliveredamessagetoPope UrbanII,whowaspresiding attheChurchcouncil convenedinPiacenza.The Byzantineempirehadlost mostofAnatoliatotheSeljuk TurksfollowingtheGreeks’ defeatintheBattleof Manzikert(August26,1071), andAlexiuswantedWestern militaryaidinordertoregain hislands.Hisemissarieshad alsobeeninstructedto remindthepopeandcouncil thatJerusalemwasMuslimcontrolled,andthatWestern pilgrims’accesstotheHoly Citywasbeingfrustratedasa result.Thiscalltoarmswas toleadtotheseriesoffierce strugglesbetweenChristian andMuslimforcesknownas thecrusades. WhentheGreekemperor Alexiusrequestedmilitaryaid tohelpexpeltheMuslims fromJerusalem,histiming couldnothavebeenbetter. Seljukprinceswere quarrelingamongthemselves, andtheTurks’advancehad stalled.Thepapacy’s confrontationwiththe Germanempirewasproofof itsnewself-confidence,and relationsbetweentheGreek andLatinChurcheswere onceagainrelatively amicable.TheEast-Westsplit hadbecomeaformalschism in1054,andtheGreekswere resoluteindenyingprimacy totheRomanseeovertheir patriarchatesat Constantinople,Nicaea, AntiochandJerusalem. Followinghiselectiontothe papacyUrbanwas,however, keentoendthedivide.He hadliftedthesentenceof excommunicationimposedon AlexiusbyGregoryVIIand wasalsosympathetictothe plightofGreekChristians subjectedtopersecutionby theTurks. HOLYWAR Thepope’sformalandpublic responsetoAlexius’smissive cameinNovember1095at thesynodheldinClermontin theAuvergne.Urbanhad spenttheinterveningmonths inhisnativeFrance drummingupsupportfor interventioninPalestineand Syria.Hisdiscussionswith Adhemar,thebishopofLe Puy,aswellaswith RaymondIVofToulouse, preparedthegroundforhis announcementatClermont, andtheirinfluentialsupport gaveapowerfulleadershipin southernFrancetothe crusadingcause.Urban’s impassionedspeechof November27proclaimedthe visionofanarmedpilgrimage whoseadherentswouldfight fortheliberationoftheholy places.Hisstatement guaranteeingthatthe pilgrims’sinswouldbe remittediftheydiedfighting forsosacredacausegavean original,andhighly appealing,twisttothis declarationofwar.Fromlate 1095onwardthemessage wasspreadbytheclergynot onlyintherestofFrancebut alsoinItalyandGermany. Mostwho“tookthecross” werepoorandpiouspeasants, andtheirvowcommitted themtoapilgrimagethat wouldonlyendonarrivalat Jerusalem’sChurchofthe HolySepulchre.During1096 agroupofknightsandnobles emergedtoleadandorganize thevastandFrench dominatedarmyofdevout peasantsthathadbeen createdsosuddenly. ABOVEPopeUrbanII presidesovertheCouncilof Clermontin1095,asshown inthismanuscriptofLivres desPassagesd’Outre-mer, c.1490. ABOVE15th-centurywoodcut engravingofGodfreyof Bouillonarrivingin Jerusalemonhorsebackin 1099. This,then,wasthecrusade thatwouldleadtothe establishmentofthekingdom ofJerusalem,theprincipality ofAntioch,andthecounties ofTripoliandofEdessa. Thesecrusaderstateswould helptorelieveByzantiumof thepressureithadbeenunder inthelate11thcentury,while theGreeksre-established controlofmuchofWestern AsiaMinor.However,the victoriousLatinsrefusedto handbacktotheGreeks territoriesinPalestineand Syriathathadbeenin Byzantinecontrolbeforethe Arabarmies’seventh-century conquestsintheregion. WesternEuropeanrulers woulddirecteightfurther crusadestowardtheMiddle Eastinthenexttwocenturies, butnoneenjoyedthesuccess thatcametothefirstofthese ventures—acampaignwhose massappealsurprisedeven itsownleadership. FollowingtheBattleof Manzikert,theGreekempire wasmostlyconfinedtothe Balkansandanarrowstripof landinnorthwestAnatolia. ButtheSeljukTurksfailedto maintainacoordinated impetus,andinthe1090s therewereseparate,andoften quarrelsome,principalities locatedinAnatolia,Aleppo andDamascus.Furthersouth theSeljuksconfronteda majorenemyintheFatimids, anArabdynastythathad ruledEgyptsincethelate tenthcenturyandwhichhad subsequentlyexpandedinto partsofPalestine.The Fatimids’regimeseemsto havebeenatolerantoneso farasChristianareaswithin Palestinewereconcerned. However,theirShiiteMuslim faithdividedthemfromthe Seljuks—whowerefollowers ofSunniIslam—andthe militaryconflictbetweenthe twopowerscausedmassive disruptiontotheChristiansof thePalestinianregion. JerusalemwasFatimid controlleduntiltheearly 1070s,andthedynasty regainedthecityfromthe Turksin1098,justbeforethe crusaders’arrival.Itwasthe Turkishoccupationof AnatoliaandtheSyriansouth thatformedtheimmediate backgroundtotheFirst Crusade.Accountsofthe sufferinginflictedonthe regions’Christiansreached WesternEuropeandgaineda widecirculationbythe1090s. ButtheSeljukoccupationof Palestinefromc.1073onward hadasimilarlydestructive impactonChristianlivesand property. THEFIRSTCRUSADE 1071Followingthedefeatof theByzantinearmyat Manzikert,mostofAnatolia iscontrolledbytheSeljuk Turks. 1095Atasynodheldin Clermont,Auvergne,Pope UrbanIIlaunchesacampaign fortheliberationofthe“holy places”inSyriaand Palestine. 1097Acrusadingarmyis transportedfrom Constantinopletotheshores ofAsiaMinor:Nicaea’s Turkishgarrisonsurrenders (June19),andbyOctoberthe crusadersarebesieging Antioch. 1098Establishmentofthe countyofEdessa,thefirst crusaderstate.Antiochfalls (June). 1099Thecrusadingarmy arrivesatthewallsof Jerusalem(earlyJune)and besiegesthecity.Jerusalem falls(July15).Godfreyof Bouilloniselectedtorulethe city,andestablishesthe PrincipalityofGalileeandthe countyofJaffaasterritorial componentswithinwhatwill becomeknownasthe“Latin kingdomofJerusalem.” 1100Baldwin,countof Edessa,succeedshisbrother Godfreyandiscrownedking ofJerusalem. 1103RaymondofToulouse launchesamilitaryoffensive intheLebanonagainstthe emirofTripoli.Hisson Bertrandcontinuesthe campaignafterRaymond’s death(1106)and,following theemir’ssurrender(1109),a countyofTripoliis established. CRUSADER ARISTOCRATICFAMILY CONNECTIONS Intheearly1080sBohemond, princeofTarantoandtheson ofRobertGuiscard,had directedhisfellowNormans’ campaigningagainst Byzantinelandsinsouthern Italy.Hewasjoinedonthe crusadebyhisnephew, Tancred.Although Bohemondhadcarvedouta smallprincipalityforhimself intheItaliansouth,hehoped totakeoveralargerone whileoncrusade.Godfreyof Bouillonalsojoinedthe crusade,despitehavingbeen asupporteroftheemperor HenryIVintheimperial struggleagainstthepapacy. Hewasjoinedintheventure byhisbrother,Baldwinof Boulogne.Theothermajor leadersjoiningthecrusade included:Hughof Vermandois,whowasthe youngerbrotherofKing PhilipIofFrance;King WilliamIIofEngland’s youngerbrotherRobertof Normandy;CountRobertII ofFlanders;andtheCountof Blois,StephenII,whowas marriedtoWilliamthe Conqueror’sdaughter. THE“PEOPLE’S CRUSADE” Thecrusaderforcesweredue tocongregatein Constantinopleinmid- August1096.Butthe enthusiasmengenderedby Urban’scalltoarmsledmany peasantstoformtheirown crusadingorganizations.Peter theHermit,apriestfromnear Amiens,wasthemost celebratedofthemany populistpreacherswho traveledthroughFrance advocatingacrusade.Inthe springof1096,assistedbya fewknights,hewasleading thousandsofilliterate peasantstowardtheeast whensomeoftheirnumber massacredJewsintheRhine valley—anareathatwasthe sceneofmuchanti-Semitic violencein1095–96.Infact, Peter’sunofficial“People’s Crusade”posedathreatto publicorder,anditprovoked counter-attacksbythearmies ofboththeHungariansand theGreeksastherabble advancedtoward Constantinople.Analarmed AlexiusferriedPeter’sarmy acrosstheBosphorusas quicklyaspossible,andmost oftheforcewasslaughtered bytheTurksattheBattleof CivitateinOctober. NICAEAANDANTIOCH —DECISIVESIEGES Alexiuswasalsokeentobe ridoftheofficialcrusading army,whichwascamped outsidehiscapital’swallsin thewinterof1096–97. Hungrycrusaderswere alreadypillaginginthe outskirtsofConstantinople. Alexiushadnointerestin joiningthem,buthedid expecttheleadersofthese Latinstoswearfealtytohim inreturnforfoodandmilitary supplies.Raymondof Toulousewouldonlygoas faraspromisingnotto damagetheGreekempire’s interests.Eventually, however,alltheothercrusade leadersagreedtotheoath, andintheopeningmonthsof 1097theentireexpedition, accompaniedbytwoGreek generals,wastransportedto AsiaMinor. TheancientChristiancityof Nicaea,captured20years earlierbytheSeljukTurks, wasnowthecapitaloftheir Anatolianprincipality,the SultanateofRum.Itwas subjectedtoamonth-long siegeandAlexius,encamped somedistanceaway,supplied thecrusaderswithmilitary reinforcements.TheGreek generalManuelBoutoumites receivedthesurrenderof Nicaea’sTurkishgarrisonon June19.Boutoumiteswas namedduxordukeofNicaea, andthecityoncemore becamepartofByzantium’s empire. Thecrusadingarmy,now dividedintoaNorman componentledbyBohemond andaFrenchdivisionledby Raymond,advancedacross theAnatolianplain.OnJuly 1,atDorylaeum,thereunited armygaineditsfirstvictory inbattleovertheSeljuk Turks,butfurtherprogress wasslow.Thelocal populationweremostly Christianandtherefore friendly,butlackofsupplies stillmeantthatthecrusaders hadtoresorttopillagingand looting.Leadershipquarrels werealsoemerging,and BaldwinofBoulogne separatedfromhis colleagues.Thekingdomof Cilicia(inmodernsoutheast coastalTurkey)wasarecent foundationestablishedby Armeniansfleeingfromthe Seljukinvasion,andthis Christianstatewouldbea strongallyofEuropean crusaders.Toitseastlay Edessa—anotherregion populatedbyArmeniansbut ruledbyThoros,alocal noblemanalienatedfromhis subjectsbyhisGreek Orthodoxreligion.Thoros wasfirstpersuadedtoadopt Baldwinashisheirandwas thenassassinated—possibly byhisprotégé,whoduly succeededhimasrulerin March1098andthentookthe titleofcount. Thefirstofthecrusaderstates hadthereforebeen established,butbynowthe mainbodyofthecrusading forcewasfacingtheimmense challengeofAntioch—acity thathadbeenheavilyfortified bytheByzantinesfor centuriesandwhosewalls wereguardedbytheTurks afteritsoccupationin1085. Duringtheeight-monthsiege thatstartedinOctober1097 thecrusadersdefeatedtwo majorexpeditionaryforces sentbytheprincesof DamascusandAleppoto relievethecity’sdefenders. WhenAntiochfellinJune 1098abloodymassacreofits inhabitantsfollowed.Internal rivalrieswithintheSeljuk armythatarrivedshortly afterwardtobesiegethecity ledtoanothermajorChristian victory. Thecrusade’smilitary commanderscontinuedto quarrel,however,and Adhemar’sdeathinAugust deprivedtheexpeditionofa significantspiritualleader andshrewdlypolitical counselor.Bohemondnow contendedthatAlexiushad desertedthecrusadeandthat theoathssworntotheGreek emperorweretherefore invalid.Raymondof Toulousewasamongthose whoobjectedtoBohemond’s territorialclaimtothe defeatedcity,andthecrusade cametoahaltinthe remainingmonthsof1098. Bothpilgrimsandknights becameincreasinglyresentful atthedelay,anditbecame criticalforthedisputetobe resolved.Theresolutioncame earlyin1099;asthe expeditionresumeditsmarch tothesouthandtoward Jerusalem,Bohemondwas leftbehindinpossessionof Antiochasitsprince. ABOVEAnillustratedpoem “Estoired’Outremer”by WilliamofTyre (c.1130–c.1185)depictingthe SiegeofAntioch,which beganinOctober1097. Itwasaragged,fractiousand hungryarmy—reduced perhapstoaquarterofits originalstrength—that arrivedoutsideJerusalemin earlyJune.Aprolongedsiege wasthereforeoutofthe question,andtheFatimid occupierseasilyrepulsedthe crusaders’initialfullfrontal assault.Thearrivalofaparty ofGenoesesailorsinmidJunetransformedthe situation,however,sincetheir engineeringskillandtimber suppliesenabledsiegetowers tobebuilt. THEBATTLEFOR JERUSALEM OnJuly13,1099thefinal assaultbegan,althougheven thentheorganizationof troopsreflecteddiffering grouployalties.Raymond’s southernFrenchtroopswere massedbythesouthgate, whileGodfreyofBouillon andTancredwereamongthe commandersgatheredatthe northwall.Thefinalpushof July15was,however,a coordinatedexercise,andthe crusadersbreachedboththe northernandthesouthern defenses.Atrociousscenes followed,withMuslimsand Jewsbeingputtothesword. Jerusalem’spopulationof GreekChristianshadalready beenexpelledfromthecityat thestartofthesiege, otherwisethey,too,would probablyhavebeen massacred.Alargenumberof Muslimshadfledtotake refugeintheAl-Aqsamosque locatedontheTempleMount. Tancredinitiallyofferedthem hisprotectionwhencallinga halttotheslaughteronJuly 15,butthenhadthemkilled thefollowingday. Jerusalem’ssynagoguewas burnedtothegroundbythe crusaders,andJewswhohad soughtsafetyinsidethe buildingwerekilled. Jerusalemwouldbe organizedasakingdom.But wasitseemlythatthecity whereChristtheKinghad wornhisuniquecrownof thornsshouldberuledbya princewhosetitlewouldalso bethatofking?Raymondof ToulouseandGodfreyof Bouillon,thetwoleading candidatesforJerusalem’s leadership,bothhad reservationsonthispoint. (Bothalsorecognizedthe politicalexpediencyof advertisingsopiousa reluctance.)Whenthe crusaders’councilmetatthe ChurchoftheHolySepulchre onJuly22itsmembers electedGodfreytobethe secularleaderofJerusalem, andhewouldrulewithout holdingakinglytitle.Inafit ofangerRaymondledhis menfromthecity.OnAugust 12,atthecoastalsiteof Ascalon,Godfrey’sauthority andthekingdom’ssecurity wereconfirmedwhenthe forcesofChristianJerusalem defeatedthecoalitionforce ledbyFatimidEgyptian commanders.Theenmity betweenRaymondand Godfreystoppedthe crusadersfromcapturingthe cityofAscalonitself,but Jaffa,TiberiasandHaifawere amongGodfrey’ssubsequent conquestsduringhisbrief periodasruler.Furthermore, hiscreationofthe PrincipalityofGalileeandthe countyofJaffalaidthe foundationsofasystemof vassalagewithinthe kingdom’senlarged boundaries.Followinghis deathinJuly1100Godfrey wassucceededbyhisbrother BaldwinofEdessa,whohad noqualmsaboutbeing crownedking. ThegreatmajorityoftheFirst Crusade’spartisanswho madeittoJerusalemwere backhomeby1100,leaving nomorethanafewhundred knightsbehindinthenew kingdom.Manycrusaders hadreturnedhomebefore Jerusalem’scapture, however,andtheywerekeen toregaintheirhonorby fulfillingthevowmadewhen theytooktheCross.Manyof them,includingStephenof BloisandHughof Vermandois,thereforejoined thefurtherexpeditionthat waslaunchedin1101.Most membersofthissubsidiary crusade,includingHugh, wereslaughteredbySeljuk Turkswhilecrossing Anatolia,anditwasamere remnantthatarrivedin JerusalembyEaster1102. RaymondofToulouse’s ambitiontorulehisown crusaderstateledhimto launchanoffensiveinthe Lebanonagainsttheemirof Tripoliin1103.Following Raymond’sdeathin1106his sonBertrandcontinuedthe campaignand,followingthe emir’ssurrenderin1109,he becamerulerofthecountyof Tripoli—thelastofthe crusaderstatestobefounded intheLevant.Latinprinces thereforecontrolledtheentire easternMediterraneancoast bythatstage,andthegreatly weakenedSeljukTurksno longerboredownonthe Greeksasheavilyashadbeen thecaseinthe1080s.Islamic civilization,however, regardedthecrusaderstates withasenseofshamemixed withanger.Thequestionnow washowbesttobeatthe infidelonthedoorstep. NEWCULTURAL OPPORTUNITIES Althoughthecrusadingstory isdominatedbywar,italso markedthebeginningofa newphaseinthehistoryof theculturalrelationship betweenLatins,Greeksand Muslims.LaChansonde Roland(TheSongofRoland) wascirculatedinmanuscript formin12th-centuryFrance, andthesecopiesincorporate referencestoOutremer,the crusaders’namefor Palestine. Buttherewasanearlieroral traditionbehindtheSong,and thecelebrationofRolandasa self-sacrificialChristianhero isaliteraryanticipationofthe crusadingideology.Settlers inthecrusaderstatebrought Westernattitudeswiththem whilealsobeingaffectedby aninternationalmilieu. Crusaderswhostayed,and theirdescendants,often learnedGreekandArabic. IntermarriagewithMuslims whohadconvertedwas exceptionalbutmorefrequent inthecaseofGreek,Syriac andArmenianChristians. InformationaboutOutremer circulatedintheWest,and WilliamofTyre(c.1130–86), archbishopofthatseeand beforethenchancellorof Jerusalem,produceda magnificentaccountof12thcenturyOutremerinhis Historiareruminpartibus transmarinisgestarum (HistoryofDeedsDone BeyondtheSea).Bornand raisedinJerusalem,andthen educatedatParisand Bologna,Williamwroteasa LatinChristian,buthis accountofbothGreeksand Muslimsshowsanuanced appreciationofculturesvery differentfromhisown.EastWesttradingcontacts,aided bythepresenceofmany Italianmerchants,acquireda newvitalityasaresultofthe crusaderstates’foundation. NorthernEuropeanwoolen textilesappearedforthefirst timeintheMiddleEast,and Palestine—whichhadbeena commercialcenterfor centuries—acquirednew Europeanmarkets.Sugar, lemonsandmelons,cotton, muslinanddamask,powder, glassmirrors,andeventhe rosary—allmadethejourney fromEasttoWestand ensuredthatthecrusades createdanewappetitefor luxuryaswellasspreadinga tasteforwar. Anilluminateddetailfromthe GrandesChroniquesde France,depictinganepisode inLaChansondeRoland. THEINVESTITURE CONTEST 1024–1125 Thelate11thcenturysawa newandexplosiveissuearise inEuropeanpolitics:whether itshouldbekingsorpopes thathadtherighttoappoint theseniorclergy.Upuntil thensacerdotiumand imperium(spiritualpower andtemporalpower)had barelybeendistinguishable fromeachother.Theempire presidedoverbyGerman princeshadbeena particularlystrongpapal ally.Inturn,successivepopes endorsedtheimperial campaigntoconvertand colonizethepagan populationstotheeast,and theseniorclergyofthe GermanChurch—whowere frequentlynoblemenand invariablyappointedbythe princes—playedakeyrolein administeringthereichor empire. Familyconnectionsandthe politicsofpatronagehad createdaclose-knitimperial governingcirclebythelate 11thcentury,butnowthe stabilityofthisélitewasfirst threatenedandthen underminedbythepapacy’s assertionofitsown independentpowerand rights.Thecontestoverthe rightto“invest”orappoint seniorclergyraised momentousquestionsabout thenatureofpower,thebasis ofobedienceandthe legitimacyofgovernment itself.Althoughitsimpact wasgreatestwithinthe empire,theinvestiture strugglealsoacquiredapanEuropeandimension.It formedamajorchapterinthe developmentofpublic opinion,withbothsides deployingspeeches,sermons andtextsinordertogain popularsupport.The papacy’sstancewas startlinglynovel,andits opponentshadtocounterit withexplicitstatements definingthebasisofregal power. Thewide-rangingassertionof papalauthorityinstigatedby PopeGregorytheGreat (590–604)wastheinspiration forreformerswhonow reactedagainstthepapacy’s recentstance.Aristocratic factionsinRomeandItaly hadturnedthepapaloffice intotheirplaythinginthe tenthcentury,andthe “Gregorian”reform movement’spronounced idealismproposedadifferent path.Thereformersasserted thatitwasGod’swillthatall mankindshouldbeembraced withinoneChristian structure,andsincethe Churchwasthedivine instrumentchargedwith implementingsuchavision, itsauthoritywassupreme overallformsofsecular power.Providenceallowed kingsandprincestohave theirimperium,buttheywere subjecttothepapacythat,as thecentralandgoverning Churchinstitution,existedon higherspiritualandmoral planes.Successivelegislative initiativesfromthemid-11th centuryonwardsoughtto implementthisloftyvision andsucceededincreatinga newbodyofcanonlaw. RIGHTAcopperplatepainting ofPopeGregoryVIIfrom SalernoCathedral,Italy, whichheconsecratedin1085 andwhereheisalsoburied. HILDEBRAND —ELOQUENT CHAMPIONOFTHE CHURCH Theintellectualvigorand briskadministrativestyleof Hildebrand,thesonofa blacksmith,broughta meritocraticedgetothepapal confrontationwithEurope’s layprinces.Hildebrandbore theimprintofthegreatabbey atCluny,theBenedictine foundationthatspearheaded monasticism’srevivalin WesternEurope.Hisearlier careerasapapal administrator,whichincluded aperiodservingaslegatein Paris,showedthesame reformistzealhewouldlater displayasPopeGregoryVII (1073–85).WhentheRoman aristocracyrevertedtotheir oldwaysandelectedtheir owncandidateaspope,itwas Hildebrandwholedthepapal armytovictoryontheisland ofCorsicawherethe unfortunateBenedictXhad takenrefuge.Hiseloquence madehimthenatural spokesmanfortheGregorian movement’sdistinctive causes—includingclerical celibacy,whichwasseenasa wayofnurturingcollective self-confidenceand entrenchingthedistinction betweenecclesiasticaland seculargovernment.Church centralizationmeantthat contentiouscaseshadtobe referredtoRome,andthis irritatedthemanybishops whocampaignedagainstthis curtailmentoftheirinfluence. By1059Hildebrandwas servingasarchdeaconinthe cityofRomewherehe becameapopularfigure amongthelocalpopulation. ThepapacyofAlexanderII sawawidespread implementationofthereform movement’sobjectives, includingrestrictingtheright ofpapalelectiontothe CollegeofCardinals.This deniedtheemperorhis previousrighttonominatea candidate—ameasurethat wascentraltotherestoration oftheChurch’s independence.Hildebrand’s ownaccessiontothepapacy owedmuchtothesupport expressedforhiscandidacy onthestreetsofRome,where aseriesofpopular acclamationsprecededhis electionbythecardinalson April22,1073. Simonyinvolvedthebuying ofChurchoffices,and Gregorywasasdevotedtoits eradicationasEuropean monarchsweretoits preservation.Itwasagood sourceofrevenueand,forthe imperialterritoriesin particular,simonyhelpedto easetheappointmentof rulers’relativesand supportersasbishopsand abbots.In1074Gregory’s firstcouncilcondemned simonyingeneraland confirmedthatcelibacy shouldnowbetheruleforall clergy.Asecondcouncilheld inthefollowingyearstated thatonlythepopecould appointchurchmentotheir officesormovethemfrom seetosee.TheGerman territorieswouldbethe testinggroundforthe implementationofthese policies,andthenewly electedemperorHenryIV wasalreadyhavingdifficulty assertinghisauthority. HENRY—AWEAKENED MONARCH Henry’schildhoodandyouth hadbeenturbulent,andthe king’sheadstrong temperamentcompoundedhis problemsinthe1080s. Crownedkingofthe Germansasaninfantin1054, hesucceededtohisfather’s throneonHenryIII’ssudden deaththreeyearslater.The regencyofhismother,the dowagerempressAgnes, weakenedherson’sposition byassigningBavaria,Swabia andCarinthiatonobleswho wereintentonreducingthe infantking’sauthority. Moreover,papalpolicywas alreadyintentoninterfering intheelectionofGerman bishops.In1062Henrywas kidnappedbyagroupof nobleconspiratorsledby AnnoII,thearchbishopof Cologne,whothentookover thereinsofpowerand supervisedtheyoungking’s education.Henryassertedhis independenceofthattutelage whenhecameofage, however,andhewas enthronedattheageof15in 1065.In1068heattemptedto divorcehiswifeBerthabut hadtoyieldinthefaceof papalopposition.Thisonly strengthenedhissuspicionof thepapacyasaninstitution. AtthesametimeHenrywas facingmajorchallengestohis rule.HeconfrontedSlavic incursions,whichincludeda majorsiegeofHamburg,and hehadtoquellrevoltsledby RudolfofSwabiaand BertholdofCarinthia.His conflictwithOttoof Nordheim,dukeofBavaria, occupiedHenryforyears. Ottohadbeeninvolvedinthe earlierkidnappingofthe youngkingand,following accusationsoffurther plotting,in1070Henry declaredtheduketobe deposedandtookthe opportunitytoplunderOtto’s estatesinSaxony.Ottohad enoughsupport,however,to sustainarebellionin Thuringiaaswellasin Saxonyuntilhissubmission in1071.Henrywasan unpopularfigureamongthe Saxonpopulationatlarge, sincehehadorderedthe restorationofallCrownlands intheregionandhadbuilta seriesoffortificationstherein anattempttocowthelocal population.From1073until 1088Henrywasforcedto dealwithmajorinsurrections amongboththeSaxonsand theThuringians. ABOVEInthisillustration fromtheLifeofMatildaof Tuscany,writtenbyher courtierDonizoofCanossa andcompletedby1115,the excommunicatedHenryIVis onhisknees.Heisbegging MatildaandAbbotHughof Clunytointerveneonhis behalfintheconflictwith PopeGregoryVII. PopeGregorywastherefore confrontingaweakened monarch,andtheChurch Councils’decisionsmeant,in effect,thattheGerman Crownwasthreatenedwith theremovaloftherightsto abouthalfofallitslands. SinceHenryalsoruledas kingofItaly,therewere majorimplicationsforthe dispersalofpowerinthe peninsula.Henrywasrightto seethepapalpolicyasan attemptatdelegitimizinghim asking,andtheauthorityof theGermanCrownwould havecollapsedifthebishops hadremovedtheirallegiance. Theking,however,carriedon nominatinghiscandidatesto GermanandItaliansees. Furthermore,hedeclaredthe newconciliarandpapal decreestobeillegal.After Gregoryexcommunicated severalmembersofthecourt in1075andthreatenedHenry withthesamepunishment, thekingretaliatedandheld hisownsynodoftheGerman Church. Gregory’sabductionon ChristmasDay1075by CencioIFrangipane—a memberofthelocalnobility —togetherwithhis subsequentimprisonment, introducedanewlevelof violencetothedispute. Moreover,thepope,whowas laterreleasedbylocal Romans,accusedHenryof involvementinhisabduction. OnJune9ofthatyearHenry gainedacrucialvictoryover theSaxonrebelsattheBattle ofLangensalza,andnowhe wasreadyforamajorfight withthepapacy.Atasynod ofbishopsandprincesheldin WormsonJanuary24,1076 Henrytooktheextraordinary stepofdeclaringGregory’s deposition.OnFebruary22 thepoperetaliatedby excommunicatingHenryand alltheGermanbishops involvedinthesynod.Henry wasnowencountering oppositiontohispolicy amongsomeveryalarmed Germanaristocrats.In October1076adietof Germanprincesmeetingat TriburgaveHenryayearto repentandtogetthe excommunicationlifted. Otherwisetheywoulddeclare thethronetobeempty.Henry thereforerelocatedtonorth Italy,wheresomeofthe clergyofLombardywere amonghissupporters,and shortlyafterChristmas1076 hearrivedinPavia.Gregory atthesametimewas travelingtoAugsburgfora prearrangedmeetingwiththe emperor.Onlearningof Henry’sarrivalonItaliansoil Gregory,fearingamilitary attack,tookrefugeinthe castleofCanossainReggioEmiliaownedbyhisgreat supporterMatilda,the margraveofTuscany. THEINVESTITURE CONTEST 1073HildebrandofSavonais electedPopeGregoryVII. 1075AChurchcouncilrules thatonlypopescanappoint churchmentotheirofficesor transferthembetweensees. 1076HenryIVdeclaresPope Gregorytobedeposed (January24).Thepope excommunicateshim (February22). 1077Henrywaitsoutsidethe gatesofCanossaCastle (January25–27)beforebeing admittedtoseeGregory,who liftsthesentenceof excommunication. 1077–80Germanprinces revoltandarethendefeated byHenry. 1080Gregoryrenews Henry’sexcommunication (March).AGermanChurch synoddeclaresthepopetobe deposedandelectsGuibert, archbishopofRavenna,tothe papacyasClementIII(June). 1081Henryembarkson militaryhostilitiesinItaly. 1084Romesurrendersto Henry’sarmy(March). Gregorytakesrefugeinthe CastelSan’Angelo.Clement IIIcrownsHenryemperor (March31).RobertGuiscard leadsanarmytoRome,and Gregoryisfreed.Henry withdrawsfromRome. 1085GregoryVIIdies. 1104HenryIVabdicates. 1122ConcordatofWorms: HenryVrenouncesrightsof investiture. HENRY’SACTOF PENANCE Inordertoliftthe excommunicationplaced uponhimHenryneededto performanactofpenance. Hiscontinuedcompetenceas arulerwasnowindoubt,but hisdecisiontoperformasa penitentinCanossarather thanwaitforGregory’s arrivalinAugsburgshowed immenseflair.Henrywas goingthroughthemotions whileatthesametime consolidatinghispowerina regionofnorthernItaly sympathetictohim.Healso hadwithhimthearmyhehad raisedinordertoopposethe pro-papalTriburagreement. From25thto27thJanuary 1077theGermankingstood outsidethegatesofCanossa’s castleinpenitentialmode, askingtobeadmittedand beggingthatthesentenceof hisexcommunicationbe rescinded.Hiswishtobe admittedwasgranted,andthe sentenceofexcommunication wasdulyliftedoncertain conditions—whichHenry violatedsoonafterward. ElementsoftheGerman aristocraticoppositionnow seizedtheirmoment.Judging Henrytobefatallyweakened, inMarch1077thenobilityof Saxony,Thuringiaand BavariaelectedRudolfof Rheinfeldentobekingofthe Germans.Rudolfdeclaredhis obediencetothepapacyand promisedtorespecttherights ofindividualGermanprinces. Henrywouldeventually suppresstherevoltin1080, andinMarchofthatyearthe poperenewedthesentenceof hisexcommunication. Popularsentimentand Germannationalfeelings werenowgoingHenry’sway and,afterRudolf’sdeath frominjuriessustainedatthe BattleofElsternearLeipzig onOctober14,1080,support fortherebellionfadedaway. Henry,moreover,nowhada verypowerfulsupporterin FrederickIvonStaufen, whomhehadappointedtobe thenewdukeofSwabia. MONARCHYVERSUS PAPACY Thesynodofthehigher Germanclergyconvenedby HenryatBamberginJune 1080declaredGregory deposedaspope,andelected thearchbishopofRavennain hisstead.Anemboldened HenryreturnedtoItaly, wherehebuiltuphissupport networkbygranting privilegestomanycitiesin thenorth.Warthenbrokeout withMatilda’sarmyin Tuscany,andinthecourseof 1081–82Henry’sforces attackedRomeinthree separateoffensives.Bythe endof1082theRoman populacehadmadetheirown peacetreaty:itstatedthat GregoryandHenry’squarrel shouldberesolvedbya specialsynodand,ifthat failed,anotherpopewould needtobeelected.Atthis pointthepopetookrefugein theCastelSan’Angeloand Henry,aidedby reinforcementsfromthe Byzantinearmy,tookthecity inMarch1084.TheRomans thenmadetheirown declarationofGregory’s depositionandRavenna’s archbishop,nowconfirmed bytheminofficeasClement III,crownedHenryasHoly RomanEmperoronMarch 31,1084. BELOWCanossaCastle,in northernItaly,wherePope GregoryVIIreceivedHenry IVin1077. Gregoryseemedencircledbut hewasrescuedbythe interventionofRobert Guiscardwhosawan opportunitytoattackhis GreekenemiesinRome. Guiscard’sarmyforced Henrytowithdrawfrom RomeandGregorywasfreed. Thepopediedthefollowing yearinSalerno,stillurging thewholeofChristendomto campaignagainsttheGerman king-emperor.Gregory’s greatcausedidnotdiewith him.InMarch1088Ottoof Ostiawaselectedtothe papacybylegitimatemeans, andasVictorIIhepursued thoroughlyGregorian policies.Heexcommunicated Henry,whohadnowreturned toGermany,aswellasthe antipopeClement,andset aboutcreatingaformidable anti-imperialcoalition consistingoftheNormans, theRusofKievandthecities oftheLombardnorthofItaly. Henry’sretaliatoryexpedition marchedacrosstheAlpsand wasdefeatedin1092bythe alliedLombardcommunes, whotookadvantageofthe ambitionsofHenry’sson Conradandcrownedhim kingofItalyatMonzain 1093.Henrywastherefore forcedtoretreattohis Germanlandswherebynow hispowerwassecurely consolidated,andhetherefore designatedhisyoungerson, thefutureHenryV,tobehis heirinplaceoftherebel Conrad. PopePaschalII,electedin 1099,pursuedhis predecessors’policiesand upheldHenry’s excommunication,although theemperor’spromisetogo oncrusadeshoweda readinesstoconciliate. However,compromise becameimpossibleoncehis sonHenryrebelledin1104, statingthathecouldoweno allegiancetoan excommunicatedfatherand emperor.Saxonyand Thuringia,thosechronic centersofrebellion,revolted againstHenry.Atadietheld inMainzinDecember1104 hewasforcedtoresignhis crownandwasimprisoned, butHenryescapedfrom captivityandafinaldrama nowunfolded.Hejoinedthe armyformedin1106to opposeHenryVandPope Paschal,andledthatforceto itsvictoryonMarch2before dyingafewdaysafterward. HenryVwouldchooseone moreantipope,despitehis supportfortheGregorian position,butin1122atthe ConcordatofWormshe renouncedhisrightsof investitureandwastherefore admittedbacktotheRoman communion.Theagreement meantthatHenrycouldnow berecognizedbythepapacy asalegitimateemperor,but thelonger-termeffectsofthe contestwerecatastrophic. AlthoughtheStaufen emperorsrevivedtheimperial ambitiontoconsolidate Germany’sterritories, unificationwouldnotbe finallyachieveduntil1871. THESALIANDYNASTY 1024–1125 CONRADII (c.990–1039) r.1024–39 HENRYIII (1017–56) r.1039–56 HENRYIV (1050–1106) r.1056–1106 HENRYV (1086–1125) r.1106–25 WIDEREUROPEAN IMPLICATIONS Theuniversalityoftheclaims madebyGregoryforthe HolySee’sauthorityhadtheir ownimplicationsforthe EnglishandFrench monarchies.Thoseabbots andbishopsappointedby WilliamtheConqueror,and byhissuccessorHenryI, wereloyaltotheCrownand resistanttopapalcontrolon thetermssetoutbyGregory andhiscircle.Therewere heatedexchangesbetween papalcourtsandEnglish courts,butGregory’s concentrationontheGerman dimensionlimitedhisability toactagainstHenryI,andthe termsoftheConcordatof London(1107)favoredthe Englishmonarchy.Henry gaveuphisrighttoinvest bishopsandabbots,andhe thereforenolongerappointed them.Buthealsorequired thattheyshouldswear homagetohiminrecognition oftheirstatusasfeudal vassalswithregardtothe landthattheyheldasbishops. Sofarastheseterritories wereconcerned,England’s bishopsweretreatedno differentlyfromthesecular lordswhowentthroughthe sameceremonyof commendatioor acknowledgmentofloyalty. Inpractice,therefore,the investiturecontestgreatly strengthenedthepositionof Englishmonarchs,andtheir chanceriesbecame increasinglystaffedby secularscholarswhocouldbe rewardedwithbishopricsand abbeys. LEFTRobertGuiscardfrees PopeGregoryVIIfromthe CastelSan’AngeloinRome, wherehehadbeenbesieged byHenryIVandtheantipope ClementIIIinMarch1084 (CodexJenensisBose1157). PhilipIofFrancewasequally high-handedinrelationtothe Church,andhisdevotionto simonymeantthatthethreat ofexcommunicationhung overhiminthemid-1070s. Hereagain,though,itwasthe gravityofthesituationin GermanythatsavedPhilip frompapalcondemnation. TheNormansinItalywere perhapsthemostperfidious ofallGregory’sallies. Previouspopeshadmade substantialconcessionsto themandhadhopedthereby tolimittheNormans’ advanceintocentralItalyas wellastogainsomemilitary protection.RobertGuiscard abandonedGregory’scauseat themomentofHenryIV’s advancetowardRome,and whenthecitywascaptured theoutragedlocalpopulation dispatchedGregory,Robert’s ally,tohisexileinSalerno. Theinvestiturecontroversy’s effectswerebothdestructive andcreative,withspiritual powerandlayauthority becomingmoresharply definedthaninthepast. Gregorytransformedpapal government:thecuriabecame thecentraladministrative machinerunningan internationalorganization, andthepapallegistemerged tobecomeakeyfigureinthe historyofthemedieval papacy.Gregory’stransEuropeanawarenessmeant thathewasinevitably concernedaboutthefateof theGreekChurch,andthe deepeningsplitbetweenLatin WestandGreekEasttroubled himgreatly.Hisalarmabout thefateofGreekChristians whowerecomingunderArab andTurkishattackin PalestineandSyrialedhimto conceiveofamilitary expeditionaimedatretaking theChurchoftheHoly SepulchreinJerusalem.Heis thereforeoneofthe intellectualancestorsofthe crusadingideal.Germany wasbrokenbythecontestand lapsedintoacollectionof smallstates.Asthepowerof themonarchydwindledsothe rightsoflocallordsgrew, withtheresultthatmore peasantswereturnedinto serfs.Localtaxesandlevies boreheavilyonthe population,whilethe Crown’srevenuesdwindled. Justicebecamelocalizedas well,sincelocalcourts reflectedtheregionalpower patternsandcouldevade regalcontrol.ThisGerman modelwasreplicatedin northernItalysincehere,too, theimperialandroyalpower dwindledawayandwas replacedbylocallordship. Thescenewassetforthe Stauferdynasty,thefamily thatattemptedtoresolve thesedifficultiesby subsumingthemwithina trulyimperialanddynastic dimension. GOSLARANDTHE SALIANDYNASTY TheRomanesquestructureof theimperialpalaceatGoslar inSaxonywasbuiltinthe 1040sforHenryIIIandisan enduringmonumenttoSalian dynasticambition. Goslarbecameamajorcenter ofgovernmentunderConrad II,anditswealth,derived fromlocalmineralresources, wascentraltohisfamily’s politicalambitions.Thesilver depositsoftheHarz Mountainslaynearby,and Goslaritselfissituatedatthe footoftheRammelsberg Mountain,wheremining operationsyieldedoneof Europe’smajorsuppliesof copperoreduringtheMiddle Ages.Localrichesturned Goslarintoa“Romeofthe north”with47churches, privatechapelsand monasteriesbeingestablished therefromthe11thcentury onward.Therepresentative dietsoftheHolyRoman Empirewerefrequently convenedinthecity,and althoughnolessthan62 imperialpalacesarerecorded ashavingexisted,itwasthe kaiserpfalzorimperialpalace atGoslarthatwasHenryIII’s favoredsummerresidence. Hediedthere,anda sarcophaguswithinthe buildingcontainshisheart. TheSaliandynastyfirst rosetogreatnessasdukesof Franconia,withthefamily’s powerbasesitedinthecities oftheRhinelandinthe duchy’swest.Theirdynastic namerecalledtheSalians, whowereadominanttribal groupingamongtheFranks. Thefamilycouldalsoclaim animpeccablyimperial bloodline:ConradII’sfather, CountHenryofSpeyer,was thegrandsonofLiutgarde,a daughterofOttotheGreat. Conradwaselectedkingof Germanyin1024andthen crownedemperorbyPope JohnXIXthreeyearslater. Hewas,however,thelastto bearthetitle“dukeof Franconia,”andafterConrad diedthegreatcitiesof RhenishFranconia—Mainz, WormsandSpeyer—were ruledbytheirlocalprincebishopsasmini-stateswithin theempire. The11th-centuryimperial palaceatGoslar. Conradandhissuccessors lookednorthandtoGoslar partlybecauseoftheprospect ofbullion.Cashmight liberatethemfrom dependenceonthearistocracy andhelpthemtoassert Germankingship’s independentauthority. Conradalsorecovered manyexpropriatedlands, especiallythosegivento monasteriesandbishops, whichhethenreturnedtothe royaldemesne(lands personallyownedbythe Crown).Theseestateswere thenrunontheCrown’s behalfbytheministeriales,a classofknight-administrators whoworkedastheking’s agents.Bullionsuppliesand demesnerevenuegavethe kingsresourcesotherthan theirownlandswhenitcame torewardingtheiradherents. Andwhenlookingtotheeast ofSaxony,theSalianssaw otherpoliticalopportunities forindependentassertion: newCrownterritoriesmight beestablishedinthe colonizedlands. Conrad’ssonHenryIII waspersonallypiousand muchinfluencedbythe Churchreformmovement advocatedbythemonastery atClunyinBurgundy.He alsothoughthehadtheright toimposesuchareformon theChurch,andheusedhis powersofpatronageto appointserious-minded reformers.Butitwasexactly thatdegreeofimperialpower overtheChurchthatthe reformmovementcameto regardasanoutrageinthe generationthatfollowed. Confrontedbythreerival claimantstothepapacy, Henryconvenedthesynod whichmetatSutrinearRome inDecember1046,andwhich followedhiswishesby electingSuidberg,bishopof Bamberg,tothepapaloffice asClementII.Clementwas enthronedonChristmasDay, andonthesamedayhe crownedhispatronemperor. Henrywouldusehis influencetoelectthreemore reformingGermanpopes,but hewasthelastemperorable todominatetheChurch,and hishigh-handednessalienated himfromtheGermanclergy. GodfreyII,dukeofUpper Lorraine,ledserialrebellions againsttheemperor,whoalso facedaristocraticdissentin Saxonyandsouthern Germany.In1054–55the nobilityinBavariaand Carinthiatriedtodepose Henry,andhislegacy includedthepowerstruggles oftheGermannobilitythat surroundedHenryIVinhis boyhood. THESTAUFER DYNASTY 1152–1266 TheStauferfamilyderivedits namefromthecastlein Swabia,Germany,whichwas thedynasty’soriginalpower base.FrederickvonStaufen, appointeddukeofSwabiaby HenryIVin1079,wasakey imperialsupporter.However, HenryV,thelastoftheSalian emperors,leftnomaleheirs, andthestruggletosucceed him—wagedbetweenLothair, dukeofSaxony,and FrederickIIofSwabia— simplyhighlightedthelackof focusintheGermannational identity.Bytheendofhis reignHenryVhadineffect concededvictorytothe papacyinthelong-running investiturecontest,andthe campaigntoprovidenational leadershiphadallbutended. Thatdeficiencywasalsotobe aStaufenopportunity. By1125,whenthereignof HenryVwasover,Lothair was50yearsofage,childless andguileless.Hewasthusthe idealcandidateforthosewho wantedmerelyafigurehead kingoftheGermans.His wife’sfamily,theWelfsof Bavaria,supportedLothair’s regnalambitions,andina contestedelectionhedefeated Fredericktobecomekingin 1125.TheGermannobility’s decisionwasnonetheless controversial,sinceitignored therightsofdynastic succession.Frederick’s mother,Agnes,wasHenry IV’sdaughter,andHenryV hadthereforebeenhisuncle. Frederickandhisbrother Conrad,dukeofFranconia, thusinheritedasfamily memberstheterritories personallyownedbyHenryV andhisSalianancestors. However,theyalsoclaimed theCrownlandsgainedby theSaliansasemperors.This amountedtoadeclarationof war,andintheensuing conflictmostoftheGerman imperialcitiesbackedthe brothers.Lothair’simperial coronationbyPopeInnocent IIin1133,althoughatoken ofsubserviencetothepapacy, nonethelesssolidifiedhis authority,andtheStaufen concededdefeatinthe followingyear. RecognitionofStaufen leadershipcameafter Lothair’sdeathin1137,when Conradwaselectedto succeedhim.Factionalism nonethelesspersistedandthe WelfleaderHenrytheProud, dukeofBavariaandof Saxony,contestedConrad’s election.AsLothair’sson-inlaw,Henryhadinheritedthe Saxonduchy.Hewas immenselyrich,andtherefore wellplacedtostartacivil war.Conrad’sdecisionto depriveHenryofhisduchies provedunpopularinboth BavariaandSaxony,andthat divisivenessledtothefirst prolongedperiod(1137–42) ofWelf-Ghibellinearmed conflict.In1152Conradlay onhisdeathbed.Hissonwas onlysixyearsoldandhis brotherFrederickhaddied fiveyearspreviously.Conrad wasnevercrownedemperor, butherecognizedinhis brother’sson,Swabia’snew dukeFrederick,those qualitiesofmilitaryprowess, personalcharmandambitious idealismthatmightdrivethe familyontoimperial greatness.Itwasthenorth Italianshetriedtoconquer whowoulddubthisparticular Frederick“Barbarossa,”and Conrad’snominationofhis nephewheraldedacenturyof StaufenstruggleforEuropean predominance. RIGHTFrederickI (“Barbarossa”)withhistwo sons,HenryVI,HolyRoman emperor,andFrederickV, dukeofSwabia(fromthe Welfenchronikproducedby theBenedictinemonksof WeingartenAbbey,theWelf familymonasteryinsouthern Germany,duringthe1180s). THESTAUFERDYNASTY 1152FrederickvonStaufen, dukeofSwabia,iscrowned kingofGermanyasFrederick I(“Barbarossa”).Heis crownedemperor(1155)by PopeAdrianIV,butthen excommunicated(1160)by PopeAlexanderIII. 1190DeathofBarbarossa. 1191HenryVI,kingof Germany,andhiswife ConstanceofSicilyare crownedemperorand empressbyPopeCelestine III. 1194HenryVIand Constancebecomejoint rulersofSicily.Birthoftheir son,Frederick. 1198FrederickIIiscrowned kingofSicily. 1215FrederickII’s coronationatAachenasking ofGermany. 1220PopeHonoriusII crownsFrederickIIemperor. 1250DeathofFrederickII, whoissucceededbyhisson Conrad. 1254Conraddiesofmalaria. 1258Manfred,FrederickII’s illegitimateson,seizesthe Sicilianthronefrom Conradin,sonofConrad. 1263Thepapacyinvests Charles,countofAnjou,with thekingdomofSicily. 