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J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 4104–4112
DOI:10.1021/jf903161g
)
)
Anticarcinogenic Effects of Polyphenolics from Mango
(Mangifera indica) Varieties
GIULIANA D. NORATTO,†, MICHELE C. BERTOLDI,†,‡, KIMBERLEY KRENEK,†
STEPHEN T. TALCOTT,† PAULO C. STRINGHETA,‡ AND SUSANNE U. MERTENS-TALCOTT*,†,§
†
Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843,
Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Vicosa, Vicosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
36571, and §Institute for Obesity Research and Program Evaluation, Texas A&M University, College
Station, Texas 77843. Giuliana Noratto and Michele Bertoldi contributed equally to the manuscript.
)
‡
Many polyphenolics contained in mango have shown anticancer activity. The objective of this study
was to compare the anticancer properties of polyphenolic extracts from several mango varieties
(Francis, Kent, Ataulfo, Tommy Atkins, and Haden) in cancer cell lines, including Molt-4 leukemia,
A-549 lung, MDA-MB-231 breast, LnCap prostate, and SW-480 colon cancer cells and the
noncancer colon cell line CCD-18Co. Cell lines were incubated with Ataulfo and Haden extracts,
selected on the basis of their superior antioxidant capacity compared to the other varieties, where
SW-480 and MOLT-4 were statistically equally most sensitive to both cultivars followed by MDA-MB231, A-549, and LnCap in order of decreasing efficacy as determined by cell counting. The efficacy
of extracts from all mango varieties in the inhibition of cell growth was tested in SW-480 colon
carcinoma cells, where Ataulfo and Haden demonstrated superior efficacy, followed by Kent,
Francis, and Tommy Atkins. At 5 mg of GAE/L, Ataulfo inhibited the growth of colon SW-480
cancer cells by ∼72% while the growth of noncancer colonic myofibroblast CCD-18Co cells was not
inhibited. The growth inhibition exerted by Ataulfo and Haden polyphenolics in SW-480 was
associated with an increased mRNA expression of pro-apoptotic biomarkers and cell cycle
regulators, cell cycle arrest, and a decrease in the generation of reactive oxygen species. Overall,
polyphenolics from several mango varieties exerted anticancer effects, where compounds from
Haden and Ataulfo mango varieties possessed superior chemopreventive activity.
KEYWORDS: Mango varieties; Mangifera indica; cancer prevention; polyphenolics
INTRODUCTION
Consumer interest in mango fruits (Mangifera indica) and
derived products has been increasing in recent years on the basis
of olfactory properties and also a potential in the prevention of
chronic diseases (1). Moreover, mango fruits have found their
way into the unofficial classification as a so-called superfruit.
Cancer is one of the leading chronic diseases and causes of death
worldwide. Major types of cancer include lung, colorectal, breast,
and prostate cancer. Colon cancer is the third most common
cancer in the USA for both men and women, with an estimated
108 070 cases of colon and 40 740 cases of rectal cancer diagnosed
in 2008. Overall mortality associated with colon cancer might be
decreased by controlling risk factors. Among these risk factors,
diet is one of the factors which may be modified through an
increased intake of fruits and vegetables (2).
Plant polyphenolics are increasingly being considered as
sources of natural colon cancer chemopreventive compounds
on the basis of safety and efficacy assessments. The edible portion
of mango contains polyphenolics and carotenoids that may
protect against cancer. Polyphenolics identified in the edible part
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: 979-458-1819.
E-mail: [email protected].
pubs.acs.org/JAFC
Published on Web 03/05/2010
of mango have been previously characterized and include flavonoids such as quercetin and kaempferol glycosides, phenolic
acids, predominately gallic acid, galloyl glycosides, in part polymerized within a wide range of degree, and mangiferin (3). The
absorption of gallotannins seems to be limited due to their high
molecular weight, and they are likely to be present in the large
intestine, where they may be protective in colon carcinogenesis.
Few studies have shown the anticancer activity of mango
extracts, and they suggest cell line specificity; e.g., mango extracts
were shown to protect against prostate cancer in in vitro and in
vivo models (4) and to inhibit the cell cycle in the G(0)/G(1) phase
of HL-60 cells (5). In contrast, mango extracts were not effective
against the breast cancer MCF-7 cell line (6). In addition, some of
the phytochemicals found in mango, i.e. the triterpenes lupeol and
mangiferin, have been shown to exhibit anticancer activity.
Mangiferin exerted a chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic
action against lung carcinogenesis induced by benzo(a)pyrene
in Swiss albino mice (7). The chemopreventive action of mangiferin may be related to the induction of permeability in mitochondria (8). The overall anticancer potential of mango
polyphenolics may at least in part be based on antioxidant
properties that may enhance cell defense capacity and modulate
molecular pathways in target cells. These compounds may inhibit
© 2010 American Chemical Society
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J. Agric. Food Chem., Vol. 58, No. 7, 2010
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promotion and progression stages of cancer by interfering with
cell cycle regulation, signal transduction pathways, transcription,
and activating apoptosis (activation of pro-apoptotic genes and
pro-apoptotic proteins) in neoplastic cells. The availability of
mango polyphenolics may vary according to specific compounds:
i.e., the most well absorbed are gallic acid, followed by catechins
and quercetin glucosides (9). The least well absorbed might be the
gallotannins, which in comparison to ellagitannins are not
absorbed as such but are metabolized by the intestinal flora (10).
Therefore, limited bioavailability of gallotannins might not
represent a limitation in the exertion of possible health benefits,
since large molecular compounds may have potential anticancer
effects in the large intestine.
The objective of this study was to compare the cancer chemopreventive potential of polyphenolics extracted from different
mango cultivars in several types of cancer, while potential
molecular mechanisms involved in anticancer activities are also
assessed for the most efficacious mango varieties.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plant Material. Commercial varieties of mango (Mangifera indica L.)
were kindly donated by member growers of the National Mango Board.
The varieties Francis (Haiti), Kent (Mexico), Ataulfo (Mexico), Tommy
Atkins (Mexico), and Haden (Mexico) were obtained at a mature, green
stage. Fruit were allowed to ripen at room temperature (23 °C) until
subjectively determined to be a full ripe stage, as determined by a soft
texture and aroma development. Fruit were manually peeled to remove
skin and seeds; homogenized pulp was obtained from three or more fruits
per variety, prior to storage at -80 °C until needed.
Extraction of Polyphenolics. Fruit pulp was thawed and homogenized in a ratio of 500 g of pulp to 1.5 L of a solvent mixture (ethanol/
methanol/acetone, 1/1/1), filtered through cheesecloth followed by Whatman #1 filter paper. Only the weight of the thawed pulp was recorded. The
solvents were removed under reduced pressure at 40 °C, and the aqueous
residue was centrifuged at 2000g to remove insoluble precipitates. Polyphenolics were partitioned in a 20 cm3 Waters C18 cartridge (Waters
Corporation, Milford, MA) previously conditioned with 50 mL of 100%
methanol and 50 mL of nanopure water and eluted with 50 mL 100%
methanol containing 0.01% HCl. Compounds not adsorbed to the
cartridge were partitioned into ethyl acetate using a separatory funnel.
The ethyl acetate phase was combined with the methanol eluate from the
C18 cartridges, and the solvents were removed under reduced pressure
(Figure 1). The residual water from the extracts was removed by lyophilization at -50 °C at 0.01 mBar of pressure (Labconco Corp., Kansas City,
MO). The dried extracts were reconstituted in cell culture media and used
for cell culture assays by applying different concentrations based on
total phenolic content measured spectrophotometrically by the FolinCiocalteu assay against an external standard of gallic acid (11).
Antioxidant Capacity. The antioxidant capacity of the phenolics
extracted from the different mango varieties was measured using the
oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assay as described by Ou et
al. (12) with the use of fluorescein as the fluorescent probe. Peroxyl radicals
were generated by 2,20 -azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride, and
fluorescence loss was monitored on a FLUOstar Omega plate reader
(BMG Labtech Inc., Durhan, NC) at 485 nm excitation and 520 nm
emission. Each mango polyphenolic extract was diluted to up to 10 mg of
gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/L in pH 7.0 phosphate buffer prior to
pipetting into a 96-well microplate against a standard curve from 3.1 to
50 μM Trolox. Results were quantified in μmol of Trolox equivalents/
100 g of pulp.
HPLC-DAD and HPLC-ESI/MSn Analysis. Individual polyphenolics were characterized using a Waters Alliance 2690 (Milford, MA)
HPLC system using a 4.6 250 mm Dionex Acclaim 120 C18 column
(5 μm) and a 4.6 mm 20 mm guard column. A gradient elution program
ran phase A (water and acetic acid; 98/2) and phase B (water, acetonitrile,
and acetic acid; 68/30/2) at a flow rate of 0.8 mL/min with detection from
210 to 400 nm. The gradient initially ran 100% phase A for 3 min and
changed from 100 to 70% in 17 min, 70 to 50% in 10 min, 50 to 30% in
20 min, 30 to 0% in 10 min, and then isocratic at 0% phase A for 5 min
Figure 1. Overview of extraction method of total polyphenolics from
mango.
prior to column re-equilibration. Identifications of polyphenolics were
made by comparison of their retention times and UV spectra with those of
authentic standards (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO). Additional identification by mass spectrometric analyses was performed on a Thermo
Finnigan LCQ Deca XP Max MSn ion trap mass spectrometer equipped
with an ESI ion source (Thermo Fisher, San Jose, CA). Ionization was
conducted in the negative ion mode under the following conditions: sheath
gas (N2), 40 units/min; auxiliary gas (N2), 5 units/min; spray voltage, 5 kV;
capillary temperature, 350 °C; tube lens offset, 10 V.