1266BattleofBenevento: CharlesofAnjoudefeatsand killsManfred. FREDERICKI—AKING WITHCHARISMAAND GUILE FrederickIBarbarossa devotedhimselftothecause ofrestoringtheimperial powerbothinGermanyand northItaly.Thetenth-century dynastyofOttonianemperors providedhimwithan inspirationinthisregard,and sodidCharlemagne’s memory.Hewascrowned kingoftheGermansin Aachenin1152andreturned therein1165toattendthe greatservicemarking Charlemagne’scanonization —arecognitionthat Barbarossa,withhis appreciationofsymbolism, hadpromotedpersonally.His imposingphysicalpresence, crownedbyflamingredhair, contributedtohischarisma, asdidhiskeenpractical intelligenceandcourtly grace.Symbolsandgestures werealsoneeded,becausehe hadfewothercardstoplay outsidetheStaufenpower baseinSwabiaand Franconia.However,the inventivenesswithwhichhe impressedhimselfonthe Germanpublic’simagination meantthathisleadership acquiredamythicquality, eveninhisownlifetime.He wascrownedkingofItalyin Paviain1154,andaninitially obligingpapacygavehiman emperor’scrownin1155. Thosewerelargelynominal roles,buthislineagegave Barbarossaamoretangible assetsincehismotherJudith belongedtotheBavarian ducalhouse.Thisgreat representativeofthe Ghibellineinterestwas thereforealsoaWelf,and thatfactencouragedthehope ofreconciliationbetweenthe twofactions.This,though, wastounderestimatethe tenacityofHenrytheLion, theWelfleaderwhohad inheritedtheduchyofSaxony fromhisfather,Henrythe Proud,followingits restorationtothefamilyby KingConradin1142.Henry theLionwasBarbarossa’s equalingraspingthe importanceofsymbolic gestureand,unlikehisrival, hehadthemeanstoexpress hisvisionofGermanglory throughartisticpatronage. HenrywasBarbarossa’s supporterinitially,andthe duchyofBavariawas thereforereturnedtohis dynastyin1156.His foundationofMunich, togetherwithHenry’s embellishmentofBrunswick, hiscapitalinSaxony,marked theduke’scommandofa Saxon-Bavarianpowerblock stretchingfromtheNorthSea totheAlps.Marriageto Matilda,daughterof England’sHenryII,was furtherconfirmationofHenry theLion’sstandingasoneof Europe’sgreatestprinces. Barbarossa’sdecisionto returnBavariatoWelf controlwaspartofhisinitial policyofcompromisewith regardtothefractious Germanprinces.HenryII Jasomirgott,theoustedduke ofBavariawhowasalso margraveofAustria,was compensatedwiththetitleof dukeofAustria.Initially, Barbarossa’spapalpolicy wassimilarlyrealistic,since hewantedanallyinthe struggletorestoreGerman imperialinfluenceinnorth Italy.In1160,however,he wasexcommunicatedby PopeAlexanderIII,whohad decidedthatsuchambitions underminedthepapacy’sown positionasanItalian territorialpower.In retaliation,Barbarossabacked theclaimsofdissidentclergy whorejectedthelegitimacy oftheofficialpapal leadership,anditwas thereforetheantipopePaschal IIIwhocanonized Charlemagneattheemperor’s request. ABOVEHenry(“theLion”) submitstoFrederickI (“Barbarossa”)in1181,in this1882paintingbyPeter Janssen(1844–1908). DEATHINTHEHOLY LAND HenrytheLiondidnotshare Barbarossa’sconvictionthat trueGermangloryrequired anItaliandimension. Moreover,hehadhisown, anti-Slavic,campaignsto fightonthenortheastfrontier. Hisdecisionnottojointhe emperor’smilitaryexpedition againstthecityofRomein 1166contributedtoitsdefeat, andthepatternwasrepeated inBarbarossa’sfifthItalian expedition,launchedin1174. Barbarossawasagaindenied Henry’ssupport,andhewas decisivelydefeatedbythe combinedforcesofLombard northItalyattheBattleof LegnanoonMay29,1176. Asaresulttheemperorhadto moderatehisItalian ambitions,andthesubsequent peacedealarrivedatin Venicerequiredhis recognitionofthePapal States’sovereign independence.Barbarossa’s titleaskingofItalyremained merelynominal,therefore, butinGermanyhewasable topunishHenrytheLionfor disloyaltytotheimperial cause.Romanlawwasoneof thegreatrediscoveriesof 12th-centuryEurope,and Barbarossareliedonits distinctivemethodology— interpretedbyanewcadreof professionallawyers—to overridetraditionalGerman lawandgivenewsubstance totheimperialauthority.In 1180thecaseagainstHenry wasbroughtbeforean imperialcourtoflaw,anduse oftheRomansystemensured thatthedukewasdeprivedof hislandsanddeclaredan outlaw.Asubsequentmilitary invasionofSaxonyby Barbarossa’sarmyledto Henry’sexileinEngland, althoughhewasallowedto returnin1184.Theemperor’s deathduringtheThird Crusadecontributedtothe evolutionoftheBarbarossa legend.Havingreconciled himselftothepapacy, BarbarossatooktheCrossat Mainzin1188butwas drownedintheSalephRiver, inArmenia,onJune10,1190 ashisarmyapproached Antioch.Attemptsat preservingthebodyin vinegarfailed:Barbarossa’s fleshwasburiedinAntioch, hisbonesendedupinTyre cathedral,whilehisheartand vitalorganswereinterredin Tarsus. ITALIANMANEUVERS TheNormankingdomof Sicilyhadbeenapapalallyin theanti-StaufenItalian opposition.WilliamII(1155– 89)waskeentomakepeace, however,sincehewishedto concentratehisforcesona campaignagainsttheGreek empire.TheTreatyofVenice (1177)thereforestipulated thatWilliam’saunt Constance,daughterofRoger II,wouldmarryBarbarossa’s son,thefutureemperorHenry VI.ThatsameyearWilliam marriedJoan,thedaughterof England’sHenryII,andhe canhardlyhaveimaginedthat theeventualmarriageofhis auntattheageof32,in1186, wouldleadtotheendof NormanruleinSicily. Constancewasanelderly bridebythestandardsofthe age,butshewasnevertheless William’slegitimateheirand hisdeathwithoutissuein 1189hadmomentous consequences.HenryVIand Constancewerecrowned emperorandempressin1191 byPopeCelestineIII,andby thenbothwereintenton pursuingtheirSicilianclaim. SouthernItaly’sNorman nobles,appalledatthe prospectofGermanrule,had chosenTancred,agrandson ofRogerII,tobetheirking, andthefinalrebellionof HenrytheLionmeantthat HenryVIneededtoremainin Germanyatthestartofhis reign.By1194,however,the Germansituationwasunder control,andadealwiththe northItaliancitiesallowed Henry’sarmytocrosstheir territoriesonthewaytothe southernkingdom.Hewas alsobynowsuddenlyand enormouslyrich,thanksto thepaymentofaransomin ordertosecuretherelease fromcaptivityofhisprisoner, RichardIofEngland(“the Lionheart”).Plantagenet supportforTancredandfor HenrytheLionplayedtheir partintheemperor’s hostility,andRichardhad quarreledwithLeopold,duke ofAustria,duringtheThird Crusade.Richard’sseizureby Leopoldwhiletravelingback toEnglandgavetheemperor achancetorenewhiscoffers bydemanding,andgetting,a ransomof150,000marks. THEWORLD’S ASTONISHMENT TancreddiedinFebruary 1194,andthedivided Normannobilitywasno matchfortheimperialarmy thattookPalermoon November20.OnChristmas DayHenryVIwascrowned kingofSicily,whichhe wouldruleasjointmonarch withConstance.Thepapacy’s worstfearhadbeenrealized: aGermanimperialhegemony onbothitsnorthernand southernfrontiers.Ithadbeen ayearofwonders,including thebirthonBoxingDayofan heirtoConstanceandHenry. Whenherlaborbeganthe queenwastravelingthrough centralItalytojoinher husbandinPalermo,andshe stoppedatthetownofJesi,in themarchofAncona,inorder togivebirth.Shewasnow40 yearsofageand,inorderto allayanydoubtsaboutthe authenticityoftheevent,she gavebirthinpublic, surroundedbycourtiersand localwitnesseswithinthe tentedpavilionraisedforthe occasioninJesi’scentral square.Thechildwasthen takentoAssisi,wherehewas baptizedandchristened Frederick. THESTAUFERDYNASTY 1079–1268 FREDERICKVONSTAUFEN (1050–1105), dukeofSwabia (1079–1105) FREDERICKIIOFSWABIA (1090–1147) dukeofSwabia (1105–1147) CONRADIII (1093–1152) r.1137–52 FREDERICKI [“Barbarossa”] (1122–90) r.1152–90 HENRYVI (1165–97) r.1190–97 FREDERICKII (1194–1250) r.1198–1250 CONRADIV (1228–1254) r.1237–54 CONRADIN (1252–68) r.1254–58 MANFRED (1232–66) r.1258–66 Thesenseofwonderthat surroundedFrederickatbirth clungtohimashegrewto manhood,andstayedwith himthroughouthislife. Contemporarieswoulddub himstupormundi,“the world’sastonishment”; becauseofhisquesting intellect,restlesspersonality andunconventionalways.In theeyesofthepapacy,which excommunicatedhim repeatedly,hewasanantiChristfigure,areligious skepticwhorefusedtogoon crusade.Butsofarasthe Staufenwereconcerned, FrederickII(1194–1250)was thebestthingsince Barbarossa. HenryVIwantedhistitleto behereditary,andhe thereforesecuredFrederick’s electionaskingofthe Germanswhentheinfantwas justtwoyearsold.Butthe emperor’sdeathayearlater ledhisbrother,Philipof Swabia,andHenrytheLion’s son,OttoofBrunswick,to maketheirownclaimstothe Germanthrone.Constance meanwhilekepthersonin Sicilywherehewascrowned kingin1198,theyearofher death.Sherenouncedonhis behalfanyclaimtothe Germanthroneandsent HenryVI’sretinuebackto Germany.Frederickspent mostofhislifeinSicily’s cosmopolitanambience,but theclaimsofhisStaufen lineagewerenotsoeasily denied,andrebelsagainst OttoofBrunswick,whohad becometheGermankingand emperor,electedhimtobe therivalkingoftheGermans onthreeoccasions.An electionwasonething,but makingiteffectivewas another.Evenafterthethird electionin1215,itwas anotherfiveyearsbefore PopeHonoriusIIIcrowned FrederickemperorinRome. Hisnumerousconcessionsto theGermanprincesleftthem firmlyinthesaddle,andin 1232Frederickallowedthem therightofvetooverimperial legislativeinitiatives.The idealofaGermannational monarchywanedaccordingly, butFrederick’sdevolutionof hisrightstotheGerman princesincludedan accommodationwiththe Welfdynasty,andbythe mid-1230sGermany’sWelfGhibellineconflictwasover. From1220to1236Frederick waseitherinSicilyoron crusade,andafterafinalvisit toGermanyin1236–37,he neverwentthereagain. ABOVEAstatueofFrederick IIinPfullendorf,Germany, whichhemadeafree imperialcityin1220.The statue,sculptedbyPeter Klink,waserectedin2006. ItwashisSiciliankingdom thatinspiredFrederickas ruler,andtheConstitutionsof Melfi(1231)remaina landmarkintheconstitutional developmentofwritten,as opposedtocustomary,law. ThatItaliandimension,along withFrederick’scrusading exploits,broughthiminto prolongedandembittered confrontationwiththe papacy.Frederick’sfailureto jointheFifthCrusade contributedtoitsdefeatin 1221,andhewas excommunicatedin1227 afterillnessdelayedhis participationintheSixth Crusade.BynowFrederick was,atleastnominally,king ofJerusalemfollowinghis marriagetoYolande,the heiresstotheLatinkingdom andwhosefatherJohnof Briennetransferredthetitleto hisson-in-law.Frederick joinedthecrusadein1228at atimethatinconvenienced thepapacy,andasecond excommunicationfollowed. Heoperatedindependently whileoncrusadeand,taking advantageofaSyrianEgyptiandividewithinthe region’sAyyubidrulers,the emperornegotiatedthereturn ofthecityofJerusalem,lost tothekingdomsince1187. OnMarch18,1229 Frederick,stillan excommunicate,crowned himselfkinginJerusalem. However,thetensions betweenhisownagentsand thekingdom’snobility eruptedinopenwarfare,and Ayyubidauthorityoverthe citywasre-establishedin 1244. Frederick’sGerman concessionsmeantthathe couldconcentrateonnorth Italiancampaigning,andin 1237hewonadecisive victoryovertheLombard LeagueattheBattleof Cortenuova.However,his demandthatMilanbe surrenderedunconditionally onlystrengthenedthe resistanceofthenorthItalian communes.Afrightened papacyrenewedFrederick’s excommunicationin1239, andherespondedby annexinglargeareasofthe PapalStates.Theelectionof SinibaldoFieschitothe papacyasInnocentIV(1243– 54)broughttotheforean incendiarypersonalitywho loathedtheStaufen adventurism.Inthesummer of1245thepopedeclared Frederickdeposedas emperor.Healsoplotted, unsuccessfully,againsthimin Germanybybacking Heinrich,landgraveof Thuringia,asanalternative king. THEENDOFTHE STAUFERDYNASTY Fredrickmethisnemesisat Parmafollowingthecity’s rebellioninthesummerof 1247againsttheimperial governmentthathadbeen imposedonit.Frederick’s armysettledintoalengthy siege,butafteritsdefeatat theBattleofParma(February 18,1248),rebellionspreadto therestofnorthItaly.The emperorlostcontrolofthe areasofthePapalStateshe hadannexed,onlytoregain thembythebeginningof 1250.Butthecaptureand imprisonmentofhisson Enzio,imperialvicargeneral fornorthItaly,bythe victoriousBolognese followingtheBattleof Fosalta(May26,1249)wasa debilitatingblow. Frederickwasbynowailing, andfollowinghisdeathon December13,1250atthe castleofFiorentinoinPuglia hissonConradsucceeded himaskingandrulerofboth SicilyandGermany.Hewas unable,however,toassert militarycontrolinSicily. AfterConraddiedofmalaria in1254itwashishalfbrother,Manfred,thetrue inheritoroftheirfather’s physicalandintellectual energy,whoexercisedpower thereasregentonbehalfof thedeadking’sinfantson Conradin.In1258Manfred tookadvantageofafalse rumorthatConradinhaddied, andquicklycrownedhimself. Hethenrefusedtogiveupthe crown,andembarkedona seriesofhighlysuccessful anti-papalcampaignsin northernandcentralItaly. ThepapacyturnedtoCharles, countofAnjou,asits protectoragainstthislatest Staufenenemy,whomit inevitablyexcommunicated. Investedwiththekingdomof Sicilybythepapacyin1263, Charlesdefeatedandkilled ManfredattheBattleof BeneventoonFebruary26, 1266.TheStaufenhadlost theirkingdominthesun,and thedynasticlinewas extinguishedwhenConradin wasbeheadedasatraitor followinghiscaptureby FrenchforcesnearNaples. PARZIVAL TheBavarianknightandpoet WolframvonEschenbach (c.1170–c.1220),authorof Parzival,wasnotthefirst greatartisttobeattractedby thestory.ChrétiendeTroyes, authoroftheunfinished Perceval,leConteduGraal (Perceval,theStoryofthe Grail),wasalsoinspiredby thetale.Hededicatedthe romancetohispatronPhilip, countofFlanders,andhis accountoftheArthurianhero hasastylisticandthematic connectionwithPeredur,one ofthemedievalWelshprose talescollectivelyknownas theMabinogi. ThetrueoriginofParzival’s storyisunknown,butthe varietyofitstreatments showshowliterarymaterial reflectedlocalcircumstances withinacosmopolitan ambience.VonEschenbach’s poem,arguablythegreatest oftheGermanmedieval epics,isinfusedbythe knightlyethicwithits portrayaloftheneedfor compassionatelovewhen searchingforahealing wisdom.Parzival’sgriefstrickenmother,Herzeloyde, hasconsciouslybroughthim uptobeignorantofchivalric knighthoodfollowingthe deathinbattleoftheboy’s fatherGahmuret.Itinerant knights,however,informthe youthofthegloriesof Arthur’scourtatCamelot, andParzivaldepartsforthe islandofBritain.His despairingmother,however, dresseshiminafool’sclothes inthehopethathis appearancewillexcludehim fromcourtlylifeandthe dangerousattractionsof knighthood. Parzival’sstrange appearancemakeshiman objectofcuriosityat Camelot,andheisinstructed intheneedforknightlyselfcontrol.Anevenhigher callingisreservedforhim, however,andhearrivesatthe castleoftheGrailwherehe meetsthemysterious Anfortas,thewounded “FisherKing.” Anfortasisthekeeperof theGrail,buthiswound meansthathecandolittle otherthanfish,andhis sufferingmirrorsthatofhis kingdom,whichseems doomedtosterility.Many knightshavetriedtoheal him,butonlyanindividual withexceptionalspiritual self-understandingcanrelieve Anfortas’ssuffering.That penitentknightturnsouttobe Parzival,whothereforeholds thekeytotheregenerationof thekingdomitself.Liberated fromearlierignoranceand self-centredness,Parzival learnsthatAnfortasis,infact, hismother’sbrother,andhe himselfbecomesintimethe Grailking.VonEschenbach’s highlychargedaccountof knighthood’schallengesand tribulationsgivesa mythologicaldimensionto theGermanempireofthe Staufen.Hisprimary emphasisisontheneedfora spiritualself-understanding, butthethemeofa regeneratedkingdomthathas recoveredfromitswounds anddivisionshasobvious affinitieswiththeGerman empire’spoliticaland militarystrugglesintheage oftheStaufenprinces. Parzival(right)isshownin thismanuscript(1443–46)of WolframvonEschenbach’s poem. THEANGEVIN EMPIRE 1154–1216 StephenofBlois(c.1096– 1154),raisedtothethroneby nobleshostiletothe successionofHenryI’s daughterMatilda,wasthe lastmemberoftheAngloNormandynastytowearthe EnglishCrown.Hisregnal claim,followingHenryI’s deathin1135,was reasonablyjustified:his mother,Adela,wasWilliam theConqueror’sdaughter, andStephenhadbeenpartly raisedattheEnglishcourt. Butforthereasonswhy England’sNorman aristocracyobjectedto Matilda,Henry’ssoledirect heirandhischosen successor,wemustlook beyondhersex.Shewasalso marriedtoGeoffreyofAnjou whoselands,including TouraineandMaine, borderedNormandy—andthe countwasthelatestinaline ofAngevinrulerswhohad territorialdesignsonthe duchy,whichwasa possessionoftheEnglish Crown. Matilda’sfirstmarriage—to HenryV,theHolyRoman emperor—hadgivenherthe courtesytitleofempress. Althoughnotcrownedas suchbythepope,shewas keenonthetitleand continuedtouseitafter Henry’sdeathin1125. Matildawasnotsomeone whoserightscouldbetrifled with,allthemoresosinceher secondhusband,Geoffrey— handsome,vigorousand militarilytalented—was extremelyeagertoconjoin herclaimswithhisown ambition.AssoonasHenryI diedMatildacrossedthe borderintoNormandyto claimherinheritance,but althoughshehadsomelocal supporterstheduchy’swary nobilitydeclaredforStephen. MatildaandGeoffrey remainedundaunted,andthe empress’sinvasionof Englandin1139markeda newstageinthesuccession crisis.Stephenwasbriefly deposedinApril1141,but althoughMatildaruledin Londonforafewmonthsher refusaltocuttaxesmadeher unpopularlocally,andbythe endoftheyearthekinghad regainedhisthrone. InNormandymeanwhile Matilda’scausewas prospering,andGeoffrey’s campaignsin1142–43 securedallthefiefdomswest andsouthoftheSeine.He thentookRouenin1144and proclaimedMatildaand himselfasNormandy’s rulers.Thedukeandduchess ruledtheirterritoryjointly until1149whenitwasceded totheirson,thefutureHenry IIofEngland.LouisVIIwho, askingofFrance,wasthe vassallordofNormandy’s dukes,authorizedthis arrangement.Henry succeededhisfatherascount ofAnjoufollowing Geoffrey’sdeathin1151.At PoitiersonMay18ofthe followingyearhemarried EleanorofAquitaine,who ruledthatduchyinherown rightandwhosemarriageto LouisVIIofFrancehadbeen annulledjusttwomonths previously.Althoughrestored tohisthrone,Stephen’s positioninEnglandremained precarious.Henryarrivedin Englandwithanarmyin January1153and,afterthe suddendeathinAugustof Stephen’ssonandheir Eustace,thekingagreedtoa compromise:thesuccession rightsofhissurvivingson Williamwouldbesetaside, andMatilda’ssonwas recognizedasStephen’sheir. Fromtheendof1153onward Henry—alreadycountofboth AnjouandMaineaswellas dukeofbothAquitaineand Normandy—wastherefore alsoineffectivecontrolof England.Following Stephen’sdeathinOctober 1154thismultititleddynast wascrownedkingofEngland inWestminsterAbbeyon December19. RIGHTGeoffreyofAnjouis shownbearingaswordand shieldonhistombatLeMans Cathedral,France. MAINTAININGTHE ANGEVINTERRITORIES Thenewking’sfather, Geoffrey,hadcalledhimself “Plantagenet,”afterthe broomflower(Planta genista)hehadadoptedashis personalemblem.Duringthe 15thcenturythetermcameto beusedtodescribethe dynastyofEnglishkings descendedfromMatildaand Geoffrey,andwhoserule endedwiththeaccessionof theTudorHenryVIIin1485. InthecaseofHenryII,and hissonsRichardIandJohnI, thephrase“Angevinempire” wascoinedinthe19th centurytodescribetheir collectionofterritoriesthat, coveringthewholeof westernFrance,extended fromthenorthernEnglish bordertothePyrenees. Twelfth-century contemporariesdidnotuse thatterm,however,andthe assemblageofsomany differenttitlesowed everythingtotheluckofthe genepool,theaccidentof dynasticsuccessionandgood fortuneinthechancy businessofwarfare.Aruler capableofmaintaininghis authorityacrosssucha diverseterritoryneededtobe notjustcleverandtoughbut alsolucky—asJohnI’sloss ofNormandy,Anjouand mostofAquitainewould demonstrate. HenryIIwaseducatedinthe lawandisamajorfigurein theevolutionofEngland’s precedent-basedcommonlaw system.Therightsofthe Crownheinheritedin Englandwerewelldefined andsupportedbyan administrationwhich,givena strong-mindedmonarch, couldgiveadirectexpression totheroyalwill. Unsurprisingly,Normandy wastheregime’sclosest parallelforefficientauthority onmainlandEurope.Civil breakdownduringthe anarchicperiodofStephen’s reignhadledtowidespread usurpationofproperty,and theprovisionsofHenry’s measure,theAssizeof Clarendon(1166),specified how12knightscould determinelegitimaterights andorderredresstobemade. Thisarrangementbuilton earlierprovisionsinAngloSaxonlawandwouldbecome knownasthejurysystem. Henry’sappointmentof “justices”(judges)who traveledthecountryhearing caseselevatedtheCrown’s authoritywhilelimitingthe obstructivepowersofselfinterestedlocalnobles. ABOVETheMartyrdomof ThomasBecket,apanelfrom MasterFrancke’sSt.Thomas Altarpiece,commissionedin 1424. Revenuewasthekeytothe enforcementofauthority,and Henry’srigorousapplication ofthetaxcalledscutage, whichallowedvassalstobuy outtheirobligationof militaryservice,enabledhim toemploythemercenaries whoplayedamajorrolein hisarmy.ItwasHenry’s determinationthatthesecular lawoftheking’sjustice shouldpredominateover Churchlawthatbroughthim intoconflictwithThomas Becket,thearchbishopof Canterburywhohadformerly beentheking’sostentatiously loyallordchancellor.Church courtshadbeenacontinuing sourceofauthorityduringthe recentyearsofdisorderin England,andtheyhad extendedtheirareaof competenceduringthat period.TheConstitutionsof Clarendon(1164)represented Henry’sattemptatrestricting theirpowersandlimitingthe scaleofimmunitiesenjoyed bytheclergy.Aprovision thatclergywhohadbeen convictedbytheChurch courtsshouldthenbehanded overtosecularjurisdiction andprosecutedintheking’s courtswasespecially contentious.Fromlate1164 to1170Becketwasinexile inFrance,andhistheatrical campaignagainstthe monarch’spoliciescontinued untilknightsbelongingtothe king’sretinuekilledhimin hiscathedralatCanterburyon December29.Themurder underminedHenry’s authority,andtheagreement hearrivedatwiththepapacy twoyearslaterconcededthe centralpointthatclergyhada rightofappealtoRome. THEANGEVINEMPIRE 1128MatildaofEngland, widowofemperorHenryV anddaughterofHenryIof England,marriesGeoffrey PlantagenetofAnjouwho succeeds(1129)hisfatheras count. 1135HenryIofEnglanddies andissucceededbyhis nephew,StephenofBlois. Matildaconteststhe succession. 1144GeoffreyandMatilda becomedukeandduchessof Normandyfollowinga militarycampaign.Theycede theduchytotheirsonHenry (1149),whoiscrownedking ofEnglandasHenryII (1154). 1170MurderofThomas Becket. 1173–74HenryII’ssons Henry,RichardandJohn uniteinarmedrebellion againsttheirfather’srulein England. 1188Richard(“the Lionheart”)betrayshisfather anddoeshomagetoPhilipII ofFrance:thetwoallies invadeAnjou(1189)and defeatHenryII’sarmy. 1189HenryIIdiesandis succeededbyRichard. 1199DeathofRichardI,who issucceededbyhisbrother John. 1204AFrenchmilitary offensivedrivestheEnglish outofNormandy,Anjouand mostofAquitaine. 1215SupportedbyaFrench army,theEnglishbaronage launchesamilitaryoffensive againstJohn,whodies(1216) whilefleeingfromrebel forces. THESTRUGGLESOF HENRYII HenryIIembarkedonaseries ofwarsaimedatestablishing vassalstatesthatwould operateasbufferzonesonhis territories’frontiers.Welsh princeswereunco-operative inthisregard,andthetwo mostsignificantofthem— RhysapGruffudd,whoruled thekingdomofDeheubarthin thesouthwest,andOwain Gwynedd,whoruledinthe north—joinedforcestodefeat Henry’sarmyattheBattleof Crogen,foughtinthe country’snortheastinthe summerof1165.ButHenry learnedfromhismistakes. Sinceaprojectedinvasionof Irelandwasgoingtobe launchedfromthecoastof Deheubarth,thekingentered intoaformofalliancewith Rhys:theprince’sauthority overtherestofWaleswas recognized,andRhysbecame avassalofEngland’sking. Henrymetwithgreater successinIreland,acountry whoseprovincialkingshad beenbattlingeachotherfor thedignityofhighkingand whereNormaninstitutions, includingaverypatchyform offeudalism,begantospread asaresultofmilitary interventionbytheEnglish Crown.In1167Henry recognizedDermotof Leinsterandallowedhimto recruitEnglishandWelsh mercenariesinhisstruggle forsupremacy.Thesuccesses enjoyedbythenewlyarrived knightsinestablishingtheir ownpowerbasesintheisland discomfitedHenry,who wantedtoimprinthisown regalstamponafastevolvingsituation.He thereforeledpersonallythe majormilitaryexpeditionthat landedatWaterfordin October1171,following whichmostoftheisland’s nativeprincescavedinand paidhomage.Theinstitution ofalordshipofIreland—a fiefdomintheking’sgift— wasacornerstoneoffamily policy,andHenryhad originallyintendedhis youngerbrotherWilliam, CountofPoitou,tobethe beneficiaryofaconquestof Ireland.Thecountdied young,however,andHenry’s sonJohnwasmadelordof Irelandbythekingin1185. John’svisittotheislandin thatyear,thoughbrief, establishedhisunpopularity, andinsubsequentdecades NormanauthorityinIreland dwindledtocovertheareaof thePalethatsurrounded Dublin. In1173–74Scotland’sKing WilliamI(“theLion”) launchedtwoinvasionsof Northumberland—aterritory seizedforScotlandbyDavid IduringStephen’sreignbut regainedfortheEnglish Crownin1157.Afterbeing capturedattheendof1174 Williamhadtoswearfealty toHenry,andthe establishmentofEnglish garrisonsinEdinburghand alongthebordermeantthat southernScotlandwasunder thecontroloftheEnglish. Thissituationlasteduntil 1189,whenRichardIceded authorityintheregionto Williaminreturnforthe moneyheneededtotakepart intheThirdCrusade. NormandywasHenry’score territoryontheEuropean mainland,andhistactics alongitsbordersweresimilar totheonesheadoptedin IrelandandontheEnglish frontierswithinBritain. Brittanywasinthemiddleof asuccessiondisputeinthe 1150safterDukeConanIII’s disinheritanceofhisson Hoel,andHenryinitially supportedthereigningduke, ConanIV,whowasHoel’s nephew.In1166hearranged thebetrothalofhissevenyear-oldsonGeoffreytothe duke’sdaughter,andhethen forcedConan’sabdication. Henrythusbecame,ineffect, therulerofBrittany,thoughit wasneverhisfiefdom.Inthe faceofserialrebellionsbythe Bretonnobility,heinstalled loyalaristocratswhobuiltup hisauthoritywithinthe duchy. ThemarriagetoEleanor madeHenrydukeof Aquitaine—atitleheheldas thesuccessortoherfirst husband,LouisVII.Bythe sametokenhebecameduke ofGascony,aterritorytothe southwestthathadbeenpart ofAquitainesincetheearly tenthcentury,butwhose awkwardterrainrequired carefulmanagement.The countyofToulouselayto Aquitaine’ssoutheastand wasavastareawhosemany fortifiedtownsimpededthe progressofthearmy launchedbyHenryfrom Poitiersin1159.Hereturned withanotherarmyin1161 andthenlefthislocalallies, whoincludedKingAlfonsoII ofAragon,tocontinuethe struggleonhisbehalf.In 1173CountRaymondV eventuallyyieldedand decidedtopayhomageto Henry,thoughthevassalage wasnotenforcedvery rigorously. RELATIONSHIPSWITH THEFRENCH Henry’stortuousrelations withtheFrenchCrownwere aconstantthemeofhis career.KingLouiswas constantlytryingtosubvert Henry’sposition:hehadbeen asupporterofKingStephen ofEngland,andhegave comfort,aswellasrefuge,to ThomasBecketduringthe archbishop’sexile.Hisown positionwas,however, precarious.Notonlydid LouislackHenry’smaterial resources,butuntilthebirth ofthefuturePhilipIIin1165 healsolackedamaleheir. Fiveyearsearlier,Louishad succumbedtoEnglish pressureandagreedtothe marriageofhisdaughter MargarettoHenry’ssecond son,theyoungerHenry,when shewastwoandhewasfive. Philip’sbirthremovedthe prospectofaunitedEnglishFrenchCrown,however.In retaliation,Henrymadea claimtotheAuvergneand Bourges,whereheconducted majormilitarycampaignsin 1167and1170respectively. Oncecrownedking,however, itwasPhilipwhowouldbe Henry’snemesis,bytaking advantageofhissons’ disloyalty. LEFTAnequestrianstatueof RichardI(“theLionheart”) standsoutsidetheUKHouses ofParliament. HenryIIwasaconsistently expansionistrulerbutalsoa dynasticallymindedone.He thereforeallowedhissonsto havetheirowntitles:Henry theYoungerwascrowned kingin1170;Richardbecame dukeofAquitainein1172; Geoffreybecamedukeof Brittanyin1181;andin1185 Johnwasattemptingtoexert hisauthorityaslordof Ireland.HenrytheYounger’s requestthathebeallowedto rulepartofhisfather’s territorieswasdeniedby Henry.Buthissoncould countonthesupportofboth RichardandGeoffrey,and thethreecombinedtoattack theirfatherinthecivilwarof 1173–74.Eleanor,bynow estrangedfromherhusband, tookHenrytheYounger’s sideandwasforawhile imprisonedasaresult.The rebelalsohadthesupportof hisfather-in-law,LouisVII ofFrance.Henrysurvived thatchallenge,onlytobe confrontedbytheimplacable Richard,whoserulein Aquitaineturnedouttobea particularlyroughformof militaryadministration. Justbeforehisdeathin1183 HenrytheYoungerhad joinedalocalAquitainian revoltagainstRichard,who thenrejectedhisfather’s demandthatheshouldyield theduchytoJohn.Geoffrey ofBrittanyhadjoinedhis brotherHenryinattacking RichardinAquitaine,and woulddothesamein combinationwithJohn, althoughtheywerenomatch fortheLionheart,whose militaryprowesscrushed theirforceswithease. Geoffrey’sanimositytoward hisfatherledhimatthesame timetoplotwithPhilipIIof France.AlthoughGeoffrey’s deathin1186removedan importantprospectiveally, Philipsoonfoundanother one:in1188Richardpaid homagetohimforallthe landsthatHenryIIheldin Franceasavassalofthe FrenchCrown.Inthesummer ofthefollowingyearthetwo alliesinvadedAnjou,the heartlandofthePlantagenet dynasty,andoverranboth MaineandTours.Henrywas defeatedinbattleanddiedin 1189intheknowledgethat John,too,hadjoinedthe allianceagainsthim. KINGSOFENGLAND 1100–1272 HENRYI (1068/9–1135) r.1100–35 STEPHENOFBLOIS (1096–1154) r.1135–54 HENRYII (1133–89) r.1154–89 RICHARDI [“theLionheart”] (1157–99) r.1189–99 JOHNI (1167–1216) r.1199–1216 HENRYIII (1207–72) r.1216–72 JOHN—COLLAPSEOFA KING ThelossofNormandyandof AnjoutothearmiesofPhilip IIoccurredin1204during John’sreignasking,anda triumphantCapetiandynasty forcedtheretreatofEnglish forceswithinAquitainetothe regionofGascony,which remainedloyal.Despitehis reputationasacalamitous king,manyofJohn’s achievementsrecallhis father’spreoccupations.He quarreledwiththepapacyand refuseditsnominationof StephenLangtonas archbishopofCanterbury, althoughheeventually submittedafteraneight-year strugglein1213.Justas Henryhaddone,John involvedhimselfcloselywith theworkingsofthejustice system,andhewasan efficientadministratoraswell asakeenraiserofrevenue. Butthelossofhisdynasty’s continentalpossessionsatthe startofhisreignaffectedthe exerciseofJohn’sauthority inEngland,andtheEnglish baronagevoicedtheir resentmentatbeingtaxedas theywouldneverhavedone duringHenryII’sreign.The listofdemandscontainedin theMagnaCartapresentedto JohnatRunnymedeonJune 15,1215representeda rejectionofhisfather’sstyle ofstrongandcentralizing kingship.Havingsigned underduress,theking obtainedthepope’s permissiontobreakhisword, andhewasdefeatedinthe two-yearcivilwarthat followed—wagedinpartbya Frencharmyinvitedinbythe Englishbaronageinorderto supporttheircause.John’s reignhadseentheentire dissolutionofhisfather’s assemblageofterritories,and hisownfailureshadalso dealtablowtothestyleof kinglyauthorityexercisedby HenryII.BothinEngland andinFrance,thefuturelay withthecauseofnational monarchieswhosedynasties exercisedtheirpowerwithin establishedfrontiers—rather thanacrossareasas geographicallyseparate, politicallydisparateand culturallydiverseasthe territoriesofthe“Angevin empire.” ROBINHOOD ThestoryoftheoutlawRobin Hood,whoevadesthe establishedorderbyescaping totheforestwherehelives withhisbandof“merry” men,isanenduringpartof Englishfolklore.Robin’s escapadesarefirstrecorded inliteraryforminballads whoseearliestmanuscripts datefromthe15thcentury, andwhicharesetinthe Englandofoneortwo centuriesearlier. Robinspringstolifeinthis literatureasananti-clericalist, askilledarcher,andan opponentofthesheriffof Nottingham.Thenotionthat Robinwasasupporterof RichardtheLionheartand thathewasdrivenoutof societyduringthemisruleof Richard’sbrotherJohnwhile thekingwasontheThird Crusade,isa16th-century additiontothefable.Robin’s portrayalastheearlof Huntingdon,anaristocrat downonhisluck,issimilarly post-medieval;intheoriginal 15th-centuryversesheis describedconsistentlyasa yeoman.Theballadsform partofawiderculturaltribute toRobintheEnglishhero. MayDaycelebrationsinlate medievalEnglandfrequently involvedrevelersdressingup asRobinandhiscompanions, andplaysabouthisexploits wereoftenperformedduring thesespringtimefestivities.It wasthroughthesedramas thatthefigureofMaid Marionwasaddedtothe RobinHoodliterature. Nohistoricalfigurehas beenidentifiedastheoriginal RobinHood,andtheballads thatportrayhimareworksof literature,notofbiography. Hood’ssocialviewsdo nonethelesscastasharplight onsomemedievalEnglish attitudes.Althoughthe balladeersdescribeaRobin whoisonthesideofthe down-trodden,therearein factnoexamplesinthisearly literatureofhis“givingtothe poor,”andthepeasantryis mostlysignificantbyits absencefromtheHood ballads.Theformsof courtesyobservedbyRobin’s followerswhentheykneel beforehimin acknowledgmentofhis authorityfollowmedieval notionsofprecedenceand honor.Thefactthatthey carryswords,notstaffs, indicatesthattheyare,like Robin,yeomen,andthe literaturepresentsthemasthe backboneofthenation. Robin’squalitiesofcourtesy, politenessandpietyareseen astheconsensualvirtuesthat enableasocietyorkingdom tohangtogether.These contrastwithhisenemies’ mean-spiritedmaterialism andselfishness. Therewasareadyappetite fortheHoodballadsamong thetinyminorityof England’spopulationthat wasliterateand,therefore, influential,andthelegend wasparticularlypopularin gentryhouseholds.Itmay wellbe,therefore,thatthe medievalliterarytradition thatinventedRobinHood reflectsthegoverningorder’s idealizationoftheEnglish virtuesandofthepersonal valuesthatwillpromotea soundandjustsocialorder. Robinhasalwaysbeena proteanfigure,andeach periodhasinventedthe characteritwants.Promotion tothearistocracyinthe16th and17thcenturiesmadehim anestablishmentfigure,one whoseromanticexileended withtherestorationofa benignruler.TheVictorians wereattractedbyRobin’s philanthropy,andtheyturned himintoaleaderoffreedomlovingSaxonswhoarepitted againstfeudalNorman barons.WarnerBros’The AdventuresofRobinHood (1938)gaveaHollywood sheentotheEnglishtale,with theheroandhisbandbeing presentedascheerful exponentsofa“can-do” attitudetolife’schallenges. Robin’sphysicalbeautyis animportantfeatureofthe Hoodtradition.Recent commentaryhasspeculated onwhethertheremaybea covertlygaydimensiontothe appealofthelegend.The originalcorpusofHood literature,togetherwithits subsequentinterpretations, celebratestheintensityof malecomradeshipandshows howtherejectionof conventioncanleadtothe discoveryoftrueidentity. MaidMarion’sfemininity, andpassivity,relegatedherto themarginsintheworldof Hood. Acoloredwoodcutofc.1600 depictingRobinHood,the herooflatemedievalEnglish ballads. THE12THCENTURY RENAISSANCE 1080–1218 Fromthelate11thcentury onward,Europeanculture witnessedarevivalofthearts andletterssoprofoundand wide-rangingthatitmaybe comparedtotheRenaissance thatspreadfromlater medievalItalytotherestof thecontinent.Romanesque artachieveditsfullest developmentduringthis period,andGothic architecturebegantoevolve. Poetry—bothlyricandepic— begantobewritteninthe vernacular,andtheLatin languagewasused innovativelytodescribe advancesinphilosophyand theology.Universitieswere foundedacrossEuropeat centerssuchasSalerno, ParisandMontpellier, BolognaandSalamanca, OxfordandCambridge. Theseweretheplacesthat pioneeredtherediscoveryof ancientauthorslikeEuclid, PtolemyandAristotle,aswell astherevivalofRomanlaw. The12th-centuryrevivalwas acosmopolitanmovement. Italiancentersoflearning wereparticularlyimportant fortheadvancesinRoman andcanonlaw,inmedical scienceandinthenew translationsfromancient Greek.France’sclericaland layintelligentsiawere especiallyactivein philosophicalspeculationand versecomposition.England andGermanyfollowedthese Frenchculturalpatterns,and SpainlinkedtheEuropean milieuwithIslamicculture. TheCarolingianperiodof ninth-centurycultural advancehadbeenreal enough,butitwascentered onthecourtandonthe schoolsattachedto monasteriesandcathedrals— andmanyofthese establishmentshadsuffered fromthetenth-century anarchyunleashedby Vikings,Saracensand Magyars.Amoreexpansive awakeningofthemindand spiritwasnowbeing witnessed,anditsleading lightssoughtnotjustto preservethelegacyofthe pastbutalsotoreviveits contentandmakethat knowledgerelevanttotheir owntimes. Universitieswerenottheonly centersofthisenlightenment. Newcathedralssuchas Chartres,Rheims,Orléans, CanterburyandToledo playedtheirpart,too.The royalbureaucraticmachine wasalsoimportant:learned clerksemployedbyrulers likeHenryIIofEnglandand FrederickIIinSicilyworked atcourtsthatrivaledthegreat monasteries,suchasBecin FranceandMonteCassinoin Italy,ascentersoflearning. Theseweretheplaceswhere librariescouldbefound, althoughcollectionsof manuscriptswerestillmostly verysmall.The340orso volumesownedbytheabbey atCorbieinPicardyandthe 546titlesownedbyDurham Cathedralmarkedthemoutas exceptionalplacesintheyear 1200. RIGHTTherosewindowof ChartresCathedral,a buildingwhichhasbecome synonymouswiththerevival oftheartsandscholarshipin 12th-centuryEurope. ABOVEInthisdetailfromthe TresRichesHeuresduDuc deBerry(15thcentury)a monkisshownworkingasa copyistinascriptorium. THEIMPORTANCEOF THEWRITTENWORD Allbookswereofparchment, sincepapyrushadpassedout ofgeneraluseintheearlier medievalperiodandpaper hadnotyetbeenintroduced totheWest.Carolingianart excelledinilluminated manuscriptsbutthistradition hadbeenlostinEuropeby the11thcentury,andthe 12th-centurymanuscripts whosebeautifulinitialsare paintedinred,greenandgold representasublimerecovery. Suchbooksnaturally includedmanycopiesofthe Bible,aswellaschurch servicebookssuchasmissals andlectionaries.Theyalso includedthedefinitive volumesofFathersofthe earlyChurchsuchas Augustine,Jerome,Ambrose andGregorytheGreat.But thelibrariesalsocontained morerecentworks. Commentarieswrittenby AbelardandAnselmmattered greatly,asdidthoseof authorswhocommunicated thelearningofthepast,such asBoethius,Martianus Capella,IsidoreofSeville andBede.Theirtextbookson logic,rhetoric,arithmetic, musicandetymologybecame thestandardauthorities. Archivesbecamemore importantasadministration evolved,andthe documentationgatheredby themonarchsofEnglandand Sicilyrivaledtheextensive papalsourcesintheir sophistication. The12th-centuryChurchhad anambiguousattitudetoward Latinliterature.Ittaughtthe language—itsmediumof communication—while condemningthepaganmilieu thatwasthecontextforthe writingsofauthorssuchas Cicero,VirgilandOvid. Nonetheless,theliterarystyle ofthepastfurnishedmany writerswithmodelsof composition.Thiswas especiallytrueofJohnof Salisbury(c.1120–80)whose wide-rangingpowersof quotationandgraceful literarystylewerelearned whenhewasastudentatthe schoolofChartres,themost eminentofthe12th-century cathedralschools.Virgilwas readandadmiredatChartres aswellasatmanyothersuch schools,forexample, Orléans,andhewasalmost universallyseenasthe supremepoetandstylistic model.Histhemescouldbe allegorizedasanticipationsof Christiantruths,andasa celebrantofancientRome’s empireVirgilwasespecially pertinenttotheStaufer dynasty’srevivalofthe imperialtradition.ButOvid’s lovepoetryandhis Metamorphosesalsoinspired many,andhisverseswere copiedeveninthe Benedictinemonasteryat Cluny.Amongprosewriters Cicerowasreveredasthe chiefrepresentativeof rhetoric,asubjectplacedon themedievalcurriculumas oneoftheseven“liberal arts,”andPlinytheElder’s NaturalHistorycouldbe plunderedforbizarretales. Latinwasalsoaliving languageforcontemporary artists,scholars,priestsand lawyers,andthestandardsof grammarandvocabulary weregreatlyimproved.The standardtextbookwasthe InstitutionesofPriscianof Caesarea,composedinthe earlysixthcenturyand comprising16books.Itwas beingcopiedvigorously,but therewereshortermanuals, too,andtheagealso producednumerous dictionariesand encyclopedias.Adamdu Petit-Pont,amasteratParis intheearly12thcentury, wroteadescriptive vocabularyinwhichheput wordsintosentencesthat explainedtheirmeaning.That genresuppliesvaluable informationaboutthefabric ofdaily12th-centurylives. Whilestudyinggrammar couldilluminatethe imaginativeandliterary workingsoflanguage, rhetoricfaredlesswellasa subject.Forensicoratoryhad disappearedwiththepassing oftheRomanpoliticaland judicialsystem,andrhetoric onlysurvivedasamodelfor writingletters. THE12TH-CENTURY RENAISSANCE 1080sTheItalianjurist Irneriusestablishes,at Bologna,anewschooloflaw whosescholarswillproduce commentariesonRomanlaw. 1088TheUniversityof Bolognaisfounded. 1109DeathoftheItalian philosopherAnselm, archbishopofCanterbury since1093. 1121PeterAbelard’s philosophicalviewsare condemnedashereticalby Churchauthorities. c.1159JohnofSalisbury, secretarytoArchbishop TheobaldofCanterbury, writesPolicraticus,aworkof politicalphilosophy describingmonarchs’rights andduties. 1160sTheUniversityofParis hasaninstitutionalidentity. 1209Officialdateofthe foundationoftheUniversity ofCambridge,England— possiblyduetoscholars decidingtoleavethe UniversityofOxford. 1218Spain’sfirstuniversity isestablishedatSalamanca. 1289MontpellierUniversity isfoundedbyamalgamating earliercentersofstudy,such astheschooloflawfounded inthe1160s. THERESURGENCEOF SATIREANDDRAMA Therewasanappreciative publicaudienceforpoetry composedinLatin.In religiousverseespecially therewasamoveawayfrom thelanguage’solderforms andtowardthenewintensity ofrhymedverse.Themost famousoftheperiod’sLatin poetsweretheGoliards,a groupofmostlyclerical studentsandauthorsin France,Germany,Italyand Englandwhosetextsinpraise ofwine,womenandsong oftensatirizedtheofficial Churchhierarchy,and especiallytheRomancuria. TheircollectiveCarmina Buranacombinesecular impulseswithreligious inspiration,andthenotionof anOrderofGoliards,which wasaburlesqueontheOrders ofmonks,showsthe popularityofparodyatthis time.Dramahaddisappeared withtheclosingofthelast Romantheaters,butthe Christianliturgyresonated withdramaticpower,andit inspiredthemedievalmiracle playsthatrecreatedscenes fromthePassion.Other miracleplaysdescribedthe livesofsaints,andthesewere performedatassociated shrinesandcultcenters. Studentsatthemonasticand cathedralschoolsplayedan importantroleinthe developmentoftheseplays andtheirwidespread diffusion. CHANGINGLAWS The12thcenturysawthe arrivalofthelawyeratthe heartofgovernment,andthat meanttheChurchnolonger enjoyedamonopolyon learning.Rulerseverywhere neededthisnewclassof educatedlaymenas counselorsand administrators,andan immenseintellectualeffort wentintotherevivalof Romanlawandtheadvance ofjurisprudenceingeneral. Theancientmaterialswere preservedintheCorpusJuris Civilisascodifiedinthesixth centurybytheemperor Justinian.Thisconsistedof theCodeorcollectionofthe emperor’slegislation;the Digestthatsummarizedthe conclusionsofRomanjurists; theInstitutes,atextbookused inteachinglaw;andthe Novels,orlaterlegislationof theemperorJustinian.Itwas juriststeachingatthe UniversityofBolognainthe early12thcentury,and especiallyIrnerius (c.1055–c.1130),whoset aboutproducing interpretationsofthesegreat texts.Theyandtheir successors,termedthe “glossators,”purifiedthe originaltextsandbroughtout theircontemporaryrelevance. TheDigestgainedaspecial importanceasamodelof juristicmethodwhichwas thenappliedtothelawofthe Churchandtothefeudal customsofEurope. Economicexpansioninthe Mediterraneanandnorthern Italycreatednewpatternsof tradeandcommerce.Urban centerswerethereforedrawn totherevivedRomanlaw sinceitcouldreflect contemporaryrealitiesmore readilythantheestablished earlymedievalcodesthat were,asinthecaseofthe Lombards’system,rural based.Governments developingacomprehensive territorialbureaucracywere alsoattractedbyasystemof lawsbasedongeneral validityratherthanlocal custom.Romanlawalso benefitedfrom,and contributedto,therevivalof imperialismundersuccessive Germanemperorswhosought tostrengthentheRoman traditionandideology. FrederickBarbarossawasan astuteuserofitsteachings, andheenjoyedthesupportof theLawSchoolofBologna whenheassertedhisrightsas aruleroverthetownsof Lombardy. Italianuniversitiesdiffused theRomanlawtoFranceand Spain.Montpellierwaswell placedtodothissince Provence,onceaRoman province,retainedmany featuresoftheclassicallegal system.TheEnglishCrown declaredagainstRomanlaw, butmanyofthecountry’s churchmenusedRomanlegal principleswhenarguing canonlaw(socalledbecause itwasbasedonthe collectionsofrulesorcanons producedbyChurch councils).Canonlawargued forthelegalsystemofa universalChurch,andits universalitythereforeblended wellwithRoman jurisprudence.Itssources werevarious,andsoin c.1140themonkGratianof Bolognaproducedthe immenselyinfluential collectionofcanonlaw knownastheDecretum, whichsystematizedand reconciledtheseauthorities. Canonlawbecameafully independentsystemand, sinceithadalsoabsorbedthe principlesofRoman jurisprudence,italsoserved asavehicleforthe transmissionoftheRoman law.EvenEnglandtherefore observedtheinfluenceofthis continentalsystemsofaras theChurchwasconcerned. Here,however,itwasthe commonlaw—asystem basedoncustomand precedent—thatwasthe cornerstoneoftheking’slaw. ARABINFLUENCESIN SCIENCEANDCULTURE Europeanlearningwas stimulatedbythearrivalin theWestofthetexts describingancientGreek philosophyandscience.Since therehadbeensofew translationsintoLatinof theseworks,thechiefconduit herewasthosescholarsof Byzantiumwhohad translatedtheGreektextsinto Syriac,HebrewandArabic. Manyofthesetranslations traveledeasttothePersian court,andtheyalsoexistedin theByzantineprovincesthat felltoseventh-andeighthcenturyArabinvaders.Those conquestsgaveanew impetustotranslation,since manyoftheIslamiccaliphs wereenthusiasticpatronsof learning.Arabictranslations werethereforemadedirect fromtheGreek,asinthecase ofPtolemy’sAlmagest(The GreatCompilation)in827,as wellasfromSyriacand Hebrew.Thefocuswason worksinmedicine, mathematics,astronomy, astrologyandalchemy,with theArabtranslatorsadding theirownobservationsand discoveriestotheancient texts. ABOVEGeorgius Pachymeres,a13th-century Greekhistorianandwriter. Scholarsworkinginthe Byzantineempiretranslated GreektextsintoArabic, whichwerethentranslated intoLatinforEuropean scholars. Untilthe12thcenturythere hadbeenlittleintellectual contactbetweentheLatin WestandArabculture.The multiculturalkingdomof Sicily—administeredbyArab rulersinthetenthand11th centuries—sawrealcultural synergy,andtheSicilian courtemployedmanyArab doctorsandastrologerseven aftertheisland’sconquestby theNormans.Butitwasin Spain,withitslonghistoryof Islamicoccupationfromthe eighthcenturyonward,that mostoftheimportantwork wasdone.Translationfrom theArabicversionsofthe ancientGreektextstook placeinthemajorcitiesof thepeninsula,andthatwork becameespeciallyactivein the12thcenturywithnew attentionbeingpaidto astronomyandmathematics. FromSpaincameEuclidand hisalgebra,aswellasthe philosophyandscienceof AristotleandhisArabic commentators,informsthat changedsubsequent Europeanthought.Euclid’s ElementsappearedinaLatin translationfromtheArabicin theearly12thcentury,with hisDataandOptics followingagenerationlater. ThearrivalofAristotle’s Physics,alongwithhis MeteorologyandDeCaelo (OntheHeavens), transformedEuropeans’ understandingofthenatural world.Europeanmedicine wasrevolutionizedbythefull recoveryoftheancient Greeks’literatureonthe subject,especiallysointhe caseofworksbyGalenand Hippocrates,andtranslations fromtheworksofArab doctorsalsogainedawide currency. SomeArabicwordswereleft untranslated,whichiswhy thetermsalgebra,zeroand ciphersurvivein mathematics,alongwith almanac,zenithandnadirin astronomy.Thetranslations inspiredsomeindependent scientificobservationinthe West,ascanbeseeninthe workofAlbertusMagnus. Buttheirmorewidespread impactwascurricular;the arrivalofancientwisdomin accessibleformstimulated arithmetic,geometry, astronomyandmusic—the subjectscomprisingthe quadriviumorthe mathematicalpartofthe sevenliberalartsthatwere thebasisofmedieval education. THEARISTOTELIAN REVIVAL AncientGreeksciencewas abstractanddeductiverather thanexperimental,andas suchitwasseenasabranch ofphilosophy.Thissuitedthe classificationofknowledgein 12th-centuryEurope,andthe venerationofAristotleasthe supremephilosopherwasa profoundfeatureofthe period’srecoveryofclassical Greekthought.Plato’smore discursiveandliterarystyle hadlittleinfluencecompared withthecompactand systematicmethodof Aristotle,withhismany textbooksandmanuals fashionedfromlecturenotes. Theuniversalnatureof Aristotle’sgeniusisthe backgroundtothe developmentinthe13th centuryofthesystemof ThomasAquinas.Bytheend ofthe12thcentury, Aristotelianlogichadbeen absorbedintoEuropean thought,andthe philosopher’sMetaphysics wastranslatedinc.1200, followedbyEthicsand Politics.Aristotlewas thereforeassimilatedwithin theChristianconsensus, thoughthisrequireda softeningofsomeofhismore un-Christianbeliefs,suchas theteachingthattheuniverse waseternal.WithAristotle, however,therealsoarrived Averroes(1126–98),his greatestArabcommentator. Averroeshighlighted doctrinessuchastheeternity ofmatterandtheunityofthe intellectand,sincethese teachingsdeniedindividual immortality,theirimpact wouldstimulateheresyand dissentinmedievalEurope. AnselmandAbelardwerethe chiefphilosophersoftheage, andbothpre-datethereal impactofAristotleinthe West.Anselm(1033–1109) soughttoprovethenecessary existenceofGod,andhisuse ofdialecticshowedhowfaith shouldalsobeinquiring. Abelard(1079–1142)wasa teacherofdazzling originality,andonewhowas notaversetobeingthecenter ofaParisianpersonalitycult. Theorthodoxyofhisday defendeduniversals—or generalcategories—as necessarybeforethemind couldproceedtograsp particulars.Abelard’sdissent onthissubjectledtohis condemnationforheresyin 1121and1141.Hispungent treatiseSicetNon(Yesand No)wasapioneeringworkin thedevelopmentofthe dialecticalstyle,sinceittook evidencefromthepaston varioustopicsandarranged themasaseriesof propositions.Abelard’s emphasisonthe contradictionstendedto undermineorthodoxy.The methoditselfthoughproved immenselyinfluentialinthe 13th-centurydevelopmentof thescholasticsystem,and universityteachingofthe trivium(adivisionwithinthe sevenliberalarts)was thereforeslantedtowardlogic attheexpenseofitsother components:grammarand rhetoric.Theologyremained thehighestformof knowledge,andwhen philosophytrespassedonits terrainitwastobe condemned—asAbelardhad been.Somefollowersof AverroesintheLatinWest triedtoadvanceadoctrineof doubletruth,withphilosophy andtheologybothbeingtrue, butonlywithintheirown respectivedomains.Butthe Churchforbadthatescape routeoutofcontradiction. Thatinterdictionisthe backgroundtothe establishmentofaseriesof inquisitions,orformal investigationsintoheretical teachings,thatbeganinthe 1180s,andwhosepenaltiesof deathbyburningshowedthat some12th-century speculationcouldbe dangerousaswellas audacious. HISTORICALWRITING Historywasoneofthegrowth subjectsofthe12thcentury, andafreshsenseofcritical inquiryisevidentinthevogue forbiographiesandmemoirs thatsupplementedtheannals andchroniclesofsaints’lives whichwerethetraditional medievalwayintothepast. TheTenBooksofHistories, writtenbyGregoryofTours (c.538–94),werestillbeing usedtoprovideinformation concerningtheFranks’early traditionsandtheprocessof theirChristianizationasthe Gauloflateantiquitymutated intoearlymedievalFrance. Butthehagiographical elementinGregory’swork setsitapartfromthose12thcenturyhistoriansandtheir immediatesuccessorswho, whilenolessdevoutthan Gregory,couldnonetheless distinguishbetweenfables andreasonablyascertained fact.Thiswasagreatperiod forthecompilationof encyclopedias.Speculum Maius(TheGreaterMirror), writtenbytheDominican friarVincentofBeauvais (c.1190–c.1264),isdivided intothreebooksthatdeal respectivelywiththenatural sciences,contemporaryforms ofappliedknowledgesuchas surgery,agricultureand politicalscience,andworld history. TheEnglishmanOrderic Vitalis(1075–c.1142)amonk oftherichandinfluential foundationatSaintEvroulin Normandy,wrotean EcclesiasticalHistorywhich, althoughstartingwiththe birthofChrist,ischiefly remarkableasaworkof contemporaryhistorythat describesWesternEuropean politicaldevelopmentsinthe late11thandearly12th centuries.Orderic’s backgroundledhimtotakea specialinterestinthe workingsoftheAngloNormanstate,andthe frequentvisitorstoSaint EvroulfromEngland,aswell asfromsouthernItalywhere themonasteryhadestablished manydaughterfoundations, suppliedhimwiththe informationthatlendsan internationaldimensiontohis work.TheCistercianmonk OttoofFreising(c.1114–58) authoredaChroniclethat offersasuperbgeneral historyinaphilosophicvein, andhisGestaFriderici imperatoris(Deedsof EmperorFrederick)describes thehistoryofGermany duringtheinvestiturecontest asthebackgroundto FrederickIBarbarossa’s electionasKingofGermany in1152.Ottodiscussesthe firstyearsofBarbarossa’s reigninsomedetail,and althoughhewasrelated throughhismothertothe emperor,whocommissioned himtowritethebookand suppliedapreface,theGesta offersastrikinglyobjective historicalnarrative.William ofMalmesbury(c.1080– 1143)wasamonkofthe localBenedictinefoundation inWiltshire,andhisGesta RegumAnglorum(Deedsof theKingsofEngland)isa research-basedand sophisticatedaccountofthe monarchy’sdevelopment fromthemid-fifthcenturyup totheauthor’sowntime.A comparablesenseofhow institutionsdevelopand changeispresentinthe historyoftheabbeyofSaintDenisnearPariswrittenby AbbéSuger(c.1081–1151), whoshowsgreatskillin relatingthefoundation’spast tothewidercontextofearly Frenchhistory. AstatueofGregoryofTours, sculptedbyJeanMarcellinin theearly1850s,standsinthe CourNapoléonoftheLouvre Museum,Paris. THETRIUMPHOF THECAPETIANS 1180–1328 ThelaterperiodofCapetian rule,fromthereignofPhilip IIAugustus(1180–1223)to thereignofCharlesIV (1322–28),sawtheFrench monarchyestablishedasthe greatestpowerinEurope.A regularsequenceofmale heirstothethrone guaranteedthedynastic succession,andnoother familyofFrencharistocrats challengedtheCapetianright torule.Thevastterritorial acquisitionsofthe13th centurymeantthat substantialfiefdomscouldbe grantedtotheking’syounger sons,andthatsystemof “apanage”softenedtheblow ofprimogeniturewhile promotingtherulingfamily’s solidarity.Agenerallyclose relationshipwiththepapacy wasanimportantelementin theCapetians’international renown.Butthekingswere alsosustainedbytheir reputationforsacralpower. Theactivityknownas “touchingfortheking’sevil” wasbasedonthebeliefthat sufferersoftheskindisease scrofulacouldbecuredbya touchoftheking’shand.The healingceremonywasamass phenomenonandtestifiedto theintimateassociation betweenthekingandhis people. Fromthelate12thcentury onwardroyaladministration acquiredsomeofitstypical institutionssuchasthe conseilduroiorcuriaregis, thecouncilthatadvisedthe kingonpolicyand administration.Withthe consolidationofaFrench statetherecameanew appetiteforadventure.The laterCapetians’restoration andrearrangementofthe tombsoftheMerovingian andCarolingiankingsat Saint-DenisinParisshowed morethanjustarespectfor thepast.Thiswasalsoa symbolicgestureplacingthe Capetiansinatraditionof monarchicalambitionthat wishedtoextendFrancia’s boundaries. ThefactthatPhilipII Augustusbrokewith Capetianprecedentbynot havingtodesignatehisson, LouisVIII,askingduringhis ownlifetimeshowsthe degreeofsecurityhebrought totheFrenchCrown.Philip canbeseenastheFrench nationalmonarchy’seffective founderandhislocal architecturallegacycanstill beseeninParis,acityhe encircledinamassive defensivewallenclosinga newcivicareaofsome600 acres(250hectares).In1202 heorderedbuildingtostarton themajorstrongholdcalled theLouvre,anditwasaroyal initiativethatensuredthe pavingofthemajorstreetsof Paris.Philipalsoorderedthe constructionoftwolarge stonebuildingsatthemarket ofLesHallesontheRight Bank.Thecity’sincreasing levelsofsafety,hygieneand embellishmentwerepaidfor bytaxesimposedonroyal vassals.Philipprovedtobe adeptataugmentinghis revenue,andintheOrderof KnightsTemplar—whomhe usedashisbankers—hehada reliableally.Muchofthe moneyalsocamefrom ParisianJews,whowere abominablytreatedbythe king.In1180Philipordered thatJewswhohadpreviously enjoyedroyalprotection shouldbeimprisonedand thenforcedtobuytheir freedombysurrenderingall theirgoldandsilver.A subsequentdecreeof1182 thatwipedoutdebtsowedto thecity’sJewswas unsurprisinglypopularamong debtors.Philip’sexpulsionof theJewsfromFranceinthat samedecreewasonly partiallyimplemented, however,andthosewhodid leaveeventuallyreturnedand settledintheareaofthe Marais. RIGHTTheGrandes ChroniquesdeFrance(1274– 1461)illustrateascenein whichPhilipIIAugustusisin conversationwithabishop. THETRIUMPHOFTHE CAPETIANS 1204FollowingEnglish militarydefeats,Normandy, AnjouandmostofAquitaine areruledbytheFrench Crown. 