Cell Culture. Cell lines were obtained from the American Type
Culture Collection (ATCC, Manassas, VA) and cultured as recommended
by the ATCC. Estrogen-independent MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells
were cultured using Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM) high
glucose, with 2 mmol/L of L-glutamine, without sodium pyruvate and with
phenol red. The colorectal SW-480 adenocarcinoma cells were cultured
using Liebovitz’s L-15 medium, with L-glutamine and without sodium
pyruvate and phenol red. The human lung A-549 carcinoma cells were
cultured in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium/F12 (DME/F12). The
human leukemia Molt-4 and the androgen receptor positive LnCap
prostate cancer cells were cultured in RPMI-1640 medium. All culture
media were supplemented with 10% (v/v) fetal bovine serum (FBS) and
1% penicillin-streptomycin antibiotic mix. A 2.5% charcoal stripped
FBS was used in culture media used for cell proliferation experiments.
Culture mediums were supplied by Invitrogen (Gibco, Invitrogen Corp.,
Grand Island, NY). Cells were maintained at 37 °C with a humidified 5%
CO2 atmosphere. Cells were seeded for cell proliferation assay in 24-well
plates (15 000 cells/well), for the ROS study in 96-well plates (10 000 cells/
well), for the cell cycle kinetics in 12-well plates (70 000 cells/well), and for
gene expression studies in 6-well plates (500 000 cells/well). Cells were
grown for 24 h to allow cell attachment before exposure to varying
concentrations of mango polyphenolics (mg of GAE/L) dissolved in
culture media and sterile-filtered before use.
Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). The production of
ROS was analyzed as previously performed with some modifications (13).
Briefly, cells were pretreated with mango polyphenolics over 24 h (from 1.5
to 10 mg of GAE/L) followed by 200 μM H2O2 for 2 h. After the residual
H2O2 was washed, cells were exposed to 10 μM of 20 ,70 -dichlorofluorescein
diacetate (H2DCF-DA) at 37 °C and incubated for 30 min. The fluorescence signal was monitored at 520 nm emission and 480 nm excitation with
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J. Agric. Food Chem., Vol. 58, No. 7, 2010
a FLUOstar Omega plate reader (BMG Labtech Inc., Durhan, NC).
Fluorescence intensity was used as an indicator of the generation of
ROS.
Cell Proliferation. The cell proliferation assay was used because it is
one of the most accurate and straightforward methods of quantifying
viable cells and, therefore, the anticancer activity of mango polyphenolics
that might result from a combination of growth suppression and apoptosis
induction. Cell proliferation was assessed by using an electronic counter
(Z2 Series, Beckman Coulter, Inc., Fullerton, CA), where the difference in
cell number between final incubation time (72 h) and incubation start (0 h)
represents net growth. The cell growth inhibition expressed as IC50 is the
concentration of total polyphenolics expressed in mg of GAE/L or μM
GAE/Lwhich inhibited cell growth by 50%. Since we quantified total
phenolics against a standard curve of gallic acid, the formula weight of
gallic acid was used to convert mg of GAE/L to μM GAE/L.
Cell Cycle Kinetics. Cells were treated with mango polyphenolics
(5 and 10 mg of GAE/L) for 24 h and harvested for flow cytometer
analysis. Briefly, cell pellets were obtained by trypsination and centrifugation and fixed with 90% ethanol at -20 °C for 4 h. Cells were resuspended
in staining solution (50 μg/mL of propidium iodide, 30 units/mL of
RNase, 40 mmol/L of sodium citrate, and Triton X-100 (pH 7.8)) and
incubated at 37 °C for 15 min. Stained cells were analyzed on a FACS
Calibur Flow Cytometer (Becton Dickinson Immunocytometry Systems)
using Cell Quest (Becton Dickinson Immunocytometry Systems) acquisition software.
Quantitative RT-PCR. Human SW-480 colon adenocarcinoma cells
were pretreated with Ataulfo and Haden polyphenolics (2.5-10 mg of
GAE/L) for 24 h. Total RNA was extracted using the RNeasy Mini kit
(Qiagen, Valencia, CA), and 470 ng of RNA was used to synthesize cDNA
using a Reverse Transcription Kit (Invitrogen Corp., Grand Island, NY).
Real-time PCR reactions were performed using 2 μL of cDNA and SYBR
Green PCR Master Mix (Applied Biosystems, Carlsbad, CA). Three
independent cell culture replicates were analyzed for gene expression
(n=3).
Optimal semiquantitative conditions were set to fall in the linear PCR
product range (data not shown), and TBP (TATA-box binding protein)
was used as internal control. The sequences of the primers (Integrated
DNA Technologies, Coralville, IA) used were
Fas
Fas
Caspase 8
Caspase 8
Bax
Bax
Bim
Bim
PKMYT1
PKMYT1
p21
p21
TBP
TBP
F
R
F
R
F
R
F
R
F
R
F
R
F
R
50 -TGCCTCCTCTTGAGCAGTCA-30
50 -TCCTGTAGAGGCTGAGGTGTCA-30
50 -GGCTCCCCCTGCATCAC-30
50 -CCTGCTAGATAAGGGCATGAATCT-30
50 -CCAAGGTGCCGGAACTGA-30
50 -CCCGGAGGAAGTCCAATGT-30
50 -TGCCAGGCCTTCAACCA-30
50 -GTTCAGCCTGCCTCATGGA-30
50 -CCTCTGCACTTTTAACCTTTTATCCT-30
50 -GCAGAGAAGACCATGGGAGTTC-30
50 -GAGCTCTGGGTGGTCATGGA-30
50 -ATCCTGGTGTGGGTGACGAT-30
50 -TGCACAGGAGCCAAGAGTGAA-30
50 -CACATCACAGCTCCCCACCA-30
Statistical Analysis. Quantitative data represent mean values with the
respective standard deviation (SD) or standard error of the mean (SE)
corresponding to three or more replicates. For chemical analysis, standard
deviation values indicated variability of the assay performed out of a
composite sample (number of fruits g3). In the cell culture assays, the SD
or SE indicates the variability of the cell response when exposed to
different concentrations of mango polyphenolics. Data were analyzed
by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using posthoc multiple
comparisons Tukey’s-b (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01) and Pearson correlations
using SPSS version 12.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Total Polyphenolics and Antioxidant Activity of Mango Cultivars. Yields of polyphenolics extracted from different mango
cultivars varied, with Ataulfo presenting the highest yield. The
yields (mg of freeze-dried extract/g of mango pulp) are as follows:
Noratto et al.
Table 1. Total Polyphenolics and Antioxidant Activity (ORAC) of Different
Mango Cultivars
mango cultivar
total polyphenolicsa
(mg of GAE/100 g ofpulp)
antioxidant activitya
(μmol of TE/100 g of pulp)
Ataulfo
Haden
Francis
Kent
Tommy Atkins
56.7 ( 0.3a
19.1 ( 1.8b
17.8 ( 0.3b,c
16.4 ( 0.9c
15.3 ( 1.6c
326.6 ( 4.8a
225.8 ( 0.6b
219.0 ( 1.0b
150.0 ( 0.9c
156.6 ( 1.1c
a
Average of three or more independent determinations ( SD. Different letters
indicate significance at the p < 0.05 level.
11.2 ( 0.2, 7.0 ( 0.2, 6.7 ( 0.4, 6.0 ( 0.3, and 3.7 ( 0.1 mg/g for
Ataulfo, Francis, Kent, Tommy, and Haden, respectively. The
total polyphenolic content of extracts prepared from mango
pulps assessed by the Folin-Ciocalteu assay (Table 1) demonstrated that Ataulfo extracts also contain the highest amount
of total phenolics normalized to gallic acid equivalents (GAE)
(56.7 ( 0.3 mg of GAE/100 g). Previous studies showed total
phenolic content in mango pulp may range from 48.4 to 209 mg of
GAE/100 g (14) and may be influenced by ripening, cultivar,
environmental, and handling factors (15).
Antioxidant Capacity (AOX). As natural antioxidant compounds, mango polyphenolics may interrupt radical chain reactions by scavenging reactive oxygen species and free radicals. Our
results show that Ataulfo followed by Haden extracts were the
highest in ORAC values (326.6 ( 4.8 and 225.8 ( 0.6 μmol of
Trolox equivalents/100 g of mango pulp, respectively) (Table 1).
The AOX of polyphenolics extracted from different mango
cultivars correlated with their total phenolic content (r = 0.91).
In this study, polyphenolic isolates did not contain ascorbic
acid, soluble proteins, and reducing sugars. This might explain
why a previous study reported higher AOX values for mango
pulp extracts (326-1002 μmol of TE/100 g with a slightly
higher correlation between ORAC and total phenolic content
(r = 0.98) (16).
HPLC-DAD and HPLC-ESI-MSn Analysis of Ataulfo and
Haden Polyphenolic Extracts. HPLC analysis of Ataulfo and
Haden polyphenolic extracts confirmed the presence of free gallic
acid and mangiferin (Figure 2). Both compounds were found in all
cultivars, with the exception of Francis, which did not contain
mangiferin. Mangiferin peaks are shown in insets A1 and B1 of
Figure 2, with elution time at approximately 40 min and detection
at 366 nm. Previous studies also confirmed our findings (15).