1214BattleofBouvines:the Frencharmydefeatsthe alliedforcesofEngland, FlandersandtheGerman empire. 1248Consecrationofthe Saint-Chapelle,LouisIX’s privatechapel. 1250TheEgyptianarmy capturesLouisIXduringthe SeventhCrusade.Following hisreleasehespendsfour yearsindiplomaticactivityin theMiddleEastbefore returning(1254)toFrance. 1305LilleandDouai, previouslypartofthecounty ofFlanders,arecededto France. 1307PhilipIVestablishesa newcourtoflaw,the ParlementofParis.He embarksonthepersecutionof membersoftheOrderof KnightsTemplar. 1316PhilipVaccedestothe throneratherthanJoan,the daughterofPhilip’sbrother LouisX.Philipjustifieshis coronationbyinvokingthe Saliclaw,whichassertsthat womencannotinheritthe FrenchCrown. 1324ThewarofSaint-Sardos endsinFrenchdefeat. RECOVERINGENGLISH TERRITORIES Philip’scampaigning,both diplomaticandmilitary,was dominatedbyoneconsistent goal:theremovalfrom FrenchsoiloftheEnglish Crown’sterritorialrights.He startedaseriesofdisputes againstHenryIIofEngland, whowasalsocountofAnjou aswellasdukebothof NormandyandofAquitaine, andindoingsohewasableto exploitHenry’sfraught relationswithhisrebellious sons.RichardtheLionheart chosetopayhomagetoPhilip inNovember1188,andtheir jointmilitarycampaignin Anjouduringthesummerof thefollowingyearforcedthe Englishkingtorenewhis homagetoPhilipjustbefore hisdeath.Relationsbetween Richard,nowkingof England,andPhilipbecame strainedduringtheThird Crusade,however,andafter hisprecipitatedeparturefrom theexpeditionPhilipstarted toplottoensurethereturnof theterritoryknownasthe VexintotheFrenchCrown. TheVexinadjoinedthe duchyofNormandyandhad beengrantedtoRichardwhen hebecameengagedto Philip’ssister,Alice. AlthoughRichardbrokethat engagementin1191,Philip hadinitiallyallowedhimto keeptheterritoryinorderto maintaintheThirdCrusade’s coalition.Henowwantedit backandpersuadedPrince John,Richard’sbrother,to joinhiminwagingwar againsttheLionheart. In1193Philipinvadedfirst theVexinandthen Normandy,wherehemade substantialterritorialgains. Richardwasatthistimestill aprisoneroftheGerman emperorHenryVI,following hiscapturewhiletraveling backfromthecrusade.But hisreleasefromcaptivityat thebeginningof1194 heraldedthestartofamajor Englishcampaigntoregain controlofallNormandy— whichhadbeenlargely achievedbytheendof1198. However,Richard’sdeaththe followingyear,andthe accessionofhisbrotherJohn, ledtoasharpreversalof Englishfortunes.Underthe termsoftheTreatyofLe Goulet(1200),theEnglish cededcontroloflargepartsof NormandyandJohnhadto acknowledgethatthecounts ofBoulogneandFlanders werevassalsoftheFrench, ratherthantheEnglish, Crown.Thetreaty’s provisionsemphasizedthat Johnonlyheldhisremaining FrenchterritoriesasPhilip’s vassal,andhisfailuretoobey asummonstoattendthe Frenchkingledtoafurther outbreakofwarin1202.By 1204theFrencharmyhad seizedthelastEnglish territoriesinNormandyas wellasmostofAquitaineand thecountshipofAnjou.Asa disloyalvassal,Johnwasthen formallydispossessedby PhilipofalltheFrenchlands hehadheldunderthe suzeraintyoftheFrench Crown. ABOVEAdramatic reconstructionofPhilipII Augustus’svictoryat Bouvines(July1214)bythe FrenchartistHoraceVernet (1789–1863). Philip’sexploitationofa weakenedEnglandalso playeditspartinhis Europeancontinentalpolicy. TheGermanemperorOtto IV,oftheWelfdynasty,was KingJohn’snephewandan Englishally,butboth monarchshadfallenfoulof thepapacy.Johnwasrefusing toacceptapapalnomination totheseeofCanterbury,and Ottowastryingtodispossess FrederickIIofhisSicilian kingdom.Thepapacy, however,regardedkingsof Sicilyasitsvassals,and Otto’scampaigntherefore impingedonpapalrights. Philip’sinterventionin Germanaffairssawhim backingrebelliousnobles whoweresupporting Frederick’scause,whileJohn inevitablysupportedOtto. Atfirst,Philipenvisaged capitalizingontheAnglopapalquarrelinorderto justifyaFrenchinvasionof England.Johnwasportrayed inFrenchpropagandaasan enemyoftheChurch,andthe invasionwasthereforebeing canvassedasaprincipled campaigninsupportofpapal authority.Thisplancame unstuckwhenJohn capitulatedandacceptedthe rightofpapalinvestiture.An agreedformuladeclaredthat thekingdomofEnglandwas apapalfiefdomruledbyJohn asthepope’svassal,anda Frenchattackonitwould thereforealsohavebeenan outragecommittedagainstthe papacy.However,thefact thatFerdinand,countof Flanders,wastheonlyoneof Philip’sfeudalbaronsto opposetheinvasionplan— andhaddonesomoreoverat atimewhenJohnwasstillan excommunicate—gavethe Frenchkingthepretextfor anotherwar.Therulerof Flanders,havingbreachedhis feudalobligationof obedience,couldbepunished legitimately.Thearmiesof JohnofEnglandandthe GermanemperorOtto supportedFerdinandinthe ensuingconflict(1213–14). Themajorvictorywonby Philip’sarmyatBouvineson July27,1214setthesealon WesternEurope’snewpower alignments.Thehumiliated EnglishCrownseemedto havenoprospectofever regainingitsFrench territories,andinthis weakenedconditionthe monarchywasforcedto acceptthedemandsfor baronialrepresentationas drawnupintheMagnaCarta in1215.TheGermannobility deposedtheshamedOttoand replacedhimwithFrederick II.AndFrenchmonarchy gainedinauthorityasan institutionstronglyidentified withthecauseofthenation. THELATERCAPETIAN DYNASTY PHILIPIIAUGUSTUS (1165–1223) r.1180–1223 LOUISVIII (1187–1226) r.1223–26 LOUISIX [“St.Louis”] (1214–70) r.1226–70 PHILIPIII [“theBold”] (1245–85) r.1270–85 PHILIPIV [“theFair”] (1268–1314) r.1285–1314 LOUISX (1289–1316) r.1314–16 JOHNI [“thePosthumous”] (1316) r.November15–20,1316 PHILIPV (1292–1322) r.1316–22 CHARLESIV (1294–1328) r.1322–28 LOUISIX—CRUSADER ANDPERSECUTOR Thecrusadingactivitiesof LouisIXduringhisreign(r. 1226–70)showedtheFrench monarchy’sinternational authorityaswellastheking’s intimateassociationwiththe Church.Hewascapturedby theEgyptianarmyin1250 duringtheSeventhCrusade, andthefouryearsLouisspent intheMiddleEastfollowing hisreleasesawhim rebuildingthecrusader settlements’defensesand engagingindiplomatic negotiationswiththe neighboringIslamic governmentsofSyriaand Egypt.Fearfulofthecrusader states’exposuretothe militarythreatposedby Baybars,theMamlukrulerof EgyptandSyria,Louis launchedanEighthCrusade. Itwasthatexpeditionwhich claimedhislifeafterhewas takenillatTunisin1270.The magnificenceoftheSainteChapelle,commissionedby thekingtobehisprivate chapelandconsecratedin 1248,makesSt.Louisan importantfigureinthe evolutionofFrenchaesthetic taste.Andthebuilding’s positionwithintheroyal palacethatstoodontheÎlede laCitéwasalsodesignedto showhowFrenchmonarchy wasreplacingthecrisisafflictedHolyRomanEmpire astheinstitutionalleaderof ChristianEurope. REVENUE-RAISING SCHEMES Louis’sownmodelofa Christianmonarchembraced anti-Semitismasamatterof course,andsome12,000 manuscriptcopiesofthe Talmudwereburnedonroyal commandin1243.Jews engagedinusurywere expelledfromFranceonthe proclamationoftheSeventh Crusade,withthesaleoftheir confiscatedpropertiesbeing usedtosubsidizethe expedition’scosts.Increasing revenuebyturningagainst theJewswassomethingofa Capetiantradition;PhilipIV (“LeBel”),whoreignedfrom 1285to1314,appropriated theiroutstandingloansafter orderingtheexpulsionofall JewsfromFrancein1306. Philip’sdeterminationto maximizeroyalrevenuewas partlyaresultofthecostsof war.Hewenttowaragainst Flanders,andalthoughthe peaceof1305recognized Flemishindependence,the prosperouscitiesofLilleand Douai,enrichedbythecloth trade,hadtobecededto France.Healsocampaigned inAquitainewhere,in1294– 98and1300–03,EdwardIof Englandwasforcedtodefend theregionofGuienne,which wastheonlypartoftheir onceexpansivedukedomthat theEnglishstillcontrolled. LEFTAstatueofLouisIXin Paris’sSainte-Chapelle,a buildingcommissionedbythe Kingandwhichservedashis privatechapel. Technologicaladvanceswere certainlyincreasingthecosts ofwar,butthedrivetoraise moremoneyalsoreflected Philip’sconvictionthatthe Frenchnationalmonarchy shouldbeanefficient bureaucracywithan exclusiveauthorityoverits subjects.Hisestablishmentin 1307ofanewcourtoflaw, theParlementofParis,was partofthatprogramsinceits jurisdictioncoveredthe wholekingdom.Philip’s subjectscouldusethe Parlementtoappealagainst thelowercourts’decisions,a rightwhichdiminishedthe nobility’srightsof jurisdictionlocally. Philip’sdriveforuniformity resultedinhisimpositionof taxationontheFrenchclergy. Thatmeasure,whileshowing theincreasinglyimportant roleofcivillawyersinthe governmentalmachine,also ledtoaquarrelwithPope BonifaceVIII(1294–1303). Thewealthandindependence oftheKnightsTemplarmade themPhilip’snextvictims. Heavilyindebtedtothe knights,Philiptook advantageoftheir unpopularityandin1307 orderedthearrestofthose membersoftheOrderwho wereoperatinginFrance.The papacyhadnowrevertedto itsusualpro-Frenchposition, andlaterthatsameyear ClementVobligedPhilipby issuingapapalbull instructingEuropean monarchstoarrestall Templarsandconfiscatetheir assets.Followingaseriesof trialsontrumped-upcharges, dozensoftheknightsarrested onPhilip’scommandwere burnedatthestakeinParisin 1310,andthepapacy officiallydissolvedtheOrder in1312. ThreesonsborntoPhilipIV satontheFrenchthrone duringthelastyearsof Capetiankingship.Thereign ofLouisX(1314–16)saw alliancesofregionalnobles reactingagainstthefiscal demandsinitiatedbyPhilip, andLouis’sdecisionof1315 tograntfreedomtoFrench serfswaspromptedbythe needtoplugtheconsequent gapinroyalrevenue.Serfs owneddirectlybytheking hadtopayhimfortheir freedom,andthoseownedby theking’ssubjectshadtopay asumsharedequallybetween Louisandtheformerowners. Serfswhocouldnot,or wouldnot,buytheirfreedom hadtheirgoodsconfiscated, withtheproceedsgoingtothe Crown.TherevenueproducingcapacityofJewish commercepromptedanother majorchangeingovernment policy:in1315Jewswere allowedtoreturntoFrance foraninitial12-yearperiod underspecificconditionsthat excludedthemfrom practicingusury. SomeoftheCrown’smoney wasspentkeepingmilitary andcommercialpressureon Flanders,whose independenceandgreat wealthirkeditsfeudal suzerain,theFrench monarchy.PhilipV(1316– 22)succeededtothethrone whenJohnI,LouisX’s posthumouslybornson,died afterareignlastingfivedays, anditwasPhilipwho attemptedadiplomatic solutionoftheFlemish question.CountRobertIII agreedthathisgrandson Louiswouldinherit,and sincetheyoungprincewas beingbroughtupatPhilip’s courttheagreementseemed toguaranteeareliablyproFrenchfutureforFlanders. LouisI(1322–46),however, lackedalocalpowerbase, andFrenchforceshadto interveneinhissupport followingtheFlemishrevolt (1323–26)againstthecount’s rule. ASSERTINGCAPETIAN DOMINANCE PhilipV’saccessionhadbeen controversialinitially,but thosenobleswhosupported therightsofLouisX’s daughter,Joan,weretrumped byPhilip’sswiftcoronation atRheimsin1316. Thereafter,hereliedonthe famousSaliclaw,andits denialofafemalerightof regalsuccession,tobolster hisauthority.Philip’s establishmentofthecourdes comptes,chargedwith governmentalauditand promptrevenuepayment, provedtobealastingfeature ofFrenchadministration. BothPhilipandhisbrother, whosucceededhimas CharlesIV(1322–28), nonethelessfacedEnglish challengesinthesouthwest. Guiennemightbetheonly sliverofFrenchlandleftto Englishkings,butitwasa near-autonomousprovince. EdwardIIrefusedtopay homagetoLouisX,only reluctantlypaidhomageto PhilipVandthenrenewedhis refusalinregardtoCharles IV. “TENNISBALLS,MY LIEGE” Theinsulting“treasure”that France’sDauphinsentto HenryVinShakespeare’s playhadlongsinceplayedits partinFrenchsport.LouisX (1314–16)wasan enthusiasticplayerofjeude paumeor“gameofthepalm” fromwhichmoderntennisis derived,andhisinnovationof anindoorcourtsupplemented thegame’soutdoorversion. Inbothcasestheaimwasto serveandhittheballwith glovedhands,though barehandedversionsofthe gamewerealsoplayedatan earlierstage.Theserver’scry of“tenez,”or“lookout,”may betheoriginoftheword “tennis.”Itsindoorform, whenplayedwiththeracket (apost-medievalinnovation), wouldlaterbecalled“real”to distinguishitfromthelawnbasedversionthatbecame popularinthe19thcentury. Jeudepaume,whenplayed indoors,involvedthehitting oftheballwithinanentirely enclosedspace,whilethe originaloutdoorversion involvedacourtconsistingof justafrontwallandtwoside walls.ThegameLouis played,however,wasalready historic,andearlierversions ofitwerebeingplayedin Francebyatleastthe12th century.TheSpanishgameof pelotaandtheItalianpalla, alsohandballgamesplayed withinacourt,areofsimilar antiquity.TheEnglishfives,a gameplayedwithoutaracket, belongstothesamefamilyof sports.Louis’sinnovation waswidelyimitatedinroyal andaristocraticpalacesacross WesternEurope,andthe playingofjeudepaumein speciallybuiltindoorcourts showedtheemergent influenceoftheFrenchas arbitersoffashionandsocial style.Thepneumonia,or possiblypleurisy,thatkilled theyoungkinghasbeen attributedtothelargeamount ofchilledwinehequaffedto coolhimselfdownaftera particularlyvigorousgameof jeudepaume. LeJeudePaume,an anonymous18th-century engravingoftheprecursorto moderntennis. Anglo-Frenchresentments cametoaheadinthemilitary conflictof1324whichis namedafterthevillageof Saint-SardosinGuienne.It washere,justwithinthe English-controlledsideofthe border,thataFrenchsubject hadraisedabastideorsmall fortifiedtown.Local landownerswhofearedit mightattracttheirworkers awayfromthelandburned thebastidetotheground;in doingthis,theyhadenjoyed thetacitsupportofthelocal Englishadministration. CharlesIVthereforedeclared thattheEnglishhadforfeited theduchyofAquitaine,and hisforcesencounteredlittle resistanceduringtheirsixweekcampaignastheyswept throughGascony.CharlesIV, lastoftheCapetiankings, hadmadehispoint,andthe Englishwereallowedto retaintheirexiguous territorialpresenceinthe southwestwiththeexception oftheborderregionof Agenais,whichbecame Frenchcontrolled.Rightto thelast,therefore,Capetian kingshipcouldexultinits triumphs,andEngland’s courtiers,noblesandsoldiers wereleftponderingthe questionofhowbestto avengesobitteradefeat. THETHIRD CRUSADE 1144–1192 Bythelate12thcenturythe predominantpowerinthe IslamicMiddleEastwasthe Ayyubiddynasty,whose founderSaladin(SalahadDin,c.1138–93)wasof Kurdishdescent.Following thedepositionofEgypt’s FatimidcaliphateSaladin becamefirstthecountry’s vizier(1169)andthenits sultan.In1174heimposed hisruleoverDamascus,and insubsequentyearshis authorityextendedtoAleppo (1176)andthenMosul (1183).Saladin’s constructionofanEgyptianSyrianpowerblockmeant thatMuslimterritories administeredbyasingleruler nowsurroundedtheLatin kingdomofJerusalem. Intheearly12thcentury Jerusalem’sLatinrulershad enjoyedsubstantialsuccessin consolidatingandextending theirkingdom.BaldwinI’s reign(1100–18)sawthe captureofAcre(1104), Beirut(1110)andSidon (1111).Withitscommandof thePalestiniancoastsecured, Jerusalem’ssuzeraintywas acknowledgedbythe crusaderstatestothenorthat Tripoli,Antiochand Baldwin’sowncountyof Edessa.Thefirstmilitary Ordersofmonasticknights, theTemplarsandthe Hospitallers,wereestablished inJerusalemduringthereign oftheking’srelativeand successorBaldwinII(1118– 31),whomaintainedaseries ofoffensivesagainstFatimid EgyptandtheSeljukTurks. TheCouncilofNablus, composedofthehigher clergyandleadersofthe aristocraticlaity,issuedin 1120thecanonsthat comprisedthekingdom’s earliestwrittenlaws,and althoughBaldwinIIwasheld captivebyAleppo’semirin 1123–24theking subsequentlyledhisarmyto victoryovertheSeljukTurks attheBattleofAzaz(June 11,1125).Aregency governmentrantheLatin kingdomduringBaldwin’s captivity,andtheextensive tradingrightsgrantedto Venice’smerchantsinthe agreementof1124 guaranteedsignificant Venetianmilitarysupportin thecampaignofthatyear whichsecuredJerusalem’s captureofTyre. ThemarriageofBaldwinII’s heirMelisandetotherecently widowedFulkVofAnjou, whoruledJerusalemascosovereign(r.1131–43), broughtthekingdomwithin theambitoftheAngevin empire.Fulkwasthefatherof GeoffreyVofAnjouand paternalgrandfatherof England’sKingHenryII,but hisreignsawthestartof seriousinternaldissidence becausemanyopposedthe influenceoftheking’s Angevinretinue.Therewas alsonowamajorexternal threat;Zengi(c.1095–1146) hadbeenimposedbythe Seljuksasgovernorbothof Mosul(1127)andofAleppo (1128),andthenrecognized bythemasanindependent ruler.Thetwocitieswere therebyunitedunderZengi’s rule,andhebecamethe founderofanewdynastyof Turkicrulers.In1144the Zengidarmyinvadedand conqueredEdessa,thelastof thecrusaderstatestobe establishedandthefirstto fall.Thiswasrecognizedasa majorcrisisintheWest,and theSecondCrusade(1147– 49)ledbyLouisVIIof FranceandtheGermanking ConradIIImadeDamascus itsprimaryobjectofattack. RIGHTCrusadersfighta bloodybattleduringthe Crusadesinthisdetailfrom “Passagesfait Outremer”(Overseas Voyages),bySébastien Mamerot,c.1475. THETHIRDCRUSADE 1144ThecountyofEdessa,a crusaderstate,iscapturedby Zengi,theTurkicrulerof MosulandAleppo. 1148LeadersoftheSecond Crusade(1147–49)failto captureDamascus,whichis nowalliedtoNurad-Din, Zengi’ssonandsuccessor. 1154Nurad-Dinestablishes controlofDamascus. 1174DeathofNurad-Din. Saladin,alreadyestablished assultaninEgypt,extends hispoweracrossSyria. 1186Saladindeclareswaron theLatinkingdomof Jerusalem. 1187TheBattleofHattin, nearTiberias:Saladin’s victoryleadstoAcre’s captureandthesurrenderof Jerusalem.Westernleaders prepareforacrusade. 1191PhilipIIofFrancelands inPalestine(May)wherehis forcescombinewiththoseof LeopoldV,dukeofAustria. RichardIeffectsamilitary takeoverofCyprusenroute, andonarrivingintheHoly Land(June)heandhisarmy jointheforcesbesieging Acre.ThecityfallsinJuly. 1192RichardandSaladin agreeapeacetreaty:Acre becomestheLatinkingdom’s capitalandJerusalemremains Muslim-controlled. CAPTURINGDAMASCUS FORTHETURKS ZengihadtargetedDamascus earlierwhenhelauncheda campaignagainstitsTurkic rulingdynastyinthemid1130s,butthealliancesigned in1139betweenDamascus andJerusalemhadfrustrated hisgoalofhegemonicpower inSyria.By1147,however, Damascuswasinalliance withZengi’sson,Nurad-Din, theemirofAleppo.Thesiege ofDamascusinJuly1148 endedinutterfailureandthe disintegrationoftheentire crusade.Disputesabout militarystrategyhaddivided thecrusadingleaders—and especiallyConrad—fromthe nobilityinJerusalemwhose reputationforfractious behaviormadeitdifficultto interestWesternleadersin crusadingduringthedecades thatfollowed.These, however,weretheyears whenNurad-Din,sustained byhisinterpretationofjihad asananti-Westernholywar, succeededinentrenchinga newpatternofpowerinthe MiddleEast.Hisforces’ defeatofthearmyofAntioch attheBattleofInab(June29, 1149)exposedthe principalitytonewlevelsof danger.Furthermore,the deathinthatconflictofthe principality’sruler,Raymond ofPoitiers,wasagrievous blowtothecollectiveinterest ofthecrusaderstates. By1154Nurad-Dinwasin controlofDamascus. BaldwinIII(r.1143–62) formedaprotectivealliance withtheByzantinesin1158, andthiswasrenewedin1168 byhisbrotherKingAmalricI (r.1162–74).Inthe1150sthe Fatimiddynasty’sauthority overEgyptdecayed,andin 1169Nurad-Dinorderedhis general,Shirkuh,toseize EgyptfromthevizierShawar. Shirkuhdiedjusttwomonths later,however,andsupreme authoritywastransferredto hisnephewSaladinwho establishedhimselfasSultan andassertedhisindependence ofNurad-Din.FollowingNur ad-Din’sdeathin1174 Saladinextendedhis authorityinSyria. BALDWINIV,THE LEPERKING ManuelICommenushad beenacloseallyofAmalric andhadsupportedtheLatin kingdom’sownattemptsat exertingauthoritywithin Egypt.TheGreekemperor’s deathin1180removedan importantsourceofsupport. WhenAmalric’ssonand successorBaldwinIV(r. 1174–85)cametopowerhe wasabletoexerthisown authority,despitethefactthat hesufferedfromleprosy. Baldwincouldalsocallon thesupportofhisuncle, JoscelinIIIofEdessa, whenevertheauthorityofhis cousinRaymondIIIof Tripoliseemedtobe overbearing.Furthermore,the marriageofhissisterSibylla toWilliamofMontferrat,a cousinofFrederickI BarbarossaandofLouisVII ofFrance,carriedwithitthe prospectofsubstantial Westernsupport.However, William’sdeathin1177,soon afterarrivinginJerusalem andleavingSibyllapregnant withthefutureBaldwinV, wasamajorblow.Moreover, theinfluenceofRaynaldof Chatillonwithinthekingdom createdenormousproblems. Raynald’sruthlessmilitary strategyhelpedtodefeat SaladinattheBattleof Montsigard(November25, 1177),buthisreputationfor extremeandwantoncruelty wasbynowfullydeserved. LEFTThisdetailfromthe ChronicaMajora,byMatthew Paris(c.1200–59)depicts Saladin’scaptureoftheTrue Cross. Aleperkingwhocouldnot beexpectedtolivelong,and anheirwhowasamere infant,createdatense situationforthedynastic succession.CountRaymond III,alongwithhiscousin CountBohemondofAntioch, plottedtopersuadethe widowedSibyllatomarry intotheIbelins,apowerful andambitiouslocalfamily. Butherbrother,althoughan ailingking,stoleamarchon thembysecuringSibylla’s marriagetoGuyofLusignan, anoblemanwhohadrecently arrivedinthekingdom. Baldwin’sdisillusionwith Guy’smilitaryperformance promptedanotherstrategic shift.Thecoronationofthe sicklyfive-year-oldBaldwin Vin1183wasdesignedto limittheinfluenceofGuyand Sibyllaintheimmediate royalcircle,andRaymondof Tripoliregainedhisauthority. Theinfantsurvivedhisuncle bybarelyayear,andafterhe diedin1186Sibyllareigned inJerusalemasco-consort withGuy.However,Guy’s influence,exertedin combinationwithhisclose associateRaynald,only contributedtothekingdom’s problems. THEBUILDUPTOTHE THIRDCRUSADE Anadvantageousmarriage hadmadeRaynaldlordof Oultrejourdain,whose fortressescontrolledthetrade routesbetweenDamascusand Egypt.Itwasinthisareathat helaunchedanunprovoked attackonaMuslimcaravanin 1186—anactionthatled Saladintodeclarewaron Jerusalem.Raymondhad returnedtoTripoliinprotest atSibyllaandGuy’sjoint rule,andhadgonesofarasto allyhimselfwithSaladin, whomheallowedtooccupy hisfiefdominTiberias.A reconciliationbetween RaymondandGuyin1187 ledtotheirjointcommandof theforcesenttodobattle withSaladinatTiberias.But theirfailuretoagreeona strategyledtothecrusaders’ defeatattheBattleofHattin (July4,1187),andfollowing hiscaptureRaynaldwas executedonaccountofhis flagrantdisregardforMuslim custombothinwarandin peace.Guywasimprisonedin Damascusbeforebeing allowedtoreturnto Jerusaleminreturnfora ransompayment. ABOVERichardI(“the Lionheart”),accompaniedby histroops,embarkson horsebackfortheThird Crusadein1191,inthis15th- centuryilluminated manuscriptproducedbythe BurgundianscribeDavid Aubert. Saladin’sforcesoverranthe wholeoftheLatinkingdom exceptfortheportofTyre, whichwasdefendedby ConradofMontferrat, BaldwinV’spaternaluncle. Thesurrenderofthecityof JerusaleminOctober1187 markstheendofthefirst kingdomofJerusalem, althoughtheprincipalityof Antiochandthecountyof Tripolimanagedtosurvive Saladin’sonslaughtonthe Latinkingdomtotheirsouth. Jerusalemcitywasalready swollenwithrefugeeswho hadescapedfromthe countrysideduringSaladin’s advance,anditspopulation wereallowedtoescapeto Tyre,TripoliandEgyptfrom wheretheyoftenfledbackto Europe.Thosewhocouldnot affordtopayfortheir freedom,however,often endedupinslavery. Confrontedbythiscollapse, Westernleaderslaunchedthe ThirdCrusade.HenryIIof EnglandandPhilipII AugustusofFranceputaside theirdifferencesandissueda jointcalltoarmsfinancedby alevyknownasthe“Saladin tithe.”FollowingHenry’s deathin1189itwashisson andsuccessor,RichardI(“the Lionheart”),wholedthe Englishcrusaders.The GermanemperorFrederickI Barbarossaalsojoinedthe expedition,andonMay18, 1190hisarmycaptured Iconium,thecapitalofthe sultanateofRum.Three weekslater,Barbarossa’s horseslippedwhilecrossing theSalephriver,andhedied afterbeingthrownontorocks. Mostofhismenthenreturned toGermany. THELIONHEARTIN THEHOLYLAND RichardtheLionheartand PhilipIIAugustusofFrance startedthecrusadeasallies, anditwastheirjoint campaigninAnjouinthe summerof1189thathad forcedHenryIIofEnglandto payhomagetoPhilipforhis Frenchterritories.InJuly 1190Richard(nowkingof England)andPhilipsetsail fromMarseillesforSicilyen routetoPalestine.The landinginMessinawas initiallyanopportunityto resolveadynasticconflict: Sicily’srulerTancredhad imprisonedJoan,whowasthe wifeofhispredecessorand alsoRichard’ssister.Joan wasreleasedafterherbrother capturedMessinaonOctober 4,1190,buttheissueofthe Lionheart’sownbetrothal nowemergedasathorny issue.Richardhadbeen engagedtoPhilip’shalf-sister Alys,buthenowdeclared thatheintendedtomarry BerengariaofNavarre instead.AnoffendedPhilip leftSicilywithoutRichardat theendofMarch1191and arrivedinPalestineinthe middleofMay.Hisforces nowjoinedthoseofLeopold V,dukeofAustria,whowas Barbarossa’ssuccessoras commanderoftheimperial troops. Richard’sarmadaleftSicily onApril10,1191butsoon encounteredaseverestorm. Hisownshipwasableto dockatLimassolinCyprus, butseveralotherships bearingasubstantialamount oftreasureranaground, whereuponDukeCommenus, therulerofCyprus,seizedthe booty.Thisactprompted Richard’sretaliation,andhe launchedaswiftmilitary takeoveroftheisland.InJune 1191hearrivedinAcre whereheandhismenjoined thecrusaderforcesbesieging thetown. GuyofLusignanhadbeen deniedentrytoTyreby ConradofMontferrat,andthe kingofJerusalemhad thereforeshiftedhismilitary campaigntothesouthwhere heembarkedin1189ona two-yearsiegeofAcre. QueenSibylla’sdeathin 1190haddeprivedGuyofthe righttoruleasconsort,and therightofsuccession revertedtoBaldwinIV’s half-sisterIsabella.Conrad’s arrangedmarriagetoIsabella thereforeallowedhimto claimtheCrown,although Guyrefusedtocedehis rights.Theleadersofthe ThirdCrusadethereforehad todecidewhomtobackin thissuccessiondisputeonce theyarrivedinthesummerof 1191.Richarddecidedto backGuy,whowasoneofhis vassalsinPoitou.Philipof France,however,supported Conrad,whowasacousinof hisfatherLouisVII.This addedtotheillwillbetween them,andPhilipreturned homeafterAcrefelltothe ChristiansonJuly12. Anotherquarrelwasin progress,too.Richardhad offendedLeopoldbycasting downtheduke’sflagwhich hadbeenraised,alongwith thebannersoftheEnglish andFrenchCrownsandofthe kingdomofJerusalem,in Acrefollowingitsrecapture. Bytheendof1191theduke, whowasanothersignificant backerofConradforthe CrownofJerusalem,was backinAustria. Richard’svictoriesatArsuf (September7,1191)andat JaffainearlyJuly1192 recoveredmostofthecoast fortheLatinkingdomand dentedSaladin’sreputation forinvincibility.Butitwas clearbynowhowdifficultit wouldbetoreoccupyand defendthecityofJerusalem. Richardmoreoverneededto returntoEnglandinorderto defendhisdomesticposition againsthisbrotherJohn.On September2,1192therefore RichardandSaladinsigned thepeacetreatythatended theThirdCrusade. BELOWThiscontemporary illustrationdepictsRichardI (“theLionheart”)being pardonedbyHenryVIforhis suspectedcomplicityinthe murderofConradof Montferrat,fromtheLiberad honoremAugusti(ABookto HonortheEmperor)byPeter ofEboli,c.1196. AMUCH-REDUCED KINGDOM ThekingdomofJerusalem, withitscapitalatAcre, survivedforanothercentury aftertheendoftheThird Crusadeasamuch- diminishedentityextending alongthecoastfromTyreto Jaffa.Saladindiedsoon afterward,andhissons quarreledoverhisterritorial legacy.Theembittered nobilityofthegreatlyreducedfeudalkingdom consideredthemselves abandonedbytheirWestern patrons,andthedescentof Saladin’sformerrealminto civilwarcauseditscitizensto lamentthelostopportunities ofthepast. ConradofMontferratwas electedtothethroneinApril 1192bythenobilityofthe kingdom,butwasmurdered bymembersofthe Hashshashinsectafewdays afterward.LeopoldofAustria suspectedtheLionheartof complicityinConrad’s murder,andhisresentmentat theremovalofhisstandard fromthewallsofAcrestill rankled.Richard’srouteback toEnglandcrossedLeopold’s territories,andwhiletheking wasmakingthejourneythe duketooktheopportunityto arrestandthenimprisonhim. Richardwasthentransferred tothecustodyofHenryVI, theGermanemperor.The Lionheartwasonlyallowed toreturntoEnglandtwo yearslaterin1194on paymentofaransomof 150,000marks. Conrad’sresilient,and pregnant,widowIsabellahad marriedCountHenryIIof Champagne,apolitical supporterofhisuncle RichardofEngland,within daysoftheassassination.Guy ofLusignan,meanwhile,was givenaconsolationprizeand allowedtobuythekingdom ofCyprus,whichhadbeen conqueredbyRichardonhis journeytoAcre.WhenCount Henrydiedinanaccidentin 1197Isabellamarried AmalricofLusignan,Guy’s brother.Conradof Montferrat,whohadwanted theCrownofJerusalemso verybadly,would nonethelessreceivea posthumousreward.His daughterMariaofMontferrat succeededtothethronein 1205onthedeathofher motherIsabellaandher stepfatherAmalric. THEKNIGHTS TEMPLAR Increasingnumbersof pilgrimsweredrawntothe HolyLandinthewakeofthe successoftheFirstCrusade, butastheytraveledthrough theLatinkingdomof Jerusalem’scountrysidethey wereoftenbesiegedby bandits.Inc.1120King BaldwinIIofJerusalem thereforeapprovedthe foundationof“ThePoor KnightsofChristandofthe TempleofSolomon,”whose originalandsoleaimwasto provideprotectionforthe pilgrims. The14th-centuryRomande GodefroydeBouillonshows Templarknightsapproaching Jerusalem. Thesefirst“Knights Templar”numberedsome dozensoldierswhohad embracedpoverty,chastity andobedienceonjoiningthe newOrder,andtheyobserved acommunalmonastic discipline.Theirheadquarters wasonJerusalem’sTemple Mount,raised—accordingto tradition—abovetheremains oftheTempleofSolomon, andthatlocationwasevoked intheorganization’stitle. Thepioneeringknights gainedthesupportofBernard ofClairvaux,whose advocacywasinstrumentalin obtainingtheOrder’sofficial recognitionbytheChurchin 1129.Arapidgrowthin numbersfollowed,andthe knights’statusasthe crusadingmovement’sshock troopsensuredthatlandand moneyweregivenor bequeathedtothemby supportersfromallover WesternChristendom.In 1139thepapacydecreedthe Order’sexemptionfrom obediencetolocalornational laws.Thisextraterritorial status,whichincluded freedomfromtaxation,gave theTemplarsaninternational andself-regulatingstatus. Theindividualvowof povertyremained,alongwith therequirementtohandover totheOrderallofone’s personalwealthandgoods. Buttheknights’corporate wealthrivaledthatofsome Europeangovernments,and theirfinancialandbusiness interestswereextensive. TherewasaTemplarbanking structure,originally developedtoprovidepilgrims withasafedepositfortheir valuableswhiletraveling,and Templarhousessuppliedthe Orderwithlocalheadquarters inthemajorEuropeantowns andcities. Ablendofthemonastic andthemilitaryshapedthe organization’sadministration, andeachregionofEurope andtheMiddleEastwitha significantTemplarpresence wasruledbyaMaster.Atthe apexstoodtheGrandMaster, whowasinoverallcontrolof militarycampaigninginthe MiddleEastandoffinancial interestsintheWest.Dressed atalltimesintheirwhite mantlewithitsredcross,the KnightsTemplarwereeasily recognized,andtheircodeof behavior,forbiddingphysical contactwithwomenand enforcingsilenceatmeals, wasdesignedtoinstillan austerecommunalidentity. Thatsolidaritywasalsothe sourceoftheirreputationas formidablewarriors:thered crossemblazonedonthe knightlyrobessymbolized martyrdom,withan honorabledeathincombat meritingaheavenlyreward. TheTemplarsdidnotjust consistofaristocraticknights, however.Attheheightofthe Order’sinfluence,whenits totalstrengthwasnotmuch lessthan20,000men,the knightswereaminority withinthatnumber.Within theOrder,thesergeantswere ofalowersocialstanding, andtheydealtwiththemore mundanedetailsinvolvedin runningtheTemplars’ businessesandestates.The chaplainsconstitutedathird clearlydefinedgroup. Asthecrusadingideal waned,so,too,didthe fortunesoftheKnights Templar.Thelossof Jerusalemcityenforcedtheir withdrawaltoAcreinthe 1190s,andtheKnights’ headquarterswererelocated toCyprusafterthearmiesof theMamlukSultanate(then rulingbothEgyptandSyria) seizedthelastremaining Templarfortressesinthe northduringthe1290s.By 1303Mamlukforceshad ejectedtheKnightsfrom Cyprus.TheTemplars’ relationswiththeother knightlyordersthatemerged outoftheLatinkingdom,the HospitallersandtheTeutonic Knights,weresometimes difficult,andareputationfor secrecyhadalways surroundedthem.The Order’sinitiationceremonies weresolemnoccasionswhose detailswereacloselyguarded affair.Butthissecrecywas seizeduponbytheTemplars’ enemiesasasignof somethingmoresinister,and conspiracytheoristswho mistrustedthemonaccount oftheirwealthwereprovided withammunition. Thecampaignof persecutionthatKingPhilip IVofFrance(1268–1314) launchedagainsttheOrderin 1307wasaconvenientway ofexpungingthemassive debtsowedbytheFrench monarchytotheTemplars, andconfessionsofidolatry, heresyandfinancial corruptionwereextracted undertorture.In1312Pope ClementVformallydissolved theOrder,havingalready instructedallChristian monarchsinEuropetoseize Templarassets.Mostofthe Templarswhoweretriedin thepapalcourtswere acquitted,andmanymembers ofthedisbandedOrderjoined theKnightsHospitaller,an organizationthathadalso takenovermanyofthe propertiesonceownedby theirrival. THE ALBIGENSIAN CRUSADE 1179–1244 Thepapal-inspiredcrusades hadaEuropeanaswellasa MiddleEasterndimension, andexpeditionslaunchedin the13thcenturysecuredthe conversionofpaganpeoples inthecontinent’snorth,such astheNorwegiansandthe Swedes.Fromthe1230s onwardmembersofthe militaryOrderknownasthe TeutonicKnightswerealso subjugatingthePrussians—a Balticpeople—andimposing Christianityonthem.In WesternEurope,however,the campaign(1209–29)to extinguishtheCatharheresy —aChristianreligioussect thatflourishedinthe Languedocregionof southwesternFrance— acquiredaparticular notoriety.Theserebelsofthe Midiposedadirectand explicitchallengetothe papacy’sinterpretationof Christianity,andthemethods usedtocrushthemwere correspondinglyviolent. Thepapalconvictionthatit couldbothidentifyheresy andhadtherightto extinguishitinthenameof orthodoxytestifiedtothe institution’snewselfconfidenceduringthisperiod. ButthedefeatoftheCathars alsohadimportantpolitical andculturalramifications sinceitgavetheFrench Crownanewauthorityinthe southwestofthecountry. Thiswastheregion, includingLanguedoc,which waswidelyknownas Occitania.Theprovincehad itsdistinctivecustomsthatit sharedwithneighboring Aragontothesouth,aswell asitsownLatinlanguage(the langued’oc).Manyofthese culturalfeatureswould surviveforcenturies,butthe brutalityoftheCathars’ extirpationmeantthatthere wouldbenopolitical expressiontothatregional identity.Themilitary campaignlaunchedagainst thehereticscametobe knownastheAlbigensian Crusadeandtookitsname fromtheFrenchtownofAlbi, whichwasseenasafocal pointfortheCathar movement.Althoughthe townhadapredominantly Catholicpopulation,itwas neverthelesssurroundedby numerousCatharstrongholds. THECATHAR DOCTRINE TheCatharsprobablyderived theirnamefromtheGreekfor purification,katharsis,and theirbeliefs,alongwiththeir secretiveinitiationrites, placedtheminalong traditionofreligious dissidencethatstartswiththe Gnosticsoftheearly Christiancenturies. Catharismconsideredthe worldofmattertobe intrinsicallyevilandopposed totheworldofthespiritin whichlovepredominated. Theintensitywithwhichthe distinctionwasdrawn explainswhythemovement’s adherentsareoftendescribed asdualists—apositionthat attractedthehostilityof orthodoxChristianity,which emphasizedtheredemptionof thematerialworldthrough theincarnation,crucifixion andresurrection.Asbelievers inpurespirit,theCathars deniedthatChristcouldhave becomeincarnateinmankind andstillremainGod.And theyprobablyconsideredthe ChristianGodtobea malevolentagentsince,inthe Church’sownview,hehad createdmatter.Theearly 13th-centuryCatholic Church,withitsriches,great buildingsandtastefor politicalpower,seemedtothe Catharstobethevery embodimentofmatter’s pride,pompandwickedness. Thesewerejustaboutthe mostdangeroussetofbeliefs itwaspossibletoholdin medievalEurope. RIGHTAdepictionof Tannhäuser,thepoet,cladin thehabitoftheTeutonic OrderofKnights,inthe CodexManesseof1340. DistinctivelyCatharbeliefs couldbedetectedinthe townsoftheRhinelandandof northernFranceduringthe mid-12thcentury.Bythelate 12thcenturyCatharswere wellestablishedinnorthern ItalyandLanguedoc,andin bothoftheseregionsthey formedcommunitiesof believerswhomaintainedthat theywereChrist’strue followersandthetrue preserversofearlyChristian belief.TheChurchcorrectly identifiedtheCatharsasa rivalbody,sincetheywere organizedinanecclesiastical fashionwiththeirown sacramentsandservices, bishopsandclergy.Those calledtheperfecti(theperfect ones)wereseparatedfrom mainstreamsocietyand constitutedtheheartofthe movement.Thoseknownas thecredentes(thebelievers) attendedreligiousservices butotherwiselivednormal livesintheeverydayworld. This,then,wasasecret societywhoseadherents couldnotbeidentifiedeasily, andthatuncertainty contributedtothe persecution’sparanoid attitudetowardthem. Withdrawalfromtheflesh wasextremeforbothtypesof Cathars,andprocreationwas frowneduponsinceitmeant creatingmorematter—and hencemoreevil.Theperfecti thereforeabstainedfrom sexualintercourse.Thiswas, however,permittedtothe credentesaslongasthey restrictedthemselvestoanal sex.Catharsrefusedtotake partinwars,opposedcapital punishmentandwerehostile tothetithesystemthat suppliedrevenueforthe Church.Theyalsorefusedto takeoathsofanykind, claimingthatsuch agreementssubjectedthe spirittotheworldofmatter. Thesebeliefswere unsurprisinglyviewedbythe authoritiesinbothChurch andstateasananarchicthreat totheveryfoundationof civilizedorder. Theterritoryofwhatisnow southwesternFrancewas dividedinthemid-12th centurybetweenthekingdom ofAragonandthecountyof Toulouse.Bythestandardsof contemporaryEuropeitwas denselypopulatedand containedalargenumberof towns.ThoseWestern Europeanareasinwhich Catharismflourishedtended tobeurbanized,andbythe mid-tolate-12thcenturya highproportionofthe Languedocpopulationseem tohaveembracedtheheresy. Theyprovedtobeverytough nutstocrack.Apapallegate arrivedintheareain1147 chargedwithconvertingthe dissidents,andToulousesaw thearrivaloftwomoresuch Churchmissionsin1178and 1180.Officialcondemnations werepromulgatedatthe CounciloftheChurchheldin Tours(1163)andthenatthe ThirdCounciloftheLateran (1179).Noneofthese initiativeshadanyimpact. Moreover,theCathars seemedtobenotonlywell entrenchedandprotectedby thelocalnobilitybutalso verypopularasindividuals amongthepopulationat large. LEFTA15th-centurypainting byPedroBerruguete (c.1450–1504)showingthe miracleofFanjeaux.The legendmaintainsthatCathar andCatholicbookswere burned,butCatholicbooks floatedup,unharmedbythe fire. PREPARINGFORAN ANTI-CATHAR OFFENSIVE ThelongpapacyofInnocent III(1198–1216)sawa vigorousassertionofthe universalnatureofpapal authorityinrelationtosecular princesandarenewed emphasisoncrusading activity.In1198Innocent decreedtheFourthCrusade, whichwasdesignedto recaptureJerusalem.Hewas alsoparticularlyexercisedby Catharism.Thepope consideredtheLanguedoc’s bishopstobeobstreperous, andtheycertainlyresented thepowersgiventopapal legatessenttocombatheresy intheregion’sdioceses.In 1204,therefore,thepope suspendedanumberofthese bishops,andinthefollowing yearheappointedthe dynamicFolquetde Marseille,aformer troubadourpoet,tobebishop ofToulouse. Folquetworkedcloselywith theSpanishpriestDominicde Guzman(St.Dominic),one ofthegreatreligiousfigures oftheage,onanextensive conversionprogram,anda seriesofpublicdebateswere heldbetweenCatharsand Catholics.FewCathars, however,wereconverted,and Dominic’sexperiencesled himtoestablishin1216the Ordernamedafterhim,the Dominicans.Theyexercised apreachingministry specificallydesignedto combatheresyusingwellhonedargumentsand exposition.ButDominichad alsoidentifiedanimportant featureoftheCathars:many ofthosehehadmetin Languedocwerewellinformedandculturedpeople ratherthanignorantfanatics. Ashetoldthepapallegates whoreturnedtoRomein 1208,havingfailedyetagain toconverttheCathars: “Itisnotbythedisplayof powerandpomp,cavalcades ofretainers…orbygorgeous apparel,thatthehereticswin proselytes;itisbyzealous preaching,byapostolic humility,byausterity…” TheChurchhierarchyneeded toshowthesamequalities, butindefenseofastronger case:“Zealmustbemetby zeal…falsesanctitybyreal sanctity,preachingfalsehood bypreachingtruth.” Confronted,though,bythe realityofwhathadturned intoamassmovementof opposition,theChurch hierarchyanditspolitical allieschoseanotherway. RaymondVI,countof Toulouse,wastheregion’s mostpowerfulnobleanda significantCathardefender. Towardtheendof1207he waschallengedbyPierrede Castelnau,thepapallegate andformerCistercianmonk whohadbeenactiveforsome yearsintheanti-Cathar mission.DeCastelnauwas thecentralfigureinPope Innocent’snewlyenergized campaign,andseverallocal nobleshadalreadybeen excommunicatedbecauseof theirsupportoftheCathars. Raymondissupposedtohave threateneddeCastelnauwith violenceafterthelegate accusedhimofbeinga heretic,andthecountwas subsequently excommunicated.OnJanuary 15,1208deCastelnauwas attackedandmurderedwhile travelingbacktoRome,and thepope,alongwithmany others,concludedthatthe knightresponsibleforthe assassinationwasactingon Raymond’sorders. THEALBIGENSIAN CRUSADE 1179AttheThirdCouncilof theLateran,Catharismis condemnedasaheresy. 1205FolquetdeMarseilleis appointedbishopofToulouse byPopeInnocentIIIandis chargedwithcombating Catharism. 1208Murderofthepapal legatePierredeCastelnau, memberoftheanti-Cathar missionandadversaryof RaymondVI,countof Toulouse. 1209SimondeMontfortis appointedmilitary commanderofthe AlbigensianCrusade.Beziers isdestroyedafterasiegeand Carcassonnesurrenders. 1213KingPeterIIofAragon iskilledattheBattleof Muret.Thelandsofthe conqueredcountyof Toulousearegrantedto SimondeMontfort. 1217RaymondVIretakesthe cityofToulouse. 1218SimondeMontfortis killed. 1229RaymondVIIsignsa peacetreaty.TheHouseof Toulouseisdispossessedof mostofitsfiefdoms. 