Moreover, hydrolyzable tannins composed of gallic acid units
attached to glucose via a glycosidic linkage (3) were structurally
characterized by HPLC-ESI-MSn analysis (Table 2). Galloyl
glucosides identified by MS in Haden presented chemical structure ranging from 1 (mono-O-galloylglucoside) to 9 (nona-Ogalloylglucoside) units; whereas the characterization of Ataulfo
polyphenolics revealed the presence of higher molecular weights
of gallotannins (molecular weights ranged from 5 (penta-Ogalloylglucose) to 11 (undeca-O-galloylglucose). This pattern
corresponds to compounds eluted after 60 min in HPLC spectra,
with an elution pattern from lower to higher degrees of galloylation. Similarly, hydrolyzable tannins with 4-7 galloyl groups
were previously identified in mango pulp from the cultivar
Tommy Atkins (17), though the abundance of gallotannins of
different degree of polymerization in mango pulp was not
reported.
Cell-Growth-Suppressive Activity of Mango Polyphenolic Extracts. On the basis of their superior antioxidant capacity, Ataulfo
and Haden were selected to assess the growth inhibition activity
of their polyphenolics in different cancer cell lines (Figure 3). All
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J. Agric. Food Chem., Vol. 58, No. 7, 2010
cell lines showed cell growth suppression in a dose-dependent
manner when treated with Ataulfo and Haden extracts. The
concentrations that inhibit growth by 50% (IC50 values, Table 3)
show that Ataulfo polyphenolics suppressed the cancer cell
growth in the following order of efficacy: SW-480 = Molt-4 =
Figure 2. Representative chromatograms at 280 nm of Ataulfo (A) and
Haden polyphenolics (B). Representative chromatograms at 366 nm of
Ataulfo (A1) and Haden (B1): peak 1, galloyl glycosides; peak 2, gallic acid;
peak 3, mangiferin.
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MDA-MB-231 > A-549 = Ln Cap within a range of 0-42 mg of
GAE/L. Likewise, IC50 values (Table 3) indicate that human
colorectal SW-480 carcinoma cells were inhibited by both Haden
and Ataulfo polyphenolics to a similar extent. Overall, mango
polyphenolics have a low bioavailability, in part due to the
presence of large molecular weights of present polyphenolics (18).
Thus, the chemopreventive protection of mango polyphenolics,
specifically those with greater molecular weight, may be relevant
to in vivo situations relevant to the prevention of colon cancer.
These results suggest that Ataulfo and Haden cultivars had
antiproliferative effects in all tested types of cancer cell lines,
where the SW-480 colon cancer cell line seemed to be most
susceptible to the treatment.
On the basis of their increased sensitivity to mango polyphenolics and the likely presence of mango polyphenolics in the
colon, SW-480 cells were selected for the following analyses.
Polyphenolics extracted from Ataulfo, Haden, Kent, Francis,
and Tommy Atkins, in descending order of efficacy, induced a
dose-dependent growth suppression in human SW-480 colon
cancer cells (Figure 4). Among the five cultivars, Ataulfo and
Haden polyphenolics showed the highest cell growth inhibition in
SW-480. At 1.3 and 2.5 mg of GAE/L, Ataulfo polyphenolics
suppressed the growth of SW-480 cells by 36% and 65% at 72 h of
incubation, respectively. On incubation with 5 mg of GAE/L of
Ataulfo polyphenolics, net cell growth was decreased by 22%,
indicating that the number of cells at 72 h was lower than at the
baseline (0 h), suggesting net cell killing (Figure 4). Polyphenolics
from Haden reduced cell growth in a concentration-dependent
manner, with 20%, 50%, and 90% of inhibition achieved at 1.3,
2.5, and 5 mg of GAE/L, respectively. The order of efficacy for the
Figure 3. Cell proliferation of prostate LnCap, lung Molt-4, leukemia A-549, breast MDA-MB-231, and colon SW-480 cancer cells treated with Ataulfo (A)
and Haden (B) polyphenolics. Cells were treated with different concentrations of extracts, and cell growth was assessed after 72 h of incubation. Values are
means ( SD, n = 3.
Table 2. Polyphenolics Profile from Mango Cultivars Ataulfo, Haden, Kent, Francis, and Tommy Atkins Determined by HPLC-ESI-MSn a
class
polyphenolics
Ataulfo
Haden
Kent
Francis
Tommy Atkins
phenolic acid
xanthone
hydrolyzable tannins
gallic acid
mangiferin
mono-O-galloylglucose
di-O-galloylglucose
tetra-O-galloylglucose
penta-O-galloylglucose
hexa-O-galloylglucose
hepta-O-galloylglucose
octa-O-galloylglucose
nona-O-galloylglucose
deca-O-galloylglucose
undeca-O-galloylglucose
d
d
d
nd
nd
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
nd
nd
d
d
d
nd
d
d
d
d
d
nd
nd
nd
d
nd
d
nd
d
d
d
d
d
d
nd
nd
d
d
d
nd
nd
d
d
d
d
d
nd
nd
a
Legend: d, determined to be present; nd, not determined or not detected.