1243–44TheCatharfortress ofMontségursurrendersto thebishopofNarbonne’s army. PopeInnocentnowhadan excuseforwar,andhewrote toKingPhilipIIAugustusof Francerequestinghissupport foracrusadethatwouldcrush Catharism.Ratherthantake parthimself,thekingsent SimondeMontfort,an adventurous,militarily skillfulandconventionally piousaristocrat,tothesouth instead.DeMontfort’s reputationforextreme brutalityinwarfarewaswell justified,andin1209his fellownoblesonthe AlbigensianCrusadeelected himtobetheirleader.The FrenchCrownwas experiencinggreatsuccessin assertingitsauthorityinthe north,andstrategic calculationonitspartdictated deMontfort’snominationto leadthecrusade,whilealso allowinghimtocommit multiplemurdersduringthe campaign.KingPhilip Augustusalsosawthe crusadeasanopportunityto deflecttheenergiesofsome ofhismoreambitiousnobles, andheallowedthemtoclaim southernterritories.Quite apartfromitsreligious dimension,therefore,the AlbigensianCrusadewasan attemptbythemonarchyand northernFrenchnobilityto subjugatethehitherto independent-mindedMidi. Theregion’shillyterrain, alongwithitsmassof fortifiedtowns,nonetheless frustratedthemilitary strategiespursuedbyboth sidesandmadefora prolongedcampaigninwhich asmanyashalfamillion people,andpossiblyeven more,mayhavedied. CRUSHINGTHE CATHARS Raymond-RogerTrencavel wasthefirstLanguedoc aristocrattofallvictimtothe crusaderforceasdeMontfort andhisnorthernbarons movedintothesouth. Althoughnothimselfa Catharhehadtoleratedthe faith’sdiffusionacrosshis territories,andhisown positionshowedhowthe crusadeinvolvedapatternof feudalloyaltieswhilealso seekingtocombatreligious heresy.Asviscountof BeziersandAlbi,Raymond- Rogerwasavassalofthe countyofToulouse,andas viscountofCarcassonnehe owedallegiancetohisfeudal overlord,PeterII,whowas kingofAragonandanotably orthodoxCatholicmonarch. DeMontfortwasgrantedthe Trencavellandsbythepope andpaidhomageforthemto thekingofFrance,thereby angeringKingPeter,whohad previouslybeenneutral. Therewasalsoconflict betweentheFrenchCrown andthepapacyfollowing Innocent’sofficialdecreethat Catharlandscouldbe confiscated.Thisangerednot justthesouthernnobilitybut alsoKingPhilipIIAugustus, sinceheremainedthe ultimatesuzerainoflandsthat thepapacyhaddeclaredtobe opentoseizureand spoliation. BELOWThefortifiedcityof CarcassonnewasaCathar strongholdduringthe AlbigensianCrusade. Upuntil1215itwasthe crusaderswhowonthemore significantvictories,andthe siegeofBeziers,withits subsequentlosstothe Cathars,inJuly1209was particularlybloody.Themass ofitspopulation,bothCathar andCatholic,waskilledand thecityitselfdestroyed beforethecrusadersmoved ontoCarcassonne,which surrenderedinmid-August. Raymond-Roger,havingled thedefenseofhiscity,was takenprisonerat Carcassonne,withde Montfortpossiblyinvolvedin hismurderwhilehewas undersupposedlysafe conduct.By1213Catholic forceswereincontrolofmost ofthecountyofToulouse,at whichpointPeterII,kingof Aragon,intervenedindefense ofRaymondVI,whowashis vassalaswellashisbrotherin-law.KingPeter’sdefeat anddeathattheBattleof Muret(September12,1213) ledtotemporaryexilefor Raymond,andthelandsof thecountyofToulouse, havingbeenseizedbythe FrenchCrown,weregranted todeMontfortalongwiththe territoriesofthedukedomof Narbonne.PeterII’sdefeatat Murethadamajorlong-term strategicimpact,sinceit spelledtheendofany southernFrenchambitionsfor theAragonesekingdom. ABOVEA14th-century illustrationfromthe ChronicleofSaintDenis depictingthecrusaders massacringCathars. Duringthenexttwoyearsthe Catharsandtheiraristocratic protectorsweresubjectedto systematiccampaignsof subjugation.RaymondVI, accompaniedbyhissonwho sharedhisname,returnedat theheadofanarmyin1216. ThefutureRaymondVII seizedBeaucaireinthelower Rhonevalleyanddefendedit successfullyagainstde Montfort’sforces.Inthe followingyearhisfather retookToulouseandentered thecityintriumph,following whichdeMontfortmounteda prolongedsiegeinthecourse ofwhichhewaskilled(June 25,1218)afterastone launchedfromaprojectile withinthecitysmashedhis skulltopieces.Insubsequent yearstheAlbigensian Crusadefalteredandthe Catharsretookformerly besiegedcenters.From1226 onward,however,theFrench monarchyregainedthe initiative,andthetreatythat RaymondVIIwasforcedto signatMeauxinApril1229 bothendedthewarand extinguishedregional autonomy.TheHouseof Toulousewasnow dispossessedofmostofits fiefs,andtheTrencavels, lordsofBeziersand Carcassonne,lostalltheir fiefdoms. Buttheofficialendof militaryoperationsdidnot meanthattheCatharshad goneaway.Onekeyresultof theAlbigensiancampaign wastheestablishmentof Inquisitions—formalbodies answerabletothepapacyand staffedwithclerical professionalschargedwith discoveringerrorthrough cross-examination.These mobileinstitutionswerevery activeinsouthernFrance fromthe1230sonward.The Catharswerenowtaking refugeintheirfewremaining strongholds,andforawhole yearfromthespringof1243, theremoteCatharfortressof Montségurwasbesiegedby thearchbishopofNarbonne’s army.Over200Cathar perfectiwereburnedbytheir captorsafterthecastlefellon March16,1244.Fromthen ontheCatharslacked aristocraticsupport,andtheir fewsurvivorslivedasrural fugitives.Therewere sporadicattempted insurrectionsinsouthwest Francebutthesewere patheticaffairs.The Inquisitionshadnowbecome verypowerfulandthe perfecti,whencaptured,were invariablyburned.Butthe credentescouldsurvive providedtheyrecanted,and duringtheperiodfollowing theirofficialstatementof repentancetheywereforced towearyellowcrossessown ontotheirclothingasasign ofpasterror.Anewchapter hadopenedinthehistoryof persecutioninEurope. OCCITANIA OccitanisaRomance languageand,likeitsclose linguisticcousinsFrench, ItalianandCatalan,it evolvedoutofvernacular formsofLatinduringthe earlyMiddleAges.Spoken todaybyoveramillion peopleinsouthernFrance, theAranvalleyintheSpanish Pyreneesandalongthe Franco-Piedmonteseborder, Occitanisaremarkable linguisticsurvivorandoffers adirectlinkwiththeculture ofmedievalWesternEurope. AlthoughOccitanalso flourishedinNavarreand Aragonduringthecentral MiddleAges,itwasdisplaced intheseregionsbyNavarroAragonese,anotherRomance language,duringthe14th century.Thefirsttexts writteninstandardOccitan datefromthetenthcentury, bywhichtimethelanguage wasalreadybeingusedasa mediumofliteraryand scientificcommunicationas wellasinworksof jurisprudence.Writtenforms ofOccitaniandialects,which includeProvencal,Gascon, Languedocien,Limousinand Auvernhat,canbedatedtoat leasttheeighthcentury. ItwasDante,inhisDe vulgarieloquentia(1302–05), whocreatedthecategory linguad’oc.Observingthe differentwordsfor“yes”in Occitan,invariousItalianand Iberianlanguages,andin French,hewrote:“Somesay oc,otherssaysi,otherssay oil.”Hocillud(“thisisit”)is thederivationofoil,andthe langued’oilreferstothe languageofmedieval northernFrancethatisthe basisofmodern-daystandard French.Ocisderivedfrom theLatinhoc(“this”),and Occitan’slinguisticfeatures demonstrateboththedepthof Rome’sculturalinfluencein theregionsofProvenceand Aquitaineaswellasits persistenceaftertheendof empire.Thewords“Occitan” and“Occitania”—aprobable conflationofOcand Aquitanus(Aquitanian)— werefirstusedinthe13th centuryandtheyarebasedon anarchaicallusiontothe RomanprovinceofGallia Aquitaniawhichincluded largeareasofsouthern France.Occitanwasusedby themassofthepopulationin theregionswhereit predominatedduringthe MiddleAges,butitwasalso thelanguageofcourtiersand ofaristocraticsociety. Throughthepoetryofthe troubadourswhoadopted bothOccitan’sstandardform anditsdifferentdialects,the languagebecamethevehicle ofahighculture.Duringthe 15thcenturyOccitania’s culturalandpolitical assimilationintotheFrench kingdomwasfastevolving, andbythatstagetheregion’s nobilitywereincreasingly speakingFrenchwhilethe lowerorderstendedtouse Occitan.French bureaucracy’senduring obsessionwithuniformity andregulationexplainsthe persistenceofitshostility towardOccitanfromthetime oftheCatharstothepresent day.Thelanguagewashard hitbyFrancoisI’sOrdinance ofVillers-Cotterets(1539), whichproscribedtheuseof anylanguageotherthan standardFrenchinofficial legislation.AndtheJacobin leadersoftheFrench Revolutionwageda continuouscampaignagainst thesoutherncultureand language,seeinginboththe expressionofadissentthat underminedRepublicanunity andsolidarity. THEGLORYOF ISLAMICSPAIN 711–1002 Spain’sIslamiccivilization reacheditsapogeeduringthe tenthcenturyandwas centeredonthecityof Córdoba.Thiswashometo thecaliphate,theinstitution thatexercisedpredominance overmostoftheIberian Peninsula.Withapopulation ofabouthalfamillion, CórdobawasWestern Europe’slargestconurbation, andthecaliphate’slevelsof economicprosperity, intellectualvitalityand artisticoriginalitymadeitan advancedcivilizationwhose onlypossibleEuropeanrival wasByzantium.Spainhadby thenexperiencedovertwo centuriesofintenseIslamic influence,andthecaliph’s governmentmusthave imagineditwassettoendure onSpanishsoil.Butthe invadingarmythathad arrivedfromNorthAfricain 711andsetinmotionahuge culturaltransformationwas onlythelatestinawaveof influencestoaffectthe peninsula. Bytheendofthe11th centurySpain’spre-existing Christiancivilizationwas onceagainonthemarch,and determinedtoregainthe landsithadlost.Spainhad beenRomanlongbeforeit becameChristian,and Córdoba,conqueredbythe Romanarmyin152BCand seizedfromthe Carthaginians,becamecapital oftheimperialprovinceof Baetica.Thetransformation oftheRomanworldduring thefifth-centuryimperial retreatinevitablyaffected Spain,andduring415–18the Germanicpeopleknownas theVisigoths(orGothsofthe West)madeaninitialforay intothecountryfollowing theirleaderAlaric’s celebratedsackingofRome in410.AnotherGermanic groupingcalledtheVandals had,however,already establishedthemselvesin southernSpainby409.Itwas fromtherethatin429their leaderGaiserictransported hispeopleenmassetoNorth Africa,wheretheVandals wereinitiallyRome’s federatedallies—although theyweretobecomethe waningempire’simplacable foes. ACLASHOFCHRISTIAN FAITHS TheVisigothsbecame imperialalliesin418and weresettledforthispurpose inRomanAquitania,the regionbetweentheGaronne andtheLoirevalleys.Inthe fifthcenturyanincreasingly independentVisigothic kingdomexpandedfromthis baseinGaul,spreadacross thePyreneestomostofSpain andmoveditscapitalfrom ToulousetoToledo.The Visigoths,liketheVandals, hadconvertedtoChristianity bythemid-tolatefourth century,andbothpeopleshad adoptedthefaith’sArian form,whichdeniedthat Christwaspartofthe Godhead.ForCatholic Christiansthisexclusive emphasisontheSavior’s humanstatuswasaheresy, andonewhichalsohada majorpoliticalandmilitary consequence.TheFranks wereanotherGermanic people,andClovis,who becametheirkinginc.481, hadsubsequentlyconverted toCatholicChristianity.He foundtheVisigoths’ Arianismausefulpretextto declarewarandsucceededin dislodgingtheVisigothsfrom GaulfollowingtheFrankish army’svictoryof507atthe BattleofVouillé,near Poitiers. RIGHTTheGreatMosqueof Córdoba,nowaChristian cathedral,wasbuiltovera periodof200yearsand completedby987. AttachmenttoArianismgave agroupidentitytoSpain’s Visigothicrulersandsetthem apartfromtheirCatholic subjects.Buttheconversion ofKingReccaredto Catholicismin587,followed swiftlybythatofSpain’s Visigothicnobility,gaverise toanintensebrandof religiousnationalisminthe peninsula.Reccared’sfather, Leovigild,hadalreadyunited mostofthepeninsulaunder hisrulebetween567and586, andhisapprovalofmixed marriageswasleadingtothe Romanizationofthe Visigoths.Byc.600, therefore,Spain’snational identityhadacquiredsome distinctiverootsandwas stronglyalliedtothecauseof theChurch.Oneofthe casualtiesofthisHispanoGothicfusionwasthe country’slargeJewish population,andthe intolerancetowhichthey weresubjectedledmany Jewstowelcomethearrival ofanarmyofMuslim invadersin711.Some7000 soldiershadleftTangier underthecommandofthe city’sArabgovernor,Taiq ibnZiyad,consistingmostly ofnon-ArabBerbertribesmen alongwithanumberof SyriansandYemenis.The Visigothicnobilityhadonly recentlyelectedRoderick—in allprobabilityBaetica’s militarygovernor—tothe throne,anddissidentswho supportedtheclaimsofthe previousking’stwosons joinedtheranksofdefectors. ToledoandCórdobafellto Islam,andthearrivalinthe followingyearofanother invasionforce,againmostly Berber,meantthatby714 Islamwasineffectivecontrol overmostofSpain,acountry thatbecamecollectively knownasal-Andalus. ABOVEChintilawasthe VisigothickingofGalicia, HispaniaandSeptimania from636untilhisdeathin c.640.Hisstatue,sculptedby FrançoisdeVôgein1753, standsinRetiroParkin Madrid. Immensereligiousandethnic varietyemergedasthenew Arabrulingéliteestablished itsruleoverapopulation consistingofHispanoRomansandVisigoths. Culturalandpoliticalcontrol waspromotedbyapolicy allowingthepeninsula’slarge numbersofserfstobecome freemenprovidedthey convertedtoIslam.Spanish Christianswhokepttheir religionbutadoptedthe Arabs’languageandsocial customsweretermed Mozarabs.Descendantsofthe pre-invasionpopulationwho convertedtoIslamwere calledMuwallads,andthe Berberswhoarrivedin successivewavesof migrationhadamajorimpact onpopulationpatterns.In741 therewasamajoruprisingof Berbertroopsgarrisonedin Spainaftertheirfellow tribesmeninNorthAfrica rebelledagainstArabrule. Thesubsequentarrivalinthe peninsulaofalargearmyof SyrianssenttoreassertArab controlensuredaneven greaterethnicmix.Berber settlementhadbeen especiallystronginthe northwest,andthe741 rebelliongavetheChristian kingdomofAsturias,a northernoutpostestablished in718byfleeingVisigothic noblesandofficials,achance toincorporateGalicia. THESTRUGGLETO RESISTISLAMIC EXPANSION Duringthisearlierperiodof Islamicruleal-Andalus remainedpartoftheempire presidedoverbythe Umayyaddynastyofrulers basedinDamascus.Arab tribalrivalrywithinSpain wasintense,butthisdidnot diminishthedesirefor northernexpansion,andthat thrustwasmaintaineduntil 732whentheFranks,under theirleaderCharlesMartel, defeatedaninvadingforce nearTours.Defeatby ByzantiuminAnatoliaduring 740suggestedthatIslam mightbereachingits territoriallimitsintheEastas wellastheWest,andthe caliphateofSyrianrulerswas abouttopaytheprice. Muslimswhodesireda continuousandconsistently Islamicexpansionhadalways consideredtheUmayyadstoo secularinstyleandwereapt todismisstheDamascus regimeasmerely“theArab state.”Nonetheless,itwasthe Umayyadswhohadbroken withtheancestralArab customofallowingtribal leaderstoelecttheirleaderor caliph,andtheyestablished thenewprincipleof hereditaryrulewithina dynasty.Followingmajor revoltsinIran,Iraqand Khorasan,theUmayyadarmy wasdefeatedin750atthe BattleoftheGreatZabriver inMesopotamia.Thevictors werethenew’Abbasid dynasty,whoseforcesset aboutthebloodybusinessof exterminatingthepreceding regime’sleadingmembers andsupporters. ’Abdal-Rahman,theformer caliph’sgrandson,was16in theyearofhisfamily’s depositionandmanagedto escapetheslaughter. Accompaniedbyafew loyalists,theyoungprinceat firstledthelifeofafugitive inNorthAfrica,butin755he succeededinmakingthe journeyacrossthestraitsof GibraltarfromCeutatoalAndalus.’Abdal-Rahman wasnowleadinganarmy composedmostlyof mercenaries,buthealso benefitedfrompro-Umayyad sentimentamongthelocal population.Thegovernorof al-Andalusowedanominal obediencetothenow ’Abbasid-controlled caliphate,buthewasstillthe region’seffectively independentruler.Following amilitarydefeat,hiscapital cityofCórdobawasseized. TheUmayyadprince proclaimedhimselftobeemir ofCórdobaandassuchthe rightfulrulerofal-Andalus, thepeninsulaconqueredby hisancestors.Thefurther arrivalfromSyriaof Umayyadpartisansand officialsensuredthe dynasty’ssurvivalinitsnew base. THEGLORYOFISLAMIC SPAIN 711AnIslamicarmy consistingmostlyofBerber tribesmenleavesNorthAfrica andarrivesinSpain.Toledo andCórdoba,centersofthe ChristianVisigothic kingdom,falltotheinvaders. 714MostofSpainisMuslimcontrolledandbecomes knowncollectivelyasalAndalus. 750TheUmayyaddynasty, rulersoftheIslamiccaliphate intheMiddleEast,are expelledfrompowerbythe ’Abbasids.IslamicSpain becomespolitically independentofthe’Abbasids. 929’Abdal-RahmanIII adoptsthetitleofcaliphand therebyestablisheshis religiousindependenceofthe ’Abbasidcaliphate.He restoreshisdynasty’s authorityoverIslamicrebels inSpain. 933FallofToledo,lastcenter ofMuslimresistance,tothe Córdobancaliphate. 976CompletionofCórdoba’s GreatMosque. 978–1002Periodinofficeof Abu’Amiral-Mansuras chiefministerofthe Cordobancaliphateand effectiverulerofIslamic Spain.Thecaliphate establishesitsauthorityin northwestAfrica,whichis administeredasthe viceroyaltyofCordoba. ABOVETheBattleof Roncesvallesin778,as depictedintheSongof Roland,isthesubjectofthis illustration(c.1335/40)from amanuscriptwhichforms partoftheGrandes ChroniquesdeFrance(1274– 1461).Rolandliesdeadon theground,whileaChristian knightpraysoverhisbody. Al-Andalushadtherefore ceasedtobeaterritorial provinceofthecaliphate centeredonBaghdad,andthe institutiontermedtheemirate ofCórdobaruledthe peninsulaasanindependent territory.Asemirsinsteadof caliphs,al-Rahmanandhis immediatesuccessorswere nonethelessclaimingpolitical ratherthanreligious independencefromthe ’Abbasids,andtheystillhad toconfrontmajorinternal challenges.’Abbasid partisans,followersofthe formergovernor—especially inToledo—aswellas Berbersinthegripof messianicmovementsand whocontrolledmostof centralSpain,wereallableto resisttheexpansionofthe Córdobanemirateforsome 20years.Bythelate770s ’Abdal-Rahmanhaddefeated theseparticularopponents andwasextendinghis authoritytonortheastern Spain,whereavarietyof localArableaderswere contestingtherighttolocal predominance.Regional overlordsinBarcelonaand ZaragozainvitedtheFranks tointervenewithmilitary assistance,butthearrivalof anarmyledbyCharlemagne promptedachangeofheart. Realizing,inallprobability, thatsomightyanallycould turnintoathreat,garrisonsin thetwocitiesrefused admittancetotheirputative supporter,andCharlemagne’s armyhadtoretreatthrough thePyrenees. Inthelatesummerof778the rearguardoftheFranks’army wasattackedatthemountain passofRoncesvallesandthen massacredbywarriorsdrawn fromthelocalBasque population.Roncesvalleswas amajorhumiliationfor WesternEurope’sgreatest militarypower,andthe captureofZaragozaby emirateforcesin783wasa furthercontainmentofthe FrankishChristianthreat alongtheborderzone.Major boutsofdissidenceamong theArabnobility,lastingfor agenerationfromtheendof theeighthcentury,would nonethelessposeasignificant threattotheemirate’scontrol ofthepeninsula.Therewere otherdangers,too. Muwalladsmighthave convertedtoIslam,butthey andtheirdescendantshada keensenseoftheirown nativeIberianidentity,and manyofthemrebelledasa groupinthesecondhalfof theninthcentury.Mozarabs protestingagainstthe increasingArabizationof theirfellowChristianswerea majorpublicorderproblemin themid-ninthcentury. Embracingmartyrdom,they embarkedonasystematic campaignofrevilingthe prophet’snameinpublic—an offensepunishablebydeath from850onward.Asturias, withitscapitalatOviedo, emergedduringthistimeto becomeanimportant Christianfrontierstate,and especiallysoafterthe discoveryofSt.James’s supposedtombat Compostella.Withits expansiontothesouth,the territorybecameknownas thekingdomofLeónfrom 910onward,andMozarabs flockedthereinincreasing numbers. NEWISLAMICPOWER BASES Theemergenceby909ofthe newandindependent caliphateassociatedwiththe Fatimiddynastybasedin TunisiachangedIslam’s internationalpower alignments.Ascaliphofthe West,’Abdal-RahmanIII establishedhisreligious independenceofthe ’Abbasids,andin929he adoptedthecaliphaltitleof Al-Nasirli-DinAllahor VictorfortheReligionof God.Withhisauthority therebyenhanced,he counteredtheFatimids’naval aggressioninthewestern Mediterraneanandsubsidized localrevoltsagainsttheirrule inNorthAfrica.Spainitself hadseennumerousrebellions duringtheprecedingreign (thatofthenewcaliph’s grandfather’AbdAllah),and ittooksome20yearsof campaigningbeforecentral authoritywasrestored. Toledo,focusofthelast majorMuslimresistanceto thecaliph,fellin933.León paidhomagebutretainedits ancestralindependence despitetheprolonged campaignwagedagainstit. ’Abdal-RahmanIII’s preoccupationwiththe dangeroflocaldynasties emergingtounderminehis rulewastherefore understandableenough.That isthereasonwhyhemade frequentchangestothe personnelofprovincial governorships.Moreover,an entirenewcity,Madinatal- Zahra,wasbuiltnear Córdobatohousethe bureaucracyandroyal household,whoseexpansion showedthecaliph’s determinationtoassert dynasticcontrol.Thegreatest architecturalexpressionof AndalusianSpain’sIslamic civilizationistheGreat MosqueatCórdoba,which wasfinishedby976aftertwo centuriesofalmost continuousconstructionand embellishment.Erectedon landboughtfromChristians, themosquewasintendedto showthevitalityofan enduringculture,andthe cathedralthathadstoodon thesitewasdemolished.No otherbuildingintenthcenturyWesternEuropecame closetoofferinga comparisonwiththe magnificenceofCórdoba’s mosque,whosearchitectural motifsofthehorseshoearch andribbeddomeannounced thearrivalofanewstagein thehistoryofIslamic architecture.Theroofsofthe prayerhall’s19aisleswere supportedbymorethan850 columnsmadeofporphyry, jasperandcoloredmarble;a two-tieredsystemofarches consistingofwhitestoneand redbricklinkedtheaislesand columns;domeswere coveredwithmosaics,floral decorationsrosefromtheir baseofstuccoandalabaster panelswerecoveredwith Quranictexts.OnlytheEast couldprovideaparallelto thisassertionofcombined culturalgloryandpolitical might,andCórdoba’sclaim torivalthemagnificenceof ’AbbasidBaghdadwasnow wellfounded. PROSPERITYAND COEXISTENCE ThisconsolidatedSpain prosperedeconomically,with coinsofpuregoldandsilver beingstruckatthenewly establishednationalmint.The governingregimealso enjoyedremarkablesuccesses inexternalpolicy.The Fatimidshadtoabandontheir Westerncampaignsand concentratedtheirambitions subsequentlyonEgypt,where theygaineddynasticcontrol in969.UmayyadSpaincould thereforeexpandintothe powervacuumthathad emergedintheMaghribof northwestAfrica.Itwasthis areathatwouldbe transformedintothe viceroyaltyofCórdobaunder thedynamiccommandof Abu’Amiral-Mansurwho,as thecaliphate’schiefminister (978–1002),wasIslamic Spain’seffectiveruler.He exertedaneasypredominance overtheArabaristocracyand controlledagovernment whosehighofficialdom containedmanyslaves personallyappointedbyalMansur.Healsohad completecommandofhis ownwell-trainedarmy,made uplargelyofBerberswho werefanaticallyattachedto hispersonalityand leadership.Hispatronageof poetsandscholarswasinthe highesttraditionsofIslamic andArabicculture,andalMansur’sregime,likethatof hisimmediatepredecessors, wasatolerantonebythe standardsoftheage. TheArabictermdhimmi coveredallnon-Muslimswho werenotslaves,andas subjectsofCórdoba’semirate andsubsequentcaliphatethey weretoleratedwithincertain limits.JewsandChristians hadtopayaspecialtaxcalled thejizyaandsometimes incurredhigherratesonother taxes.Theycouldnotcarry weapons,marryaMuslim woman,receivean inheritancefromaMuslim,or giveevidenceinanIslamic courtoflaw.Christians outnumberedMuslimsin Spain,andthatfactalone meantthataprogramofmass conversionwasimpractical. NeitherChristiansnorJews, wereforcedtolivein ghettoesandtheywerenot activelypreventedfrom followingtheirfaith—though theydidhavetoweara specialbadge.And successiverulersemployed highlyeducateddhimmiata highlevelingovernment. JewsandChristianshad certainadvantagesas administrators,sincethey werewhollydependenton theirpatronsandunattached toanypotentiallyfractious Muslimgroupings.The periodofcomparative tolerationwasatitsheightin thelatetenthcenturyand lasteduntilthedissolutionof thecaliphatefromc.1009 onward.Al-Mansurpresided overthelastgreatageof IslamicSpain,untilits territorialunityfragmentedin the11thcenturywiththe advancefromthenorthofthe Reconquista,Christian Spain’scampaignof territorialrecovery. ANDALUSIANLIFE AMuslim-Christian-Jewish coexistence,however unequal,wasthematrixfor Europe’smostliterate society.Córdobawasin consciousintellectualrivalry withBaghdad,andasaresult itsprofusionoflibraries, collectionsofmanuscripts andtranslationcenters emulatedthe’Abbasid capital’sachievements.AlAndalus’sastronomers,with theirrelianceon measurementand observation,playedamajor roleindisplacingthe Ptolemaicsystemandits theory-basedinsistencethat theorbitoftheplanetswas circularratherthanelliptic. TheArabicinscriptionson thisplanisphericastrolabe— adeviceusedtocomputethe movementsoftheplanetsand stars—statesthatitwasmade inToledobyIbrahimibnSaid al-SahliinAD1067. Observationalscience recordedmajoradvancesin medicine,andal-Andalus’s doctorsinventedsurgical techniquessuchasautopsies andanesthetics—aswellas instrumentsincludingthe bonesawandsurgicalneedle. Theamenitiesoflife,interms ofavarieddietandimproved hygiene,madedailylifea gooddealmoreenjoyablein IslamicSpainthaninother regionsofmedievalEurope. Aspartofaninternational Muslimculture,Spain importedfromtheMiddle Eastcropsthatwerenewto Europe,suchasrice,apricots, citrusfruits,auberginesand cotton,andimproved irrigationsystemsmeantthat suchproducecouldnowbe grownextensivelyinalAndalus.Tradingnetworks withtherestofEurope,India andChinarequiredaccurate maritimenavigation,andthe mapsthatguidedthe merchantsandsailorsof Córdoba’scaliphatewere basedoncarefulgeographical observation.Thecontracts underpinningIslamicSpain’s importandexportbusinesses pioneeredthesystemof buyingandsellingon commission.Modernbanking practices,includingchecks, canbetracedbacktothe methodsusedbyinvestors whobackedIslamicSpain’s merchants;moniesdeposited inBaghdad,forexample, couldthenbecashedin Spain.Islamictechnology pioneeredthewindmill,the firstexamplesofwhichwere operatingintheMiddleEast bytheeighthcenturybefore theirintroductionthroughalAndalustotherestofEurope. Bythe11thcentury watermillscouldbeseenat workinSpain,andIslamic cultureingeneralplaceda highvalueonaregularand abundantsupplyofclean water.ThecitiesofalAndalusboasteddrinking fountains,sanitarysewersand publicbaths,aswellas Europe’sfirstsystemof municipalrubbishcollection. THEKINGDOMOF NAPLES 1204–1302 Imperialambitionwasa recurringphenomenonin 13th-centuryEurope.Philip IIofFrance’ssuccessesled contemporariestodubhim “Augustus,”Germany’s ambitiousStaufenprinces castthemselvesinthemoldof classicalRome’semperors, andbytheendofthecentury EdwardI’scampaignsof conquestinWalesand Scotlandwerefurtheringthe AnglicizationofBritain.Itis thereforeunsurprisingthat theFourthCrusade’sleaders establisheda“Latinempire” aftertheycapturedGreek imperialterritory,including thecityofConstantinople; BaldwinIX,countof Flanders,wascrownedits ruleronMay16,1204. Venice’srepublicgrabbed CreteandCorfuforitself, andthreevassalstates, imitatingimperialprecedent, owedBaldwinafeudal allegiance:theduchyof Athens,thekingdomof Thessalonikeandthe principalityofAchaeaonthe Peloponnese. Thearistocratswhofledfrom occupiedConstantinopleto theGreekterritoriesinAsia Minor(modernTurkey) establishedtwoempiresthat wereruledfromTrebizondon theBlackSeaandfrom Nicaeaadjacenttothenew Latinempire’seastern borders.Theseempires’ hatredoftheLatinintrusion wassharedbyanother successorstatetoByzantium —thedespotateofEpiruson thewesterncoastofthe Greekmainland.Allthree powersspentdecades quarrelingwitheachotherin ashiftingpatternofalliances whichalsoinvolvedthe SeljukTurkstotheeastand theBulgarianempiretothe north.Buttheempireof Nicaea,underitsruler MichaelVIIIPalaeologus, eventuallytooktheleadinan offensivethatdefeatedthe Latinempireof Constantinoplein1261. Byzantiumwasrestored,with EpirusandTrebizond continuingasindependent Greekstates. However,thenotionofa LatinCatholicsittingonthe throneinConstantinople,and therebylinkingtheancient Romanempire’sEastern successorwiththetraditions oftheWest,wasanenduring ambition.Duringthelate13th centuryitwasLouisIX’s youngestbrother,Charlesof Anjou,whotookupthat cause.Onceinstalledin1266 askingofSicily—a jurisdictionthatincludedboth theislanditselfandthe southernItalianmainland— he,too,lookedtotheEast covetously.TheSicilian Vespersrebellionof1282 forcedCharlestowithdraw fromtheislandofSicily, whichwassubsequentlyruled byAragon.AlthoughCharles wentontofoundadynasty, heandhissuccessorshadto contentthemselveswiththe ItalianPeninsula’ssouthern half,aterritorythatbecame knownasthekingdomof Naples. RIGHTThisstatueofCharles ofAnjou,byTommasoSolari (1820–89),standswithinthe facadeoftheroyalpalace, Naples. ABOVETheBattleof BeneventoonFebruary26, 1266wasfoughtbetween CharlesofAnjouand ManfredofSicily.Manfred’s deathresultedin17yearsof Frenchruleoverthekingdom ofSicily(fromaseriesof 13th-centuryfrescoesinthe FerrandeTower,Pernes-lesFontaines,France,thattell thestoryofthereconquestof SicilybyCharlesofAnjou andtheBattleofBenevento (1266),whereManfredis killed). CHARLESOFANJOU— FROMCOUNTTOKING CharlesofAnjou’sroleasa princestartedunpromisingly. HewasLouisVIII’syoungest son,andhismother,Blanche ofCastile,lavishedattention onhiseldestbrotherLouis duringthedecadeorsowhen sheruledFranceasregent followingherhusband’s deathin1226.Charleswas initiallyignoredinthe allocationoftitlesandlands undertheapanagesystem.He onlybecamecountofAnjou andofMainein1247because hiselderbrother,John Tristan,haddied,andLouis IXpreferredthecompanyof hisotheryoungerbrothers RobertofArtoisand AlphonseofToulouse.This familyindifferencemay explainCharles’sassertive character.Nevertheless, marriagetoBeatrice,the heiresstoRaymondBerengar IVofProvence,gavehimhis ownpowerbaseascountof Provencefrom1246onward. Provencewaspartofthe kingdomofBurgundyand, owinganultimateallegiance totheHolyRomanEmpire,it wasaccustomedtoafairly relaxedadministration. Marseille,ArlesandAvignon enjoyedagooddealof autonomyasimperialfree cities,andtheProvençal nobilityenjoyedhistoric liberties.Charlesappointed committeesofinquiryintohis rightsasrulerandthese investigations,conductedby obliginglawyersin1252and thenagainin1278,gavehim theanswershewanted.But insistenceonhisfullrights— andtheneedtopay accompanyingfees—had typifiedCharles’s administrativestyleassoon ashearrivedinProvence. Whenhewentnorthagainin 1247tobeinvestedascount ofAnjoutheimperialcities combinedtoformadefensive leagueagainsthim.The count’smoreprolonged absenceontheSeventh Crusadein1258–60gavehis localenemiesachanceto mountaprolongedrevolt whichhedefeatedwithhis accustomedvigoron returningtoProvence.Arles andAvignonsubmittedinthe summerof1251asdid Marseilleayearlater. Provence’sagricultural wealthandthecommercial prosperityofitstowns producedtherevenuesthat enrichedCharles,butruling thecountycouldnotsatisfy allhisambitions.Thencame aproposalthatheshouldbe kingofSicily,aterritory regardedasitsfiefdombythe papacy.Thenotionwasfirst mootedin1252byInnocent IVandresultedfromthe usualpapalneurosisaboutthe Staufer.However,LouisIX vetoedtheproposalthat CharlesshouldusurpConrad IV,FrederickII’sson,as ruleroftheSiciliankingdom. Duringthenextdecade Charlessettleddowntobeing ahighlysuccessful,if somewhatfrustrated,rulerof Provence,andthecounty’s politicalélitegrew accustomedtohisbriskbut efficientgovernment. However,theseizureof powerinSicilybyManfred, FrederickII’sillegitimate son,in1258changedthe dynamicsofpowerinthe centralMediterranean.The papacywasonceagain confrontedbyavigorousand resourcefulStauferonits southernfrontierand Manfred’smaneuveringin centralandnorthernItaly arouseditstraditionalfearof encirclement.Analarmed papacythereforerenewedits offerofthekingdomofSicily toCharles.InJuly1263,with LouisIX’ssupport,Charles signedatreatywithUrbanIV grantinghimtheSicilian throne. Intheyearsfollowinghis victoryattheBattleof Benevento(February26, 1266)Charlesruledthe Italiansouthwithan exactitudealreadyfamiliarto hisProvençalsubjects.He wasalsonowplanninga majoroffensiveagainstthe Byzantines,andhepersuaded LouisIXthatacampaignto restoretheLatinempireof Constantinoplecouldform partofawidercrusade.In 1267hesignedatreatywith theexiledemperorBaldwin II,whotransferredtoCharles theoverlordshipofAchaea, theLatinempire’svassal statethathadsurvivedthereestablishmentoftheGreek empire.TheVillehardouin family,whowereprincesof Achaea,thereforebecame Charles’svassals,andhe suppliedthemwiththemen andmaterialsnecessaryto continueananti-Byzantine strugglewithinthe Peloponnese.Charleshad alreadyseizedCorfu,aswell asmostoftheAegean islands,andhewastherefore wellplacedforafullfrontal attackonMichaelVIII Palaeologus. THEKINGDOMOF NAPLES 1204A“Latinempireof Constantinople”is establishedbytheFourth Crusade’sleadersfollowing thecaptureofGreekimperial territory. 1246LouisIX’syoungest brother,Charles,becomes countofProvenceon marryingBeatrice,heiressto thecounty,andisinvested (1247)ascountofAnjouand ofMaine. 1261MichaelVIII PalaeologusdefeatstheLatin empireandrestores Byzantium. 1263UrbanIVgrantsCharles ofAnjouthethroneofSicily, apapalfiefdomthatincludes theislandofSicilyandthe southernItalianmainland. 1266AfterdefeatingManfred ofSicilyattheBattleof Benevento,Charlesstartsto ruleaskingofSicily. 1281–82Charlespreparesfor amilitaryoffensiveagainst theByzantiumempire. 1282Rebellionspreadsfrom PalermototherestofSicily. KingPeterIIIofAragon becomesKingPeterIof Sicily. 1302FrederickIIIis recognizedasrulerofthe islandkingdomofSicily,and theruleoftheHouseof Anjou-Naplesisrestrictedto thesouthernItaliankingdom. PREPARINGTO ATTACKBYZANTIUM Byzantium’semperor neverthelesshadonecardto playinhisdefense.Michael wrotetoLouisIX,and suggestedarapprochement betweentheLatinandGreek Churches.Besideswhich,he argued,wouldnotanattack onConstantinoplebythe king’sbrotherinterferewith Louis’seagernesstolauncha crusadedefendingthe crusaderstatesagainst Baybars,theMamluksultan ofSyriaandEgypt?Charles wentthroughthemotionsof postponinghisconquest plans,buthisalternative strategywastypicallyadroit initsself-interest.Thecaliph ofTunishadbeenManfred’s vassal,andCharleswishedto re-establishtheSicilian kingdom’ssuzeraintyover MuhammadIal-Mustansir. Thefactthatthecaliphwas rumoredtobecontemplating conversiontoChristianity lentweighttoCharles’s suggestionthattheEighth Crusadebedirectedinitially againstTunisasaneasy target.LouisIXaccordingly sailedforTunisand, followingtheking’sdeath almostimmediatelyafter landingthere,Charles conductedthesiegeofthe townwhichendedinalMustansir’srenewalofhis vassalagetothekingdomof Sicily. BELOWTheCastelNuevoin NapleswasbuiltbyCharles ofAnjoufollowingthe decisiontomakeNaples, ratherthanPalermo,the administrativecenterofthe KingdomofSicily. Theremayhavebeenaplan tousethecrusadingfleetin ordertolaunchanattackon Byzantium,butitsdestruction bystormswhilereturningto Sicilyputpaidtoanysuch proposal.However,there wereotherpickingswithin easyreach,andin1272 Charlesproclaimedhimself kingofAlbaniaafterhehad conqueredlandsalongthe Albaniancoastthathad previouslybeenpartofthe despotateofEpirus.Hestill thoughtthatByzantiumwas withinhisgrasp,buta reunionoftheGreekand LatinChurchesnowseemed imminent,andsinceMichael Palaeologuswasinserious discussionswiththepapacy onthesubject,Charles’s ambitionremainedfrustrated. PopeGregorywas,however, inapositiontograntCharles aconsolationprize:the kingdomofJerusalem. Deprivedofthecityof Jerusalemandwithitscapital inAcre,thetinykingdomthat clungtotheSyriancoastwas notmuchofagift.HughIII ofCyprushadbeencrowned itskingin1269,butthe faction-riddenlocalnobility disgustedhimandin1276he returnedtohisislandthrone. ThisleftMaryofAntiochas aclaimant,andshewasready tosellherrightstoCharlesof Anjou.Withpapalapproval thedealwasdonein1277, andfollowingtheapplication ofsomestrong-armtacticsby Charles’sagentsthelocal nobilitysworefealtytotheir newking. SimondeBrion’selectionto thepapacyasMartinIVon February22,1281wasan encouragingmomentfor Charles.Thecounthadgone sofarastoimprisontwo obstreperousItaliancardinals toensurethattheconclave votedunanimouslyforthe Frenchcardinalwhohadbeen LouisIX’schancellorin 1259–61.MichaelVIIIhad founditdifficulttosellthe ideaofaChurchreunionin Constantinople,andthenew popehelpedCharlesby excommunicatingtheGreek emperor.In1281–82, therefore,andwithpapal approval,Charlescouldat lastpreparetogotowar againstByzantium. Initiallandcampaigning designedtobreakoutfrom Charles’sAlbanianbase provokedaByzantine counter-attackwhichputhis armytoflight.Campaigning inAchaeahadalsogone badly,withtheprincipality provingaprobleminother respects.Thedealof1267 meantthatCharleswasnow lordofAchaeaaswellasits suzerain,followingthedeath withoutissuein1271ofhis sonPhilip,whohadbeenhis vassalinthePeloponnese principality.Butthe Villehardouinfamily contestedhissuccession,and althoughpossessionof AchaeagaveCharles’s Angevindynastyamajorrole inFrankish-occupiedGreece, squabblingoverthe successionensuredovera centuryofcivilwars.Still,in thesummerof1282, Charles’shopesmusthave beenbolsteredbythesightof the400shipshehad assembledatthegreatportof Messinainreadinessforthe attackonConstantinople. AREVOLTINSICILY OntheeveningofMarch29, however,justasthechurch bellsofPalermostartedto ringinreadinessforthe serviceofVespers,aquarrel brokeoutbetweenFrench officialsandsomelocals.A contemporaryaccountofthe eveningdescribesa Frenchmanpesteringayoung marriedwoman,whose husbandthenattackedthe loutandstabbedhimtodeath. Whateverthecause,aspark hadbeenlitandinthe ensuingmassacrethelocal Palermitanskilledasmanyof theFrenchastheycouldfind. Therebellionspreadafter localleaderswereelectedin Palermo,andsixweekslater CharlesofAnjou’sFrench governmenthadlostcontrol ofmostoftheislandof Sicily.BytheendofApril evenwell-fortifiedMessina waslosttotheFrench,and therebelssetfiretoCharles’s armada. Whydidthishappen,and howspontaneouswasit? Charles’sFrench administratorscouldcertainly beharsh,andhisdecisionto basehimselfinNapleshad isolatedhimfromtheisland ofSicily.Andtherewasa longhistoryofItalian communalismbehindthe demandssenttoapredictably unsympatheticpapacy:the rebelleaderswantedtheir citiestobeself-governing anddirectlyanswerableonly toMartinIVastheirsuzerain. Tosomeextentthereforethis wasapopularrevolt.Butthe rebellionfollowingthe SicilianVespersincidentwas alsopartofthediplomatic politicsofEuropeanprinces. Afterthepopehadrejected theirdemandsrebelleaders sentamessagetoKingPeter IIIofAragon,whosewife ConstancewasManfred’s daughterandaclaimanttothe Sicilianthrone.Peterwas wellplacedtochampionthe claimmadeinthesummerof 1282sincehisnavy—anewly builtfleetintendedtoprotect hissubjects’tradinginterest innorthAfrica—waslocated atTunisjustacoupleof hundredmilestothesouthof Sicily.Therewasalsoanother elementtotheSicilian Vespersincident:Peter’s Aragonesekingdom containednumerousSicilian refugeeswhohatedCharles. Theseexilestendedtobe Ghibellineswhoopposed papalterritorialpowerin Italy,andinthepastCharles hadshownnoqualmsabout killingpeoplewhoheldsuch views.In1272hehad declaredwaronGenoa,acity runbyGhibellineswhose revolts,partlyfinancedbythe GreekemperorMichaelVIII, spreadacrossnorthItaly.By 1275theGhibellineshad forcedCharlestowithdraw fromPiedmont,buttheir hostilityremainedintense. JohnofProcida,Manfred’s formerchancellorandoncea counselortoFrederickII,was anall-importantpointof contactbetweenallthese groups,andthestrengthof hisdevotiontotheStaufen memorywasequaledonlyby hisdetestationofCharles.In 1282Johnwas72,butthis giftedconspirator’sagedid notstophimfrombeingan effectiveliaisonbetweenthe emperorMichaelin Constantinople,the Aragonesecourtand Charles’sopponentsinSicily. TheSicilians’appealtoPeter andConstanceofAragonwas accepted,andonAugust30, 1282theAragonesefleet dockedatTrapani.Theking promisedarestorationof ancientSicilianliberties ratherthanfreecommunes, buttheundertakingwasgood enoughfortheislandersand hewasacclaimedPeterIof SicilyonSeptember4at Palermo. Charlescouldstillrelyonthe papacyforsupport.MartinIV firstexcommunicatedPeterof Aragonandthendeclaredthat CharlesofValois,sonof France’sKingPhilipIII(“the Bold”)shouldruleAragon. Theseactionswerepartofa patternofconsistentlycraven supportforCharlesofAnjou, andMartin’ssubservienceto Frenchinterestshadaserious long-termeffectin underminingthepapacy’s spiritualauthorityasan independentpower.The pope’sfurtherannouncement of1284thatthewaragainst theSicilianswouldbean AragoneseCrusadedevalued thevocabularyofanideal thatwasoncesupposedto uniteallChristianprincesand theirsubjects. ABOVETheSicilianVespers —arebellionthattookplace onMarch30,1282in PalermoagainstFrenchrule inSicilyunderCharlesof Anjou—ledtoawarthat lasteduntil1302.This depictionoftheeventthat mayhavetriggeredthe uprisingwaspaintedby FrancescoHayez(1791– 1882)in1846. Christendomitselftherefore wasamajorcasualtyofthe SicilianVespersincident.The wartowhichitgaverise lasteduntil1302,andasan essentiallyFranco-Spanish conflictitshowedtheenergy ofnationalgovernments guidedbyrulers’ambitions. TheinterventionofPhilipIII ofFrancein1284sawhis majorforceadvancingon AragonthroughRoussillonto advancetheclaimofCharles ofValois.Thisforce, however,wasdecimatedby disease,andin1285the Frenchkingdiedat Perpignan.Despitethedeaths inthesameyearofCharlesof AnjouandofPeterof Aragon,thewarcontinued. By1302CharlesofAnjou’s sonandsuccessor,CharlesII ofNaples,hadtoconcedethe futilityofanyfurtherattempt atinvadingSicily,and FrederickIII,thesonofPeter IIIofAragon,wasconfirmed astheisland’sking. THEHOUSEOFANJOUNAPLES ThealliancethatCharlesof AnjouformedwithHungary’s Arpaddynastyhad momentousconsequences. HissonCharles(1254– 1309),thefutureCharlesIIof Naples,marriedMaria,the daughterofStephenVof Hungary(1239–72).His daughterElisabeth,married Stephen’sheir,Ladislaus (1262–90).Mariaclaimedthe throneofHungaryafter LadislausIVdiedwithout issue,buttheHungarian aristocracyturnedtoAndrew III(c.1265–1301),aVenetian noblemandescendedfroman earlierArpadmonarch, AndrewII(1177–1235). QueenMariatransferredher Hungariandynasticrightsto hereldestson,CharlesMartel ofAnjou(1271–95),who diedyoung,andwithAndrew IIIfindingitdifficulttoassert hisauthoritytheAngevin claimwassupportedby Hungary’sChurchleaders. CharlesMartel’sson,Charles Robert(1288–1342),pursued hisclaimtothethronein Hungaryfrom1300onward, andhiscoronationasCharles IofHungaryin1312marks thestartoftheHungarian Angevins’dynastichistory. Primogenitureshouldhave alsomadehimhis grandfather’sheirinNaples, butCharlesIIchosehis youngestsonRobertofAnjou (1277–1343)assuccessor. Crownedkingin1309, Robertwasanenlightened patronofthearts,andas leaderoftheGuelphpartyin Italianpoliticsheresistedthe territorialambitionsofthe emperorLouisIV(1282– 1347)innorthItaly. AncestralguiltaboutCharles IofHungary’sexclusion fromthelineofNeapolitan successionnonethelessclung toRobert,andfollowingthe deathofhisownsonandheir hewishedtomakereparation. Hethereforearrangedforhis granddaughterJoanna(1328– 82)—whohadbecomehis heir—tomarryprince Andrew,CharlesIof Hungary’syoungersonand thebrotherofLouisI(1326– 82),whosucceededtothe Hungarianthronein1342. TheAngevindynasty’s Italianizinginfluencehadby nowraisedHungarytonew levelsofculturalachievement andeconomicgrowth,andin 1370Louisalsobecameking ofPolandinsuccessiontohis maternaluncle,CasimirIII. Inhiswill,KingRobertof NaplesspecifiedthatPrince AndrewandJoannawere bothtobecrownedmonarchs ofNaplesintheirownright. Joanna,however,refusedto sharesovereignty,andin August1344shewas crownedsolemonarch.In 1345herhusbandAndrew wasmurderedbyNeapolitan aristocratsdeterminedto preventhiscoronation,and althoughatrialheldunder papalauspicesinAvignon acquittedJoannaof complicitytheevent underminedherauthority. Determinedtoavengehis brother’smurder,Louis invadedNaplesonseveral expeditionsconductedin 1346–48andagainin1350 butfailedtoestablishhimself asthekingdom’spermanent ruler.Thebeleaguered queen’sdecisiontoadopt LouisIofAnjou(1339–84),a youngersonofJohnIIof France,asherheirestablished ajuniorAngevinlinein oppositiontotheseniorline whoserightsofsuccession wererepresentedbyCharles ofDurazzo(1345–86),a directdescendantofCharles II. Joanna’ssupportforthe Avignonpapacyduringthe westernschismledin1381to herofficialcondemnationby PopeUrbanVIasaheretic. Hebestowedherkingdom, whichwasapapalfief,on CharlesofDurazzo,who arrangedforJoannatobe murderedin1382.Theprince ofDurazzothenruledas CharlesIIIofNaples,andhe alsotriedtoseizethe HungarianthroneafterLouis Idiedandduringtheminority ofLouis’sheir,Mary (c.1371–95).Herethoughhe waslesssuccessful.The HungarianQueenMother Elisabetharrangedfor Charles’sassassinationon February7,1386,andMary wasreinstated.Mary’s husbandSigismund(1368– 1437),originallyaGerman princewhosefatherwasthe emperorCharlesIV,became entirelydevotedtothe Hungariancause,andhislong reignaskingofHungary from1387onwardendedany prospectofanAngevin restoration. CharlesIIIwassucceeded askingofNaplesbyhisson Ladislaus(1376–1414),who nonethelesshadtofightLouis IIofAnjou(1377–1417)for hisinheritance.LouisII reignedinNaplesforten years(1389–99)beforebeing ejectedbyforcesloyalto Ladislaus,whosesisterand successorJoanIIofNaples (1373–1435)wasthelast Anjou-Durazzotoreignin Naples.Localanti-French sentimentwasrevivedbythe behaviorofJoan’shusband, JamesofBourbon(1370– 1438),thecountoflaMarche whoacquiredthetitleofking onmarriage.Afterariot brokeoutinNaplesin1416 Jameshadtoremovethe Frenchadministratorshehad introducedtothekingdom. Renouncinghisregaltitle, JameshadleftNaplesby 1419andtheseniorAngevin lineofNeapolitanmonarchs becameextinctwhenJoan died.Shehadsettledthe successiononRenéofAnjou (1409–80)ofthejunior Angevinline,buthisreign wasbrief(1438–42). Followingasuccessfulsiege ofNaplesin1441–42, AlfonsoV(1396–1458),king ofAragonandofSicily, accomplishedthetremendous featofreunitingtheislandof Sicilywiththesouthern Italianmainlandinone kingdom,whichheruledasa dependencyofAragon. ThemarriageofSigismund, sonoftheemperorCharles IV,andMaryofHungarycan beseeninthebackgroundof thisillustrationfromthe1468 editionoftheChronicles writtenbytheFrench historianJeanFroissart (c.1337–c.1405). THEHUNDRED YEARS’WAR 1337–1453 Theconflictthatconsumed EnglishandFrenchenergies forwelloveracenturyfrom 1337to1453was,infact,a seriesofwarspunctuatedby periodsofpeace.Dynastic rightswereatthecoreofthe hostilities,withEngland’s Plantagenetkingsasserting againsttheFrenchdynastyof theValoistheirclaimtobe kingsofFrance.Thewar endedintheexpulsionofthe EnglishforcesfromFrance— withtheexceptionofCalais andtheareasurroundingthe city.Buttheimpactofthewar transcendsthestoryof dynasticrivalry,forthe conflictalsowitnessed momentousdevelopmentsin militarytechnologyandgave birthtoanewandenergetic senseofnationalidentityin bothEnglandandFrance. AlthoughEngland’sdynasty ofAnglo-Normanrulershad retainedNormandyasafief forthemselvesandtheirheirs, asdukesofNormandythey werenonethelessobligedto swearfealtytotheFrench Crown.Williamthe Conquerorandhisheirs resentedthisvassalage,and bythesametokenFrance’s Capetiandynastydislikedthe factthataconstituentpartof theirrealmwasbeing governedbyaforeignpower. Thesetensionswere compoundedbytheriseto powerofthePlantagenets (sometimesknownasthe Angevins),sincetheywerea thoroughlyAnglo-French dynasty.Attheheightoftheir power,England’sPlantagenet kingscontrollednotjust NormandybutalsoMaine, Anjou,Touraine,Poitou, Gascony,Saintongeand Aquitaine.England’skings thereforenotonlyruledmore Frenchlandsthandidthe FrenchCrown,butalsoowed vassalagetoadynastyfarless powerfulthanthemselves. THEBACKGROUNDTO WAR TheweaknessofEngland’s positionduringthereignof John(1199–1216)allowed PhilipIIAugustusofFrance toseizemostoftheancient Englishterritorialholdings. AttheBattleofBouvines (1214)inmodernFlanders KingPhilipIIAugustus defeatedOttoIV,theGerman emperor,andOtto’sallyKing JohnofEngland.John’s humiliationwasamajor factorinhisdecisionto capitulatetothedemandsof theEnglishbaronageandto signtheMagnaCarta. Philip’svictorymeantthathe couldnowassertcontrolover Anjou,Brittany,Normandy, MaineandTouraine.Asa result,theAngevins’French territorieswerereducedto partsofGascony.Itwasthis humiliation,compoundedby furtherdefeatsinthe SaintongeWar(1242)andthe WarofSaint-Sardos(1324), thattheEnglisharistocracy werenowdeterminedto avenge. RIGHTTheBattleofCrécyon August26,1346isdepicted hereinthe14th-century sectionoftheGrandes ChroniquesdeFrance(1274– 1461). THEHUNDREDYEARS’ WAR 1324TheWarofSaintSardosresultsindefeatfor theEnglishatthehandsof theFrench,andleads indirectlytotheoverthrowof EdwardIIofEngland. 1328DeathofCharlesIV. PhilipofValois,anephewof PhilipIV,iscrownedas PhilipVI,thefirstValois monarch. 1337PhilipVIclaims English-heldGasconyashis ownfiefdom;EdwardIII claimstobeFrance’srightful king.Warstarts. 1346EnglishvictoryatCrécy leadstocaptureofCalais. 1356Englishvictoryat Poitiers. 1360TreatyofBrétigny: Aquitaine,Gascony,western BrittanyandCalaisareceded toEngland. 1369Gasconnoblesreject PrinceEdward’stax measures.Warresumes. 1372Poitiersisretaken. 1389–1415Thesecondpeace betweenFranceandEngland. CivilconflictinFrance betweenBurgundianand Orléanist(subsequently termed“Armagnac”) aristocraticfactions. 1399HenryBolingbroke (HenryIV)seizestheEnglish thronefromRichardII. 1415HenryVdeclareswar. Englishgainvictoryat Agincourt.Afterfurther victoriesatCaen(1417)and Rouen(1419),Normandyis Englishcontrolled. 1420TreatyofTroyes: CharlesVIrecognizesHenry Vashisheir. 1421AScottisharmythathas arrivedinFrancedefeatsthe EnglishattheBattleof Bauge. 1422DeathofHenryVand ofCharlesVI.Theinfant HenryVIiscrownedkingof EnglandandofFrance.War continues. 1429Jeanned’Archelpsto relievetheEnglishsiegeof Orléans.Rheimsopensits gatestothedauphin’sarmy andheiscrownedasCharles VII. 1435TreatyofArras:the Burgundiansagreepeacewith CharlesVII. 1449Frenchrecapture Rouen,aswellasCaen (1450),andBordeauxand Bayonne(1451). 