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J. Agric. Food Chem., Vol. 58, No. 7, 2010
Noratto et al.
a
Table 3. IC50 Values of Polyphenolics Extracted from Ataulfo and Haden Mango Cultivars for Growth Suppression of Different Human Cell Lines
IC50 (mg of GAE/L)
mango cultivar
Ataulfo
Haden
SW-480
MDA-MB-231
LnCap
A-549
Molt-4
1.6b ( 0.2b
2.3b ( 0.2b
1.2b ( 0.5b
8.3b ( 0.4a
18.0 ( 0.0a
7.0 ( 0a
13.2 ( 5.5a
8.3 ( 1.8a
5.0b ( 1.0b
2.0b ( 0.5b
CCD-18Co
>10c
ND
a
Different lower-case Roman letters indicate statistical significance at the level p < 0.05. ND = not determined. b Average of three independent determinations ( SD. c Average
of two independent determinations.
Table 4. IC50 Values of Polyphenolics Extracted from Mango Cultivars for
Growth Suppression of Human SW-480 Colon Cancer Cellsa
mango cultivar
IC50 (mg GAE/L)
IC50 (μM GAE/L)
Ataulfo
Haden
Kent
Francis
Tommy Atkins
1.6 ( 0.2a
2.3 ( 0.2a
5.0 ( 1.4a,b
8.2 ( 2.6b
27.3 ( 0.4c
10 ( 0a
13.52 ( 1.2a
29.4 ( 8.2a,b
48.2 ( 15b
160 ( 2.35c
a
Different lower-case Roman letters indicate statistical significance at the level
p < 0.05. b Average of three independent determinations ( SD. c Average of two
independent determinations.
Figure 4. Representative evaluation of the concentration-dependent impact of polyphenolics extracted from Kent, Tommy Atkins, Haden, Ataulfo,
and Francis mango cultivars on colon SW-480 cancer cells. Cells were
incubated with extracts, and net growth was measured after 72 h of
incubation. Values are mean ( SD, n = 3.
tested mango extracts was: Ataulfo = Haden g Kent g Francis >
Tommy Atkins on the basis of their IC50 values (Table 4).
A previous study reported the low cytotoxic efficacy of mango
aqueous extracts in MCF-7 breast cancer cells in comparison to
other plant-based foods consumed in Mexico (6). Polyphenolics
in that study were extracted with water and did not contain waterinsoluble compounds such as higher molecular weight gallotannins found in our study, as demonstrated by Percival et al. (5). As
a comparison to another tannin-containing fruit, pomegranate
juice contains ellagitannins, which are bioactive and have been
shown to inhibit prostate cancer in vitro and in vivo (19). This
effect was demonstrated in prostate cancer cells and in human
prostate cancer xenografts and mediated, at least in part, through
their Nuclear Factor Kappa-B inhibitory effects. Similar studies
with hazel polyphenolic extracts (20) have shown that fractions
with the highest percentage of galloylation were the most effective
in inhibiting human HT-29 colon cancer cell proliferation, arresting the cell cycle in S phase, and inducing apoptosis. Apparently,
the degree of galloylation may play a role in the cytotoxic effects
in colon cancer cells (20), which may indicate that some of the
anticancer effects may be influenced by the high degree of
galloylation of mango polyphenolics.
In summary, SW-480 colon cancer cells were affected most by
the treatment with the selected mango polyphenolics, and extracts
from Ataulfo and Haden were assessed as being the most
efficacious in the induction of cell death in comparison to other
mango varieties.
Growth-Suppressive Activity of Ataulfo Polyphenolic Extract in
Cancer Compared to Normal Cells. The growth inhibition effects
of mango polyphenolics were investigated in noncancerous
colonic myofibroblasts CCD-18Co cells compared to SW-480
cells. At 5 mg of GAE/L, Ataulfo polyphenolics suppressed the
growth of SW-480 cells by ∼79%, while the growth of CCD18Co cells was not inhibited at the same concentration. Even at
the highest concentration of Ataulfo polyphenolics (10 mg of
GAE/L), the growth inhibition for CCD-18Co cells was only
Figure 5. Concentration-dependent growth suppression of Ataulfo polyphenolics on the human SW-480 colon cancer cells and colonic myofibroblast CCD-18Co cells. Cells were incubated with extracts, and the net
growth was measured after 48 h. Values are mean ( SD, n = 3. Asterisks
indicate a significant difference compared to untreated control, p e 0.01.
13 ( 6% (Figure 5). Previous studies have reported that the
growth-inhibitory effects of plant extracts were greater in colon
cancer compared to nontumorigenic colon cells. In general,
bioactive natural compounds which are growth suppressive in
cancer cells but do not affect normal cells may have a potential in
chemoprevention. These data indicate that polyphenolic mango
extracts may have a potential in chemoprevention.
Gene Expression Regulation. The expression of genes involved
in the regulation of apoptosis, referred to as “programmed cell
death”, was investigated. Two pathways involved in the activation of caspases have been studied (21), one of them is the extrinsic
death receptor pathway or Fas-mediated apoptosis induced by
ligation of the Fas receptors. The Fas-receptor activation leads to
activation of caspase-8, an initiator of the caspase cascade,
resulting in proteolysis of cellular proteins and death by apoptosis (21). The other is the intrinsic or mitochondrial pathway
mainly regulated by the Bcl-2 family members, which include proapoptotic and pro-survival proteins. Some pro-apoptotic proteins, such as Bax, form channels and contribute to regulate
preexisting channels that permeabilize the outer mitochondrial
membrane, which releases caspase-activating proteins into the
cytosol, whereas others, such as Bim, neutralize certain prosurvival Bcl-2 proteins (22).
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J. Agric. Food Chem., Vol. 58, No. 7, 2010
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Figure 6. mRNA expression of SW-480 colon cancer cells treated with Ataulfo (A) and Haden (B) polyphenolics after 24 h and analyzed by real-time PCR as
a ratio to TATA-binding protein (TBP) mRNA. Values are means ( SE (n = 3). Different letters indicate significance at p < 0.05.
The effects of Haden and Ataulfo polyphenolics on the
expression of genes involved in apoptosis were investigated within
the concentration range 0-10 mg of GAE/L in SW-480 cells after
24 h of incubation. The gene expression response was achieved at
higher doses of polyphenolics due to the shorter incubation time
compared to doses required for cell growth inhibition in 72 h
incubation.
Results indicate that both the extrinsic death receptor and the
intrinsic mitochondria proapoptotic pathways were targeted at
the transcriptional level by Ataulfo and Haden polyphenolics
after 24 h of treatment (Figure 6). Caspase 8 gene expression was
upregulated by Ataulfo at the highest dose (10 mg of GAE/L)
by 2-fold, suggesting the contribution of the extrinsic pathway
to the induction of apoptosis. However, the expression of Fas
was not regulated within the time frame and concentration range
used and/or might be being targeted at the post-translational
level.
Ataulfo polyphenolics, when used at the highest concentrations, upregulated the transcription of mitochondria-related
proapoptotic Bax and Bim by 1.3- and 1.7-fold, respectively,
whereas Haden polyphenolics only increased Bax mRNA (2.6fold), without any effect on Bim gene expression.
Natural plant extracts and phytochemicals appear to target the
intrinsic mitochondrial pathway (23), and a cross-talk between
the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways occurs. This is the first study
reporting gene expression regulation of mango polyphenolics on
colon SW-480 cancer cells. However, the main polyphenolics
identified in mango, i.e. gallotannins, have been shown to regulate
the pro-apoptotic and cell cycle related proteins on colon cancer
cells (24).
In this study, the effects of mango polyphenolics on the
expression of genes encoding the cell cycle regulator protein
p21(Cip1/WAF1) (p21), which regulates the cell cycle in the
G0/G1 phase, and the protein kinase membrane associated
tyrosine/threonine 1 (PKMYT1), involved in the regulation of
the G2/M phase, were analyzed. Results showed that Ataulfo and
Haden polyphenolics nonsignificantly increased the expression of
Figure 7. Cell cycle analysis of SW-480 colon cancer cells treated with
Ataulfo and Haden polyphenolics for 24 h. Values are means ( SE (n = 3);
different letters indicate significance at p < 0.05.
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J. Agric. Food Chem., Vol. 58, No. 7, 2010
Noratto et al.
Figure 8. Generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) after H2O2-induced oxidative damage in SW-480 colon cancer cells (A) and noncancer colonic
myofibroblasts CCD-18Co cells (B). Cells were pretreated with Ataulfo and Haden polyphenolics for 24 h before induction of ROS . Values are means ( SD
(n = 6); different letters indicate significance at p < 0.05.
p21 mRNA (Figure 6). Both Ataulfo and Haden polyphenolics
upregulated PKMYT1 gene expression by 1.4- and 3-fold,
respectively. The protein encoded by the PKMYT1 gene is a
member of the serine/threonine protein kinase family. This kinase
preferentially phosphorylates and inactivates cell division cycle 2
protein (CDC2) and thus negatively regulates cell cycle in G2/M
transition (25).
Individual phytochemicals found in mango have been reported
to modulate genes involved in cell cycle regulation: i.e., penta-Ogalloyl-β-D-glucose induced S- and G(1)-cell cycle arrests in
prostate cancer cells (26). As observed with many polyphenolics,
the influence on gene expression by mango polyphenolics in SW480 colon cancer cells indicates that growth inhibition is at least in
part mediated by the regulation of pro-apoptotic genes and cell
cycle control genes.