1453AnAnglo-Gasconforce isdefeatedattheBattleof Castillon.Calaisisthe EnglishCrown’ssoleforeign territorialpossession. Theextinctionofthemain lineoftheCapetiandynasty providedtheEnglishwitha pretextforwar.PhilipIVleft threemaleheirsonhisdeath in1314:LouisX,PhilipV andCharlesIV.Healsolefta daughter,Isabella,whowas thewifeofEdwardIIof Englandandthemotherof EdwardIII.LouisXdiedin 1316andhisson,JohnI,died monthsafterward.PhilipV nowclaimedtheCrownfor himselfandusedtheancient Saliclawanditsprohibition offemalesuccessiontothe Frenchthroneinordertoset asidetheclaimsofLouis’s otherchild,Joan.CharlesIV usedthesameauthoritytoset asidetheclaimsofPhilipV’s daughterswhenthekingdied in1322. In1324theshortWarof Saint-Sardos,foughtin Gascony,providedaforetaste ofthemightystruggleto come.CharlesIVofFrance besiegedtheEnglishfortress ofLaRéole,whichwas forcedtosurrenderaftera monthofsteady bombardment.England’s humiliationwascomplete. TheentireduchyofAquitaine hadoncebeenthepossession oftheEnglishCrownand nowonlyBordeauxanda narrowcoastalstrip remained.Thiscauseof nationalshamehadamajor domesticconsequence:the depositionofEdwardIIin 1327bythediscontented Englishnobilityandthe successionofhissonEdward III—averydifferentkindof ruler.WhenCharlesIVdied inthefollowingyearit seemedtomany—andnot justthosewithEnglish sympathies—thatEdward wasthelegitimateheirtothe Frenchthrone.Charleswas thelastrepresentativeofthe seniorlineoftheCapetian dynastyandhischild,born posthumously,wasagirl. Edwardwasnotjust Charles’snephewandclosest survivingmalerelative,he wasalsotheonlylivingmale descendantofPhilipIV.The Frencharistocracywere, however,appalledbythe prospectofbeingruledbyan Englishking,andinorderto justifytheirhostilitytheyfell backontheSaliclaw.This prohibitednotonly successionbywomenbut alsosuccessionbythose whoseclaimsdescended throughafemalerelative. TheyturnedinsteadtoPhilip ofValois,aCapetianwho wasthenephewofPhilipIV. Hewasalreadyregentand wassubsequentlycrowned PhilipVIin1328,thefirst kingoftheValoisdynasty. Frenchambitionsontheeve oftheconflictcenteredon Gascony,stillheldbythe EnglishasafiefoftheFrench Crownratherthanastheir ownterritorialpossession. Edwardhadbeenallowedto keepit,butanagreement madein1331meantthatin returnhehadtogiveuphis claimtotheFrenchCrown. Thiswasanuneasy compromise,andin1336 Philipmadeplanstotake overGasconywhileEdward waspreoccupiedwithmaking waragainsttheScots—by nowawell-established Frenchally.In1337Philip claimedthewholeof Gasconyashisownfiefdom, andEdwardinreturnasserted hisclaimtobetherightful kingofFrance. ENGLISHNAVAL MIGHT Theinitialstagesofthewar wentbadlyfortheEnglish, whohadalliedthemselves withFlandersandalsowith variousindividualnobles elsewhereintheLow Countries.Payingsubsidies tothesealliesandmeetingthe costsofmaintainingarmies onforeignsoilplacedhuge strainsonEnglishfinances, andby1340thesealliances wereabandoned.TheFrench navaloffensivedeployed shipsandcrewsuppliedby therepublicofGenoa,and thedisruptiontoEngland’s tradingpatternswas considerable—especiallythe exportofrawwoolto Flandersandtheimportof wineandsaltfromGascony. AttheBattleofSluysin 1340,however,theEnglish wereabletoasserttheirnaval supremacyandfortherestof thewartheEnglishChannel waseffectivelydefended fromanythreatofFrench invasion.Thefocusof conflictthereaftershiftedto GasconyandtoBrittany wherethetwopowers supportedrivalclaimantsto theduchy,butinbothareas thefightingoftheearly1340s wasinconclusive. ABOVEAnanonymousportait ofEdwardIII,whoreignedas KingofEnglandbetween 1327and1377. However,inJuly1346ina majormilitaryoffensive, Edwardledanexpeditionto Francewhichlandedonthe CotentinPeninsulaonthe Normandycoast.Caenwas capturedswiftlyandEdward thenadvancednorthwards towardtheLowCountries, pillagingashewent.At Crécythetwoarmies confrontedeachotherin battleandtheresult,greatly influencedbytheEnglishand Welsharcherswiththeir longbows,wasadecisive defeatfortheFrench.Edward wasnowabletoproceed northwardsunopposed,and followingasiegehecaptured thecityofCalaisin1347. Thiswasamajorcoupforthe Englisharmy,whichcould onceagainmaintainitstroops inafortifiedsettlementon Frenchsoil.Developmentsin Scotlandwerealsofavoring Englandbythistime,and DavidIIwascaptured followinghisdefeatinthe BattleofNeville’sCrossin 1346. VALOISKINGS 1328–1461 PHILIPVI (1293–1350) r.1328–50 JOHNII (1319–64) r.1350–64 CHARLESV (1338–80) r.1364–80 CHARLESVI [“theMad”] (1368–1422) r.1380–1422 CHARLESVII (1403–61) r.1422–61 THEEXPLOITSOFTHE BLACKPRINCE Thenextstageofthewarsaw therisetoprominenceof EdwardIII’ssonand namesake,theprinceof Wales,alsoknownasthe BlackPrince.In1356the princelandedhistroopsin Gasconyandadvanced towardPoitiers,wherea majorvictorywasgainedin battleovertheFrench.This successwasonceagain attributabletotheEnglishand Welsharchers.France’snew kingJohnII(JeanleBon),a patronoftheartsandan indifferentsoldier,was capturedandtakento Englandwherehewasheldin captivityforfouryearswhile theransomtoreleasehimwas beingraisedinan economicallyweakened France. RIGHTAnillustration depictingthemurderof EtienneMarcel,1358.Marcel wasabouttoopenthegates ofParistothekingof Navarre’sarmedbands,but JeanMaillartpreventedhim, andkilledhimbeforethe PorteSaint-Antoine(from TheChroniclesofJean Froissart). BynowmuchoftheFrench countrysidewascollapsing intoastateofanarchy,with professionalsoldiersturning tobrigandageandpillaging theland.In1358therewasa majorpeasantrebellion(the Jacquerie)anddeepdivisions werealsoemergingamong theFrenchélite.Charlesthe dauphinwastryingtoruleas regentinhisfather’sabsence, andinOctober1356he summonedtheEstates- General,arepresentative bodyconsistingofthethree ordersofclergy,nobilityand townspeople.ÉtienneMarcel, leaderoftheParismerchants, enjoyedthesupportofmany noblesinhisrefusaltogrant moneytoCharlesandinhis attempttoimposesubstantial restrictionsonroyalpower. Charles’sresistanceled Marceltosupportthekingof Navarre,whomhehopedto placeontheFrenchthrone andwhosearmedbandswere ontheoutskirtsofParisby thebeginningof1358. Englishforceswerekeento capitalizeonthisdomestic Frenchcrisis,andin1358 EdwardIIIonceagain launchedaninvasionforce butwasunabletocapture eitherParisorRheims. Charleswasabletocallon supportfromtheprovincesin reassertingcontroloverParis anditsurbanmob,whose violencehadalienated previouslysympathetic membersofthenobility.By thetermsoftheTreatyof Brétigny(1360)athirdof westernFrance—Aquitaine, Gascony,westernBrittany andthecountshipofCalais— wascededtoEngland,whose Crownheldtheseterritories withouthavingtopay homage.Aransomofthree millioncrownswasfixedas thepricetobepaidin installmentsfortheking’s release.AlthoughEngland gaveupNormandyand,at leastintheory,theclaimto theFrenchCrown,thetreaty markedthehighpointof Englishfortunesinthe HundredYears’War,andit nowruledamuch-expanded Aquitaine.Theenormous sumspaidinransombythe Frenchboostedtheirenemy’s treasuryfortherestofthe centuryandconsequently increasedtheEnglish capacitytowagewar.Asa guaranteeofthefuture payment,andafterpaying onemillioncrowns,JohnII hadtogiveuptwoofhissons ashostagestotheEnglish. WhenhissonLouisescaped fromEnglandin1362King JohnIIdecidedtogive himselfup.Anamiable captivityinEnglandseemed preferabletotheburdensof exercisingkingshipinFrance, andonhisdeathin1364John wassucceededbyhisson whoreignedasCharlesV. THEFIRSTPERIODOF PEACE Duringthefirstperiodof peace(1360–69)Charles contemplatedtwoissues:how besttoregaintheFrench landslosttotheEnglishand howtoridthecountrysideof thosemercenarysoldierswho hadbeendisbandedandwere nowcausingsocialchaos.He foundasolutioninBertrand duGuesclin,aminornoble fromBrittanywhohad learnedadvancedguerrilla techniqueswhileengagedin theduchy’sinternalconflicts. DuGuesclinhadcrushedthe forcesofCharlesIIof NavarreinNormandyin 1364,andCharlesVnow placedhimincommandof themercenarybandswhose energiescouldbeusedto furtherthecauseofthe FrenchCrown. Castileinthe1360swas consumedbyacivilwar,with theEnglishsupportingthe causeofPedrotheCruel whilehisopponentand brotherDonEnriqueenjoyed Frenchsupport.Du Guesclin’smenforcedDon PedrooutofCastilein1365, atwhichpointheattractedthe supportoftheBlackPrince, whowasthenrulingin Aquitaineashisfather’s viceroy.AttheBattleof NajerainApril1367the Anglo-Gasconforceinflicted aheavydefeatondu Guesclin’smen.Itwasthe BlackPrince’slastmajor victory,andhesubsequently developedthedropsywhich wouldlaterclaimhislife.His ruleinGascony-Aquitaine becameincreasingly autocratic,andwhenPedro defaultedonhisdebtsthe princeresortedto extraordinarytaxation measures.Gasconnoblesat thatpointpetitionedthe FrenchCrowntocometo theiraid,andCharlesV summonedtheprincetoParis toanswercharges.Whenhe refusedtodosotheking chargedhimwithdisloyalty anddeemedthattheEnglish hadbrokenthetermsofthe peacetreaty.InMay1369 Charlesdeclaredwarand hostilitiesresumed. HOSTILITIESRESUMED Thesecondmajorphaseof theHundredYears’Warsaw asteadyimprovementin Frenchfortunes.Charles optedforapolicyofattrition thatwascalculatedtoengage Englishforcesacrossabroad frontwhileseekingtoavoida majorbattle.Inpursuingthis policytheFrenchreliedon theeffectivestrategiesofdu Guesclin,whowasappointed constableofFrancein1370. Hedrovebackthemajor Englishoffensiveinnorthern Franceusingbothhitandrun raidsandthepersuasionof bribery.TheFrenchcould alsorelyonthenavyof Castile,sinceduGuesclinhad capturedPedrotheCrueland theregion’sthronewas occupiedfrom1370onward byFrance’sally,Enrique. Englandnowsufferedfroma dearthofeffective commanders.TheBlack Prince’sillnessmeantthathe wasdeprivedofhiscommand in1371,andhisfather,the king,wastoooldtotaketo thefieldofbattle.Thelossof JohnChandoswho,as seneschal,wasthe administratorofPoitou,and thecaptureoftheirGascon vassalJeanIIIdeGrailly, deprivedtheEnglishoftwo oftheirgreatestmilitary leaders.In1372duGuesclin avengedanhistoricFrench defeatbyretakingPoitiers, andfiveyearslaterhisforces capturedBergerac.Charles’s policyofnegotiatingwith citiesandregionstheFrench hadlostwasalsohighly effective,andby1374hehad regainedallthelandsceded underthepeacetreatywith theexceptionofCalaisand Aquitaine.Thedeathofthe BlackPrincein1376andof EdwardIIIin1377meantthat theprince’ssonRichardof Bordeauxsucceededtothe throneduringhisminority. DuGuesclin’sdeathin1380 andtheresumptionofamajor Scottishmilitaryoffensivein the1380s,includingthe BattleofOtterburn(1388), meantthatitsuitedbothsides toengageinpeace negotiations.Thesewere eventuallyconcludedin1389. THESECONDPERIOD OFPEACE Theperiodofthesecond peace(1389–1415)wasone inwhichbothcountriessawa resumptionofdomestic challengestotheauthorityof theCrown.CharlesV’s brothers,whodominatedthe regencycouncilthatruledin thenameofhisinfantson, quarreledamongthemselves andtheauthorityofthe Crowndiminished accordingly.WhenCharles VIstartedtogoverninhis ownnameheprovedtobea trivialfigure,andhisdescent intomadnessin1392puthis unclesbackinpower.An opencontestforpower developedbetweentwo factions.TheOrléanistgroup —subsequentlyknownasthe Armagnac—supportedthe king’sbrother,Louisof Valois,dukeofOrléans. Thosewhochampionedthe causeoftheking’scousin, JohnII,dukeofBurgundy, wereknownasthe Burgundians.The Burgundiangroupwere responsibleforthe assassinationofLouis,duke ofOrléans,in1407,and thereafterleadershipofthose opposedtoJohnofBurgundy passedtoBernardVII,count ofArmagnac.By1410both thesefactionswereseeking Englishassistanceinaperiod thatwaseffectivelyoneof Frenchcivilwar. TheEnglishCrownwasalso embroiledindomestic conflict.RichardIIfailedto quelltheIrishuprisingthat preoccupiedhimformostof hisreign,andhiscousin HenryBolingbrokeseizedthe thronein1399.From1400 onwardHenryIVwas challengedbyamajorWelsh rebellionundertheleadership ofOwainGlyndwr,anduntil 1410muchofWaleswaslost totheEnglish.Inthenorth theEnglishregimechange ledtoaseriesofrenewed Scottishattacksalongthe border.Thesewerecountered byanEnglishinvasionin 1402andthedefeatofthe ScotsattheBattleof HomildonHill.However,that battlesowedtheseedsof anotherconflict,sinceHenry andtheearlof Northumberlandquarreled overthefruitsoftheir victory.Alongandbloody struggleensuedbetweenthe twoforcontrolofthe northernEnglishregion,and thiswasonlyfinallyresolved in1408whenthePercy familyhadtoconcededefeat. Thesetroubles,alongwiththe resumptionofmajorFrench andScandinavianraidson Englishshipping,meantthat Englandwasinnostateto renewtheFrenchcampaign until1415. AGINCOURTAND AFTER England’sdeclarationofwar in1415soughttocapitalize ontheFrenchdomestic mayhemthatfollowed cessationofhostilities betweenthetwonationsin thelate1390s.In1414Henry Vhadturneddownanoffer fromtheArmagnacfactionto supporthisclaimtothe throneinreturnfortheir restorationofthefrontiers establishedundertheTreaty ofBrétignysignedin1360. Henry’sdeclaredwaraim wastherestorationofthe Frenchterritoriespossessed bytheEnglishduringthe reignofHenryII(1154–89). ABOVEHenryVisportrayed inthiselaboratelygilded anonymouspaintingofthe 15thcentury. Inpursuitofthishighly ambitiousgoal,Henryarrived withanarmyatHarfleurin August1415and,aftertaking thetown,hemarchedon towardthesafetyofEnglishoccupiedCalais.However,he nowfoundhimself outmaneuveredandhis supplieswererunninglow. Hethereforedecidedtomake astandatAgincourt,asite northoftheRiverSomme.In theensuingbattle(October 25th,1415)acomparatively largerandbetter-equipped Frencharmywasdefeatedby theEnglish.Subsequent Englishpropagandamayhave inflatedthedisparityin numbersinorderto emphasizethescaleofthe victory,buttherecanbeno doubtthat,fortheFrench, Agincourtwasadefeatonthe scaleofCrécyandPoitiers. Henrywentontotakemost ofNormandy,includingCaen in1417andRoueninJanuary 1419.Normandywasonce againunderEnglishcontrol forthefirsttimeintwo centuries. Theseweregreatvictoriesfor Englisharms,buttheyalso owedmuchtotheintensityof Frenchfactionalism.Charles, dukeofOrléans,was capturedbytheEnglishat Agincourt,andBernardVII, countofArmagnac,was murderedin1417byamob ofBurgundiansupportersin Paris.After1417the Burgundianscontrolledboth Parisandthekinghimself, andtheirconflictwiththe ArmagnacsmeantthatFrench forcescouldnotconcentrate onthecampaignagainstthe EnglishinNormandy. Althoughthetwofactions agreedtoatrucein1419,the Burgundiansretainedtheir ambitionsandthegrouping decidedtoallythemselves withEngland. ItwasthisBurgundian influencethatbrought pressuretobearonCharles VI,whohadnowdescended intoinsanity.Undertheterms oftheTreatyofTroyes signedin1420theFrench kingrecognizedHenryVof Englandashisheir.Henry wouldmarryCharles’s daughterCatherine,and Henry’sheirswere recognizedasrightfulrulers ofFrance.Thedauphin,later CharlesVII,wasdeclaredto beillegitimateandthereby disinherited.Latein1420 HenryenteredParisin triumph,andtheAngloFrenchagreementwas ratifiedbytheEstatesGeneral. ACHANGEINFRENCH FORTUNES Itwasatthispoint,however, thattheScottishdimensionto theconflictreemerged.A substantialScottishforceled bytheearlofBuchanlanded inFranceandengagedthe Englishinbattle.Thomas, firstdukeofClarence,was killedattheBattleofBauge in1421andmostoftheother Englishcommanderswere eitherkilledorcaptured.The deathofHenryVatMeauxin 1422wasfollowedbythatof Charlessoonafter.Henry’s infantsonwascrownedas HenryVI,kingofEngland andFrance.TheBurgundians continuedtosupporthimas Englishallies,butthe Armagnacs’fidelitytothe causeofCharles’sson ensuredthecontinuationof thewar.By1429theEnglish werebesiegingOrléans,acity thatseemedonthepointof surrender.Itwasatthisstage thataremarkablepeasantgirl namedJeanneappeared,and hermessagetransformed Frenchprospects. Jeanned’Arcmaintainedthat shehadreceivedavision fromGodtellingherthatit washerdestinytodrivethe EnglishoutofFrance.In 1429sheappearedbeforethe dauphinandpersuadedhim thatsheshouldbesentto Orléans,whereshehada galvanizingeffectonmorale. TheFrenchtroops subsequentlywentonthe offensiveandforcedthe Englishtoliftthesiege.The Frenchproceededtotake severalEnglishpositions alongtheLoirevalley,andat theBattleofPatay(1429)a Frencharmydefeateda superiorforceledbyJohn Talbot,firstearlof Shrewsbury.Noteventhe famedarchersofEnglandand Wales,hithertoaninvincible militaryresource,could withstandtheFrench advance.Withhisposition thusstrengthened,the dauphinwasabletomarchto Rheimswherehewas crownedCharlesVIIthat sameyear. ABOVEAlate-15th-century miniatureportraitofJeanne d’Arc,whoinspiredFrench soldierswithherleadership anddivinelyinspiredsenseof mission. Jeannewassubsequently capturedbythepro-English Burgundianfaction,soldto theenemyandburnedatthe stake.ForawhiletheFrench advancegroundtoahaltas bothsidesengagedinpeace negotiations.Thebreakdown inrelationsbetweenthe EnglishandtheBurgundians heraldedtheendofthewar. TheinfancyofKingHenry VIofEnglandhadbeen markedbyquarrelsbetween hisuncleswhoruledas regents.Oneoftheseuncles, Humphrey,dukeof Gloucester,wasmarriedto Jacqueline,countessof Hainault.Humphreydecided toinvadetheprovinceof Hollandinordertoregainher formerterritories,andthis actionbroughthimintodirect conflictwithPhilipIII,duke ofBurgundy.In1435Duke Philipchangedsides,andthe Burgundianstherefore decidedtosigntheTreatyof Arras,adevelopmentthat enabledFrenchroyalforces toregaincontrolofParis. FromnowontheBurgundian factionhadtoconcentrateon defendingtheirinterestsin theLowCountries,andthat strategicneeddictatedtheir withdrawalfromtheFrench civilwar. Intheyearsthatfollowedit becameobviousthatCharles VIIhadmadegooduseofthe longtrucesthatpunctuated thewarinFrance,sincehe wentontopursuelong-term changesinFrenchmilitary andcivilianadministration.A moreprofessionalarmyanda morecentralizedstate, supplementedbythedu Guesclinstrategyofavoiding battle,meantthattheFrench couldinflictregulardefeaton theEnglish.Rouenwas retakenin1449,aswasCaen in1450,andBordeauxand Bayonnefellthefollowing year.Thefinalengagementof theHundredYears’Warwas foughtatCastillonin1453, whenthesuperiorcannonof theFrenchcommanderJean BureaudefeatedJohn Talbot’sAnglo-Gasconforce. THECONSEQUENCES OFWAR Aperiodofoveracentury wasinevitablyonethatsaw majormilitary,socialand politicalchanges.The HundredYears’War reflectedthosedevelopments, whilealsocontributingto them.Parliament’spowerto approvetaxationgave14thcenturyEnglandanewsource ofcentralizedauthority,and thecountry’sfeudallevywas replacedbyapaidarmy whoseprofessionalcaptains recruitedtroops.Intermsof technology,thewargavea significantboosttothe artillery;thelongbow—andat alatterstageoftheconflict firearmsaswell—grewto rivalthecavalryin importance.English innovationsinmilitary strategyalsotransformedthe artofwar,andthevictoriesat CrécyandAgincourtowed muchtothedeploymentof men-at-armsoccupyingfixed defensivepositions.The typicallyEnglishdeployment oflightly-armedmounted troops—latercalleddragoons —whodismountedinorderto fightwouldbeadoptedona pan-Europeanscale.These changesbroughtabouta gradualdeclineintheuseof heavycavalry,whichcameto beseenasexpensiveand inflexible.Thesocialand culturalpositionofthe institutionofknighthood declinedasaresult. Butdespiteenjoyingthese institutionalandstrategic advantages,Englandwas facedwithaninsuperable difficulty:theenemy’s territorywassimplytoo extensiveforittobeoccupied foranysubstantialperiodof time.France’slandmasswas threetimestheextentof England’s,andtheFrench populationwasfourtimes greater.Englishforcesdid occupylargepartsofFrance duringthewar,butsincesuch areasneededtobegarrisoned, theabilityoftheoccupying armytocampaignandstrike attheenemywas compromised.Shrewsbury’s armyatOrléanshad5000 men,butthatwasnotenough totakecontrolofthecity sinceitwasgreatly outnumberedbytheFrench troopswithinthecityandits environs.Oncetheinspiration ofJeanned’Archadraised themoraleofFrenchtroops theirvictorywaswell-nigh inevitable.JohnTalbotwas oneofthemostaggressive andeffectiveofallEnglish commanders,butevenhe couldnotprevailagainstthe inherentstrategic disadvantagesoftheEnglish positioninFrance. Theseprolongedwarsalso hadprofoundeffectsonthe civilianpopulation.The Frenchcountryside experiencedwidespread devastation,butthesuffering alsocontributedtoanew senseofnationalidentity. Whenvictorycameatlastit wasseenasbeingduetothe Frenchgovernment’sability toorganizemenandmaterials moreeffectivelythaninthe past;thecountry’sfeudal structuresweregivingwayto theevolutionofmore systematicandcentralized methodsofgovernment. England’sculturewas affectedinsimilarways,with anationalspiritofresistance beingreflectedintherumors thataFrenchinvasionwould meantheextirpationofthe Englishlanguage.Fromthe timeoftheNormanConquest thecultureofEngland’s rulingéliteshadbeenFrench. Butbytheendofthe14th centurythatdominancehad passed.England’seconomic basealsoshifted.Beforethe warEnglandhadbeena massiveexporterofrawwool tothesouthernNetherlands whereweaversthenturned thewooltofinecloth.The unpredictablealliancesofthe dukesofBurgundydisrupted thattrade,asdidthehigh levelsoftaxationimposedon exportsbytheEnglishCrown inordertohelppayforthe war.Asaresultweaversin Englandstartedtodevelop theirowntextileindustry,and clothfromtheirlooms acquiredaninternational renown. ABOVEAftereachofhisfour elderbrothersdiedwithout producinganheir,Charles VIIbecamekingofFrancein 1422.Thiscontemporary portraitwaspaintedin c.1444–51byJeanFouquet (1420–81). CHANGESINMILITARY STRATEGY Thewarconfirmedthe longbow’stechnological superiorityoverthe crossbow.Whilethelongbow requiredimmensestrength andgreatexpertisetouse,it wasextremelyaccurate.The crossbow,ontheotherhand, wasrelativelyeasytouseand hadgreatfirepoweragainst bothplateandchainmail,but itwasacumbersomeand heavyweaponthattooktime toreload.Bowmenserving withtheWelshandScottish armieshadtaughttheir Englishenemyapainful lesson:deployedinfixed positions,theycouldinflict immensedamagefroma distanceandsodestroya cavalrycharge.Thesame strategywasdeployedbythe EnglishonFrenchsoil:after choosingasiteofbattlethey wouldfortifytheirposition andsubsequentlydestroythe enemy.Butalthoughthe triumphofthelongbowwasa significantfeatureof14th- centuryAnglo-French warfare,itbecameless importantintheearly15th century;bythen,advancesin platingtechniquesmeantthat armorcouldresistpenetration byarrows.Theintroduction ofgunpowderandcannonto thefieldofbattleinthelate 14thcenturytransformedthe artofwar,andartillerywasa decidingfactorintheFrench victoryattheBattleof Castillon(1453),thelast majorengagementofthe HundredYears’War. ABOVEThisanonymous contemporaryillustration showsacastlebeingstormed asitswallsarebreached duringa15th-centurysiege. Thesoldiersareusing crossbows,cannonand harquebuses(anearlyform oftherifle). Newkindsofweaponsmade fornewkindsofarmies. Victorynowcametokings andotherrulerswhocould raiselargearmiesconsisting ofarank-and-filearmedwith longbowsandfirearms,and whohadtheresourcesto employandpaymercenary soldiers.Thisnew professionalismdisplacedthe earliermilitarymodelof armiesconsistingofknights summonedbytheirsuperior lordstodobattlewhen required.Anewsenseof nationalsolidarityalsomeant thatkingscouldobtain throughtaxationthemonies neededtopayfortheselarge armies.Thisnewaccessto greatmartialpowermeant kingscouldnowusemilitary meanstoquellinternal dissentaswellastocounter thethreatofforeigninvasion. Itthereforebecamepossible foramonarchtoraisea standingarmy—amilitary forcethatexistedintimesof peaceaswellasofwar.The Frenchmonarchywasthe pioneerofthatdevelopment, andalthoughtheinnovation spreadthroughoutcontinental Europeitencountered resistanceinEngland.The militarybasisofknighthood wasundoubtedlywhittled awayduringtheseconflicts, butitsculturalaspectinterms ofthechivalriccode remainedpowerful. THEIMPACTOFWAR ONFRENCHAND ENGLISHMONARCHIES Bythemid-15thcenturyit hadbecomeveryobviousthat themonarchiesinFranceand inEnglandwerevery differentkindsofinstitutions. InFrancetheEstates-General hadtriedtoassertitsown independentpoweratthe verynadirofthenation’s militaryfortunes.TheEstates hadthepowertoconfirmor disagreewiththelevée—the maintaximposedbythe Crownonitssubjects. ÉtienneMarcel’sleadership sawtheEstatesexploiting thatsourceofpowerand attemptingtoimposemajor restrictionsonthepowersof Frenchmonarchs.Underthe proposedGreatOrdinancethe Estatesweretohavethe powertocollectandspend thelevee,tomeetregularlyas anindependentbodyandto playaroleingovernmentas wellasexercisingsome judicialpowers.Butthe collapseofthatcampaignin theviolenceofthe1350s, whentheJacquerie threatenedaformofmob rule,meantthatthenobility ralliedtothecauseofthe Crown.TheGreatOrdinance wouldbeabandonedandthe Estates-Generalwouldnot developalongthelinesof England’sconsultative parliament.Itwasthis strengthenedmonarchythat helpedtowinthewarfor France,andtheassociation betweenthecountry’s nationalidentityandthe institutionalpowerofits kingsbecameoneof profoundhistorical importance. InEngland,too,the institutionofmonarchy acquiredanewdimensionas thefocusofnationalidentity inthefaceofathreatfrom abroad.ButtheEnglish Crown’sdomesticauthority inthemid-15thcenturywas farweakerthanthatofits Frenchcounterpart.The Peasants’Revoltof1381had someparallelswiththe FrenchJacquerie.Some 100,000oftheaggrieved marchedonLondontoprotest atthehightaxationimposed topayforthewarandatthe subjectionofmanyofthe peasantrytoserfdombythe Englishnobility.Authority wassoonrestored.The rebellion’sleaderWatTyler waskilledbytheking’smen, andthepeasantryreturnedto thecountrysidewiththeir grievancesunresolved. Taxationlevelstherefore remainedhigh,andboththe Crownandthenobilitywere enrichedasaresultofthe acquisitionoflargepartsof France—especiallyduringthe war’searlierstages.Butby thelatterstagesoftheconflict theEnglishtreasurywas essentiallybankruptedbythe highcostsofwagingthewar inFranceandbytheneedto administerandmaintainits conqueredterritories.Lackof moneycontributedtoaloss ofregalauthority,and Englanddescendedintoa prolongedcivilconflictasthe rivalnoblehousesof LancasterandYorkviedwith eachotherforcontrolofthe EnglishCrownduringthe “WarsoftheRoses” conductedintermittently between1455and1485. THEPLANTAGENET DYNASTYDURINGTHE HUNDREDYEARS’WAR EDWARDIII (1312–1377) r.1327–77 EDWARD,PRINCEOFWALES [“theBlackPrince”] (1330–76) JOHNOFGAUNT (1340–99) RICHARDII (1367–1400) r.1377–99 HENRYIV (1366–1413) r.1399–1413 HENRYV (1387–1422) r.1413–22 HENRYVI (1421–71) r.1422–61,1470–71 Englishdisillusionwiththe greatcontinentaladventure wasprofound,andattheend ofthewarCalaiswasthe Crown’ssoleforeign possession.Butalthoughso muchhadbeenlostto Englandinterritorialterms, perhapsthedeepestimpactof thewarwasapsychological one.Englandhadwithdrawn fromFranceandwasnow definingitselfinconscious oppositiontotherestofthe Europeancontinent.Viewed fromthecontinental mainland,Englandappeared tobeamarginalizedand insularcountry.But England’sgeographical position,andthecountry’s maritimetraditions,also enabledittotakeadvantage oftheopportunitieswhich beckonedacrosstheAtlantic inthegreatageofdiscovery thatwasnowdawning. THEPARLIAMENTOF ENGLAND Theterm“parliament”came intouseintheearly13th centurytodescribeanational forumfordiscussion,andthe institution’soriginslayinthe consultativeGreatCouncil, consistingofthenobilityand seniorclergy,whichhadbeen regularlysummonedby Englishmonarchssincethe NormanConquest. Parliamentary constitutionalismwasbuilton MagnaCarta’senunciation offundamentalrightsandits declarationthattheking’s willwasboundbylaw. RenouncedbyKingJohn afterhesigneditin1215,the documentwasreissuedby HenryIII’sregentWilliam Marshalandthenbytheking himselfin1225whenhe attainedhismajority.By 1297,whenEdwardI’s parliamentissuedityetagain, thecharterwasfundamental totheEnglishlegaltradition. FollowingMagnaCarta’s adoptiontheconventionwas establishedthatparliaments oughttobesummonedwhen monarchswishedtoraise moneythroughtaxation,and bythemid-13thcentury knightsoftheEnglishshires wereoccasionallyattending parliamenttoadvisethe Crown—especiallyon financialmatters. Thenobilityandsenior clergyplayedanespecially importantadministrativerole duringHenryIII’sminority, andaristocraticresentmentat hisfailuretoconsultoncehe startedtoruleledtothe adoptionoftheProvisionsof Oxford(1258).Henryhadto agreetotheestablishmentof asupremeadministrative councilof15baronswhose performancewasmonitored bythrice-yearlymeetingsof parliament.Simonde Montfort,6thEarlof Leicester(andsonoftheantiCatharcrusader)emergedas theleaderofthis constitutionalistmovement. Butin1264Henryobtaineda papalbullwhichexempted himfromhavingtoabideby hisoathtoupholdthe Provisions.Inthemilitary hostilitiesthatfollowed, Henrywasdefeatedandtaken prisonerbydeMontfort’s armyattheBattleofLewes (May14,1264).Manyofthe nobilitybecamealarmedat thisturnofevents. InDecember1264de Montfortsummonedthefirst Englishparliamenttobe convenedwithoutapreceding royalauthorization.The seniorclergyandthe baronageweresummonedas wellastwoknightsfromeach shire,andthepresenceoftwo burgessesfromeachborough, chosenbyaformof democraticelection,wasa realinnovation.De Montfort’ssystemwas adoptedbyEdwardIduring the“ModelParliament”of 1295,bywhichtimethe knightsandburgesseswere collectivelyknownas“the Commons.”TheProvisions ofOxfordhadbeenallowed tolapsefollowingde Montfort’sdefeat,anddeath, attheBattleofEvesham (August4,1265). Nonetheless,theknightsand burgesseswhoattended parliamenthadcontinuedto gaininauthority,andit becamewidelyacceptedthat discussionoftaxationusually requiredthesummoningof theCommons.Theidea howeverthatknightsand burgessesshouldattendevery parliamentonlygained groundinthemid-14th century. In1341theCommons startedtomeetseparately fromthenobilityandclergy, andEdwardIII’sreignsaw theestablishmentofthe principlethatthesupportof bothHousesofParliament andofthemonarchwas neededbeforeanylawcould beapprovedoranytax levied.TheHundredYears’ Waristhereforepartofthe storyofEnglish constitutionalism,sincethe kingwasforcedtoseek parliamentaryapprovalfor theveryhighlevelsof taxationneededtomeetthe costsofcampaigning. Parliamentaryconsenthad alsobeenimportantin approvingthedepositionof EdwardIIandinestablishing hisson’slegitimaterightto rule.EdwardIIInonetheless triedtoavoidparliamentary scrutinyasmuchaspossible. DuringtheGoodParliament (1376),theCommonswere criticalofthewaythewar wasbeingconductedandits membersdemandedanovel righttoscrutinizepublic expenditure. EdwardIpresidesover parliamentinc.1278inthis anonymous16th-century illustration.Heisflanked symbolicallybyAlexanderIII ofScotlandandLlywelynIIof Wales. AVIGNONAND THESCHISM 1301–1417 Thetraditionallyclose associationbetweenthe papacyandFrenchmonarchy brokedownduringthe pontificateofBonifaceVIII (r.1294–1303)asaresultof PhilipIV’sattempttotaxthe clergy.However,the relationshipwasrestored followingtheelectionof BertranddeGoth,archbishop ofBordeaux,tothepapacyin 1305.Forsecurityreasons theconclaveof1304–05was heldinPerugiaratherthanin Rome,wherearmedconflict hadbrokenoutbetween powerfularistocratic groupings,themost importantofwhomwerethe ColonnaandtheOrsini families.Moreover,the electorsweredividedbetween theFrenchandItalian membersoftheCollegeof Cardinals,andthenewpope, ClementV(r.1305–14), chosetobecrownedinLyon. Clement’scourttherefore stayedinPoitiersforthefirst fouryearsofhispapacy.The destructionbyfireofmuchof theLateranpalace,the officialpapalresidence,in 1307providedanother reasonforstayingawayfrom Rome. InMarch1309Clement removedhiscourtto Avignon,partofthecounty ofProvence,whosefeudal overlordwasthekingof Naples.Thiseventheraldeda longer-termshiftofpolicy. Clementandhissuccessors, asleadersoftheLatin Church,wouldbase themselvesinAvignonfor almost80years—aperiod whencompetitionbetween Europe’snationalmonarchies wasputtingtheideaofa unitedChristendomunder increasingstrain. PopeGregoryXI(r.1370– 78)who,likehisseven predecessorsinAvignonwas aFrenchman,returnedthe papalcourttoRomein January1377.However,the conclavetoelecthis successorinthefollowing yearsawarenewedFrancoItaliansplit.Thelocalmob agitatedfortheelectionofa Roman,butitwas BartolomeoPrignano,the archbishopofBarianda Neapolitanbybirth,whowas chosenbythecardinals.As UrbanVI(r.1378–89),the popeembarkedonavigorous reformofsomeofthe financialabusesthathad creptintothecuriaduringthe yearsofexileinAvignon, andhecastigatedthe cardinalsforacceptinggifts andfavorsfromsecular rulers.Butanintemperate mannerlimitedUrban’s effectiveness,andagroupof Frenchcardinalswithdrewto Anagniwheretheyissueda manifestoofgrievancesand declaredthattheyhadbeen pressuredbythemobtoelect anItalianpope.The dissentingcardinalsthen electedRobertofGeneva, archbishopofCambrai,tothe papacyinSeptember1378. AstheantipopeClementVII (r.1378–94),hesetuphis owncourtinAvignonin oppositiontotheofficial papacy.Robert’sfour successorscontinuedtheline ofdissidentanti-popesduring theperiodoftheWestern schism,whichwasonly finallyresolvedin1417when ageneralCouncilofthe ChurchmeetingatConstance (1414–18)setasidetherights ofallthecurrentpapal claimantsandelectedanew pope,MartinV(r.1417–31). RIGHTThisgildedbronze statueofPopeBonifaceVIII wassculptedin1301by MannodiBandino,twoyears beforethepopedied. AVIGNONANDTHE SCHISM 1305Aconclavemeetingin PerugiaelectsBertrandde Goth,archbishopof Bordeaux,asPopeClement V.Hedecidestobecrowned inLyon.SinceRomeisriven byaristocraticinfighting, Clementkeepshiscourtin Poitiers. 1307Firedestroysthe LateranPalace,Rome. 1309Clementremoveshis courttoAvignon. 1377GregoryXIreturnsthe papalcourttoRome. 1378BartolomeoPrignano, archbishopofBari,iselected asPopeUrbanVIbya conclavesplitonaFrancoItaliandivide.Dissenting Frenchcardinalswithdrawto AnagniandelectRobertof Geneva,archbishopof Cambrai,astheanti-pope ClementVIIwhoestablishes arivalpapalcourtin Avignon. 1378–1417TheWestern schism:fiveanti-popes residentinAvignonmaintain theirlegitimacyinopposition tothepopesestablishedin Rome. 1417ThegeneralChurch councilmeetingatConstance (1414–18)setsasidethe rightsofallpapalclaimants andelectsOddoneColona, archpriestoftheLateran basilica,asPopeMartinV. THEIMPERIALPAPACY ThepapacyofInnocentIII(r. 1198–1216)marksthehigh pointintheeffective assertionofpapalauthority, withLotariodeiConti bringinghislegalscholarship tobearonthedefinitionof thepapalclaimtouniversal rule.Allpowercamefrom God,andallrulerswere thereforeanswerabletothe popewhowasGod’s representativeonEarth,the choseninstrumentofthe divinewillandautocratic rulerofanuniversalChristian empirewhichwassuperiorto allsecularexpressionsof might.Theholderofthe papalofficewasthereforenot justthehighpriestofGod’s Churchbutalsohumanity’s supremejudgeinlegalcases andauniversalkingwhose majestydwarfedallsecular princes.Itwasthisplenitudo potestatisorfullnessof powerthatdistinguished God’svice-regentandgave himtheauthorityaspriestemperortomediatebetween Godandman:“Godis honoredinuswhenweare honored,andinusisGod despisedwhenweare despised.” Thisexaltedconceptionof papalauthorityshapedthe viewsofBenedettoCaetani,a scionoftheminornobility andwhosefamilyowned estatesintheregionof Anagnitothesoutheastof Rome.Caetani,likePope Innocent,wastrainedasa juristandhiscareerasa memberofthecuriawasa distinguishedone.After becomingacardinalin1281 heoftenworkedon diplomaticmissionsasa papallegatesenttotheroyal courtsofWesternEurope. Caetaniwaselectedtothe papacyin1294asBoniface VIII,andhisstatement“Ego sumCaesar,egoimperator” showedtheextentofInnocent III’sinfluenceonCaetani’s frameofmind.Catastrophe— bothpersonaland institutional—marked Boniface’spapacy,and althoughhisownlackof judgmentcontributedtothat collapsethemajorreasonlies withintheevolutionof Europeanpowerpoliticsthat hadmoveddecisivelyagainst theideaofamonarchically supremepapacy.Clericis laicos,abullissuedby Bonifacein1296,showedhis readinesstoconfrontthe kingsofFranceandEngland overtheissueoftaxingthe clergy. CLERICISLAICOS BELOWPopeBonifaceVIII andtheSacredCollegeof Cardinalsaredepictedinthis 14th-centuryversionofLiber SextusDecretalium,a collectionofpapallegislation firstissuedin1298. Popeshadlongsinceallowed kingstotaxtheclergyin ordertoraisemoneyfor papal-sponsoredcrusades,but Clericislaicosmadethe stridentassertionthatpapal approvalwasalways necessarybeforekingscould eventhinkofdiverting Churchrevenuetosecular purposes.InretaliationPhilip IVforbadetheexportof bullionfromhisterritories, andsuppliesofFrenchmoney tothecuriainRomedriedup inthelate1290s.The extravagantassertioninthe 1296bullthatthelaityen massehadalwaysbeen hostiletotheclergywasan exampleofthepapacy strikingattitudes,andinthe followingyearBonifacewas forcedtoconcedethatkings couldtaxtheclergyin circumstancesofnational emergency.Ithadalready beennecessaryforBoniface toexplaintoFrance’sPhilip IVthatnoneofhisstatements appliedtocustomaryfeudal taxesduetothekingfrom Churchlands. Papalself-confidencewas, however,boostedbythe successofthejubileeyearin 1300,atraditioninstitutedby Bonifaceandinthecourseof whichpilgrimswhocameto Romewereassuredpardon andremissionoftheirsins. Thepopewasthereforeinno moodtocompromisewhen thenewsarrivedofamajor attackbyPhiliponBernard Saisset,oneofBoniface’skey supportersintheFrench Church.Saissetwasa Languedocaristocratsteeped inhisregion’scultureand language.Inhisyearsas abbotofSt.Antoninin Pamiersfrom1268,andthen asbishopofthelocalsee since1295,hehadledthe localresistancetotheFrench monarchy—aninstitutionthat heandhisfollowersregarded asanalienandnorthern Frankishforcebenton destroyingthelibertiesand customsofthesouth.Philip hadSaissetarrestedasa treasonoussupporterof Occitanindependence,and thebishopwaschargedin October1301.Butbeforeany furtherjudicialproceedings couldtakeplaceSaisset wouldneedtobedeprivedof hisseebyBonifaceand therebystrippedofclerical protection.Onlythencould hebetriedfortreason. Bonifaceunsurprisingly refusedPhilip’sdemandsin thisregardandinsistedthat Saissetbereleasedandsentto Romewherehewouldface anyjudicialinvestigation. DISPUTESBETWEEN KINGANDPAPACY Bytheendof1301relations betweenpopeandkinghad brokendownentirely.The publicletterissuedin Decemberwasentitled Auscultafili(“Listen,my son”)andtoldtheking:“Let noonepersuadeyouthatyou havenosuperior…forheis afoolwhosothinks.”Atthe sametimeBoniface announcedthatacouncilof theFrenchbishopswouldbe heldthefollowingNovember inRome.Philipretaliatedby holdinghisownassemblyon ChurchaffairsinParisin April1302,andtheclergy andlaitywhoobeyedhis summonstoattendrejected thenotion—notitself advancedbyBoniface—that thepopewasFrance’sfeudal overlord.OnNovember18, 1302,inresponsetotheParis assembly,Bonifaceissuedthe papalbullUnamSanctam.Its statementthat“itis absolutelynecessaryfor salvationthateveryhuman creatureshouldbesubjectto theRomanpontiff”wasan extremedeclarationofthe papacy’ssupremacyasbotha spiritualandatemporal institution.Followingthe bull’sreleasethepope contemplatedfurther measures,includingPhilip’s excommunication.Theking thensummonedanotherantipapalassemblyandthatbody, attendedbyseniorFrench ecclesiastics,gaveventtoa collectiverageaccusing Bonifaceofidolatryand heresy. Philiphadbynowdecided thatonlyBoniface’sremoval fromofficecouldresolve matters.Guillaumede Nogaret,aformerprofessor ofjurisprudenceat Montpellierandsenior advisertotheking,persuaded PhilipthatBonifaceshould beseizedandbroughtto Francewhereaspecial counciloftheChurchwould thendeposehim.Itwasa riskyventure,andNogaret hadtoproceedinsecrecy.He firstgatheredabandof mercenariesintheApennines andmadecontactwiththe Colonnafamilywhowere bitterenemiesofBoniface’s clan,theCaetani.Sciarrillo Colonna,whoseuncleand brotherhadbeendeprivedof theirpositionsintheCollege ofCardinalsbyBoniface, joinedthegroupofsome 2000soldiersledbyNogaret. OnSeptember7,1303they arrivedatPopeBoniface’s familypalaceinAnagni wherehewasseizedand subjectedtothreedays imprisonment,beatingand humiliation.Themobstopped justshortofkillinghim. Sciarrilloissaidtohavehit thepopeintheface,andthat “slapofAnagni”becamea Europe-widecausecélèbre. ABOVEThisfrescofromthe DuomoofFlorenceshows DanteAlighieriholdinga copyofhisDivineComedy. Hestandssymbolicallyunder Heaven,betweenthegatesof Hell,themountainof Purgatoryandthewallsof Florence. Anagnihadalsobeenthe hometownofInnocentIII, anditwasinthelocal cathedralthatthepopehad excommunicatedFrederickII inSeptember1227.Itwasan alltooappropriatesetting, therefore,forthehumiliation ofthepapacybyasecular powerthatwasconsigning Innocent’selaboratedoctrines tohistory.EvenDante Alighieri,nofriendofthe popeandafierceopponentof thenotionthatthepapacy wasauniversalmonarchy, wasappalledbyBoniface’s humiliation.DeMonarchia, writtenin1312–13,isa consideredrejectionof theocracyandadefenseof theimperialpower’s autonomy.Bothemperorand pope,Dantemaintained,had beengivenpowerbyGodto ruleovertheirrespective domains.Buthestillviewed thepopeasexercisinga spiritualpowerderivedfrom God,andtherepugnancethe poetfeltattheshameful treatmentofBonifaceis givenaliteraryforminthe DivineComedy’sdescription ofanewPilateimprisoning thevicarofChrist (Purgatorio,XX,vv.85–93). Thelocalpopulationat Anagniroseupandreleased Boniface,whoreturnedto Romeafewdaysafterhis release.Buttheordealhad badlyshakenupthe78-yearoldpontiff,andhedieda monthlater. Theelectionoftheverypliant ClementVin1305signifieda papalcapitulationtoFrench force,andthepopeobliged Philipbysupportingthe campaignofpersecutionhe launchedin1307againstthe Frenchmembersoftheorder oftheKnightsTemplar. Philipnonethelesspursued hisvendettaagainstBoniface beyondthegrave.In1309he persuadedthepopeto instigatepostmortemjudicial proceedingstoinvestigate chargesofheresyand sodomyagainstBoniface.It wasnotunusualfor opponentsofPhilip’sroyal willtobeaccusedofsodomy —asinthecaseofthe KnightsTemplar—butthe Churchcouncilthatmetat Viennein1311droppedall chargesagainstBonifacefor lackofevidence. BELOWThePapalPalacein Avignon,afortress-like structuredesignedinthe Gothicstyle,wasbuiltinthe mid-14thcenturytohousethe popeandhiscourt. THEPAPACYAT AVIGNON In1309Clementmovedthe papalcourttoAvignon. Avignonwasaself-governing citylocatedwithinanother enclave—thelandsofthe comtatorcountyof Venaissin.Thecomtathad beeninheritedasits possessionbythepapacyin 1274,andbothterritories cameundertheover-lordship ofthecountsofProvence. SincethedaysofCharlesof Anjou,thejunior,or Angevin,branchofthe Frenchroyalhousehadruled thecountyofProvence.Inthe early14thcenturythese Capetian-Angevinswerealso rulersofthesouthernItalian mainlandaskingsofNaples. JoanI,queenofNaples,sold Avignontothepapacyin 1348,withtheresultthatboth comtatsthenformedaunified papaldomain.Theregionof Avignonthereforedidnot formpartoftheFrench Crown’sterritorialholdings, buttheFrenchinfluenceon thepapacyintheyearsofits exilefromRomewas profound,bothpoliticallyand culturally.Frenchcardinals werethedominantforcein therunningofthecuria,and theritualsofthepapalcourt imitatedthoseadoptedby Frenchkings.Theaustere magnificenceofthenew papalpalaceatAvignon,built duringaquarterofacentury fromthelate1330sonward, wasthesettingforoneof Europe’smostlavishcourtly societies,withthepapacy’s zealousemphasisona centralizedapproachtothe raisingofrevenuehelpingto payforthesplendor. Thesystemofbenefices—the incomeenjoyedbytheholder ofanecclesiasticalposition— couldbeabusedwith candidatesbuyingposts(a practiceknownassimony). Spiritualdutiesmightthenbe farmedouttoincompetentsor notperformedatall,and therewereplentyof opportunitiesforenjoyingthe fruitsofmorethanoneoffice (pluralism).Thetithesystem wasavenerableoneby c.1300,butitwasthe Avignonpapacythat systematizedtheannatesby whichtheincomegainedin thefirstyearofholdinga highoffice,suchasthatof bishop,wasremittedtothe papacy.TheAvignon Exchangewasoneof Europe’sfirstforeign exchangemarkets,with agentsofthegreatItalian bankinghousesactingas intermediariesbetweenthe ApostolicCamera(the papacy’scentralboardof finance),thepapacy’s creditorsandalsoitsdebtors —thosewhoremittedtoitthe taxesandtributes.Regions thatlackedanorganized moneymarket—Scandinavia, forexample,andmostof centralandEasternEurope— stillsentcoinedmoneyto Avignonbylandorbysea, thoughthesewereprecarious methods. ABACKLASHBEGINS Areactionagainstthepapal lushnesswasnotslowin coming,withthefollowersof JohnWycliff(c.1324–84)in England,theHussitesin Bohemiaandthegroupsof theFraticelliinItaly registeringtheirrevulsionat theparadeofriches,and preachingareturnto apostolicvaluesofpoverty andsimplicityoflife.There wereintellectualcritiques, too.DefensorPacis(1324), byMarsilioofPadua (c.1275–c.1342)),goes beyondDante’shostilitytoa monarchicalpapacyand seekstojustifytheemperor’s supremacyoverthepope.In 1328theEnglishphilosopher andFranciscanWilliam Ockham(c.1288—c.1348) hadtofleeAvignon,where hehadbeenteaching,after concludingthatthepapacy wasinerrorbynotfollowing themendicantpovertyof Christandhisdisciples. Ockham’sDialogus(1332– 48)isamajorworkof politicaltheorywithits emphasisonpropertyrights, rejectionofabsolutist monarchyandtheadvocacy oflimitedconstitutional government. BothOckhamandMarsilio wereexcommunicatedon accountoftheirwritings, whosepoliticalcontextis suppliedbytheconflict betweenPopeJohnXXII(r. 1316–34)andtheemperor LouisIV(r.1328–47)who revivedanancientdebateby rejectingthepope’s accustomedrighttocrownan emperor.Backedbythe Germannobility,Louis invadedItalywithanarmyin 1327,andonenteringRome heinstalledtheanti-pope Nicholaswhosebriefperiod ofinfluence(1328–29) anticipatedthelaterschism. Thisepisodeinevitablymade thepapacyevenmore dependentonFrenchsupport, andClementVI(r.1342–52), aformerarchbishopof Rouen,excommunicated Louisin1346. Clement’sbullUnigenitus (1343)justifiedpapal “indulgences,”whichrelieved thepenitentofsomeofthe temporalpunishmentsforsins committed—andthatsystem lentitselftolaterabuseby professional“pardoners”who soldindulgences.But althoughsanctitymightnot havebeenoneofhis attributes,Clementwasa keenpatronofmusiciansand composers,anditwashewho commissionedthepaintings onthewallsoftwoofthe papalpalace’schapels. PopeGregoryXI(r.1370– 78)hadthewittoseethatthe papacyneededtobeinRome ifitwastoretainitsauthority inItaly.Inreachingthis conclusionhewasmuch influencedbyCatherineof Siena,aDominicannunand prodigiouscorrespondent whoselettersadvocatingthe pope’sreturnweresenttothe clericalandlayleadersof Italianopinion.However,the subsequentWesternschism of1378to1417didgreat damagetotheideaofa universalChurch,with England,theempire,Poland andnorthernItalysupporting thepopeinRome,while France,theSpanishkingdoms andthekingdomofNaples backedtheAvignonantipopes. ABOVEAnearly15th-century woodcutofThePardoner fromtheEllesmereChaucer, anilluminatedmanuscriptof GeoffreyChaucer’s CanterburyTales. Intheearly15thcenturythe conciliarmovementsoughtto renewtheChurchbylocating itsauthoritywithin representativecouncilswhose meetingswouldsupplement thetraditionalroleofthe papacy.Butdespitethereturn toRome,andthepresence onceagainofjustone “supremepontiff,”thepapacy lookedincreasinglylikeone otherEuropeanpower jostlingforpositionamong moreformidablecompetitors. PETRARCH— CHAMPIONOFROME’S RENAISSANCE Criticalaccountsofthe papacy’speriodinAvignon startedearlyandmanytake theircuefromtheItalianpoet Petrarchwho,whilestaying inthecityinthe1340s, wrote:“Iamastoundedtosee thesemenloadedwithgold andcladinpurple,boasting ofthespoilsofprincesand nations.” Petrarch’spolemicism ignoresthefactthatmany Avignonpopeswereable administrators.JohnXXII(r. 1316–34)forexample sanitizedChurchfinances, andBenedictXI(r.1334–42) campaignedagainstclerical corruption.Successive Avignonpopes,seekingto defusethepersistentdisputes betweenFrenchandItalian cardinals,builtupthecuriaas theChurch’scentral administration.Nepolistic appointmentswere sometimesmadeasaresult. Increasingbureaucracyand centralizationwerethe unintendedconsequencesof thepapacy’sattemptat reformingitself. AlthoughFrancesco Petrarca(1304–74)wasborn inArezzohewaspartly broughtupinAvignonwhere hisfather,alawyer,had movedthefamilyinorderto benearthepapalcourtthathe foundtobealucrativesource ofbusiness.Afteraperiod spentstudyinglaw(a professionheloathed)at MontpellierandBologna, Petrarchmovedbackto Avignoninthemid-1320s, andbyc.1330hewas workinginthehouseholdof CardinalGiovanniColonna. ButitwasRomethatdrew him,andavisittothecityin 1337inspiredPetrarchto writeL’Africa,anepicpoem composedinLatinandwhich describedthedefeatbyScipio AfricanusoftheCarthaginian generalHannibalduringthe SecondPunicWar(218–201 BC).TheColonnafamilyin Romelikedthepoem,and Petrarchbenefitedfromtheir patronagewhileworkingon theproject.Thethemefirst cametohimwhilewalkingin themountainsofthe VauclusenearAvignon,and Petrarch’streatmentofScipio asaheroicfigureiscentralto thepoet’sartisticvisionof thegloriesoftheRomanpast togetherwiththeurgent contemporaryneedtorevive theclassicaltraditioninthe artsandletters.Acomparison betweenthedecadenceof Avignon,acityof“licentious banquets”and“foulsloth”in Petrarch’swords,andthe sublimityofRomeis thereforeimplicittohis programmaticaccountofa “renaissance.”L’Africawas dedicatedtoKingRobertof Naples,wholikeditenough toawardPetrarchwitha laurelcrownin1341.The ceremony,heldinRomeon EasterSunday,consciously evokedtheemperor Augustus’spatronageof Horace,OvidandVirgil. Ceremonialtrumpets sounded,thekingcladhis laureatepoetinaspecial robe,andPetrarch’sspeechof acceptancewouldintimebe seenasamanifestoforthe Italianrenaissance.Thiswas atrionfoinconceivablein Avignon,Petrarch’s “BabylonoftheWest.” Petrarch’sstatuestands outsidetheUffiziPalacein Florence. THEGOLDENAGE OFFLORENCE c.1080s–c.1400 LikemanyEuropeantowns, Florenceadaptedand survivedinthecenturies followingthecollapseofthe WesternRomanempire. Florentia(“theflourishing one”)wasfoundedbyJulius Caesarin59BC,andits positionattheconfluenceof theArnoandMugnonerivers, aswellasroadlinkstothePo valleyregion,gavethetown importanttrading advantages.Butearly medievalFlorencefirst neededtore-establishits primacyasaregionalcenter, sincetheLombardmonarchy —whichcontrolledmostof seventh-centurycentraland northernItaly—decidedthat Luccashouldbethecapitalof itsduchyofTuscany. Florence’spositionfurther inlandalsoexposeditto attackfromtheByzantines, whowerestillestablishedin Italy’snortheast.Lucca moreoverofferedamore directlandroutetothe LombardcapitalofPavia. Florenceovercamethese disadvantagesandattaineda culturalandfinancialpreeminenceduringthecentral middleages. Themarch(ormargraviate) ofTuscanywasestablished followingCharlemagne’s conquestoftheLombard kingdomin774,andthis frontierareatothe Carolingianempire’ssouth consistedofacollectionof countiesthatincluded Florence.Luccaremainedthe seatofthemargrave—who owedallegiancetotheHoly Romanemperors—untilthe mid-11thcentury,andbythen Florencewasfastevolvingas theTuscanregion’smain administrativecenter. Bureaucracy,however,went handinhandwithFlorence’s emergingintellectualand culturalrole,withthecity’s rulingélitebeingstrongly committedtotheGregorian reformandtherefore supportingthepapacyagainst theempire.PopeGregoryVII (r.1073–85)wasbackedby Matilda,margraveof Tuscanyfrom1076onward andownerofthecastleat Canossawheretheemperor madehistemporary submissiontothepapacyin 1077.Althoughmanyof Tuscany’scities—including Lucca—rebelledsporadically infavoroftheempire, Florence’sloyaltytoMatilda wasneverindoubt.Her marriageinc.1189tothe futureWelfII,dukeof Bavaria(r.1101–20),brought atrans-alpinecohesiontothe anti-imperialcause.Although herhusbandleftthemargrave afterafewyearson discoveringthatherlands werebequeathedtothe Church,themarriage contributedtoFlorence’s fatefulassociationwiththe Guelphfaction—theItalian politicalexpressionofthe GermanWelfs’pro-papal policy. RIGHTFlorence’smassive cathedralofSantaMariadel Fiore,withitsredtileddome, iscloselyflankedbythe octagonalBaptisteryandby thecampaniledesignedby GiottodiBondoneinthe 1330s. Florentinesolidarity,evident whenthecitydefendeditself successfullyagainstHenry’s armyin1082,boundMatilda tohersubjects,andshewas correspondinglygenerousin thegrantingoflocalliberties andprivileges.Bythetimeof Matilda’sdeathin1115 Florence,entrenchedbehind fortifiedwallsthathadbeen greatlyextendedduringthe imperialsiege,hadallthe appearanceofatypically independentItalian commune.In1125,a defensivecollectiveidentity turnedintoopportunistic aggression;followingthe deathoftheemperorHenry V,whohadnolegitimate directheirs,Florentineforces attackedandconqueredthe neighboringcityofFiesole. Duringitsearlyhistoryasa communeFlorencewasrun bythelocalnobilitywith merchantsupport,and althoughtheemperor FrederickBarbarossatriedto limitFlorentinepolitical autonomybyre-establishing themargraviateofTuscanyin 1185,thatprovedtobea short-livedexperiment. Barbarossahaddeprived Florenceofitscontado,the territoriessurroundingthe city,butin1197itregained controlofitslandsbyonce againtakingadvantageofa hiatusinimperialaffairs followingthedeathof Barbarossa’ssuccessor, HenryVI. THEGOLDENAGEOF FLORENCE 1182Florentinemerchants establishthecity’sfirstguild, theArtedeiMercanti. 