Cell Cycle Regulation. Ataulfo and Haden polyphenolic extracts induced G2/M cycle arrest (Figure 7). Haden polyphenolics
at 10 mg of GAE/L were more effective than Ataulfo in increasing
the number of cells in the G2/M phase by 1.9-fold. These results
were accompanied by upregulation of PKMYT1 gene expression,
a suppressor of G2/M transition. Haden polyphenolics also
induced cell cycle arrest in the S phase in a dose-dependent
manner, whereas Ataulfo polyphenolics did not show significant
effect at this phase. Previous studies demonstrated that gallic acid
was able to interfere with the cell cycle in Caco2 colon cancer cells
with an increased percentage of cells in the S and G2/M
phases (27). Similarly, grape polyphenolics with a high percentage
of galloylation showed to be effective in arresting the cell cycle in
the G2/M phase and inducing apoptosis in HT29 human colon
cancer cells (28). Overall, the cell cycle modulating properties of
gallic acid, galloylated derivatives and other polyphenolics in
mango, which have previously been demonstrated, are likely to
have contributed to the anticancer properties in SW-480 cancer
cells.
Protective Effects against Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS).
Oxidative damage by ROS seems to be a crucial event in the
initiation of cancer; therefore, the potential of mango polyphenolics in protecting colon cells against reactive oxygen species
(ROS) was investigated. Pretreatment of SW-480 cells with 1.5,
2.5, and 5 mg of GAE/L Ataulfo polyphenolics for 24 h
significantly reduced the 200 μM H2O2 induced ROS levels by
∼17%, 31%, and 72%, respectively. Haden polyphenolics, when
used at the same concentrations, were less effective in protecting
against H2O2-induced oxidative damage, with ∼2.5%, 15%, and
18% reduction of ROS production, respectively, in comparison
to untreated control. However, the dose-dependent protection of
SW-480 against ROS production was reversed at the highest dose
(10 mg GAE/L) by both Ataulfo and Haden polyphenolics
(Figure 8A). Previous findings suggest that cancer cells use ROS
signals to drive proliferation and other events required for tumor
progression (29). Therefore, the ROS generation inhibition may
contribute to slowing down the tumor progression. The observed
increase of ROS in cancer cells caused by mango polyphenolics at
higher concentrations may have been caused by an increased
basal oxidative stress which may have driven them beyond a
tumor-sustaining threshold, making them more sensitive to
oxidative stress that finally ends in cell death (29).
In contrast, when the noncancer colonic myofibroblast CCD18Co cells were pretreated with Ataulfo and Haden polyphenolics
at the same concentration range (1.5-10 mg of GAE/L), a
Article
protection against ROS production was achieved in a dosedependent manner, including the highest concentration of 10
mg/L. Within 1.5-10 mg of GAE/L, Ataulfo and Haden reduced
the ROS generation by 18-32% and 6-25%, respectively
(Figure 8B). These results demonstrate that at concentrations
which induce oxidative damage in cancer cells (10 mg of GAE/L),
mango polyphenolics still protect the noncancer cells against
ROS. Overall, Ataulfo polyphenolics were more potent compared to Haden in the protection of noncancer colon CCD-18Co
cells against ROS. Several studies have previously demonstrated
how natural compounds may target the production of ROS in
their cytotoxic effects in cancer cells but not normal cells (30).
In conclusion, among five studied mango cultivars, Ataulfo
and Haden were identified as the most efficacious in their anticancer effects. Polyphenolics identified in the edible part of these
mango cultivars comprise a range of low-molecular-weight galloyl glycosides, flavonol glycosides, mangiferin, and higher molecular weight gallotannins. Ataulfo and Haden polyphenolics
inhibited the growth of human SW-480 colon cancer cells, which
were more sensitive to the treatment than the other cancer cell
lines studied and noncancer CCD-18Co colon cells. SW-480 gene
regulation influenced by Ataulfo and Haden polyphenolics
suggested the induction of apoptosis through intrinsic and
extrinsic mechanisms in addition to cell cycle arrest. Likewise,
cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase was related to the upregulation
of PKMYT1 gene expression. Ataulfo and Haden polyphenolics
exerted protection of noncancer CCD-18Co colon cells by lowering the ROS generation in a dose-dependent manner. On the
basis of their anticancer effects and protective effects in normal
cells, mango polyphenolic extracts may have a high potential as
chemopreventive agents.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We very much appreciate the technical support with the flow
cytometry analysis of Dr. Roger Smith, Texas A&M University.
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Received for review September 18, 2009. Revised manuscript received
January 27, 2010. Accepted January 27, 2010. We thank the National
673 Mango Board and CAPES Foundation (Ministry of Education of
674 Brazil) for financial support (grant n. BEX 130-08-7).