1210sThecommuneis dividedbetweenpro-imperial Ghibellineandpro-papal Guelpharistocraticfactions. 1250–1260ThePrimo Popolo:amerchantdominatedformof democracy. 1260BattleofMontaperti: GhibellineSienadefeats Florentineforces.Florence’s Ghibellinenoblesreturnto power. 1266BattleofBenevento: CharlesofAnjou’svictory confirmsGuelphdominance inItalianpolitics. 1267Ghibellineexpulsion fromFlorence. 1282Thepopolaniregain politicalpredominance. 1293TheOrdinancesof Justiceadoptedbythe communeprescribea republicangovernmentfor theperiodoftheSecondo Popolo. 1378Marginalizednon-guild workers,aidedbysome membersofthelesserguilds, seizepower.Thepopolo grassocrushtherebellion. 1397Giovannide’Medici establishesthefamilybank. THECOUNTRYCOMES TOTOWN Economicdevelopment accompaniedFlorence’s populationgrowth.The spreadofnewsuburbsmeant thattheRiverArno,onceat thecity’sperimeter,now becameitsarterialcenterof communicationsandasource ofenergyforlocalindustries reliantonwaterpower. Florencenowlooked atomizedcomparedwiththe classicalregularityof Florentia’sintersecting streets,andthelandedgentry whohadmovedinfromthe countrysidereproduced withintheirurbanenclaves thedesignsofthosefortified castle-likecompounds, completewithtowers,that hadbeenraisedtodefend theirruralestates.Thedozens oftowersthatdominated Florence’sskyline symbolizedthefragmentation ofcentralauthority,sincethe nobilityusedthemtoprotect theirhouseholdsintimesof civicdisorder.Withthe establishmentin1182ofthe ArtedeiMercanti,merchants hadtheirownmeansof representativeself-assertion, andinthedecadesthat followedFlorence’severgrowingnumberofartisans andtradesmenestablished numerousspecialistguilds. Bythe1190s,followingthe exampleofmostotherItalian cities,thecommuneof Florencewasusingtheoffice ofthepodestà(amagistratelikeofficial)toallaycivic strife.Usuallyanobleman, thepodestàinvariablycame fromanotherItalianregion andwasthereforelikelytobe neutralwhenadjudicatingon localconflictsduringhis allottedyearinoffice.The innovationworkedin Florenceforagenerationor so,butbythe1210sthe commune’sallegianceswere dividedtonoxiouseffect betweenthepro-imperial Ghibellinenobilityandthe equallyaristocraticGuelph leadershipwhooften supportedtheinterestsofthe guilds. In1244theGhibellineswere dominant,andtheytriedto strengthentheirpositionby bringingelementsofthe mercantilegroupinginto government.Butin1250the merchantsturnedontheir new-foundpatronsand establishedaformof democracyduringtheperiod ofthePrimoPopolo.The newgovernmentorderedthat thetowersbereducedin heightsincetheysymbolized aristocraticfactionalism. From1252onwardthegold florin,whichsupplemented thesilverflorinfirst introducedin1235,showed theprosperityandambition ofthismercantilesociety.A newgovernmentneededa newbuildingtohouseits variouscouncils,andin1255 constructionworkstartedon thePalazzodelPopolo(now calledtheBargello)whose crenellatedform,complete withatower,wasanother instanceoftherural fortificationbeingreplicated withinthecity.TheBattleof Montaperti(1260)sawthe Florentinearmy’sdefeatby theforcesofSiena,astrongly Ghibellinerivalwithin Tuscany.Italsomeantthe endofthePrimoPopolo experiment.Aresurgent Ghibellinenobility dismantledthedemocratic structuresandorderedthe destructionofpalaces,towers andhousesownedbyGuelph aristocrats.Thisvindictive policycontinueduntil1266, whentheGhibellines suddenlyfoundthemselvesin aprecariousposition followingCharlesofAnjou’s defeatofManfred,the StaufenkingofSicily,atthe BattleofBenevento (February26). ABOVEThecoatofarmsof theArtede’Beccai(theguild ofbutchers)which,founded inc.1236,wasoneof Florence’s14minortrade guilds,knownasthearti minori.Thewallsof Florence’sOrsanmichele,a churchassociatedwiththe tradeguilds,areadorned withtheircoatsofarms. Charles’svictorywasone fraughtwithItalian implications.Thecauseofthe empire,embracedbythe Ghibellines,hadreceiveda decisivesetback,andsince thepapacyhadusedits Florentinebankerstohelp financeapapal-FrenchAngevinaxisofpowerin Italythecity’scommercial interestsaswellasits politicaladvantagenowlay withinthatorbitofinfluence. AGuelphrestorationanda Ghibellineexpulsionbecame imperative.Bythespringof 1267,andwithPopeClement IV’ssupport,thecommune hadachievedbothmeasures andthatmeanttheendofthe GhibellinesinFlorence. CharlesofAnjouwasmade podestàfortenyearsbythe communeand,rulingthecity throughhislieutenants,he imposedaGuelph-dominated regime.Florentinetroops weretotheforeamong Tuscany’scombinedGuelph forceswhentheydefeatedthe GhibellinesattheBattleof Campaldino(1289),andthat victorylentanadditional authoritytotheGuelph leadershipinFlorence. ARCHITECTURE:THE ILLUSTRATIONOF GLORY Bytheendofthe13th centuryFlorencewasoneof WesternEurope’slargest cities.Itspopulationofsome 100,000hadbeenboostedby immigrationfromthe surroundingcountryside,and reservesofcapital accumulatedthroughtrade andfinancialserviceswere beingusedtogive architecturalexpressionto Florentineglory.Medieval Europe’smajorcities requiredthepresenceofa castleandacathedralinorder tocontroltheurban environmentandtoregulate citizens’lives.Inthecaseof Florenceitsfirstmajorpublic building,theBargello, fulfilledtheroleofacastle, andconstructionworkstarted onthecity’snewcathedralof SantaMariadelFioreinthe mid-1290s.Butthe monasterywasquiteas importantforthemedieval city,andFlorencewasa majorcenterforthenew religiousOrderswhobuiltin theGothicstyle—thecity’s vernacularschoolof architecture. Inthesecondquarterofthe 13thcenturytheFranciscans startedconstructionworkon theirmonasterydedicatedto theHolyCross,anditwasredesignedinthe1290sto assumeitspresentform.The greatchurchofthe Dominicans,SantaMaria Novella,havingbeenfirst raisedonthesiteofanearlier churchin1246,was completedbythe1350s. Alongwiththemonasteries oftheAugustinian,Servite andCarmeliteOrders,these substantialcomplexesexerted hugesocialinfluenceson theirimmediatelocalities; theycontributedculturally andeconomicallyaswellas havingareligiouspurpose. DEFININGFLORENCE’S GOVERNMENT Nonetheless,Florence’sintramuralpoliticscontinuedtobe fractious.Theperiodafterthe PrimoPopolowitnessedthe renewedself-assertionofthe popolani—thosemerchants andtrades-peoplewhowere organizedintothemore significantguildsandwho definedthemselvesin consciousoppositiontothe magnatiornobility.In1282 thePopolomovement becamethedominantelement withinthecommune,andthe constitutionaltransformation iteffected11yearslater includedthemagnati’sformal exclusionfromFlorence’s politicallife. ABOVEConstructionbegan onthePalazzodellaSignoria, nowknownasthePalazzo Vecchio,in1299.Thepalace wasbuiltuponthesiteofan oldertowerbelongingtothe Foraboschifamily,whichis nowmarkedbythelocation ofthepresenttower. TheOrdinancesofJustice (1293),asadoptedbythe commune,provideda republicanconstitutionforthe city’ssignoriaor government.Itsnine members,thepriori,were chosenfromtheguildsat two-monthlyintervals.The headofthoseelectedwasthe gonfaloniere,whoservedthe republicasitschiefpublic representativeduringhisbrief periodinoffice.Ingoverning Florencethesignoriahadto consulttwootherelected councils:thatofthedodici (12)andofthesedici(16). Theycouldalsocallonthe expertiseofcouncils specializinginmatterssuch aswarfare,securityand commerce,andwhichwould beformedbyelectionasand whentheneedarose.In1299 workstartedonconstructing thePalazzodellaSignoria (nowthePalazzoVecchio) thathousedthegovernment oftheSecondoPopolo,and itsfortifiedappearance showedthedefensivenessof theattitudesaccompanying therepublicanassertion. Fromthetimeofits formationonwardthis structureofgovernmentwas subjectedtointernalstrains, withthelessercommercial classesorpopolominuto differentiatingthemselves fromgreateronesorpopolo grassowhoweredominantin theartimaggiori(major guilds). Florence’schronictendency tofragmentcouldalsobe seeninthetensionsthat becameendemicinthe1290s betweenthe“Blacks”andthe “Whites”(theNeriand Bianchi)whoadheredtothe aristocraticfamiliesofthe DonatiandtheCerchi respectivelyinthestruggle forinfluence.Followingthe Ghibellines’expulsionthe victoriousGuelphshadsplit: theBlackGuelphsstucktoa pro-papallinewhilethe WhiteGuelphswerecritical ofthepapacyandmorelikely thantheiradversariesto embracethenewconstitution. Aftertheprioriforcedboth theDonatiandtheCerchi leadersintoexilein1300the Blacksappealedtothepope. Themediatorhechose,the FrenchprinceCharlesof Valois,occupiedthecitywith anarmy.Charlesthen deliveredFlorencetoCorso Donati,whoestablishedthe Blackgovernmentthatsent manyoftheWhiteGuelphs, includingDanteAlighieri (c.1265–1321),intoexile. Fourteenth-centuryFlorence wasexposedtoexternal threatsfromGhibellinecontrolledMilanaswellas fromLuccaandPisa.When CastruccioCastracani,duke ofLucca,inflictedamilitary defeatontheFlorentinesin 1325,theadministration turnedforsupporttothe Anjevinrulersofthe kingdomofNaples,who sharedtheirantipathytothe empire.In1326thecity placeditselfunderthedirect ruleofDukeCharlesof Calabria,heirtothe Neapolitankingdom,by electinghimtobeitssignore (lord)fortenyears,though thatexperimentendedwhen thedukediedunexpectedly twoyearslaterandthe communefoundthatits libertyhadbeenrestored. Florenceagainhadtocallon Naplesforsupportwhenit wasthreatenedbyMastinoII dellaScala,signoreof VeronaandnorthItaly’smost successfulwarrior-princein the1330s.Thisresultedina briefperiodofimposed tyrannyin1342,whichended inapopularuprisingandthe restorationofthetraditional liberties. Florentineshadlongbeen accustomedtobothdomestic turbulenceandexternal threats,butthemid-14th centurysawnew environmentaldangersas wellasaterrifyingpublic healthcrisis.Newbridges (whichincludethePonte Vecchio)hadtobebuilt acrosstheArnoaftermajor floodingdestroyedtheearlier structuresin1333.Andthe epidemicknownasthe “BlackDeath”hitFlorence particularlyhardfromthelate 1340sonward.Afargreater catastrophe,however,wasthe collapseinthe1340sof Florence’sbanks.This followedtheirinvolvementin shadilyspeculativefinancial instrumentsandentrapment inabubbleofcurrency speculationcreatedand controlledbyVenetianhigh finance.Thatfinancial cataclysmledtoacontinentwidebankingcrisis,collapse ofcredit,andtrade contractionthatlastedfor decades. ANINSTRUCTIVE INSURRECTION Florence’sdemocratic structureswerebasedonthe greatguilds,andthisfact alonemeantthatpopolani couldbeasynonymforan oligarchydominatedbythe popolograsso.In1378the commercialélitewere quarrelingamongthemselves, andspecialistwoolworkers knownastheciompi—who werenotaffiliatedtoany guild—seizedtheirmoment. Largenumbersofthe disenfranchisedworking groups,suchasthetanners anddyers,joinedtheciompi inpetitioningthesignoriafor therighttoestablishguilds thatwouldprotecttheir interests.InlateJulythese dissidents,backedbyradical elementswithinthe marginalizedminorguilds (artiminori),suchasthoseof thebakersandmill-workers, seizedthegovernmentby force.Butalthoughnew guildswereformed,including onefortheciompi,the insurrectionleadersfailedto maintaintheirsolidarity.By theendofthesummeran allianceofthegreaterand lesserguildshadcrushedthe ciompileadership,whose guildwassubsequently disbanded.Inthefollowing yearsthepopolograssoreestablisheditsdominance. ABOVEAmarbleportraitof Cosimode’Medicifrom c.1464,believedtohavebeen sculptedbyAndreadel Verrocchio.Thisistheoldest survivingportraitofthe Medicipatriarch. Theeventsof1378livedon inthememoryofthe Florentinesandcontributedto amountingandgeneral disillusionwithboththe theoryandthepracticeofthe city’srepublicanconstitution. Victorieswerestillpossible, however,andFlorence’s conquestofPisain1406 madetherepublicamaritime powerforthefirsttimeinits history.Butworkersinthe artiminoricontinuedtobe alienatedfromthepopolo grasso,andimportant elementswithinanélite hauntedbytherecollectionof civildisorderconcludedthat theyneededbetterprotection. Differentsectorsof Florentinesocietytherefore hadtheirown,albeitmutually contradictory,reasonsfor allowingthelocalde’Medici family(whowerealso Europe’spremierbankers)to effectanearly15th-century revolutioningovernmentby keepingtherepublican constitutionwhiledenudingit ofsignificance.That Mediceantransformation neededtobesubtle,since Florentineswereproudof theircity’shistoryand consciousofitsgroundingin republicanvaluesthathad producedgreatnessaswellas violence.Cosimode’Medici (1389–1463)ranthebank establishedbyhisfather Giovanni(1360–1429)and rarelyheldpublicoffice,but connectionsacquiredthrough patronageandmoneymeant thathecouldcontrolFlorence byexertinghispersonal influence.Justlikehis grandson,Lorenzo(1449– 92),CosimowasFlorence’s soleruler,andtheMedicis’ sedulousavoidanceofthe titleof“prince”allowed Florentinestomaintaintheir communalself-esteemandto pretendthatthelinkwiththe republicanpastwasstillin place. GIOTTOANDREALISM INART AlthoughFlorenceisthecity thatdefinestherinascimento, itshistoryalsochallengesthe ideathat“renaissance”and “medieval”aremutually exclusivecategories. ThecareerofGiottodi Bondone(c.1267–1337)isa caseinpoint.Hewasborn eitherinFlorenceorits surroundingruralhinterland, andtalesofhispreternatural skillformpartoftheGiotto tradition—asinthecaseof theflyhedrewonacanvas beingworkedonbyCimabue (c.1240–c.1302)andwhich lookedsolifelikethatthe paintertriedtowaveitaway. Thestorywasfirstrelatedby GiorgioVasari(1511–74)in hisLivesoftheMostEminent Painters(1550),awork writtenovertwocenturies afterGiotto’sdeathand whichsoughttodemonstrate thatFlorentineartistswere thebestandearliest exemplarsofrenaissance originality.InVasari’s accountofthematterGiotto’s naturalisticstyleiscontrasted withthestiffnessofearlier Tuscanartists,whowerestill workinginatradition influencedbytheiconsof Byzantium—asinthecaseof CimabueandDuccio (c.1255/60–c.1318).Their stylizedandmosaic-like approachtopaintingcanthus belabeled“medieval”and even“Gothic.” Butthepsychological impactthatisahallmarkof Giotto’sfiguresisalso presentintheworkofthe precedinggeneration.The VirginpresentinCimabue’s “Maestà”(1280s)isan approachableintercessor,and theanimationofDuccio’s own“Maestà”(1308–11) comesfromthespiritual intensityofthe20angelsand 19saintswhocrowdround theMadonna.Giottocertainly broughtanewdramaticfocus tohisrepresentationsofthe Passion,asinthecelebrated “Lamentation”(c.1305) paintedintheScrovegni ChapelinPadua.The artificiallyelongatedfigures andswirlingdraperyofthe Byzantinetraditionhavenow disappeared,andour involvementasengaged spectatorsispartlyaresultof Giotto’ssupremacyasa draftsmanwhocansetthe sceneandcontrolthe perspective.Butthisisstillan artistwhoisindebtedtohis masters;thegesturesofthose whosurroundthesaint’sdead bodyinthe“MourningofSt. Francis,”paintedforthe BardiChapelinFlorence’s SantaCroce,evokethe stylizedgriefofByzantine mosaicsandicons.Giotto’s art,likethatofhisFlorentine contemporaryDante,escapes facilecategories,andtosee himasjustthepioneerwho preparedthewayforalater renaissanceistomissthe pointofgenius. “Lamentation”(c.1305)by GiottodiBondoneisafresco paintedintheScrovegni ChapelinPadua.TheHoly Familyandthedisciples mournthedeadChristwhose bodyhasbeentakendown fromtheCross. THE RECONQUISTA 722–1492 There-conquestofthe Iberianpeninsularterritories occupiedbyMusliminvaders wasaprocessthatlasted,on oneinterpretation,forsome sevenandahalfcenturies. Christianforcessecuredtheir firstmajorvictoryasearlyas 722,justoveradecadeafter thefirstinvadersarrivedin SpainfromNorthAfrica.The BattleofCovadongawas foughtbymembersofthe Visigothicaristocracywho hadfledtothemountainous Asturiasregioninthefar north,andtheirvictoryledto theestablishmentofa Christiankingdomthat becameabaseforthereconquestofSpain.Theendof Islam’sterritorialpowerin Spaincamein1492,whenthe emirateofGranadafelltothe unitedkingdomsofAragon andCastileafteraten-year militarycampaign.Granada had,however,beenan anomalousoutpostsince 1238whenitbecame Castile’svassalstate,andby thatstagetherestofSpain hadalreadybeenreconqueredforCatholic Christianity. Thereconquista,which gatheredpaceinthe11th century,wasaproductofthe convictionthatIberian Christianityhadonlya precarioustoeholdonthe southernEuropeanborder withIslam.Hungerforland andtheurgetopopulate emptyterritoriesplayedtheir partastheChristianleaders movedsouthwards,taking someoftheirsubjectswith them.Townsthatwerebeing repopulatedweregranted fuerosorchartersby Christianrulers,andthe popularityofthesewritten guaranteesoflibertiesand immunitieshelpedtoensure higherpopulationlevelsfrom themid-tenthcentury onward.Fueroscreateda directrelationshipbetween rulersandtownspeople,and theythereforeofferedan attractiveescaperoutefrom lordship(orfeudalism)and itslocalobligations.But WesternEurope’sfirstmajor crusadingenterprisealso stirredheartsandmindswith anintensitywhoseeffects wouldbelastingbothin SpainandinEurope.The continent’sChristianculture, stillsoexperimentalinthe 11thand12thcenturies, learnedfromthereconquista thehardlessonofnegativity: inordertoexistandflourish ithadtobeanoppositional force,onedefinedbyits enmity.Thepapacy’s decisiontolaunchaseriesof crusadesintheMiddleEast owedmuchtotheIberian experience,andsubsequent Spanishrulerswhose rationaleofpowerincludeda Christianmissionaryelement weresimilarlyindebted.It wasnotfornothingthat FranciscoFrancochose Burgos,theCastiliancitythat wasamajorbaseforthere- conquest,asthesymbolic locationforhisselfproclamationinOctober1936 asgeneralissimoofthe Spanisharmyandheadof state. ABOVELoarreCastlewasa majorChristianfortification, builtbySanchoIIIinAragon intheearly11thcentury,on thefrontierbetweenthe ChristianandMuslimlands. Thecastlewasmuchrestored duringthe20thcentury. CHARLEMAGNE’S CHRISTIANBORDER STATES Charlemagne’sarmyreturned toSpaininthelate790s followingtheearlier,and disastrous,expeditionof778, andhisformationin795ofa Frankish-controlledSpanish marchhadcreatedabuffer zonealongtheborder betweenUmayyadSpainand hisempire’ssouthernlimits. Themarchextendedfromthe Basqueregioninthewestand alongthePyreneanfrontier. Followingavictoryforthe Franksin801italso incorporatedthecountyof Barcelona.Thiswasoneof Europe’smostethnically diverseregionsconsistingof Basques,Jews,Germanic VisigothsandnativeIberians, aswellasHispano-Romans whoseancestorshad populatedSpainwhenitwas aRomanimperialprovince. Frankish-appointed governors,calledwalis, administeredeachofthe march’s17counties. THERECONQUISTA 795Charlemagneestablishes theSpanishmarch,abuffer zonewhoseseparatecounties willevolveintothe independentprincipalitiesof Navarre,Barcelonaand Aragon. 791–842AlfonsoIIrulesthe Christiankingdomofthe AsturiasinnorthwestSpain. HisforcesconquerBasques totheeastandGaliciatothe west. 924TheAsturiaskingdom, followingitssouthward expansionandincorporation ofthecountyofCastile, becomesknownasthe kingdomofLeón. 939León’ssouthern boundariesextendtowardthe RiverDouro. 970DeathofFernan Gonzalez,countofCastile, whohasestablishedhis county’sindependenceof León. 1002–31TheCórdoban caliphatedisintegratesinto pettyprincipalities(taifas). 1004–35SanchoIII(“the Great”)rulesNavarre:he annexesCastile,andLeón becomeshisprotectorate.He bestows(1029)Castileonhis sonFerdinand(1017–65). 1037Ferdinand,countof Castile,turnshiscountyinto akingdomand,having defeatedhisbrother-in-law militarily,becomeskingof León.FerdinandI’sson, AlfonsoVI,succeeds(1065) tothethroneofLeónand (1072)becomeskingof Castilewhenhiselder brother,SanchoII,is assassinated. 1085Toledoistakenby León-Castile. 1090–94Almoravidforces invadefromNorthAfricaand conquermosttaifas. 1118Aragon’sarmyretakes Zaragoza. 1137Dynasticunionbetween thecountyofBarcelonaand thekingdomofAragon. 1139Portugalattains independencefromLeónCastile. 1170TheAlmohaddynasty hasreplacedtheAmoravids asrulersofIslamicSpain. 1212Aragon,León-Castile, NavarreandPortugalunitein battletodefeattheAlmohads. Cordobaisretaken(1236). 1238TheemirateofGranada becomesCastile’svassal. 1248FerdinandIIIofCastile retakesSeville. 1492Aragon-Castileconquer Granada. AsCarolingianpower declinedintheninthcentury thewalisbecameincreasingly independentandhereditary rulersoftheirownfiefdoms, andtheystartedtocall themselvescounts.Itwasthis regionofthemarchthat wouldlaterbecomepartof theprincipalitiesofNavarre, CataloniaandAragon,and rightfromitsCarolingian originsonwarditwas somethingofasocio- economicexperiment. Settlerswereattractedinto thissparselypopulatedand strategicallyvitalareaby Charlemagne’slandgrants. Theseallowedextensive rightsandimmunitiesin returnforapromiseof militaryservicewhen required.Amilitary aristocracy,basedinthe myriadsmallcastlesthat dottedthelandscape,was therebycreated.Itsmartial obligations,owedfirstto Charlemagneand subsequentlytransferredto theregionalcounts, anticipatedlaterEuropean developmentsinlordshipand feudalduties. AlthoughtheseChristian borderstatesregardedIslam astheirfoe,theywerealso keentoestablishtheir independencefromtheir northernneighbor,the kingdomoftheWestern Franks.Tothisend,eachof themwasquitecontentto playofftheirMuslimand Christianneighborsagainst eachother.Navarre,centered onitscapitalPamplona,was ahereditarykingdombythe 820s,andBarcelona’scounts —theregion’spredominant magnates—werepassingon theirholdingstotheirsons fromthe880sonward.Borrel IIassertedthecountyof Barcelona’sformal independenceofFrance’s Capetianrulersin948,andall ofthesefrontierstatesofthe ninthandtenthcenturieshad remarkablystableboundaries. Nevertheless,theywere mostlysmallentities,andthe samemountainsthat protectedthemfrominvasion alsolimitedtheirabilityto breakoutandtakeonalAndalus(theArabicnamefor thepartoftheIberian Peninsulaheldbythe Muslims).Thekingdomof theAsturiasinSpain’s northwestwas,however, betterplacedforexpansion, andduringthelongreignof AlfonsoII(r.791–842)his forcesconqueredBasque dissidentstotheeastaswell astheprovinceofGaliciato thewest. ThediscoveryofSt.James’s supposedbonesinthe GaliciantownofSantiagode Compostelaturnedthe Asturiasintoamajor pilgrimagecenterfromthe earlyninthcenturyonward, andtheshrinewasan importantelementinthe kingdom’sleadershipofthe reconquista.AlfonsoII’s relianceonplunderinorder tomaintainhiskingdom, basedonthecityofOviedo, makeshimacharacteristic medievalruler.Thetribute thatheexactedgavehimthe meanstoraidMuslim-held townssuchasLisbonand Zamora.Amoreconsistent patternofcontinuous expansiontothesouth developedafterhistime,with theAsturianpossessionsin theregionsofCastileand Leónbeingfortifiedand systematicallyrepopulated. LEÓN—SPRINGBOARD TOPOWER AlfonsoIII(r.866–910) madethecityofLeónhis newcapital,andfromthis basehecampaignedto establishcontroloverthe landstothenorthofthe Douroriver.Amajor reorganizationofhiskingdom sawGaliciaandPortugal becomingduchies,and Castilewasfoundedasa county.Thesouthward movementofpeoplesfrom GaliciaandAsturiaschanged theregion’scenterofgravity. From924onwarditwas knownasthekingdomof León,andalthoughthe Cordobancaliphatewasatthe heightofitspowerinthe tenthcenturyLeóneseforces werestillabletomount damagingattacksonboth ToledoandSeville. TheBattleofSimancas(July 19,939)wasagreatmoment inthehistoryofLeón,andthe victorygainedbytheforces ofRamiroII(r.931–51)over thecaliph’sarmyextended hiskingdom’sboundaries towardtheDouro.Ramiro’s armywas,however,ina coalitionwithforcesloyalto FernanGonzalez,therulerof Castilewhowasnowusing hispositionofpowerinorder toasserthiscounty’s independenceofLeón.Such maneuveringsshowthatfor mostofthetenthcenturythe ChristianstatesofSpainhad littleconceptionofthe reconquistaasastrategic campaignwhichmight coordinatetheirindividual interestsandefforts.Bythe endofthecentury,however, Navarrehadmadeitselfthe Iberianregion’sgreatest Christianpower,anditsruler SanchotheGreat(r.1004– 35)hadshownlittle fastidiousnessinpursuing thatgoal.Amarriagealliance meanthecouldannexCastile, apowerfularmyhelpedhim toconquerthetwoadjacent Christianmarcherstatesof SobrarbeandRibagorza, victoryinwaragainstKing BermudoIIIturnedLeóninto Sancho’sprotectorateand Barcelona’scountcameto payhomagetoNavarre. ThereignofSanchoIIIthe Greatcoverstheperiodofthe Cordobancaliphate’s disintegrationintoanumber ofsmallprincipalitiestermed taifasinthegeneration followingthedeathofalMansur(c.938–1002),chief advisertothecaliphand effectiverulerofal-Andalus. Al-Mansurwasthegreatest militarystrategisteverto confrontthereconquista,and attheBattleofCervera foughtnearBurgosonJuly 29,1000heinflictedagreat defeatonCastile’sarmy.But thesuccessiondisputesthat aroseafteral-Mansur’sdeath plungedthecaliphateinto civilwar,andbythe1030sit haddisappearedtobe replacedbymyriadsofemirs runningtheirowntaifas. Sanchodividedhislegacy amonghissons,buthehad shownhowatoughhegemon couldbuildupaChristian coalition,andhisson Ferdinand,whohadbeen allocatedthecountyof Castile,sharedasimilar resolve.Afterwaginga successfulwaronLeón, whosemonarchwashisown brother-in-law,Ferdinand succeededhimonthethrone in1037andinthesameyear heturnedCastileintoa monarchy.Thedynastyof Navarrehadbecomethe greatestpowerinChristian Spain,butitwastheunited realmofLeónandCastile— alongwithitscontiguous areasinGaliciaandthe Asturias—whichwasthereal politicalcenterofSpanish Christianity.AskingofLeón andofCastile,Ferdinandkept upthepressureonthe Muslim-runtaifasuntilhis deathin1065,andthesystem oftributesknownasparias wasdesignedtoweakenhis Islamicsubjectsboth financiallyandpolitically. Ferdinand’ssonsucceeded hisfatherasCastile’sKing SanchoII,andthendefeated hisbrotherAlfonsoinbattle tobecomekingofLeóninthe monthsprecedinghis assassinationin1072. Alfonsohadfledforsafetyto thetaifaofToledo(oneofhis Muslimclientstates),and Sancho’smurdermeantthat hecouldnowreuniteLeón andCastile.Thegreatevent ofAlfonsoVI’sreign(r. 1072–1109)wastheconquest ofToledoin1085,andthe city’sdesignationasan archbishopricmadeitthe spiritualcenterofSpanish Christianity.Alfonsohad alreadyproclaimedhimself “emperorofallHispania”in 1077,andthecloselinkshe establishedwiththepapacy andEuropeanmonarchs openedhiskingdomto externalinfluences.The Romanliturgicalritewas nowadoptedbytheSpanish Church,andthereconquista startedtoattractnon-Spanish crusadersincluding, especially,theFrench. MESSIANICBERBERS TAKECHARGE AlthoughArab-led,the MuslimconquestofIberia hadalwaysreliedonlarge numbersofBerbersfrom NorthAfrica,bothasfighters andassettlers.Confrontedby theChristianadvance,the rulersofal-Andalusdecided tosummonanadditional forceofBerberauxiliariesin 1086,andthewarriorswho crossedtheStraitsof Algecirasunderthecommand ofYusufibnTashfinensured thatAlfonsoVIsuffereda raredefeatintheBattleof Sagrajas(October23,1086). AswellasbeingaBerber, Yusufalsobelongedtothe Almoraviddynasty,whose rulealreadyextendedover Morocco,Algeriaand throughthesouthernSahara intoSenegal.Fortifiedbya vividlyfundamentalist Islamicfaith,theAlmoravids regardedal-Andalusasa Muslimsocietythathad weakenedandwhosedefeats wereaformofdivine retribution.WhenYusuf returnedin1090,therefore, hecameattheheadofan armyofconquestwhose enemieswerenowtheemirs ofal-Andalus. Thequalifiedtoleration extendedtoitsChristianand Jewishsubjectsbythe Córdobacaliphatestartedto bethreatenedintheearly 11thcentury.However,the Almoravidregimewasseton acourseofoutright persecution,andthatpolicy gaveanewsolidaritytothe governmentofIslamicSpain. By1094Yusufhadremoved mostofSpain’slocalMuslim princesfrompowerandthe taifas,withtheexceptionof Zaragoza,wereabsorbed withinasingleAlmoravid caliphate.Thedynasty’srule containedthereconquistafor sometwodecades,butitwas comingunderincreasing pressureinitsNorthAfrican basefromtheAlmohads, anotherdynastyofIslamic Berbersandwhosefanaticism rivaledthatofthe Almoravids. Zaragozamaintainedits resistancetotheAlmoravids until1110.Itsemirplayeda majorroleintheAlmoravids’ lossofauthority,because followingthedefeatheand hisarmybecamealliedto Aragon.In1118the Aragoneseforceseized Zaragoza,andthecity becamethecapitalofa Christiankingdomthatwasin thevanguardofthe reconquista.Towardthewest theAlmoravids’defeatatthe BattleofOurique(July25, 1139)wasanotherimmensely significantevent,sinceit enabledPrinceAfonso Henriquestoproclaim himselfasAfonsoI, Portugal’sfirstking,andto declarehisrealm’s independenceofthekingdom ofLeónandCastile. ABOVEA12th-century paintingofAlfonsoVI,king ofLeón,CastileandGalicia, fromtheCathedralof SantiagodeCompostela. TheAlmohadshadreplaced theAlmoravidsasemirsof Marrakeshin1149,andinthe yearsthatfollowedthey wouldalsodisplacethemin al-Andalus.In1170the Almohadcapitalwas transferredtoSeville,and althoughtheregimelastedin al-Andalusforhalfacentury itsindifferencetotheartsand sciencesmadefora melancholycontrastwiththe sophisticationoftheIslamic Iberianpast.TheAlmohad dynastywasnonethelessan effectivewarriorclassandthe victorygainedbyitsBerber forcesattheBattleofAlarcos (July18,1195)undermined theCastiliankingdom’sselfconfidence.Thatdefeat, however,instilledinthe Christianstatesanew convictionthatunitywasthe keytosuccess.AttheBattle ofLasNavasdeTolosa(July 16,1212),foughtnearJaenin modernAndalusia,theforces ofCastilewerejoinedby thoseofNavarre,Aragon, LeónandPortugalaswellas byaFrenchcontingent. Togethertheyinflictedthe defeatontheAlmohadsthat signifiedtheendofthe reconquistaofthecentral MiddleAges. ItfelltoFerdinandIIIof Castiletoconsolidatethe conquestbytakingCórdoba in1236andSevillein1248, withJerezandCadizfalling soonafter.TheAlmohads wereforcedtoretreatto NorthAfrica,thoughhere, too,theysufferedagradual attritionofauthority,and whenthelastofthedynastic linewasmurderedin1269he heldonlyMarrakesh.Inthe 1230s,therefore,Spain’s Islamicfarsouthwasapower vacuum,anditwasthe Nasriddynastythatseizedthe momentofregional opportunity.In1237 MohammedibnNasr establishedhisauthorityin Granada,whichthenbecame thecapitalofhiskingdom, andinthefollowingyearhe acceptedhisstatusas Castile’svassalemir. PRESERVINGTHE “PURITY”OFSPAIN TheAlhambraPalacewas builtbytheNasriddynasty, butitsarchitecturalglories wereanostalgictributetothe pastratherthanaguideto contemporaryreality: Granadawasobligedtoraise troopsforCastileand sufferedmajorterritorial lossesasaresultofCastilian invasions.Theself-confident andunitedrealmsofAragon andCastileconqueredthe kingdomofGranadain1492, anditwastakenoverbythe Castilianadministration.By thetermsoftheAlhambra Decree(March31,1492) issuedbyFerdinandof AragonandIsabelofCastile, allSpanishJewshadtoeither becomeChristiansorleave thecountry.TheInquisition thatthemonarchsestablished inSpainin1478wasalready investigatingthecasesof various“newChristians.” ConversoswereformerJews andMoriscoswereexMuslims.Bothgroupswere suspectedofamerely opportunisticconversionto Christianityandofa maintainingasecretive observanceoftheirancestral faith.Conversosand Moriscoscouldalsobe definedasindividualswhose ancestorshadconverted duringthereconquista,and theircasescouldtherefore involveinvestigationof eventsthathadoccurredat leasttwoorthreecenturies previously.Anobsession withthe“purity”ofSpain meantthatthereconquista livedonasasetofattitudes longafterthecompletionof Iberia’sterritorialre-conquest inthenameofChristianfaith. THEALHAMBRA Thearchitecturalcomplex thatSpain’sMuslimscalled theCalatAlhambra(“thered fortress”)wascompletedin thesecondhalfofthe14th centuryonaplateau borderingthecityof Granada.Itisthecolorofthe localclayusedinits constructionthatgivesthe Alhambraitsnamealthough thebuilding’sexternalwalls wereoriginallywhitewashed. Craftsmenwereworkingon theearliestpartsofthe buildinginthemid-13th centurybutthehistoryofthe siteasafortificationextends backtothelateninthcentury whenaprimitiveredcastleis knowntohaveexistedonthe hill. Theideaofanenclosed palatinestructurewhichisthe ruler’sdomesticbase,his administrativecenter,and alsoalocaleforpublicand religiousceremoniesis middleeasterninitsorigins. EighthcenturyBaghdad’s palacesocietyunderits Abbasidrulerswasa particularlyinfluential exampleofthatarchitectural conception.Thefinest exampleofsuchacomplexin earlymedievalEuropewas theGreatPalacein Constantinople,aseriesof pavilionswhichadjoinedthe basilicaofHagiaSophia.The palace,originallyraisedby theemperorConstantinebut substantiallyredesignedin subsequentcenturies, providedtherulersof Byzantiumwithan institutionalbase,a ceremonialsetting,and domesticquarters. Charlemagne’searlyninth centuryAachen,withits palatinechapel, administrativeofficesand residentialarea,wasawest Europeanapplicationofthe samemodel. TheAlhambra’searliest architecturalfeatureconsists ofanalcazabaorcitadel: defensivecapabilitywasa primaryconsiderationduring theearliestphaseof constructiononthesite,and theentirecomplexis enclosedbyafortifiedwall with13towers.Designedand decoratedbyMuslim,Jewish andChristianartistsand craftsmenduringaperiodof overacentury,thepalacefortressshowsthevitalityof differingcultureinmedieval Granada.Asophisticated irrigationsystemprovided waterforthenumerous fountains,pools,bathhouses andgardenswhosedesign furnishestheAlhambrawith someofitsmostelaborate stylisticeffects. Thedistinctiveclayand Islamicarchitectureofthe Alhambrawith,totheright, therenaissancefacadeofthe palacebuiltduringthereign oftheemperorCharlesV. SAINTS,RELICS ANDHERETICS c.325–1434 Thesaintshonoredbythe Christianfaithfulduringthe medievalcenturieswerea specificgroupwithinthe widercategoryofsoulswho hadbeenadmittedtoheaven. Whenalive,thevenerated saintshaddemonstrated exceptionalholiness,and miraculouseventsthathad occurredbeforeandafter theirdeathswereattributed tothem.Theseinterventions inthephysicalworldtook manyforms:curingthesick andhealingthelameaswell asperformingactions calculatedtodefeattheir petitioners’enemies.Above all,thesaintscouldhelpto undosomeofthe consequencesofsin—that fallenstatewhichwas, accordingtotheChurch,the universalhumancondition.It wastheirpossessionofvirtus orpower—aforcebestowed onthembyGod—that enabledthesesaintstoactin supportofindividualswho hadaskedthemtointercede withtheCreator. Thesaintsweresoulswho existedintheAlmighty’s presence,andtheywere thereforewellplacedtohelp ananxioushumanity.This theyachievednotjust throughmiraclesbutalsoby advocatingbeforeGodthe causeofprayerfulpenitents whospeculatedanxiously abouttheirchancesofgaining admittancetothecourtof heavenafterdeath.Formany medievalmindsapersuasive analogyexistedwiththe courtlysocietiesofthis world’spalaces,sincehere, too,therewerepowerful intermediariesintheformof courtierswhomightbe inducedtorepresentoutsiders wholackedinfluence. Saintswerecarefully categorized.Martyrssuchas theapostlePaulhad deliberatelychosentosuffer anddieforthefaith.Saints whodiedofnaturalcauses included“confessors”who hadlivedexemplarylives. TheseincludedthefourthcenturysoldierMartinof Tours(316–97),whowas especiallyveneratedby successiveFrenchkings. “DoctorsoftheChurch”such astheDominicanThomas Aquinas(1225–74)merited canonizationassaints becauseoftheirlucid expositionofCatholic orthodoxy.Thepracticeof honoringsuchexceptional peoplewasanancientone, andthecommemorationof theearlymartyrshadhelped tomaintainChristian solidarityinthesecondand thirdcenturieswhenthefaith wasoftenproscribed. Celebratorymealswereheld atmartyrs’tombssuchasthe onesontheoutskirtsof Rome,andsmallshrineswere sometimesbuiltoverthem,as happenedatPeter’stombon theVaticanHill.Theemperor Constantine’smotherHelena wascreditedwithhaving discoveredtheremainsofthe TrueCrossinJerusalem duringthemid-320s,andthe roleofwomeninlooking afterrelicsandestablishing shrinesremainedimportant throughouttheMiddleAges. Largenumbersofwomen attendedtheceremoniesheld attheshrinesandthechurch servicescommemorating saints’lives. RIGHTSaintThomasAquinas isshownonthefarleftofthis fresco(c.1437)Coronationof theVirgin,byFraAngelico (c.1390–1455)fromthe churchofSanMarco, Florence. SAINTS,RELICSAND HERETICS c.325Theemperor Constantine’smotherHelena iscreditedwiththediscovery inJerusalemoftheremainsof theTrueCross. c.700FollowingtheIslamic conquestofSyriaand Palestine,EasternChristian refugeeshavearrivedin WesternEurope—alongwith theircollectionsofrelics. 1155Amassgraveis uncoveredinCologneandis believedtocontainthe remainsofUrsulaandher 11,000co-martyrs.The Europeanrelicmarketis floodedasaresult. 1204Thecrusaders’sackof Constantinopleleadstothe massexportofrelicsto WesternEurope. 1322PopeJohnXXII denouncesashereticalthe viewthatChristandhis disciplesownednothing. 1415JanHuss,aCzech reformerinfluencedbyJohn Wycliffe,isputtodeathby theChurchCouncilmeeting atConstance. 1420–34TheHussiteWars: thefollowersofJanHuss engageinarmedconflictin Bohemiaandothercentral Europeanregions. RECOGNIZING SANCTITY Saintswhogainedofficial recognitionfromtheChurch authoritieswereaccordeda cultusorpublichonor.The cultustookmanydifferent forms.TheChurchnominated certaindays—usuallythe anniversaryoftheirdeath— forthesaints’liturgical commemorationduringthe performanceofthemassor themonasticoffice. Particularlyimportantsaints wouldbethefocusofmajor celebrationssometimes involvingaprocessionof relics.Individualdioceses andmonasterieshadtheir ownliturgicalcalendars specifyingcelebrationsfor saintswhoseappealwas particulartothelocalityor specifictothereligious Order,andthepopularityof saintsremainedhighly regionalizedrightacross EuropeduringtheMiddle Ages. Officialrecognitionofsome kindwasalwaysneeded beforeasaint’scultcouldbe established,butdecisions aboutwhoshouldbe veneratedshowedadegreeof localinitiativewhichclerical hierarchiesoftenstruggledto control.Establishinga relationshipwithcertain chosensaintswasoneofthe fewwaysinwhichthe illiterateandthemarginalized couldexercisetheirfreedom andasserttheirsolidarity,and asaint’sbodyofsupporters wasoftendescribedashisor her“family.”Forexample,in thecaseofasaintwhowas thepatronofamonastic community,thatfamily wouldincludenotjustthe monksandthenobleswho hadendowedthefoundation butalsotheserfswhoworked thecommunity’slandsand thepilgrimswhocameto seekthesaint’shelp.During theearlymedievalcenturies bishopssoughttoestablisha measureofcontroloverwho couldbeasaintwithintheir dioceses.Bythe12thcentury thepapacywasexertingits owncentralizedauthorityby assertingauniqueprerogative toissuethespecialbulls whichcanonizedsaints.This wasalsothetimewhenthe institutionwaspreoccupied withatightdefinitionof orthodoxyandofitspolar opposite—heresy. HOLYREMAINS Amongtherelicsorreliquiae (“theremains”)leftbehindby thesaints,itwasthebones thatattractedmostattention. TheChurchtaughtthaton Christ’sreturntoEarthonthe dayoftheLastJudgmentthe bodyofeveryhumanbeing wouldbereassembledfrom thepiecesthathadonce constitutedit.Thiswasthe bodilyresurrection,andit appliedtothevenerated saintsnolessthantotherest ofthedead.Atombora reliquarycasketdidnotjust containinertbones,therefore. Theseobjectscontinuedtobe partofthesaints’identities andwouldbeassembledto formtheirglorifiedbodies aftertheLastJudgment.To praybeforetherelicswasto beinthephysicalpresenceof thesaint—arealand identifiablepersonality offeringadirectlinkwith Godwhowastheunique sourceofallpower.Relics couldalsoincludephysical objectsusedbythesaints, suchasitemsofclothingand books.Itemsbroughtinto contactwithrelics—for example,piecesofcloth pressedontoashrineorvials containingwaterusedto washasaint’sbody—could themselvesbecomerelics, albeitofaminorkind. LEFTThegoldenshrineof SaintElizabethofHungary, whodiedin1231,once containedthesaint’sbody. Theshrine,locatedin Marburg,Germany,was plundered,andsomeofits relicsarenowtobefoundin SwedenandAustria. Relicsweresometimesmere fragmentsofbones,andthese couldbeplacedinsidealtars orwithinreliquaries(a containerforrelics).Relics werealsoboughtbytherich whousedtheminprivate devotions.Themajorshrines oftheMiddleAgeswere morelikelytocontaina wholebodyoratleasta significantcollectionofthe relevantbodyparts.These frequentlyornatestructures wereraisedeitheroverthe originaltombsorinplacesto whichthebodieshadbeen moved—ashappenedwith James’sshrineinCompostela andThomasBecket’sat Canterbury.Theremainsof Faith,ayounggirltorturedto deathinc.300bytheRoman authorities,wereoriginallyto befoundinherhometownof AgeninAquitaine.Faith’s refusaltomakepagan sacrifices,alongwithher spectaculartortureonaredhotbrazier,madehera celebritysaint,andherbones werestolenintheninth centurybyamonkfromthe Benedictinefoundationat nearbyConques.Itwashere, onthepilgrimagerouteto Compostela,thatFaith’s relicsbecameanobjectof massdevotioninthegreat 11th-centuryRomanesque abbeyofSainteFoy. EasternChristianshad pioneeredthevenerationof relics,asevidencedbythe scaleoftheirdevotionsatthe relic-richholyplacesof ChristendominSyriaand Palestine.Theleadershipof theLatinChurchinWestern Europewasoftenskeptical aboutthepracticeuntilat leasttheseventhcentury,and bishopstriedtolimitand controlitslocalobservance. However,theIslamic conquestsintheMiddleEast ledtoamassmigrationof EasternChristianswhose arrivalinWesternEurope— alongwiththeirrelic collections—gaveanew boosttothecultofrelic veneration.Successivewaves ofpopulardevotionforced theclericalhierarchiesto revisetheirviews.The iconoclasticcontroversythat consumedtheGreekChurch formostoftheeighthcentury andthefirsthalfoftheninth centuryalsohadaneffect. Iconsorpicturesofthesaints performedmanyoftheroles (includingmiracles) attributedtorelics,andthe Byzantineemperorswho supportedtheicon-breakers maywellhavewishedto emphasizetherebytheirown uniqueauthorityas intermediariesbetweentheir subjectsandGod.Many Greeksweresodevotedto theiriconsthattheyfledto Italywheretheyincreasedthe numbersofthoseseekingto honorthesaintly intermediaries.Nonetheless, theChurchhierarchy remainedwary,andthe clergytriedtomaintain controlbysubjectingrelicsto aprocessofauthentication andbyimposingorderonthe ritualsmarkingtheir veneration. Fromthe11thcentury onwarddevelopmentof feudalpracticesandofthe institutionoflordship,which includedtheexchangeof gifts,paralleledanother upswinginthepopularityof bothsaintsandrelics.Vassals whoplacedthemselvesunder theprotectionofalocallord byofferinghimtheirservice couldbeseenassecular counterpartstothepious,who mightseektogainthe protectionofsaintlysoulsby bringinggiftstotheshrines. Manychurchesand monasterieshadtoberebuilt andextendedbecauseofthe saints’popularityduringthe highMiddleAges.Thegreat increaseinthenumberof pilgrimsdrawntoSaint-Denis nearParis,forexample,was oneofthereasonswhyAbbé Sugerembarkedonamassive redesignoftheabbeyinthe 1130s.Theperiodalsosawa steadygrowthinthenumbers offemalesaintsandtheir relics.Fromc.1050onward themonksattheBenedictine abbeyofVézelayin Burgundybegantoclaim possessionofMary Magdalene’srelics.Later,the Europeanrelicmarketwas floodedfollowingthe discoveryin1155ofamass graveinCologneallegedto containthebonesofUrsula andherequallylegendary 11,000co-martyrs.New tradingcontactswiththe MiddleEastmadeasaresult ofthecrusades,aswellasthe crusader’ssackingand lootingofConstantinoplein 1204,swelledthenumberof importedrelics.SainteChapelleinPariswasbuiltin the1240sbyLouisIX(1214– 70)specificallytohousethe remainsofsaints. HOWRELIGIOUS ORDERSVIEWED SAINTS ReligiousOrderscoulddiffer quitesharplyintheirattitudes tovenerationofthesaints. Cistercianmonksfollowedan idealofseparationfrom mainstreamsocietyand BernardofClairvaux(1090– 1153)ledthemovementto internationalrecognition.But whenthemonksofClairvaux prayedtotheirsainted foundertheyaskedBernard specificallynottoperform miraclesathistombinthe monasterysincetheyhadno wishtodealwithlarge numbersofpilgrims.The Franciscans,anausterely mendicantOrderpledgedto poverty,didnottendany significantshrinesinFrance, althoughtheydidperform thattaskinItaly—and especiallysoatAssisiwhere theirgreatfounderFrancis (1181/2–1226)wasburied. BELOWThispaintingby GiovannidePaolo(1403–83) dated1455,showsSaint ClareofAssisimiraculously savingachildfrombeing savagedbyawolf. Thiswasalsoatimewhen manysaintsacquiredarapid posthumousrecognition,asin thecasesofLouisIXand BernardofClairvaux,who werecanonizedin1297and 1174respectively.The canonizationofDominicde Guzman(1170–1221),just13 yearsafterhisdeath, rewardedhisinsightin establishingtheOrderof Preachers—abodyof intellectualfriarswhose itinerancyandskillsas communicatorsequipped themtomoveeasilyamong thenewurbancentersof Europe.Therapidbestowal ofacultusrecognizeda saint’sinspirationalgeneral exampleandabilityto intercede.Andinthecaseof theseswiftpromotionsthe backgroundwasrarelyoneof massdevotionatparticular gravesandshrines.Butthe bodiesofthesenearcontemporarysaintswere nonethelesscarefully preserved,andoftenby membersofareligious community.Suchwasthe casewithClareofAssisi,a followerofFrancisand founderoftheOrderthat bearshername,whowas canonizedjusttwoyearsafter herdeathin1253. LATEMEDIEVALPIETY Anewintensityinlay spiritualitywasevident duringthelaterMiddleAges, atimewhenshrinesdedicated totheVirginMaryandto Christincreasedinnumbers andpopularity.Thedoctrines oftheAssumptionand Ascensiontaughtthatthe bodiesoftheSaviorandhis motherhadbeenremovedto heavenintheirentirety,and sincetheseshrinescould thereforecontainno fragmentsofbonesthe faithfulhadtocontent themselveswithother objects.ChartresCathedral becameoneofthegreat Mariancentersofdevotion sinceitclaimedtopossessthe Virgin’stunic.Manystatues oftheVirgin,someofthem paintedblack,wereendowed withmiraculousproperties, andthemanypaintings recordingherAnnunciation showedMaryasadevout contemporaryaristocrat readinginherbedchamber. ImagesofChrist’sface becameincreasinglypopular andtheEucharist(Christ’s bodyandblood)cametobe treatedasaparticularkindof relic.TheBenedictionofthe BlessedSacramentmayhave beenaninnovationofFrancis ofAssisi,andthisceremonial adorationofthehost(the consecratedbread)wasone oflatemedievalpiety’smost typicaldevotions. ABOVETheserichly decoratedpagescomefroma bookofhoursprintedinParis byPhillipePigouchetforthe FrenchpublisherSimon Vostrein1498.Suchworks werekeptathomefor purposesofpersonaldevotion andstudy. Thesaintsnowlivedonin manyforms.Priestscould commendtheminsermons, andexcerptsfrom hagiographies(collectionsof saints’biographieswrittenin thevernacular)werereadout tothelaity.Booksofhours— containinginformationabout saints’lives—wereconsulted athomebytherichand literate.Imagesofsaintswere widespreadonchurches’ paintedwalls,andtheywere ubiquitousintheGreek empireoncetheiconoclastic furyhadpassed. Confraternities(organizations oflaypeoplethatpromoted specialworksofChristian piety)wereanimportantpart ofmedievalsociallife,and thesaintsadoptedaspatrons bythesegroups’members werehonoredinelaborate ceremonies. Thezealwithwhichentire communitieswouldapproach saintswhoofferedaspecialist expertisewasasgreatasever. The14th-centuryfigureof Roch(orRocco)of Montpellierwasdeemed usefulwhentheplague struck,andMargaret,an Anglo-Saxonprincesswho becameQueenofScots (c.1045–93),hadbeen emblematicofthedevoutand philanthropicrulereversince hercanonizationin1250. CatherineofAlexandria,who wascondemnedinc.305to dieonthebreakingwheel—a Romaninstrumentoftorture —acquiredahugefollowing inlatemedievalEurope.Her relicsweretobefoundatthe monastery,locatedon Egypt’sMountSinai,that borehername,andthe pilgrimageroutetoher remainswasoneofthemajor internationaltrailsfollowed bythedevout. LEFTThiswoodenstatueofa blackMadonnastandsinthe CathedralofSantaEulalia, Barcelona.Itwasprobably producedinItaly,duringthe 13thor14thcenturies. DARINGTOBE DIFFERENT Hereticsheldviewsthat contradictedtheChurch’s orthodoxy.Althoughthe Catharswerethemost notoriousexamplesthere weremanyothersectswho weretreatedwithequal intolerance.Thefollowersof PeterValdez(c.1140–c.1218) insouthernFranceandnorth Italystartedasmainstream Christianswhowere especiallyattractedbyNew Testamentinjunctionstoshun richesandtopreachthe gospeltothepoor.Theirzeal indoingsoattractedthe hostilityofChurchleaders whothoughtthatpreaching wasajobforpriestsrather thanforlayenthusiasts.It wastheirpersistenceaslay preachers,ratherthanany doctrinalreasons,thatledto theWaldensians’initial condemnationashereticsby theChurchin1184.Having beengiventhelabel,they thenstartedtoembracea wholesetofgenuinely hereticalbeliefs.Bytheearly 13thcenturytheWaldensians constitutedaseparate ecclesiasticalstructurethat rejectedboththeideaofa priesthoodandthenotionof sacraments.Waldensians, ratherliketheCathars, despisedtheofficialChurch’s associationwithrichesand hierarchicalpower,andthe sectstressedthatspiritual insightandanabilityto communicatewithGodwasa resultofindividualmerit ratherthanareflectionofthe sacraments’efficacy. ABOVEThisillustrationfrom Foxe’sBookofMartyrs (1563)showstheLollard JohnBadbybeingboiledto deathinabarrelin1410. DirectaccesstotheBible translatedintovernacular languageswascentraltothe Waldensians’appeal.The sameisalsotrueofthe LollardswhofollowedJohn Wycliffinlate14th-century EnglandandoftheHussites whofollowedtheirexample inBohemiaagenerationlater. Inallthesecasesitwasthe fearofbeingrejectedbyan individualconscience informedbyitsown interpretationoftheNew TestamentthatledtheChurch toanathematizethedissenters asheretics. AlthoughFrancisofAssisi embracedaministrythat preachedthecorrupting effectsofriches,heandhis immediatefollowersinthe OrderofFriarsMinor(“the Franciscans”)were impeccablyorthodoxinterms ofChurchdoctrine.Butwhen theofficialFranciscans changedtheirOrder’srules afterthedeathofthefounder sothatitmightownmaterial goods,analternative groupingcalledthe“Spiritual Franciscans”emerged.These dissidentsstatedthatall Franciscansshouldadhereto thefounder’spovertyand mendicancy.Theiradvocacy oftheviewthatChristandhis discipleshadownednothing, wasdenouncedasheretical byPopeJohnXXIIin1322. Mostofthe“Spiritual Franciscans”eventually submittedbuttheFraticelli,a disparatemassofsplinter groups,continuedtopreach apostolicpovertyin14thcenturyItaly.Their denunciationsofthe establishedecclesiastical ordershowedhowthepeople rejectedas“heretics”by popes,bishopsandcouncils oftheChurchcould nonethelessdisplayan enduringspiritualvitality. MYSTICS TheChristianmysticsof medievalEuropeclaimedto havebeengrantedaspecial revelation:Godhadrevealed himselftotheminvisions whoseeffectsinfusedtheir entirebeingwiththe knowledgeandloveofthe divine. Mostwereorthodoxintheir attachmenttotheChurch’s teachings,asinthecaseof England’sMargeryKempe (c.1373–c.1438)andDame JulianaofNorwich (c.1342–c.1416).Hildegard ofBingen(c.1098–1179) startedtohavevisionswhen shewasayoungchild,and thisGermanabbesswould havebeenremarkableinany agewithherpolymathicgifts asacomposer,playwright, poet,expertbotanistand highlyacclaimedpublic preacher.Sheconductedfour extensivepreachingtours acrossGermany.Hildegard alsoenjoyedthesupportof BernardofClairvaux— alwayssomethingofalitmus testindemonstrating orthodoxy—incallingfor furtherreformsoftheChurch fromwithin,includingthe abolitionofsimony.Others withmysticalgiftsweremore ofaproblemfortheChurch authorities. JoachimofFiore(c.1135– 1202)wasinspiredbythe NewTestament’sBookof Revelationandbythe Gospel’sproclamationofan imminentand transformationalkingdomof God.BorninCalabria,where hefoundedanabbeyatFiore whichadheredtoatough interpretationofCistercian monasticdiscipline,Joachim wasavoluminousauthor whosewritingsrevolve aroundthenotionofthree distinctphasesinhumanity’s history.TheOldTestament erahadbeentheAgeofthe PatriarchalFather,whoruled throughtheexerciseofpower andbyinspiringfear.The NewTestamentperiodwas theAgeoftheSon,whose greaterwisdomwasevident inthefoundationofa Catholicandsacramental Church.TheAgeoftheHoly Spirit,orThirdAge,would bethenextstageinthis progressiveascent,andits emphasiswouldbeon egalitarianandcommunal values.AChurchhierarchy wouldbecomeunnecessary duringtheperiodthatwas dawning.Furthermore,the divisionsbetweenJews,the GreekChurchandthe WesternLatinswouldbe transcendedwithinanew dispensationguidedbythe spiritoftheGospelandby God’slove,ratherthanbya slavishadherencetotheletter ofthelaw. Joachim’shumilityand evidentholinessoflifesaved himfrompersecution,andhe evenenjoyedtheactive supportofPopeLuciusIII(r. 1181–85).ThomasAquinas disapprovedofhisteachings but,equallyunsurprisingly, Joachimwasapopularfigure amongmanyFranciscans, andDantethoughthewas possessedofagenuinegiftof prophecy.Joachimgave somethingofahostageto fortunebynominating,albeit tentatively,theyear1260as thetimewhentheThirdAge wouldactuallystart.Once thatyearhadcomeandgone hisposthumousreputation cameunderincreasingattack, andin1263hewasofficially condemnedasahereticbythe Church. HildegardofBingenis depictedinthefrontispieceof Scivias,dictatingthedetails ofavisiontoherscribe, Volmar.Sciviassetsoutthe 26visionsthatHildegard experiencedduringher lifetime. MEDIEVAL SOCIETY 285–c.1350 Atthebeginningoftheearly medievalperiodWestern Europeansocietywas characterizedbya fragmentationofauthority andwidespreaddeurbanizationwhosecauses canbeattributedtothe formaldivisionoftheRoman empirein285.Economic, militaryandpolitical resourcestendedtobe concentratedintheEast thereafter,andintheWest thecountrysidewas increasinglydominatedbyan aristocracyoflandowners andseniorsoldiers,mostly basedinlargevillasand newlyfortifiedtowns.The estatesofWesternEurope wereworkedbyslaves,by freedmenwhohadoncebeen slaves,andalsobycoloni— formerlyindependentfarmers whohadsubordinated themselvestothegreat landownersinordertogain protectionagainstimperial taxcollectorsandthe demandsofmilitary conscription.Such landownerscoulddispense localjusticeandeven assembleprivatearmies.The Westerneconomybecame ruralizedandregional.Trade withtheMediterranean economiesdiminished,and mostofthegoodsboughtand soldwerelocallyproduced. Itwasintothisworldthatthe Germanictribesknowntothe Romansasbarbariand externaegentes(“barbarians” and“foreignpeoples”)moved inincreasingnumbersfrom thelatefourthcentury onward.Withthefrequent cooperationoflocalRoman officials,andenjoyingthe supportofprovincialcitizens, thetriballeaderscametorule intheprovincesofGaul, Iberia,ItalyandBritain,and itwasintheseregionsthat theyestablishedthemselves askings. Communitiesinareasof medievalEuropethathad beenpartoftheRoman empirewereabletobuildon theinstitutionaland architecturalheritageofthe Romanpast.Rome’sunitof localgovernmentwasthe civitas,whichwascomposed ofalocaltownandits surroundingcountryside. Thesecivitatesweremuch morenumerousinItalyandin theWesternprovinces comparedwiththeareasin theempire’snorthandeast, andeachhaditsbishop. Duringthefifthandsixth centuriesbishopsinsouthern FranceandItalyincreasingly assumedtherolespreviously performedbyRome’s provincialofficials.Bishops nowcontrolledthecivil administrationoftheirlocal civitasandwereresponsible forsecuringitssupplies. RIGHTPeasantsworkthe fieldsinfrontoftheChâteau deLusignaninthisimage fromtheTrèsRichesHeures duDucdeBerry,a15thcenturybookofhours. MEDIEVALSOCIETY 285Rome’sempireis divided:resourceswillbe concentratedintheEast, whileauthorityfragmentsin WesternEurope. c.500Bishopsinsouthern FranceandItalyassumelocal governmentalresponsibilities inthecivitatesoftheformer Romanempire. c.900Themanorialsystemis widespreadacrossWestern Europe. c.950–c.1250Europehas long,hotsummersandmild winters.Agricultural productivityandpopulation levelsincrease. c.1000Landownershave drivenformerlyfreepeasants intoserfdom. c.1050Emergenceof knighthood.“Lordship”—a reciprocalexchangeof loyaltyandduty—is becomingtheWestern Europeansocialmodel. c.1150Aristocraticfamilies nowdefinethemselves exclusivelyaccordingtothe patrilineallineandare associatedwithaninherited property,oftenacastle, whichsuppliesthefamily name. c.1200Serfdomcontinuesto expandinEasternEuropebut declinesintheWest. c.1350Europe’spopulation levelsplummetduetofamine andplague. LANDLORDSANDSERFS Thesocialpatternsassociated withthelateRoman countryside—itslandlords, peasantsandslaves— survivedforalmosthalfa millenniumafterthe dissolutionofimperial authority.Thesameislargely trueofitscharacteristic landscapeofcultivatedfields, orchardsanddenseforests. Onemajordevelopment,well establishedbytheninth century,wasthemanorial systemwhichorganizedthe relationshipbetween landlordsandpeasantsin workingtheland.Manors maywellhaveevolvedoutof thesocialstructures associatedwiththelate Romanvilla.Thedemesne wasthepartofthemanorthat thelandlord,usingpeasant labor,farmedforhisown purposes.Theremainderwas farmedbythepeasantsfor theirsubsistencewhilepaying thelordarent,whichcould taketheformofagricultural produce,provisionoftheir ownlabor,orcash. Ascentralroyalauthority diminishedinthepostCarolingianninthandtenth centurieslandownershad everyincentiveand opportunitytocultivatetheir landsmoreintensivelyandto exercisetheirterritorialrights oflordshipmorevigorously. Manyformerlyfreepeasants andslavesnowcameto belongtoanewsocial grouping,theserfs.Servus hadpreviouslybeenusedto describeslavesandnow referredtotheserfswho, whilenotpersonallyowned bytheirlords,were nonethelesstiedtohislands. (Thenewwordforaslave, sclavus,oweditsorigintothe EasternEuropeanSlavic societieswhichproduced,and exported,somanyslaves.) Thenumberofserfs continuedtoincreaseuntilthe late12thcentury,whenthe developmentofamore money-basedeconomymade freeandrent-payingpeasants amoreattractiveproposition tolandlordsthanboundserfs. Theinstitutiongradually disappearedinWestern Europefromthattime onward.InEasternEurope, however,serfdomactually increasedinimportancewith analliancebetweenmonarchs andlordsleadingtothe formationofhugeagrarian estateswhoseproducewas designedtofeedthegrowing Westernmarket. ThearistocracyintheWest alsoexploiteditspositionby takingoverthebannum—the publicpowertocommand andpunish—thathadbeen theprerogativeofmonarchs beforetheninth-century declineinroyalpower.Local courtsallowedthenobilityto enforceitswill,toexpand cerealcultivationbyclearing forestsandtokeeptherestof thewoodlandtoitselffor huntingpurposes.Peasants andserfsdidnotjustprovide thenobilitywithlabor.They werenowbeingforcedtouse themillsandmarketsthat wereownedandrunby nobles.Theywerealso obligedtosettleinvillages whosegrowthinsize paralleledthespreadofa systemofparishes,centered onthelocalchurchandpaid forbytheimpositionofa tithe—one-tenthofthe dependentclasses’ agriculturalproduce. TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES Betweentheyear1000and themid-14thcentury, Europe’spopulationmaywell havedoubledtonearly75 million.Thatincreasewas concentratedinthe continent’snorth,wherea treblingofpopulationlevels illustratedtheeffectofthe protein-enrichedandmeatbaseddietsthatbecame possibleasaresultofbetter farmingtechniques.The bean,importedfromthe MiddleEasttoMuslimconqueredSpain,was broughtnorthtotherestof thecontinent,andbetter pasturageledtoagreat increaseinthenumberof cattlethatcouldbebredfor Europeanconsumption. Technologicalbreakthroughs associatedwithhorses,water millsandwindmillspowered theruraleconomicadvance. Theoxhadbeenthe traditionalbeastofburden, butthedrafthorse,shodwith ironhorseshoesenablingthe hoovestonegotiatetheirway throughdampnorthern Europeansoils,wasquicker andmoreefficient.Bythe late-tenthcenturytheaddition ofthehorse-collar,which enabledaburdentobehauled usingtheshouldersrather thantheneck,increasedthe animal’spullingpower. ABOVEAmillerandwindmill aredepictedintheLuttrell Psalterofc.1340.Windmills becamecommoninEurope fromthelate13thcentury onward. Theincreasingnumbersof watermills,whichground grainintoflour,capitalized onWesternEurope’s extensiverivernetwork, whilewindmills—a technologyimportedfromthe MiddleEast—suppliedpower inareaswhereriverswere scarce.Europeanforestsand mountainsproducedthe timber,fuelandmetallicores thatprovidedrawmaterials fornewtechnologies.Many areasweredenudedoftheir forestsasaresultofthe demandfortimberusedin constructingnewships, publicbuildingsandprivate houses.Advancesin metallurgyproducedbetter qualityswords,daggersand armoryforsoldiers. Technologicalsophistication couldalsobeseeninthe glazedpotteryandglassware frequentlyusedinevenquite modesthouseholds,andthe housesofthemassofthe populationwereincreasingly beingbuiltofstonerather thanwoodandthatch. Climaticfluctuationsgavethe NorthAtlanticregionawarm period(c.950–c.1250),and theproductivityofmedieval Europe’sruraleconomy benefitedfromlonghot summersandmildwinters. Theseconditionsalsoassisted theconstructionofthegreat Gothiccathedralsofthe centralMiddleAges,since buildershadlongerperiodsof clementweatherfortheiroutdoorwork.Thearchitectural skill,technicalknowledge andmanagerialcapacitythat enabledcathedralstobebuilt werealsoevidentinthe growthoftownsfromthe 11thcenturyonward.Large numbersofpeasants,freed fromtheneedtoworkthe landasaresultofincreased agriculturalproductivity, migratedtourbancenters. RIGHTPeasantsandmasons buildanewcityinthe14th century,fromaFrench manuscriptversionofthe proseromanceGirartde Roussillon. THEGROWTHOF TOWNSANDCITIES CarolingianEurope’sfew citiesweresmall-scaleaffairs. Somewereredesigned Romantowns—especiallyin Europe’sMediterranean south—andmostearly medievalEuropeanurban centersexistedtoservethe needsofkings,bishopsand monasteries.Subsequent urbandevelopment,however, reflectedtheeconomicneeds oflocallords,andinnorthern Europeinparticularnew citiescameintobeingas centersforthelocalmarkets. Fromthetenthcentury onward,largenumbersof mercantileandcraft-based guildswerebecoming establishedwithintownsin ordertoprotecttheir members’interests. Merchants’guildsplayeda particularroleinthe emergenceofself-governing citiesorcommunes—a developmentthatunderlined thedistinctivenessofurban lifeandsetitapartfromthe ruralworldofthevillageand estate.Nonetheless,citieshad toprotecttheirfoodsupplies, chainsofcommunicationand traderoutes.Inbothnorthern andsouthernEurope, therefore,thesurrounding ruralregionwasclosely linkedtothecity. ManyofEurope’snewly flourishingurbanandcivic centerswereassociatedwith newmanufacturingprocesses. Thecitiesofthesouthern LowCountries,forexample, hadaparticularexpertisein dyeing,weavingand finishingwool.Othertowns specializedinthe manufactureofmetalwork andarmaments,andsome operatedasmarketcentersfor productsthatcouldnotbe producedlocally,suchas wine.Thesespecialistgoods werethentransportedand distributedalongextensive traderoutes,andtheriversof WesternEurope,wheremany citieswerelocated,provided animportantnetworkof communications. Theformulationdividing societyintothosewhofought, prayedandlaboredenjoyed greatvogueinthe11thand 12thcenturies,andthe structureofthesecondorder, theclergy,waswell establishedbyc.1200.Asthe Europeaneconomy developedanddiversified fromthe12thcenturyonward thosewho“labored”cameto includemerchants,financiers andlayprofessionalsaswell aspeasantsandartisans.The distinctionbetweenwarriors and“laborers”intersected withEuropeansociety’smore formalandlegaldivide betweenthosewhowerefree andthosewhowerenot.The un-freecouldnotjoinarmies ateventhelowestlevelof soldiering,andordinary soldierswerekeento maintainacleardifference betweentheirownstatusas freemenandthemere laborersofthecountryside. Thatstrenuousassertionby thelowestranksofserving menshowstheextentto whichlargenumbersofoncefreepeasantshadbeen coercedintoserfdom. THENOBILITYAND PATRONAGE Thegreatterritoriallords oftenhadafamilyhistory extendingbacktothe Carolingianperiod,andthe term“noble”wasusedto describekinshipgroups whosenamesand distinguishedancestrywere knownandwidelyrespected. Noblegroupsintermarried andrecognized,initially,the importanceofboththefemale andthepaternallineof ancestrywhenitcameto establishingtheiridentity, rightsandinheritances. Charlemagneusedthis internationalnobilitytorule hisempire,andits descendantsincludedthe aristocracyofthecentral MiddleAges.Bythen howevernoblestatushad changedsubstantially. Aristocraticfamilieswere nowdefiningthemselves exclusivelyintermsofthe patrilinealline,andtheywere stronglyidentifiedwitha particularpieceofproperty which,handeddownthrough thegenerations,often suppliedthefamily’sname. Titlessuchas“count”and “duke”wereoriginally handedoutinrecognitionof royalservice,butalthough theyincreasedafamily’s prestigethesehonorswere notintrinsictonoblestatus. InearlymedievalEuropenot evenkingscouldturnthose whowerenotnoblebybirth intomembersofthenobility. RIGHTCharlemagnewithhis court,illustratedinSpiegel Historiael,Jacobvan Maerlant’sDutchtranslation, writteninthe1280s,of VincentofBeaurais’s SpeculumMaius. Greatterritoriallords identifiedthemselvesas warriors,andtheirmaterial needsinthatregardgrew duringthecentralMiddle Ages.Technological advancesinwarfare,suchas theheavycavalry,meantnew costs,andsincewarhad gainedincomplexitythe nobilityneededmoretimeto trainandprepareforbattle. Europe’sreorganized countrysideproducedthe wealththathelpedtomeet thesearistocratic requirements.Somenobles alsoassertedthemselvesby seizingterritorythat,along withitsinhabitants,wasthen controlledfromacastle.The verygreatestofthese aristocratsadministeredvast estatesacquiredthrough inheritanceandbylandgrants fromtheking.Closely governedterritorial principalitiesevolvedasa resultand,inthecaseof France,thesewereeventually absorbedbytheCrownand redistributedtoyounger membersoftheroyalfamily. Asterritorialmonarchies increasedinpowerduringthe laterMiddleAgessothe aristocracyadaptedtonew circumstancesanddecidedto acceptmoreroyaloffices, titlesandpatronage.The adoptionofanelaborate systemofrankingfor groupingswithinthenobility demonstratedthe aristocracy’sdeterminationto maintainitselfasaseparate andprivilegedcast. Nonetheless,theywereall subordinatedtotheruler,who couldnowennoblewhoever hewanted. Knightsstartedtoappearon theEuropeanscenefromthe 11thcenturyonward,andthe spreadofknighthoodasboth aninstitutionandanethical codeaffectedthewarrior groupinprofoundways. Earlymedievalarmieswere composedoffreemenwho differedwidelyintermsof theirwealth,andknights likewisedifferedgreatlyin termsoftheirmaterialriches aswellasinsocialstatus. Greataristocratscalled themselvesknights,andso didlordswhoselandscould bedecidedlymodest.Itwas, however,theprofessionalism oftheknightthatestablished hisdistinctivenessasa specialistwarrior—acategory ofthefightingmanwhich wasnewinEuropeanhistory andthought.Allknights moreover,whetherpossessed ofbroadacresornot,were equallyboundbythecodeof chivalry.Despitetheextreme diversitybetweenthelesser knightsandminornobleson theonehand,andgreat aristocratsontheother,the commonwarrior-culture, expressedintheliteratureand ideologyofchivalry,wasa realsocialbondthatexcluded thosewhodidnotshareit. Theexchangeofloyalties betweensuperiorsand inferiorswasafundamental featureofEuropeansocial orderinthecentralMiddle Ages.Itsexpressionwas various.Aristocrats,lesser noblesandknightsasserted themselvesbypromisingto protectinferiorswho undertookvowsofobligation. Myriadrelationshipsof powerweretherebyasserted between,forexample,the greatnoblesofthewarrior classandfightingmenof lowerstatuswhodepended onthemforsupport,with grantsoflandandincome drawnfromthelord’s resourcescarryingwiththem thehopeofsocial advancement.Someknights ofamodestsocialstanding werethereforeowedloyalty fromtheir“vassals”whilein turnincurringobligationsto greatterritoriallords. Similarly,theterritoriallords werethemselvesvassalsof monarchsasaresultof receivingroyalfavors—most typicallyintheformofland grants.Therecurringlinkin alltheserelationshipsis “lordship,”andthat institutionprovidedthe contextforthereciprocal transmissionofrespectand obligationthatwassucha definingfeatureofEuropean societybetweenthe11thand 14thcenturies. The“feudum”(alsocalleda “fief”)—aformofproperty holdingcommoninFrance andEngland—provideda localizedandspecific applicationoflordship,and itstenurescouldbeeitherfree orun-free.Knightservice wastheprincipalformofa freetenure,withmilitary dutiesbeingperformedfor thekingoranotherlord, althoughbythemid-12th centurythisservicewas usuallycommutedinEngland onpaymentofataxcalled scutage.Socagewasanother freetenure,anditsprincipal service,providedusuallyby tenantsofmoremodest standing,wasfrequently agricultural—suchas performingacertainnumber ofdays’plowingforthelord. Allthesetenuresweresubject toanumberofconditions suchasrelief(thepayment madeontransferringafiefto anheir)andescheat(the returnofthefieftothelord whenthetenantdiedwithout anheir).Themaintypeofunfreetenurewasvilleinage, whichstartedasabarely modifiedformofservitude. Freetenants’dutieswere predetermined,butthosewho wereun-freeneverknewin advancewhattheymightbe askedtodofortheirlords, althoughthelegalrulingthat villeintenantscouldnotbe ejectedinbreachofexisting customeventuallycameto apply. TRANSCENDING TRAGEDY Bythemid-14thcenturythe effectsoffamineandplague werestartingtodrivedown Europe’spopulationlevels. Butthosewhosurvivedcould alsoprosper.Competitionfor labordroveupwagesinreal terms,andthescarcityof workersdepressedruralrents. Afallingpopulationledtoa dropinthecostofbasic foodstuffssuchaswheat,and workerscouldtherefore diversifytheirdiets.The increasedconsumptionof dairyproductsandmeatswas afeatureofthesubsequent populationincrease,andthe greaterpurchasingpower enjoyedbyworkersalso meanttheycouldaffordthe manufacturedproducts developedinthetowns.That levelofdemandtherefore benefitedtheurban economies,anddespitethe overalldeclineinEurope’s populationlevelsduringthe 14thand15thcenturiesthe numberofEuropeantowns withmorethan10,000 inhabitantsincreased. TheEuropeanrecoveryofthe 15thcenturysawacycleof growthre-establishingitself withincreasingpopulation levels,civicdevelopmentand governmentalactivity producingareneweddemand forgoods,foodandservices. Themanorialsystemhad longsincebeenindecline, anditwasfurtherundermined bytheperiod’semphasison large-scalecommercialcrops suchaswoolandgrain,as wellasbytheemancipation ofservilelabor. Manufacturingboomed, especiallyinareasgearedto supplyingarmiesandfleets withcloth,armor,weapons andships.Technological advancesproducedlaborsavingdevices—suchasthe printingpress—thatincreased workerproductivity.Central Europe’slargedepositsof iron,copper,goldandsilver wereintensivelyworkedby newminingtechniques,and metalworkingtechnology attainedgreaterlevelsof refinement.Allthese economicdevelopmentsgave newopportunitiesforthe substantialcapitalinvestment thatwasfastbecomingthe definingfeatureofthe Europeaneconomyandthe basisforitsfuturesustained growth. ABOVETheBlackDeath, whichpeakedinthemid-14th century,killeduptohalfof Europe’spopulation.This illustrationofplague sufferersisfromthe1411 ToggenburgBible. YORK:16MARCH1190 Untilthelate11thcentury JewsinEuropehadfaced littlepersecution.Adherence toJudaismwasregardedas aninexplicablerejectionof theChristiangospel,but papalcommandsforbadethe useofforcetoconvertJews andtheyoftenpursuedthe samecareersasChristians. However,fromthetimeofthe FirstCrusadeonward hostilitytoJudaismbecame verywidespreadinEuropeas thecontinent’sculturestarted todefineitselfinan increasinglyaggressive Christianfashion. Jewshadalwaysbeenseenas stubborn,buttheywerenow alsoviewedasamalevolent forcebentondestroying societyfromwithin.Itwas theincreasingrestrictionson theirprofessionalcareersthat turnedsomanyJewsto moneylending,apractice forbiddentoChristians,and theirprominenceinthattrade gaveanewandvicioustwist toanti-Semiticsentiment. In1170Williamthe Conquerorinvitedanumber ofJewstomovefromRouen inNormandyandsettlein England,wheretheybecame thekernelofthecountry’s earliestsubstantialJewish community.Thefinancial skillsofEnglishJewsserved theAnglo-NormanCrown wellinsubsequentdecades, andtheyenjoyedspecial privilegesasaresult.Aroyal charterissuedbyHenryI(r. 1100–35)gaveJewstheright tomovearoundthecountry withoutpayingtolls,tobuy andsellproperty,andto swearontheTorahrather thantheChristianBible.For mostofthe12thcenturyJews enjoyedgreatersecurityin Englandthanonthe continent,andtheirnumbers increasedthrough immigrationafterthe expulsionofFrenchJewsin 1182byKingPhilip Augustus. PreparationsforEnglish participationintheThird Crusade,however,exposed thecountry’sJewstonew levelsofdanger.Housesin theCityofLondon’sJewish quarter(“OldJewry”)were attackedinthedaysfollowing thecoronationofRichardI (“theLionheart”)on September3,1189,andafter theking’sdepartureon crusadeanti-Semiticviolence spreadtothecountiesof EssexandNorfolk.Thecity ofYorkhadseenextensive anti-Jewishriotinginearly March1190,andJewish familiesweregrantedrefuge withinYorkCastlebyits constable.Congregated withinacentralwooden tower,theJewswerethen surroundedbyamoboutside thecastlewallswho demandedtheirimmediate conversiontoChristianityon painofdeath.Whenthe wardenleftthecastlethe Jews,fearfulofthe consequencesofopeningthe gates,refusedtoreadmithim andasiegebythelocal militiafollowed.OnMarch 16thetowercaughtfireand mostoftheJewskilled themselvesratherthanface theChristianmob.Thosewho didsurrenderwerethen killed,despitehaving receivedassurancesoftheir safety.Atleast150Jews died.Theringleadersofthe massacresubsequently burneddocumentskeptin YorkCathedralwhich specifiedthelocaldebtsowed tothedeadJews.English Jewsweresupposedtocome undertheking’sspecial protectionandthemurders didnotgounpunished.Butit wastheharmtoitsfinancial intereststhatreallymotivated theCrown,sinceanattackon Jewswasalsoanattackonits ownrevenueresources.Some 50ofYork’scitizenswere fined,andKingRichardI introducedasystemwhereby debtsheldbyJewswere duplicatedtotheCrown. Jewswearingidentifying pointedhatsandyellow rouellebadgesareburnedat thestakein1348,inthis illustrationfromtheLucerne Chronicleof1513. MEDIEVAL CULTURE c.400–1300 MedievalEuropeanculture reflectedthedominantroleof theChristianChurchas arbiterofhumanconductand asauthoritativeguidetothe truthsrevealedbyGodinthe personofChrist.The magisteriumorteaching authorityclaimedbythe clergyexpressedorthodox belief,andtheChurch’s disciplinarypowers,basedon scripturalinterpretationand formulatedincanonlaw, prescribedcorrectbehavior. Astrologyretaineda widespreadappealdespiteits implicitcontradictionofthe Christiandoctrinesthat assertedGod’ssovereign omnipotence.Predictions concerningthefuture persistedtherefore,anda beliefinmagic,witchcraft andthepowersofgoodand evilspiritssubsistedbeneath theofficialstructuresof ecclesiasticalorder. Christianitywasalsothefilter throughwhichaselective interpretationofancient Romanculturewas transmittedtoEurope’s evolvingmedieval civilization.Latinwasused forthecelebrationofthe Mass,anditwasalsothe mediumofcommunication usedbyboththeChurch’s officialdomandthatof secularprinces.Asaresult, thelanguageacquiredanew leaseoflife—albeitonethat waspronetobureaucracy’s stiffjargon.Whenitcameto preachingsermonsagood dealofpragmatismwas neededbypriestsiftheywere tocommunicatewitha largelyilliteratepopulation. Most,therefore,optedfora kindofrusticLatinpatois (rusticaRomanalingua). Alternatively,theyusedone ofthevernacularEuropean languagesthatwereacquiring adistinctiveformbythe eighthcentury—suchas Theotiscam,aformofearly German. GOVERNINGINTHE ROMANSTYLE Thekingsofearlymedieval EuroperuledinaRoman styleafterestablishing themselvesintheformer imperialterritories.They issuedlawsfortheirown peopleandfortheirnewly acquiredsubjectswhohad beenRomancitizens,andthe coinstheystruckwere modeledonimperial currency.Althoughthese kingdoms—Frankish, Lombard,Anglo-Saxon, VisigothicinSpainand OstrogothicinItaly—were newlyformed,theypreferred tobeconsideredasold. Antiquitylentauthority,just asithaddoneinancient Rome.Theofficially sponsoredhistoriesofthese peoples,suchasPaulthe Deacon’sHistoryofthe Lombardswritteninthe790s, claimedthereforethatthe kingdomshadalonger established,andmore exclusive,ethnicfoundation thanwasinfactthecase. RIGHTAnimagefromthe 15thcenuryTrèsRiches HeuresduDucdeBerry depictingyoungParisian aristocratsonhorseback. MEDIEVALCULTURE c.731TheEnglishmonk Bedehasfinishedwritinghis EcclesiasticalHistoryofthe EnglishPeople.Theanno dominiorderofchronology thatheadoptswillbecome theEuropeannorm. 910FoundationofCluny Abbey,Burgundy.An internationalfederationof monastichouses,allunderthe ultimateauthorityofCluny’s abbot,developssubsequently. c.1127HughofSaint-Victor writestheDidascalicon,a pioneeringexampleofthe medievalencyclopedia. c.1150Emergenceofcoatsof arms:heraldicdevicesare uniquetothebearerand paintedontheshieldcarried byaknightorlord. c.1200TheGothicscripthas evolved:consistencyofstyle andlegibilitypromote standardizedandreliable textsforteachingpurposes. 1204Thesackof Constantinopleduringthe FourthCrusade:Europe’s culturaldividebetween GreeksandLatinsbecomesa chasm. 1256ThomasAquinasstarts toteachattheUniversityof Paris. 1300Secularlovepoetryis beingsettomusicintheform ofthemotet,andpastoral subjectsareevokedin madrigals. Christianity’scultural influenceonmedieval Europeanlifeandthought wascontinuouswithitsstatus inthecivilizationoflate antiquity.Following TheodosiusI’sadoptionof Christianityastheempire’s officialreligionin380the clergybecamealignedwith thegradesoftheimperial civilservice,andthereligion waslargelyshornofits earlierpacifisttendencies. EarlymedievalChristian culturebuiltonthis establishmentstatusandwas attunedtothepragmatic needsofwarrior-kingswho sawthemselvesasagentsofa sacralanddivinepower. Manykingsandaristocrats wereconvertedbytheir wives.QueenClotilda (c.474–c.545),the BurgundianandCatholicwife ofClovis,persuadedhimto abandontheancestral paganismoftheFranks.The Bavarianprincess Theodelinda(c.570–628), whomarriedAgilulf,kingof theLombards,influencedhis decisiontoabandonArian Christianityinfavorof Catholicism.Thewarrior ethicofpreviouslypagan leadersacquiredtherebya newfocus,andtheChurch sanctionedtheauthorityof Christiankingswhose campaignsofconquestwaged againsthostileneighborsand dissidentsledtonew,and mostlyenforced,conversions. Someofthemonarchies, especiallythoseoftheFranks andoftheSpanishVisigoths, adaptedancientJewishrituals onthebasisofareadingof theOldTestament.Kings wereanointedliturgically withholyoilandremindedin sermons,prayersandChurch councilsoftheir responsibilitiestoGod,who hadchosenthemtorule.The newcultureofkingshipwasa potentmixtureofpublic powerandspiritualselfconfidence.Underpinnedby successfulgeneralship,it spreadtoregionsofEurope thathadneverbeenruledby Rome,suchasIreland, northernBritainandareasto theeastoftheRiverRhine. EVANGELIZING EUROPE Irishmissionarieswere especiallyactivein convertingEurope’snonRomanpeoplesand Columbanus(c.543–615),the mostcelebratedevangelist, alsofoundednew communitiesinLuxeuilin BurgundyandBobbioin northItaly.Thespreadin Europeofthepenitential practiceofconfessionmade individuallytoapriest—a distinctivefeatureofCeltic Christianity—owedmuchto Columbanus’spioneering example.Withintheislandof BritainearlierformsofCeltic Christianityclashedwiththe morehierarchicalRoman formuntiltheSynodof Whitby(664),whenRoman Christianity’sregulations wereadoptedforthekingdom ofNorthumbriawiththeother Anglo-Saxonkingdoms fallingintolinesubsequently. Itwasthereforeavery RomanizedEnglishChurch structurethatproducedits greatestmissionaryin Boniface(c.675–754),who becamearchbishopofMainz andspentmostofhiscareer evangelizingontheborders ofthekingdomoftheFranks. The“secularclergy”served theneedsofthelaitythrough theparish-basedsystem, whilemonksandreligious womenlivedincommunities setapartfromtheworld. Monasticism’searliest exponentswereasceticswho hadwithdrawntothedeserts ofEgyptandSyria,andthe transmissionoftheir influencetoWesternEurope, especiallybythemonkand travelerJohnCassian(360– 435),wasarareexampleof howtheearlier communicationnetworks acrosstheMediterranean couldstilloperateinlate antiquity.Therules prescribedforthemonastic lifevaried,butthemost influentialwerecomposedby BenedictofNursia (c.480–c.547),whostructured thedayintoperiodsofprayer, contemplationandwork.The Orderthatfollowedhisrule wasnamedafterhimandthe Benedictineelevationof manuallaborinGod’sservice markedarealshiftincultural attitudes,sincetheélitesof classicalantiquityhadlong sincescornedsuchworkasa signofservility.Great monasteriessuchastheoneat ClunyinBurgundyenjoyeda closeassociationwiththe secularnobility,who endowedthemwithlands. TheCistercians,anOrderof reformedBenedictines,were particularlyactivein cultivatinganddeveloping Europe’smarginallands duringthe12thcentury. Monksconstituteda disciplined,self-reliant,and unpaidlaborforcewhich couldthereforedevelop farmingpracticesinan innovativewayandwithout havingtorelyonmanorial customs. ABOVESaintColumbanus, whofoundedmonasteriesin FranceandItalyinthelate sixthcentury,isportrayedin thisfrescointhe12th-century cathedralatBrugnato,near Genoa. Christianity’srituals,liturgies andsacramentsgavestructure toEuropeancultureatbothan individualandsociallevel, withseasonsofpenitence, AdventandLent,preceding thejoyfulfeastsofChristmas andEaster.Priestsblessed harvests,animalsandships, andofferedupprayersof intercessioninthefaceof naturalandman-made disasters.TheChristian culture’schronologygavea newdimensiontothepassing oftimeandseparateditfrom thepaganpast.Earlier chronologieshadbeenvaried. Somedatedtheyears accordingtothenumberthat hadelapsedsincethe foundationofthecityof Rome,andotherswere structuredbytheregnalyears ofdifferentemperors.Inthe earlysixthcentury,however, theSyrianmonkDionysius Exiguushadestablisheda sequenceofyearsbasedon whathetooktobethedateof Christ’sbirth.Afterthe Englishmonkandhistorian Bede(673–735)usedthat annodominisysteminhis EcclesiasticalHistoryofthe EnglishPeople,itbecamethe norminLatinChristendom. Thedivisionoftheyearitself alsochanged.Althoughthe monthsstillhadRoman namestheywerenowdivided intotheseven-dayweek borrowedfromtheJewish calendar,andthatunit replacedtheRomans’ tripartitedivisionof Kalendae,NonaeandIdes. THEPROMINENCEOF THELAITY Thedistinctionbetween clergyandlaitythatgave structuretoEuropeansociety wasinterpretedwithanew zealbytheChurchreform movementofthe11thand 12thcenturies.Clerical freedomfromsubordination tolayauthoritywas,of course,centraltothe Investituredispute,butthe Church’snewsharpnessof tonealsoenhancedlaystatus inmanyways.Thenew teachingstated,forexample, thatlayauthoritiescould legitimatelyperformcertain judicialactionsthatwerenow forbiddentotheclergy,such asthesheddingofbloodand administrationofphysical punishment.Clerical authoritiesfromthe11th centuryonwardalsogavea newvaliditytolayactivities thatearlierandmore monasticformsof Christianityhadeither ignoredorscorned. Commerce,marriageand familylifewerenow regardedinapositivelight ratherthanbeingviewedasa signofhumanity’sfallen condition.Andtheemergence inthecentralMiddleAgesof theoriessanctioning“just war”—militaryaction approvedbytheChurchin specificcircumstancessuch asaresponsetoaggression— gaveanewideological underpinningtothe battlefieldexcursionsof Christianprincesand generals. ABOVEFarmersin Gimpelsbrunncelebratea kermisinthiswoodcut (c.1530)bySebaldBeham. PopularintheLowCountries andnorthernFranceduring thelaterMiddleAges,the kermiscelebratedthe anniversaryofalocal church’sfoundationandoften honoredthechurch’spatron saint. Layvitalitywasalsoevident intheuniversitiesfoundedin theMiddleAgesandwhich weregrantedimperial,papal androyalprivileges.Thefirst guildsofuniversityteachers hademergedinthelate12th century,withtheirmembers insistingontheprofessional righttosetthestandardsthat appliedinadmittingand examiningstudents.Effective teachingandtransmissionof knowledgepresupposed readablestylesofwriting,and theCarolingianscripthad beenahugeninth-century breakthroughinstandardsof legibility.Standardization tookanotherleapforward withtheGothicscriptwhich wasdevelopedinthe12th centuryandwhoseconsistent styleforabbreviationsand literaryexpressionprovided teachersandstudentswith textsthatwereasidenticalas possible. SCHOLASTICISMAND MUSICALADVANCES Thedisputebetweenthe empireandthepapacywas medievalEuropeanculture’s firstmajorpublicdebate aboutthebasisofauthority, anditspolemicalenergy resultedfromrival interpretationsofcertainkey texts—especiallyinthefield oflaw.Bythe1140s documentsrelatingtoChurch lawanddisciplinehadbeen assembledtogetherinthe Concordiadiscordantium canonumattributedtothe BenedictinemonkGratian whotaughtlawatBologna. Moregenerallyknownasthe DecretumGratiani,the treatisecombined jurisprudencewiththe analyticstyletypicalof scholasticism—thetechnique ofclassifyingknowledgeand structuringargumentsthat wasnowthehallmarkof medievalEurope’s intellectuallife.Thesheer scaleofscholasticism’s ambitionssetitapartfromthe earliermonasticculture’s morecontemplativeand discursiveapproachtofaith andknowledge,andthe system’sdialecticalmethod wasappliedtomedicineand theartsingeneralaswellas theologyandlaw.Hughof Saint-Victor(1096–1141), basedattheParisabbeyof thatname,producedin c.1127theDidascalicon,a wide-rangingencyclopediaof currentknowledge,andPeter Abelard(1079–1142)taught thedialecticalmethodof investigationtothemany studentswhoflockedtoParis tobeinstructedbyhim.A similarlyanalyticalemphasis isevidentintheFourBooks ofSentences(Sententiarum libriiv),ahighlyinfluential workoftheologywrittenby PeterLombard(c.1100–60). Europe’smusicalculturealso acquirednewstylesof elaborateexpressionatthis time.Theearlymedieval liturgy’smostcharacteristic soundwasthatofthe Gregorianplainchantwhose differingstyles,basedonthe Jewishtraditionofsinging psalms,wereallmonophonic. Fromthe12thcentury onward,polyphonicstyles startedtodiversifyboth sacredandsecularmusic. Earlymotetswereexclusively liturgical,butbytheendof the13thcenturythegenre wasaccommodatingsecular lovepoetry.Themadrigal, writtenusuallyfortwovoices andoftenbasedonapastoral subject,hadacquiredits typicalforminItalyby c.1300. THECULTUREOF CHIVALRY Religiousandsecular impulsesco-existedwithin chivalry—acodeof honorableconductassociated withthemountedknights (chevaliers)ofFrench militarycultureandwhose fashionablereputationledto itswidespreaddiffusion amongthelandedclasses fromthe11thcentury onward.Thechivalricethic fashionedthenormsofsocial behaviorthatappliedinthe courtsofkingsandprinces, butthemilitarydimension remainedimportant throughoutchivalry’sfour centuriesofinfluencewithin Europeanhighsociety. Heraldry,forexample, acquiredincreasingly elaboraterulesthatdictated thedesignsofcoatsofarms paintedonwarriors’shields. Thewearingofheraldic emblemsallowedindividual knightsandnoblesto proclaimprideintheir ancestrywhentakingpartin jousts,tournamentsandthe formalizedhuntingofwild animals.Buttheshieldandits designsneverlosttheir primaryroleofidentifyinga combatantinthebattlefield mélée,andheraldicemblems becameincreasingly importantduringthelater MiddleAges,sincebythat stageanobleman’sentire bodywasencasedinarmory whenhewentintobattle. BELOWTheGutenberg printingpress,asshownin thisundatedwoodcut, revolutionizedtheproduction ofbooks.Afterits introductioninthemid-15th century,textsnolongerhad tobecopiedbyhand individually. Chivalry,however,also encompassedawholesetof mentalattitudesquiteapart fromthemilitaryexpertise involvedinadroit horsemanshipandthe handlingoflancesand swords.Valor,honorand loyaltyweresupposedtobe shownnotjustonthe battlefieldbutalsoduring peacetimeandindomestic settings.Islamicsocietyhad itsowntraditionsofchivalric behaviorinallthese dimensionsoflife,and Europeanknightsmaywell havebeeninfluencedbythe conductofthewarriorsthey encounteredduringthe crusadeswagedinSyriaand Palestine.Spain’sMuslim commanders,encounteredby manyanadventurous Christianknightduringthe reconquista,producedtheir owninfluentialexamplesof theIslamicwarrior’s gallantry.Christianity’ssocial teachingswerefundamental toEuropeanchivalry.The PeaceandTruceofGodwas aChurch-inspiredmovement thatsoughttolimittheeffects ofbothpublicwarfareand privateviolence,andfromthe late-tenthcenturyonward popesandseniorclergy wouldannounce,andtryto enforce,regularperiodsof amnestywhenknightswere expectedtodisplaymercy towardweakermembersof society.Chivalricattitudes engenderedamarkedly individualizedwayoflooking attheworld,ascanbeseenin thecode’sassociationwith thecultoflove,bothhuman anddivine.Medieval Christianity’sincreased devotiontotheVirginMary involvedanewemphasison redemptivesuffering,andthe chivalrousknight’sdutyof honorobligedhimtoplaya self-denyingandcourageous roleinwarfarethatwas designedtodefendand advancetheChurch’s interestsasguarantorofthe faith.Butchivalry’s idealizationoffemininitywas alsopresentinthedevotion shownbyknightstocertain aristocraticwomen,whose honortheydefendedand whosegraciousnesscould thenbeextolledinthe suitablydecorouslanguageof “courtlylove.” ABOVERichardIIofEngland (r.1377–99)presidesovera courtlytournamentinthis 15th-centuryFlemish manuscript.Twomounted knightsarejoustinginthe arenawhile,inthepavilionto theleft,musiciansplay trumpets.Spectatorsviewthe scenefromthesafetyofthe pavilionontheright. THEEXPANSIONOF EUROPEANCULTURE MedievalEurope’s encounterswithitsneighbors ledtoatighterdefinitionof whatcountedas“European,” withpreviouslypagan civilizationsbeingconquered, convertedandassimilated intoChristianculturalnorms. Thatprocessledto Scandinaviansociety becomingthenorthern frontierofmedievalEurope, andbythe11thcenturythe previouslynomadicMagyars, oncesoferociouslypagan, weresettledinthekingdom ofHungarythathadbecomea centralEuropeanbastionof CatholicChristendom.The latetenth-centuryconversion ofthearistocratic(andmostly Swedish)leadershipofthe principalityofRus,centered onKiev,wasthebasisfor RussianChristianity’s subsequentevolution. MedievalRustherefore providedaneweastern frontierthatmarkedthe boundarybetweenEuropean andAsiaticculture.Russian Christianity’sallegianceto thepatriarchateof Constantinopleplacedit howeverwithintheOrthodox Church’sorbitofinfluence, andEuropeanculture’smost significantinternaldivision duringtheMiddleAgeswas theonebetweenLatinand GreekChristianity. Otherculturesresistedthe Europeantideormounted offensivesagainstits advance,andtheclimateof opinionassociatedwiththe FirstCrusadegaveanew focustoIslamic-Christian hostility.Thecrusadesledby Christiankingsendedin failureintheMiddleEast,but thecrusadingidealremained animportantfeatureof Europeansocialattitudes untilthe16thcentury,when OttomanTurksthreatenedto advancethroughtheBalkans andintocentralEurope. Despiteitsculturaland religiousantipathytoIslam, Europenonethelessimported manyfeaturesofthe Muslims’materialculture— especiallytheirmaritime, technologicalandagricultural innovations.Europeans becameawareofadimension otherthantheIslamiconeto theireasternborderswiththe arrivaloftheMongols,whose savagelyeffective campaigninginthemid-13th century,especiallyinPoland, HungaryandBulgaria, exposedthecontinent’seast andcentertohitherto unimaginedlevelsofdanger. Thediminutionofthatthreat allowedChristianEuropeto directsomeofitsmissionary energytowardMongoldominatedAsia—avast territoryextendingtothe Chineseborder—andbythe 1290sFranciscanfriarswere runningmissionsinChina. Fromthe10thtothe15th centuryEuropeansexported theirculturetothecontinent’s northernandeasternborders, andtheideaofacommon Europeansocietyextending fromtheAtlanticshoresto thefrontierzoneofthe Eurasiansteppeshadacquired bothaterritorialrealityand animaginativepower.From the13thcenturyonward Europeanscouldalsocross theirlocalseasmorerapidly, andmapthemmore accurately,asaresultof improvedtechniquesin maritimeengineeringand navigation.Itwasthat accumulatedexpertiseand bodyofknowledgethat enabledEuropeanmarinersto embarkontheirsubsequent explorationsoftheWest Africancoastsandofthe AtlanticandPacificseas.The greatageofdiscovery originatedintheoutward- lookingcuriosityof Europeansduringthelater medievalcenturies,andby 1500thecontinent’sculture wasbeingtransmittedacross vastoceansandtocontinental regionsinthewestandsouth ofanewlydiscoveredworld. ABOVEAlate-15th-century Flemishillustration,fromthe ChroniquesdeFranceet d’Angleterre,ofthedukeof BurgundylandinginAfrica. Suchexplorationsledtothe globalexpansionof ChristianityandEuropean culture. THOMASAQUINAS Thesystemofphilosophical theologycalledThomismwas raisedonthefoundationslaid byTomassod’Aquino (c.1224–74),themost originalandinfluential thinkerofmedievalLatin Christendom.InthepostmedievalcenturiesThomas retainedhisauthorityasthe philosopherwhohad reconciledtheteachingsof AristotlewithChristian theology. Fromthelate19thcentury onwardarevivedformof Thomismbecamethevoice ofCatholicorthodoxyinits confrontationwith secularism.However, emphasisonThomasthesaint (hewascanonizedin1323), thescholasticsystem-builder andDoctorAngelicus— whoseteachingwasdivinely inspired—obscuresthereality ofacreativeintellectual whoseworkalarmedmany contemporaries. Ascionofthesouthern Italiannobility,Thomaswas educatedasaboyatthe Benedictinemonasteryof MonteCassinoand subsequentlyatthe UniversityofNaples,which hadbecomeacenterforthe studyofphilosophicaland scientifictextstranslated fromArabicandancient Greek.Hisdecisiontojoin theDominicanOrder,whose membersembracedpoverty andbeggingasawayoflife, ratherthanthemore venerableBenedictines,upset Thomas’sfamily.The Dominicanshoweverwere involvedinthecut-and-thrust ofcontemporarylifeas preachersandteacherswho livedintheworld—andmost oftenwithinthefast developingtownscapeof 13th-centuryEurope—rather thanexistinginmonastic seclusion.Thomas’sdecision wasaconsciousrejectionof thetwonarrowformsoflife inwhichhehadbeenraised: thedailyregimeof Benedictinespirituality— ordered,beautifulbutdull— andthesocialmilieuofthe landedestateaslivedbyhis parentsinthedistrictaround thetownofAquino.The mentalandspirituallifethat hecravedinsteadwasone capableofresponding creativelytothe contemporaryEuropean scene.Mendicancy(or begging)wascentraltothe Dominicans’radical involvement,justasitwasfor FrancisofAssisiandhis followers. Bytheautumnof1245 ThomaswasinParis,having beensenttheretostudyby hisOrder,andtheintellectual excitementhecouldgenerate asbothteacherandwriter wasimmediatelyapparent oncehestartedtolectureat theUniversityofParisin 1256.Arabian-Aristotelian scienceandthoughtwere nowacquiringawidespread appealinEurope,andthe Churchhadresponded initiallywithapanic-stricken condemnation.Aristotlein particularwasdeemedguilty ofanarrogantrationalismand ofnaturalism—acreed equatingnaturewithGod.His reputationtookaprofound knockwhentheworkof Averroes,thegreatSpanishIslamicinterpreterof Aristotle,becameknownin Parisandotheruniversity centers.TheAverroistnotion ofadoubletruth,withthe conclusionsofreasonand faithbothbeingvalidbutalso capableofcontradictingeach other,disturbedtheChristian consensus.Otherteachings byAverroes,andattributed byhimtoAristotle,included thenotionthattheworldis eternal(andnottherefore createdintime),andthatthe soulconsistsoftwoparts:an individualelementwhichis noteternalanddieswiththe humanbody,andadivine elementwhichlinksupallof humanityascommon partakersinaneternaland universalconsciousness. Thecommentarieswritten byThomassoughttoshow thatAristotle’sthoughtwas consistentwiththeChristian teachingthattheindividual soulisimmortalandthatGod hadintervenedtocreatethe worldataparticularmoment intime.Thomas’sposition, expoundedinadazzling seriesofover80worksthat includethecelebratedSumma Theologiae(1265–73),was exposedtoattackfromtwo directions.Averroismwasthe mostexcitingformof wisdomin13th-century Europeanditselevationof “nature”—acategorythat includedboththephysical worldandhumansociety— appealedtomanyatatimeof materialadvanceand intellectualprogress. TraditionalChristianityon theotherhand,harkingback toSt.Augustine,emphasized the“fallennature”of mankindthatwassubordinate toGod’sgrace—adivine freedomthatobeyeditsown imperatives.Thomas,by contrast,chosetorelate reasontofaith:thetheologian acceptstheinsightsoffaithas astartingpointandthen expoundsthembyfollowing thedistinctiverulesofreason. Hisre-evaluationofnature— thesumtotalofthematerial world’seventsand developments—proved particularlyprovocative. Matterwasnotdistinctfrom spiritbutitsinevitableand appropriatesetting,and humanexistenceisdefined bythethoroughgoingfusion ofthetwocategories. “Spirit,”therefore,isnot remoteandsupernatural.It existsinthehere-and-now, andcanbeinvestigated, explainedandenjoyed. BythetimeThomas returnedtoteachatNaplesin 1272heenjoyedaEurope- widereputation.Nonetheless, theMastersofArtsatParis, theChurch’ssupremebody whenitcametodefining truthsoftheology,decidedto condemnsomeofhismost characteristicteachingsin 1277.TheCatholicChurch tookalongtimetomakeup itsmindaboutThomas theologically,anditwasonly in1567thathewas eventuallynamedaDoctorof theChurch. St.ThomasAquinasisflanked byAristotleandPlatointhis 14th-centurytemperaon wood,whileAverroes reclinesbelowhim.Christ looksdownfromabove,along withSaintsMatthew,Mark, Luke,andJohn,Mosesand SaintPaul.Inthishierarchy ofknowledge,philosophyis subordinatedtotheology. (TriumphofSt.Thomas AquinasbyFrancescoTraini, c.1340,ChurchofSanta Caterina,Pisa.) MEDIEVAL WARFARE c.796–1450 Warfarewasanear-constant preoccupationformedieval Europe’sgoverningélites. Chroniclersthen,and subsequently,drewa distinctionbetween“public” warsfoughtbyrulersand “private”wars,whichwere contestsbetweenindividuals. Inreality,however,both thesekindsofmedieval conflictoverlapped.“Public” warsbetweenkingsmayseem tobeparexcellencethearena inwhichestablishedpolitical authorityandtheassertionof legalrightsreallycameinto operationbysanctioning violence.Butthemany powerfulindividualswho foughteachotherwitharmies —barons,counts,margraves anddukes—enjoyedaquasimonarchicalauthorityinthe regionstheydominated.They, too,appealedtoancestral politicalandlegalrights whenfightingtheirown internecinebattles,andthe medievalevolutiontoward territorialmonarchieswhose rulersenjoyedamonopolyof forcewasaverylong-term development. MedievalEuropeansociety toleratedveryhighlevelsof violenceasafactofeveryday life.Men(andsomewomen) resortedtoforcewithout muchcompunctioninorder toachievetheirgoals,and highlypersonalmotivations couldleadtowar.Inthelater MiddleAgesmonarchsstill usedthelanguageofhonorto justifywaraftertheyortheir dynastyhadbeenslighted. Andatallstagesinits evolution,medievalEuropean warfarefounditeasyto accommodatethevery personalreasonsthatlead humanbeingstoinflictpain oneachother.Medieval warfarethereforeincludesthe bloodlustofthevendettaand therevengesoughtby feudingfamiliesaswellas thehonorcodeofknightsand theambitionsofChristian princes.Thekeytoallthese formsofconflictwasthe warriorcode.Itsdominance andpersistencemeantthat violentmotivationscouldbe institutionalizedand expressedinwarfare’svaried forms. TheGermanicwarriorswho tookovertheformerWestern empireanddivideditinto kingdomssetthemedieval militarypattern.Tiesof loyaltytotheleaderanda stronglypersonalcodeof honorestablishedaresilient espritdecorps.Fightingwas theproperoccupationofan able-bodied,earlymedieval Europeanmale.Deathin battlewasglorious—although theshockrecordedby chroniclersandwritersof annalswhengreatleadersfell inbattlesuggeststhatnobles wererarelyexposedtohigh levelsofpersonaldanger. Socialstatusmattered,and thehumblybornwerenot supposedtoengagetheir superiorsincombat.The physicalsufferingand materiallossesinflictedon non-combatantswere regrettablebutunavoidable by-productsofwar.These mentalattitudeswere establishedaswarrior kingshipbecamethestandard formofEuropeanleadership, andtheirauthoritativeappeal persistedthroughoutthe medievalperiod. RIGHTKnightsengagein hand-to-handcombatin defenseofanEnglish-held castleinthisdetailfroma 14th-centurymanuscript. MEDIEVALWARFARE 796Charlemagne’s commandersdiscoverthe centralEuropeanAvar confederation’streasure, someofwhichisthen redistributedbythekingas largesse. 955BattleofLechfeld:Otto theGreat’sdefeatofthe nomadicMagyarsisavictory forphysicallybiggerwarriors sustainedbyprotein-enriched dietsmadepossiblebynorth Europeanagricultural advances. 1066–1141Battlesfoughtin EnglandandNormandyshow infantry’scontinuing relevancedespitethenovelty ofcavalry’smajorrole. c.1180Germanconflictshave spilledoverintonorthItaly wherelocalfactionsacquire theGuelphandGhibelline labelsasaconsequence.The allianceslinkingoriginally separatetheatersofwar makesmedievalwarfarehard tocontain. c.1200Europe’smercenary marketisexpanding.Italian citystatesusemercenaries ratherthanlocalmilitiasin theirinternecinewars. 1272–1307Thereignof EdwardIofEnglandwho deployshismilitary household,apermanentand professionalfightingunit,in hiswarsagainsttheWelsh andScots. 1346–47Englishforces besiegeCalaisfor11months. Sieges,oftenlengthy,are basictomedievalwarfare untilthe15th-centuryspread ofefficientcannonry. c.1400Knightssometimes dismounttodealwiththe threatposedbyarcherswhose longbowsshootarrows rapidly.Cavalryislosingits formerdominance. 1420sTheHussitewars wagedbythefollowersofJan Huss(c.1372–1415)against thenobilityofBohemiashow howfightingmenoflower socialrankcanoutmaneuver anddefeataristocratic warriors. c.1450Declineofthegalley, poweredbyoarsmen.Itis replacedbybulkier,sailpoweredshipsmountedwith cannon. THECONTAGIONOF WAR Medievalkingsgainedtheir authoritybywinningwars, andasovereignwhowas consistentlyunsuccessfulin warfaredidnotkeephis throneforlong.Early medievalmonarchsin particularneededtogainland andbootythattheycould thenredistributetotheir retinue.Asboundaryzones becamemoreestablished fromtheninthcentury onwardtherewereless opportunitiesforraidingin WesternEurope,butthe frontiersofChristendomstill providedopportunitiesfor plunderinginthehighMiddle Ages.Thesameistrueof landswhereterritorialrights weredisputed,suchasFrance duringtheHundredYears’ War.Wellintothecentral MiddleAges,therefore,kings embarkedonannual campaignspartlyinorderto plunder,andtheytookcareto rewardtheirretinue. Somewarswereclearly defensive.Anglo-Saxonand WestFrankishleaderswere forcedtorespondtoViking attacksintheninthandtenth centuries,andEastFrancia’s campaignsagainstthe Magyarsinthe950swere warsofretaliation.The NormanthrustintoEngland andsouthernItalyduringthe 11thcenturywas straightforwardlyaggressive. Thesameistrueofthe Germankingdom’sexpansion atthesametimeintoSlavic territoriesbeyondtheRiver Elbe.Islamicsocietiesin SyriaandPalestinesawthe crusadesasaseriesof offensivecampaigns.But Europeanrulersjustified themaswarsofliberation, sincetheiraimwastoreoccupyterritoriesthathad beenChristian-heldbefore beingconqueredbyIslamic armies.Thereconquista adoptedasimilarliberationist motivation,thoughitsleaders innorthernSpainfrequently maneuveredagainsteach otherinashiftingpatternof alliancesbeforeunitinginan anti-Islamiccoalition. Modernwarfarehasentailed majorbattlefield confrontationsbetween armiespaidforbysovereign stateswhosedeclaredmilitary aimsaremutually incompatible.Themore spectacularmedievalconflicts havesomethingincommon withtheselaterwars.Papalimperialhostilitieswaged duringtheInvestiturecrisis— andrenewedsubsequently duringtheageoftheStaufen rulersfromBarbarossato FrederickII;theFrancoSpanishwarsthatdeveloped aftertheSicilianVespersof 1282;thecenturyof intermittentcampaigning betweenEnglandandFrance from1337onward:these wereallinternational conflictsbetweensovereign princeswhosewaraimswere clearlydefined.Theywere, however,extremely expensivetosustain,andthe obvioussolutionwastoturn toallieswhocouldhelpbear thecost.Suchalliestendedto bealreadyengagedinthe typesofconflictthatwerein factmuchmorecharacteristic ofmedievalwarfare. Individualsofsimilarsocial standing—counts,dukes, royalprincesandleadersof opposingcities—usually foughteachotherovertitles andterritories,astheWelf dynastyofBavariadidinits contestagainsttheStaufen. Rebelliousgroupings moreoverattackedtheir superiors:noblesraisedtheir standardsagainstkings(as witnessedduringtheEnglish baronage’sreactionagainst KingJohn),andleaguesof citiesfoughttheirnominal imperialsuzerain(asoccurred innorthernItalywhenthe Staufentriedtoenforcetheir rights). Moreregionalconflicts thereforespreadoutintothe internationalarenaoncelocal dynastshadformedalliances withkings,emperorsand popes.Normansonthemake insouthernItalywere operatingalongwayfrom theirdomesticbasesin northernFrance,andsothey turnedtothepapacy,which washappytohavethemas allies.Andsincethepapacy hatedtheGermanempire theseNormanprincelings wereanoccasionallyreliable sourceofpapalsupportinthe anti-imperialcause.Italian city-stateconflictsillustratea similarstoryofwar’s contagion,withlocalfactions acquiringthelabels“Guelph” and“Ghibelline”oncethey becamethepartisansof, respectively,thepapacyand theempire.ButtheItalian combatantswere,and remained,peoplewhowanted tokilleachotherinanyevent —andquiteregardlessofthe largerconflicttothenorth. TheGuelphsandGhibellines werethereforestillengaging inItalianwarfarelongafter theempirehadbeenforcedto concededefeattothepapacy inlate13th-centuryGermany. THECALLTOARMS Mostmenwenttowaronthe commandeitheroftheir superiorlordorofan employerwhopaidthemto fight.Thosedestinedtobe élitesoldierswerehabituated tobloodshed:literature listenedtoandreadfroma youngagewasanimportant de-sensitizingelementsince lays,poems,romancesand epicslaidsuchstresson exemplaryferocityinbattle. Ifthe“ageofchivalry”meant thehonorcodeofcourage, modestyandloyalty,italso involvedtheabilitytobean expeditiouskiller.The tournamentsthatweresuch anentertainingchivalric spectaclewerealsoan importantformoftrainingin combattechniques. Rulersrefinedmethodsof raisingmoneyfromtheirown resourcesandkingdomsin ordertopayforwar.From the12thcenturyonward bureaucraticsystemsrunby professionalclerksenabled royalhouseholdstotaxand planahead.Courtsacquired permanentheadquarters,and kingscouldalsostartto borrowagainstanticipated revenue—averyradical innovation.Kingsandtheir officialscouldnowintervene inlocalconflictsofinterest andmediate(orenforce)a resolution.Armieswere provisionedmoreeffectively, andcampaignscouldbe plannedingreaterdetail.All ofthisshouldhavebrought greaterordertotheartofwar fromc.1200onward.Butfor atleastanothertwocenturies notionsofcontainmentwithin agreedlimitsremained irrelevanttoEuropean militarycampaigning.The searchforgreaterresourcesin termsofmenandmaterials mademedievalwarfare almostuncontainable,andthe formationofallianceslinked uptheseparatetheatersof warinapatternof interlockingdisputes. ABOVECharlesofBloisis hereseenbeingcapturedby theEnglishattheBattleofLa Roche-Derrien(1347)fought duringtheHundredYears’ Warinthiscopyofan illustrationfromthe1468 editionoftheChronicles writtenbyJeanFroissart (c.1337–c.1405).Inmedieval warfarecapturingnobleswas consideredpreferableto killingthemsincehuge ransomsmightbeclaimed. Warfare’sincidencewas reflectedintheChurch’s ambiguousstance.Warriors whohadkilledtheirenemies, eveninacausesupportedby theChurch,stillhadtodo penancewellintothehigh MiddleAges,sinceasinhad beencommitted.Buteven whileittreatedsuccessful warriorsasmurderers,the Churchwasstillblessing certaincampaigns.“Holy war”existedlongbeforethe “justwar”theoriesbeing advancedinthe13thcentury. Thereconquistaandthe variouscrusades—those foughtagainstthePrussians intheBalticandtheCathars insouthernFranceaswellthe MiddleEasterncampaigns— wereallregardedasholy wars.Penitentialexercises, suchastheprayersand fastingobservedbycrusading warriorswhileoncampaign, recognizedwarfare’ssacred natureandtheneedto prolongituntilthedaywas won. Althoughmedievalwarfare wasendemic,mostofit consistedofshort-termraids whoseaimwasthecaptureof booty,especiallylivestock, slavesandprisoners.Raidsof thiskindcouldalsoyield tributepayments.TheEnglish monarchyintroducedatax laterknownasDanegeld,in the990s,andsomeofthe revenueraisedwassentto Scandinavianrulersinorder tokeepVikingmarauders awayfromEngland.Even seriouslong-termoffensives oftenamountedtoaseriesof raidsratherthancontinuous campaigning.TheTeutonic Knightsstructuredtheir campaignsagainstthe LithuaniansandtheBaltic Prussiansinthe13thtothe 15thcenturiesaroundtwiceyearlymilitaryinterventions inFebruaryandAugust. Havingsetupbaseinside hostileterritorytheknights wouldsendoutdailyraiding parties,andthenwithdraw andmoveontoanewarea beforetheenemy’sarmy couldengagetheminbattle. Earliermedievalarmieshada heterogeneouscomposition, witheverynoblebeing obligedtorespondtothe militarysummonsby providingtroops,equipment, archersandinfantry.Fewof theseservinglowerranks weretrainedsoldiers. Nonetheless,sucharmies oftenincorporated mercenaries,andthe medievalroleofthe professionalstandingarmy pre-datesthelaterMiddle Ages.Themilitaryhousehold ofEdwardIforexample suppliedhisarmywiththe permanentandprofessional elementthatmadehisWelsh andScottishcampaigning extremelyeffective.Thesame householdcomponentserved inearlierAnglo-Norman royalcampaignsinWalesand Scotland.Centralleviesofthe freepeasantrywerecertainly amajorsourceofamateur recruitmentformedieval armiesinthehighMiddle Ages,andinEnglandallfree menhadanobligationto serve40daysayear.But Englishmencouldavoid militaryserviceonpayment ofthetaxcalledscutage,and themoneytherebyraised allowedEnglishkingstopay professionalsoldiers, includingmercenaries.Bythe 12thcenturytherewasalarge mercenarymarketthroughout Europe,andmedievalItalian city-statesinparticularrelied onmercenariesratherthan thecitizenmilitiasofthepast. Moneyprovidedwarfarewith itssinews,andthosewho couldpayacquiredthe destructivecapacitythey wanted.Suchpeopletended tobekings,andthehistoryof medievalwarfareinEuropeis thestoryoftheircontinuous, andincreasing,influencein determiningtheaimsofwar. ABOVELudovicoilMoro, dukeofMilan,ishandedover toFrenchforces(right)byhis bandofSwissmercenaries (left)atNovarainApril1500. Frenchforceslaidsiegeto thecityofNovaraafter Ludovicoattemptedto recaptureMilan,following hisexpulsionin1498(from theLuzernerchronikof1513, writtenandpartlyillustrated byDieboldSchillingthe Younger). WEAPONSANDBATTLE STRATEGIES Bythe15thcenturythe medievalarmy’sdominant elementwasonceagainthe infantry,justasithadbeenin theearlyMiddleAges.The cavalryandtheinstitutionof knighthood—centraltowarin thehighMiddleAges—both lostpre-eminence.But infantryhadconsistently playedanimportantelement inbattle:theseriesof campaignsinEnglandand Normandybetween1066and 1141showatypical combinationofcavalry, infantryandarchery.The pikeandthelongbowplayed adecisiveroleintheinfantry warfareofthecentralandlate MiddleAges.Longpikes deployedinflexible formationsandcomplex maneuverswereaparticular featureoftheSwiss mercenarieswhowere employedbymostEuropean princesbythatstage. Althoughthelongbowis particularlyassociatedwith theEnglishandWelsh soldierswhouseditto dramaticeffectatthebattles ofCrécyandAgincourt, archershadalongwarrior historyandwerepresent,for example,atHastingsin1066. Enemyarchersinflicted seriouscasualtiesonEdward I’sarmiesofconquestinlate- 13th-centuryWales,andtheir presenceenmasseinthe armiessubsequentlyledby thekingagainsttheScots signifiesthestartofanew emphasisonarchery’s destructivepower.Arrows shotfromthelongbow—used inadefensiveconfiguration withrowsofbowmenbeing protectedbypitsandtrenches dugbeforethem—could penetrateplatearmorand mail.Andarapidrateof shots(possibly12arrowsa minuteforahighlyskilled archer)gavetheweaponits edgeoverthemoreclumsy crossbow.InthelaterMiddle Agesevenknightswere beginningtodismountin ordertodealwiththisnew formofwarfare,especially sinceadvancesinplatearmor constructionweregivinga greaterprotectionagainst arrows. Somefeaturesofmilitary strategywereconstant. Maintainingsiegesand inflictingfamine,for example,weremoreeffective waysofattackingtheenemy thanpitchedbattles—forms ofmilitaryengagementthat medievalcommanderstended toavoidifpossible. Communicationsystemsin battlereliedonflags, messengersandmusical signals,andtheirinefficiency contributedtothebattlefield mêlée.Itwasthecaptureof fortifiedlocationsthat matteredratherthanthe unconditionalsurrenderofthe defeated.Capturingan opposingknightwas preferabletokillinghim, sincetheprisonercouldthen beransomedforbooty. Commandofterritorycame throughoccupying strongholds,andthe definitiveconquestofa disputedregioncouldonlybe achievedbytheoccupationor destructionofitscastles.The balanceofpowerlaywiththe besiegediftheywerewell providedwithsupplies, althoughsomebattlesofnote resultedinabesiegingarmy’s defeatofareliefforce,as happenedatTinchebrai, Normandy,in1106.Major fortificationsneededlengthy sieges:thatofRouenin 1418–19lastedsixmonths andCalaistook11monthsto fallin1346–47.Warfare thereforewasnotjust concentratedinthe “campaigningseason”from springtoautumn,though foraging(livingoffthe enemy’sland)waseasier duringthesummermonths whencropswerereadily available.Supplytrainswere avitalresourceinextending the(invariablybrief)period whenamedievalarmycould maintainarealfront,buttheir slowspeedoftravel inevitablyimpededthe force’srateofadvance. Ravagingandplundering providedanarmywith additionalresources,buttheir chiefobjectivewasthe reductionoftheenemy’s fightingcapacityandthe inflictionoffaminewasa consciousstrategyratherthan anopportunisticdiversion. ABOVETheSiegeofOrléans in1428,shownhereina 15th-centuryillustrationfrom LesVigilesdeCharlesVII, wasamajorturningpointin France’sfavorduringthe HundredYears’War.The cannonusedbytheEnglish wereineffectiveagainstthe wallsofOrléans. THENEWARTILLERY Cannonusinggunpowderto launchprojectileswerefirst seeninEuropeanwarfare duringthereconquistainthe 13thcentury,andtheEnglish usedthemattheBattleof Crécyin1346.Theyinitially hadapoorrateoffireand wereverycumbersometo deployuntilone-handed cannonweredeveloped. Nonetheless,theintroduction ofcannonryheraldedtheend ofthesiegeasamethodof warfareandwouldalsoplaya decisiveroleinthe developmentofnavalwarfare —aphenomenonthat contributedinitsownwayto thedisplacementofcavalry andthediminutionof knighthood.Thegalley propelledbyoarsmenenjoyed alongdominanceinmedieval navalbattles:missilefire wouldbeexchangedandthe combatantcrewswouldthen boardtheenemy’sshipsand fightondeck.Bulkierand sail-poweredshipswerethen introduced,withcannon beingmountedontheirdecks bythe15thcentury.Although hereagaintheweaponry’s bulkinitiallycountedagainst it,thesubsequent developmentofantipersonnel,hand-heldcannon provedhighlyeffectiveatsea. Butitwastheintroductionof thegundeck—createdbythe insertionofanopeninginthe ship’ssideandbelowthe maindeck—whichreally transformednavalwarfareby c.1500. RIGHTAttheBattleofSluys (1340)PhilipVI’sFrench fleetwasdestroyedby EdwardIII’snavalforce. England’scommandofthe channelmeantthattherestof theHundredYears’Warwas foughtonFrenchsoil.This late-15th-centuryillustration appearedinJeandeWavrin’s Chroniqued’Angleterre. Monarchswithextensive revenue-raisingpowerscould affordtobuythenew artillery,andthenobility founditmoredifficultto wagewarindependently.A strongassociationwith nationalidentity,evidentin thecaseofEnglishand Frenchmonarchiesfromthe 14thcenturyonward, underpinnedthepublicrole ofkingsasenforcersof domesticauthorityandwarleaders.Patriotism’scallto thedrumthereforemeantnot justmoretaxesbutalsoa greaterwillingnesstopaythe taxdemand,sincemonarchs nowassociatedtheir territorialanddynastic objectiveswiththe“national interest.”Governments, especiallyinFranceand Spain,werenowrelyingon paidandstanding professionalarmiesrather thanoccasionallevies,and theimprovedweaponryledto morenoblesbeingkilledthan inthepast.Duringthe Hussitewars,wagedbythe followersofJanHussagainst thenobilityofBohemiainthe 1420s,fightingmeninthe lowerranksdisplayedgreat skillinoutmaneuveringand slaughteringaristocratic warriors.Earliersuchmilitary insurrectionsbythelower orders,suchasEngland’s PeasantRevolt(1381)andthe ParisianJacquerieledby ÉtienneMarcelin1358,had beenmarkedlyineffectiveby comparison. AMAZONS Themedievalfemalewarriors whoplayedanimportantrole inmilitarystrategyandeven ascommandersinthefield weremostlyeitheraristocrats orofroyalblood. MatildaofEngland(1102– 67)washerfatherHenryI’s solelegitimateheirtosurvive toadulthood.Following StephenofBlois’sseizureof thethronein1135sheleda seriesofmilitarycampaigns inanattemptatsecuringthe EnglishCrownforherself. MatildaofTuscany(1046– 1115),whoruledtheregion inherownrightasits countess,isamajorfigurein themilitaryanddiplomatic historyoftheInvestiture crisis,sinceshewasPope GregoryVII’schiefsupporter inItaly.Medievalwarfare’s mostfamousfemalewarrior, however,wasofpeasant stock.Jeanned’Arc(c.1412– 31)inspiredthemilitary engagementsthatledtothe reliefofthetownofOrléans in1429andthesubsequent captureofRheims— previouslyheldbythe Burgundianfactionwhowere Englishalliesduringthislate stageintheHundredYears’ War. GwenllianapGruffudd (c.1097–1136)wasthe daughterofGruffuddap Cynan(1055–1137),a dominantfigureinWelsh politicsandmilitarystrategy duringhis62-yearreignas princeofGwyneddinnorth Wales.ShemarriedGruffudd apRhys,rulerofthekingdom ofDeheubarth,which extendedacrossthesouthwest ofWales,andbecamethe chatelaineathiscastlein Dinefwr,nearthetownof Llandeilo.Theroyalhouseof Dinefwr,acadetbranchof thedynastyofAberffrawthat ruledGwynedd,wasalready venerablebythetimeof Gwenllian’sarrivalatits court.HywelDda(“the Good”)(c.880–950)had expandedtheearlymedieval kingdomofDyfedtoform Deheubarthinthe920s,and thecodificationofWelshlaw inasinglevolumewas achievedunderhispatronage inthe940s.Bytheearly12th century,however, Deheubarthwasunder sustainedattackandGruffudd apRhys,joinedbyhis princess-consort,launched severalretaliatoryraids againsttheNorman,English andFlemishcolonistswho hadestablishedthemselves withinthekingdom.The yearsof“theAnarchy” duringthereign(1135–54)of KingStephenofEngland wereanopportunityto recoverDeheubarth’s authority.Gruffuddraisedthe bannerofrevolt,andin1136 hetraveledtoGwynedd wherehedebatedtermsof alliancewithhiswife’s father.Normanraidingin Deheubarthcontinuedinhis absence,andGwenllian raisedanarmythatshethen ledintobattleatasitenear Cydweli.Althoughdefeated, capturedandthenbeheaded bytheopposingNorman force,Gwenllian’saction provedthecatalystfora majorWelshrebellionthat spreadtothesouthofWales. Thememoryofherexploits inspiredWelshmilitary commanders,andthehighly successfulcampaignsledby hersonRhysapGruffudd (1132–97)againstHenryIIin 1164–70madeDeheubarth thedominantpowerinlate12th-centuryWales. Thecombinationofsocial grievancewithreligious dissent,witnessedduringthe Hussitewars,recurredto explosiveeffectduringthe early16th-centuryProtestant reformation.Anidealized viewofChristendom,anda beliefinitsunity,hadbeena definingfeatureofEurope’s medievalcivilization.Buta worldinwhichProtestants andCatholicskilledeach otheralsowitnessedthe progressivedissolutionofthe medievalworldview,andthe graveof“Christendom”isto befoundinthebattlefieldsof earlymodernEurope. INDEX Pagenumbersinboldtype indicatemainreferencesto thevarioustopics;thosein italicrefertoillustrations. A ’Abbasiddynasty121,122, 177 ’AbdAllah123 ’Abdal-Rahman121,122 ’Abdal-RahmanIII123 Abelard90 Peter203 Aberffrawdynasty217 Abual-Kasim11 Achaea129,131 Acre,siegeof105 Adalberon,archbishopof Rheims18 AdeleofChampagne21 Adelheid,QueenofItaly10 Adhemar,BishopofLePuy 48,52 Aelred30 Agilulf,kingoftheLombards 200 Agincourt,Battleof144,146, 214 agriculture,medieval190, 191 al-Andalus120–2,172,174, 175 Alarcos,Battleof176 Alaric118 Albania130 AlbertusMagnus89 AlbigensianCrusade110– 17 Aleppo102 AlexanderII,pope21,58 AlexanderIII,pope69 AlexanderIIIofScotland151 AlexiusICommensus, emperorofGreece48 AlfonsoIofPortugal175 AlfonsoIIofAragon80 AlfonsoIIoftheAsturias172 AlfonsoIIIoftheAsturias 173 AlfonsoVIofLeón174–5, 175 AlfonsoVofAragonand Sicily135 AlfonsoHenriques,prince 175 AlfredtheGreat,kingof Wessex26 AlhambraDecree176 AlhambraPalace176,177, 177 al-Idrisi,Muhammad47 al-Mansur,Abu’Amir124, 125,174 Almohads175,176 Almoravids175–6 Al-Nasirli-DinAllah123 AlphonseofToulouse128 Amalfi40,43 AmalricI,king102 AmalricofLusignan107 Amazons217 AnacletusII,pope45 Anagni154,157–8 slapof157 al-Andalus120–2,172,174, 175,176 Andalusianlife125 Andrew,princeofNaples134 Anfortas73 Angevindynasty134,136 Angevinempire20,74–83 Anglo-Saxons24 Anjou-Naples,houseof134– 5 AnnoII,archbishopof Cologne59 Anselm,Archbishopof Canterbury28–9,90 Antioch,siegeof52,53 Aquitaine141 Aquitania118 Arabinfluencesinscience andculture88–9 architecture Florence165–6,166 GothicFrench22,22–3 Arduin,margraveofIvrea13 Arianism120 aristocracy32–3,193–6,199 Aristotle89,90,206,207 Armagnacs143,144,145 ArnoldofBrescia38 Arras,Treatyof146 Arsuf106 art Ottonianlegacy14–15 realismin169,169 ArtedeiMercanti164 Assisi183 AssizeofClarendon76 AssizesofAriano46 astrolabe125 astrology198 astronomy125,125 Asturias121,123,172,173, 174 Atheling,Edgar26,29 Auscultafili156 Averroes90,206,207 Averroism206 AvignonandtheSchism 152–61 foreignexchange159 papacyat158,159–60 Ayyubiddynasty71–2,100 Azaz,Battleof100 B Badby,John186 BaldwinIofJerusalem100 BaldwinIIofJerusalem108 BaldwinIIofConstantinople 129 BaldwinIIIofJerusalem102 BaldwinIVofJerusalem 102–3 BaldwinVofJerusalem103 BaldwinIX,countof Flanders126 BaldwinofBoulogne51,52 BaldwinofEdessa54 bannum190 barbarians188 Barcelona172 Bari43 Bauge,Battleof145 Baybars96,130 Bayeuxtapestry25 Becket,Thomas77–8,77,80 Bede201 begging206 BenedictVIII,pope13 BenedictX,antipope58 BenedictXI,pope161 BenedictofNursia201 Benedictines201,206 benefices159 Benevento40,43 Battleof72,128,129,165 Berbers120–1,122,124, 175–6 Berengar,margraveofIvrea 10,11 Bergerac143 BermudoIIIofLeón174 BernardofClairvaux108, 183,187 BernardVII,countof Armagnac143,144 BertholdofCarinthia59 BertrandofToulouse54 Beziers116 BlackDeath167,196 BlackPrince139,141–2,143 BlancheofCastile128 Bohemond,princeofTaranto 51,52 BohemondofAntioch,count 103 Bohemond,Mark44 Bolingbroke,Henry143 Boniface201 BonifaceVIII,pope39,97, 152,153,154,155,157,158 books86 booksofhours184,184 BorrelII,countofBarcelona 18,172 Boutoumites,Manuel52 Bouvines,Battleof95,96, 136 Brétigny,Treatyof141,144 Brion,Simonde131 Brittany79–80 Brunswick68 Buchan,earlof145 Bureau,Jean146 Burgundians143,144–6 Burgundy,dukeof205 Byzantium40,43,126,130– 1,177 C Cadiz176 Caetani,Benedetto39,154 Caetaniclan157 Calabria11,40,42,43 Calais139,149 siegeof214 calendar201–2 Campaldino,Battleof165 cannon148,148,215–16 CanossaCastle60,61 Capet,Hugh17 Capetians languagederivations16 riseof16–23 triumphof92–9 Capua42 Carcassonne115–16,115 Cardinals,Collegeof155, 157 CarminaBurana87 Cassian,John201 CastelSan’Angelo61 CastellodiVenere44 Castelnau,Pierrede114 Castile174 Castillon,Battleof146,148 Castracani,Castruccio,duke ofLucca167 Cathars110,185,186 doctrine110–13 warwith113–17,116 cathedrals84 Gothic191–2 CatherineofAlexandria185 CatherineofSiena160 CelestineIII,pope70 CencioIFrangipane60 Cerami,Battleof41 Cerchifamily167 Cervera,Battleof174 Chandos,John143 ChansondeRoland(Songof Roland)55,55,122 Charlemagne122,171–2, 177,193,194 canonization68,69 KingoftheFranks8 CharlesIofHungary134 CharlesIIofNaples133,134 CharlesIIIofNaples134 CharlesIVofFrance92,98– 9,138 CharlesVofFrance141,142 CharlesVIofFrance143, 144,145 CharlesVIIofFrance144, 145,146,147 Charles,dukeofOrléans144 CharlesofAnjou72,126–33, 127,134,165 CharlesofBlois212 CharlesofCalabria,duke167 CharlesofDurazzo134 CharlesofLorraine18 CharlesofValois132–3,167 CharterofLiberties29 charters(fueros)170 Chartres86 ChartresCathedral85,184 ChâteaudeLusignan189 China,missionsin205 Chintila,kingofGalicia120 chivalry195,203–4,211 Christianity198–202,204–7 Cicero86 Cilicia52 Cimabue169 Cistercians201 cities,medievalgrowthof 192–3 city-states birthof32–9 German33–6 Italian36–8 Venice38 Civitate,Battleof42–3,51 civitates188–90 Clare,Osbertde30 ClareofAssisi,saint183,184 Clarendon Assizeof76 Constitutionsof77–8 ClementII,pope65 ClementIII,pope61 ClementIV,pope165 ClementV,pope98,109, 152,158,159 ClementVI,pope160 ClementVII,antipope154 clergy183,200,202 curbingthepowerof35– 6 investitureofsenior56– 63 Clericislaicos154,155–6 clerks,employedbyrulers84 Clermont,Councilof48,49 Clito,William19 Clotilda,queen200 Clovis120,200 ClunyAbbey58 Cluny,monasteryof201 Cnut,kingofEngland26 ColadiRienzo38 CollegeofCardinals58 coloni188 Colonna,Sciarrillo157 Columbanus,saint200,201 Commensus,Duke105 Commons150 communes32,33,37 communicationsinbattle214 Compostella123 ConanIII,dukeofBrittany 79 ConanIV,dukeofBrittany 79 ConcordatofLondon29,62 ConcordatofWorms62 confession200 ConradIIofGermany42, 64–5 ConradIIIofGermany102 ConradIVofGermany72, 129 Conrad,dukeofFranconia 66–8 ConradofItaly62 ConradofMontferrat104, 105,106,107 Conradin72 conseilduroi92 ConstanceofAragon132 ConstanceofCastile21 Constantinople126,129,177 ConstitutionsofClarendon 77–8 ConstitutionsofMelfi71 Conti,Lotariodei154 Conversos176 Córdoba118,120,121,122, 124,176 GreatMosque119,123–4 viceroyaltyof124 CorpusJurisCivilis87–8 Cortenuova,Battleof72 CotentinPeninsula139 CounciloftheChurch (Tours)113 CouncilofClermont48,49 CouncilofNablus100 CouncilofTen38 courdescomptes98 Covadonga,Battleof170 craftguilds35 Crécy,Battleof137,139, 146,214 Crogen,Battleof78 Crusades205 First48–55 Second102 Third100–9,101,104, 107 Fourth113,126 Seventh96,129 Eighth96,130 Albigensian110–17 Crusaderstates107 People’s51 culture,Arabinfluencesin 88–9 culture European204–5 medieval198–207 cultus180,183–4 curia161 curiaregis92 D Damascus,captureof102 Danegeld215 DanteAlighieri39,117,157, 158,167 DavidIofScotland78–9 DavidIIofScotland139 Decretum88 DecretumGratiani202–3 Deheubarth217 demesne190 DermotofLeinster78 dhimmi124 Didascalicon203 Dinefwr,royalhouseof217 DionysiusExiguus201 DiplomataOttonianum10 DoctorsoftheChurch178, 207 DomesdayBook28 Dominicans206 DominicdeGuzman(St. Dominic)114,183 Donati,Corso167 Donatifamily167 Dorylaeum,Battleof52 drama87 Drengot,Ranulf42 Drengot,Richard43 Duccio169 Dyrrhachium,Battleof44 E Edessa52,100,102 Edmund,kingofEastAnglia 30,31 EdwardtheConfessor26, 30–1,30 EdwardIofEngland97,150, 151,213 EdwardIIofEngland98, 138,150 EdwardIIIofEngland31, 138–9,139,141,143,150 EleanorofAquitaine20,21, 76,80 ElizabethofHungary,Saint 181 Elster,Battleof61 encyclopedias91 England Normansin24–31 Parliament150,151 Enrique141,143 Epirus126 escheat195 Estates-General148–9 EthelredII26,26 Euclid89 Evesham,Battleof150 exploration,maritime205 evangelization200–02 F Faith181–2 famine,medieval196 Fatimiddynasty100,102 Fatimids50,53,54,123,124 FerdinandIIIofCastile176 FerdinandofAragon176 Ferdinand,countofFlanders 95–6 Ferdinand,kingofLeónand ofCastile174 feudum(fiefs)195 fiefs(feudum)195 Fiesole164 Florence37,39 architecture165–6,166 bankingcollapse168 bridges167 environmentaldangers 167–8 goldenageof162–9 government166–8 growingpower164–5 PalazzodelPopolo (Bargello)165,166 PalazzodellaSignoria (PalazzoVecchio)166, 167 SantaMariadelFiore 163,166 SantaMariaNovella166 tradeguilds164,165, 166,167,168 FolquetdeMarseille114 Fosalta,Battleof72 FrancisofAssisi183,184, 186 Franciscans183,186 Franco,Francisco171 Franks120,122–3 Eastern8 Western8,16 Fraticelli159,186 FrederickIBarbarossa21, 36,39,46–7,67,68–9,69, 88,91,105,164 FrederickIvonStaufen,duke ofSwabia61 FrederickIIofGermany36, 47,70–1,71,71,96,157 FrederickIIofSwabia66 FrederickIIIofSicily133 FrederickV,ofSwabia67 freedmen188 fueros(charters)170 FulkVofAnjou100–2 G Gaiseric118 Galen89 Galicia121,173,174 Galilee54 GandersheimAbbey14 Gascony138–9 GeoffreyVofAnjou74,75, 100 GeoffreyofBrittany81 GerbertofAurillac12 Germantowns,growthof33– 5 Ghibellines39,132,211 inFlorence165,167 GiottodiBondone169 glossators88 GodfreyII,dukeofUpper Lorraine65 GodfreyofBouillon50,51, 53,54 Godwine,Earl26 Godwinson,Harold26 Godwinson,Tostig,earlof Northumbria26 Goliards87 Gonzales,Fernan173–4 GoodParliament150 Goslar64–5,64–5 Goth,Bertrandde152 Goulet,Le,Treatyof95 governmentbywrit27 Granada170,176,177 GratianofBologna88,202 GreatOrdinance149 GreatZabRiver,Battleofthe 121 GregoryVI,pope162 GregoryVII(theGreat),pope 44,48,56–8,57,59–61,62– 3,63,217 GregoryX,pope131 GregoryXI,pope152,160, 162 GregoryofTours91,91 Grisaille34 GruffuddapCynan217 GruffuddapRhys217 GuaimarIVofSalerno42 Guelphs39,164,165,167, 211 Guesclin,Bernarddu141, 142,143 guilds164,165,166,167, 168 Guiscard,Robert42,43–4, 61,63,63 gunpowder148 GuyofLusignan103,104, 105,107 GwenllianapGruffudd217 H Halles,Les94 HagiaSofia177 Hamburg,siegeof59 HaraldIIIHardrada26 Harold,kingofEngland25 Harthacnut26 Hastings,Battleof25,26, 214 Hattin,Battleof104 Hautevillefamily42 Hauteville,Williamde(Iron Arm)42 Heinrich,landgraveof Thuringia72 HenryI,dukeofSaxony(the Fowler)8–9,19 HenryIofEngland (Beauclerc)29,29,74,197 HenryII,dukeofBavaria12– 13,19 HenryIIJasomirgott,dukeof Austria69 HenryIIofChampagne, count107 HenryIIofEngland20,30, 74,76–81,94,100,104–5, 217 relationshipswithFrench 80–1 territorialstruggles78–80 HenryIIIofEngland31,150 HenryIIIofGermany65 HenryIVofEngland143 HenryIVofGermany35,44, 58–61,59,65 HenryVofEngland144, 144,145 HenryVofGermany34,62, 164 HenryVI,HolyRoman Emperor67,70 HenryVIofEnglandand France145 HenryVIofGermany46,94, 106,106,164 Henry,countofAnjou20 HenrytheLion68,69,69,70 HenrytheProud,dukeof BavariaandofSaxony66,68 HenrytheYounger80–1 heraldry203 heretics178–87 HerewardtheWake27 Hildebrand58seealso GregoryVII,pope HildegardofBingen187,187 Hippocrates89 historicalwriting91 Hoel79 holywar48–50,212–13 HomildonHill,Battleof143 HonoriusIII,pope71 horses191 HôtelDieu22 Hroswitha14 HughIIIofCyprus131 HughMagnus19 HughofSaint-Victor203 HughofVermandois51,54 Humphrey,dukeof Gloucester145 HundredYears’War136– 49,142 consequencesof146–7 firstperiodofpeace141– 2 impactof148–9 militarystrategy147–8 navalaction139,144 secondperiodofpeace 143–4 Hungary205 Hussitewars217 Hussites159,186 HywelDda(theGood)217 I Inab,Battleof102 infantry213–14 InnocentII,pope45,66 InnocentIII,pope113–14, 154,157 InnocentIV,pope72,129 Inquisitions,establishmentof 116 Inquisition176 investiturecontest56–63 Irnerius88 IsabelofCastile176 J Jacquerie140,149,217 Jaffa54,106 JamesofBourbon,count ofLaMarche135 JeanIIIdeGrailly143 Jeanned’Arc145,145,147, 217 Jerez176 Jerusalem50,72,100,106, 107 battlefor53–4 surrenderof104 JeudePaume99,99 Jews inEngland197 inFrance94,96,98,197 inSpain120,176 jizya124 JoachimofFiore187 JoanI,queenofNaples159 JoanIIofNaples135 Joanna,queenofNaples134 JohnIofFrance98,138 JohnII(leBon)ofFrance 139,141 JohnII,dukeofBurgundy 143 JohnXII,pope10 JohnXIX,pope64 JohnXXII,pope160,161, 186 John,kingofEngland76,81, 136,150 JohnofBrienne71 JohnofProcida132 JohnofSalisbury86 John,princeofEngland94, 95–6 JoscelinIIIofEdessa103 JulianaofNorwich,Dame 187 Justinian,emperor46 K Kempe,Margery187 kermis202 kingship,cultureof200 knighthood195,213 diminutionof215 KnightsHospitaller100,109 knights,medieval195,209 KnightsTemplar97–8,100, 108–9,108–9,158 Knights,Teutonic110,111 L LaRéole138 LaRoche-Derrien,Battleof 212 laborersvs.warriors193 Ladislaus134–5 laity202 landlords190 Lanfranc,Archbishopof Canterbury28 Langensalza,Battleof60 language,medieval198 LasNavasdeTolosa,Battle of176 LateranPalace152 Lateran,ThirdCouncilofthe 113 Latin86–7,198 laws,changing87–8 LeGoulet,Treatyof95 learning,centersof84,86 Lechfield,Battleofthe10 legalsystem87–8 Legnano,Battleof36,69 León173 kingdomof123 LeopoldV,dukeofAustria 105,106 Leovigild120 Lewes,Battleof150 libraries86,125 LlywelynIIofWales151 LoarreCastle171 Lollards186,186 LombardLeague36 Lombard,Peter203 Lombards40 London,Concordatof62 lordship195 Lothair DukeofSaxony66 kingofWestFrancia11, 18 LouisIofAnjou134 LouisIIofAnjou134–5 LouisIVofFrance160 LouisV,kingofWest Francia18 LouisVIofFrance19,21 LouisVIIofFrance21,74, 102 LouisVIIIofFrance92 LouisIXofFrance96,97, 182–3 LouisXofFrance98,99,138 LouisofValois,dukeof Orléans143 loyalties,medieval195 Lucca162 LuciusIII,pope187 LudovicoilMoro213 M Madinatal-Kahra123 MagnaCarta81,96,136, 150 MagnusIofNorway26 Magyars205 MamlukSultanate109 Manfred72,129 kingofSicily165 manorialsystem190,196 ManuelICommenus102–3 manufacturing193,196 Manzikert,Battleof48,50 Marcel,Étienne140,140, 149,217 Margaret,QueenofScots 184–5 MariaofMontferrat107 maritimeexploration205 Marshal,William150 MarsilioofPadua159–60 Martel,Charles121,134 Martel,CharlesRobert134 MartinIV,pope131,132–3 MartinV,pope154 MartinofTours178 MaryofAntioch131 MaryofHungary134,135 masons192 MastinoIIdellaScala167 Matilda,margraveof Tuscany59,60,61,162–4, 217 MatildaofEngland68,74–6, 217 Meaux,Treatyof116 Medici,Cosimode’168,168 Medici,Giovannide’168 Medici,Lorenzode’168 medievalperiod culture198–207 society188–97 warfare208–17,209 Melfi43 Constitutionsof71 mendicancy206 mercenaries213 MichaelVIIIPalaeologus 126,129,131 Midi115 militarystrategy214–15 mining196 miracleplays87 missionaries200 ModelParliament150 MohammedibnNasr176 Monarchyversuspapacy61– 2 monasteries84,86,201 monasticlife201 moneylending197 Mongols205 Montaperti,Battleof165 MonteMaggiore,Battleof42 MontemassiCastle37 Montfort,Simonde114–15, 116,150 Montségurcastle116 Montsigard,Battleof103 Moriscos176 Mosul102 motte-and-baileycastles25 Mozarabs120,123 MuhammadIal-Mustansir 130 Munich68 Muret,Battleof116 music203 Muwallads120,123 mystics187 N Nablus,Councilof100 Najera,Battleof141 Naples126–35 Nasriddynasty176 navalwarfare139,215–16, 216 gundecks216 Navarre172,174 Neville’sCross,Battleof139 Nicaea126 siegeof52 Nicholas,anti-pope160 NicholasII,pope42 nobility193–6 Nogaret,Guillaumede156–7 Nördlingen33 NormanconquestofEngland 24 Normandy19,24–5,79,94– 5,136,141,144 Normans bureaucracy28 inEngland24–31 inSicily40–7 Northumberland,Earlof143 Northumbria27 NotreDame22 Novara213 Nurad-Din102 O Obodrites10 Occitania110,117 Ockham,William160 OrderofFriarsMinor186 OrdericVitalis91 OrdinanceofVillersCotterets117 OrdinancesofJustice166–7 Orléans145,146–7 siegeof215,217 Otterburn,Battleof143 OttoI(theGreat),of Germany9,10–11,10,14 OttoIIofGermany11,18 OttoIIIofGermany12,13 OttoIVofGermany95,96, 136 OttoofBrunswick71 OttoofFreising91 OttoofNordheim,dukeof Bavaria59 OttoofOstia61 Ottoniandynasty8–15,18 Oultrejourdain103 Ourique,Battleof175 Outremer55 Ovid86 Oviedo123 OwainGlyndwr143 OwainGwynedd78 Oxford,Provisionsof150 P Pachymeres,Georgius89 PandulfIronhead11 papacy,atAvignon158,159– 60 Pardoner,The160 pardoners160 ParlementofParis97 Parliament,English150,151 Parma,Battleof36,72 Parzival73,73 PaschalII,pope62 PaschalIII,antipope69 Patay,Battleof145 patronage193–6 Paul,apostle178 PeaceandTruceofGod204 peasants190–1 Peasants’Revolt149,217 PedrotheCruel141,142 PeterIofSicily132 PeterIIofAragon115,116 PeterIIIofAragon132,133 PetertheHermit51 Petit-Pont,Adamdu87 Petrarch(FrancescoPetrarca) 161,161 PhilipIofFrance63 PhilipIIAugustusofFrance 21,80,92–6,93,95,104–5, 105,114,115,136,197 PhilipIII,dukeofBurgundy 145–6 PhilipIIIofFrance133 PhilipIV(leBel)ofFrance 96–8,109,138,155,156,158 PhilipVofFrance98,138 PhilipVIofFrance138–9 PhilipofSwabia71 PhilipofValois138 piety184–5 Pisa168 plague BlackDeath167,196 medieval196 Plantagenets136 dynasty76,81 territorialholdings79 Plato90,207 PlinytheElder86 podestà164,165 Poitiers143,152 Poland12 PonteVecchio167 Popolomovement166 seealsoPrimoPopolo; SecondoPopolo populationlevelsinEurope 196 Prignano,Bartolomeo152 PrimoPopolo165,166 printing196,203 Provence128–9 ProvisionsofOxford150 Puglia11,40,43,45 Q QuedlinburgAbbey14,14– 15 QuedlinburgAnnals14 R RamiroII173 RaymondIIIofTripoli103, 103–4 RaymondIVofToulouse48, 51,52,54 RaymondVofToulouse80 RaymondVIofToulouse 114,116 RaymondVIIofToulouse 116 RaymondofPoitiers102 RaynaldofChatillon103, 103–4 Reccared,king120 reconquista170–7,173,204, 210,212,215 reich,first8 reichskirche(German imperialchurch)10 relics180–2,184,185 relief(payment)195 Renaissance,12th-century 84–91 RenéofAnjou135 RhysapGruffudd78,217 Riade,Battleof8 Ribagorza174 RichardI(theLionheart)of England70,76,80,81,94, 104,105–6,106–7,106,197 RichardIIofEngland30,31, 143,204 RichardofBordeaux143 rinascimento169 RobertIofBurgundy19 RobertII,countofFlanders 51,52 RobertII(thePious)18–19 RobertIII,count98 Robert,dukeofNormandy 28,29 Robert,kingofNaples134, 161 RobertofAnjou134 RobertofArtois128 RobertofGeneva,archbishop ofCambrai154 RobertofNormandy51 RoberttheGreat18 RobinHood82,83 Roch(Rocco)ofMontpellier 184 RogerIofSicily41,44,45 RogerIIofSicily44–6,41 RogerBorsa44 Rome,republicantradition38 Roncesvalles,Battleof122, 123 Rouen,siegeof214 RudolfofSwabia59 RudolphofRheinfelden61 Rus205 S Sagrajas,Battleof175 Saint-Denis92,182 Saint-Denisabbey22,22–3 Sainte-Chapelle96,97,182 SainteFoy,abbeyof182 SaintongeWar138 saints178–87 booksofhours184,184 categorization178 recognition179–80 relics180–2 Saint-Sardos99 Warof138 Saisset,Bernard156 Saladin100,102,103,103, 104,106 Saladintithe105 Salerno40,43 Saliandynasty64–5 SanchoII,king174 SanchoIIItheGreat174 SantiagodeCompostela172 Saracens11 SassoforteCastle37 satire87 Saxony8seealsoOttonian dynasty scholasticism202–3 science,Arabinfluencesin 88–9 scrofula92 scutage77,195,213 SecondoPopolo167 SeljukTurks48,50,52,54, 100,126 serfdom,inGermantowns 34–5 serfs189,190,192 SergiusIV,dukeofNaples 42 Seville176 Shawar102 Shirkuh102 Sibylla,Queen103,104,105 SicilianVespersrebellion 128,131–3,133 Sicily70,71,72,135 Arabinfluences89 languages47 Latinization47 Normansin40–7 Sigismund,kingofHungary 134,135 Simancas,Battleof173 simony58,63,159 SinibaldoFieschi72 slapofAnagni157 slaves188,190 Sluys,Battleof139,216 Sobrarbe174 socage195 SongofRoland(Chansonde Roland)55,55,122 Spain Arabinfluences89 Islamic118–25 Islam’spowerin170 Speyer34 SpiritualFranciscans186 StamfordBridge,Battleof26 Staufen,Frederickvon66see alsoFrederickIBarbarossa Stauferdynasty39,63,66– 73 Stephen,countofBlois51, 54 Stephen,kingofEngland29, 74,76,217 StephenI,kingofHungary 12 Suger,abbé21,22,91,182 Suidberg,bishopofBamberg 65 Sully,Mauricede22 SwissConfederation32 SylvesterII,pope12 SynodofWhitby200 T TabulaRogeriana47 taifas174,175 TaiqibnZiyad120 Talbot,John,earlof Shrewsbury145,146,147 Tancred51,53–4,70,105 Tannhäuser111 taxes,forfundingwars211, 216–17 technologicaladvances, medieval191–2 tennis99,99 TeutonicKnights110,111 textileindustry147 Theodelinda,princess200 TheodosiusI200 Theophanu12 Theotiscam198 ThomasAquinas(Tomasso d’Aquino),Saint90,170, 179,187,206–7,207 Thomas,dukeofClarence 145 Thomism206 Thoros52 Tiepolo,Bajamonte38 Tinchebrai,Battleof29 tithe191 Toledo120,123,174–5 “touchingfortheking’sevil” 92 Toulouse116 tournaments211 towns,medievalgrowthof 192–3 tradeguilds193 treasury,establishmentof28 Trebizond126 Trencavel,Raymond-Roger 115,116 Tribur60 Troia40 siegeof13 Troyes,Treatyof144 TrueCross180 Tuscany162 Tyler,Wat149 Tyre104 U Umayyads121 UnamSanctam156 Unigenitus160 universities84,202 UrbanII,pope48,48–9,49 UrbanIV,pope129 UrbanVI,pope134,152–4 V Valdez,Peter185–6 Val-ès-Dunes,Battleof20 Vandals118 Venaissin159 Venice systemofgovernment38, 38 Treatyof70 Verdun,Treatyof16 Vexin94 VictorII,pope61–2 VictorIV,pope21 Villehardouinfamily129, 131 villeinage195–6 Villers-Cotterets,Ordinance of117 VincentofBeauvais91 Virgil86 Visigoths118–20 Vogt35 Vouillé,Battleof120 W Waldensians186 walis172 war210–13 holy212–13 just202,212 publicvs.private208 taxestopayfor211,216– 17 warfare battlestrategies213–16 medieval208–17,209 naval215–16,216 professionalarmies213, 217 weapons213–17 warriorsvs.laborers193 WarsoftheRoses149 watermills125,191 weapons213–17 Weinsberg39 Battleof39 WelfII,dukeofBavaria162– 4 WestminsterAbbey31 Whitby,Synodof200 WilliamI(theConqueror)of England26–7,136,197 WilliamI(theLion)of Scotland78–9 WilliamIIofSicily70 WilliamII(WilliamRufus) ofEngland28,29 WilliamXofPoitou78 WilliamClito29 WilliamofMalmesbury91 WilliamofMontferrat103 WilliamofTyre55 WiltonDiptych30–1,31 windmills125,191,191 Worms34,35,60 Concordatof62 writing202 Wycliff,John159,186 Y York,anti-Jewishrioting197 YusufibnTashfin175 Z Zaragoza123,175 Zengi102 PICTURECREDITS 9WikimediaCommons/Axel 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ACKNOWLEDGMEN Iwouldliketothankmy literaryagentGeorginaCapel whoprovidedmewith invaluablesupportandadvice inthecourseofwritingThe AgeofChivalry.Among othersinvolvedinthebook’s productionIamgratefulto WayneDavies,Emma Heyworth-DunnandSlav TodorovatQuercus Publishing,toSteve McCurdyandGraham BatemanofBCSPublishing fortheirworkasdesigners, andtothecartographer WilliamDonohue.

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