Download The Autism Spectrum in the 21st Century glossary

The Autism Spectrum in the 21st Century: Exploring Psychology,
Biology and Practice
Glossary
This glossary has been compiled by Ilona Roth with Rosa Hoekstra, Greg Pasco and Chris Barson.
Term
AAC
action potential
active but odd
ADHD
ADI
ADOS
adult-directed
approach
aetiology
affective
allele
aloof
amygdala
AQ
AS
ASC
ASD
Asperger
syndrome (AS)
Definition
See Augmentative and Alternative Communication.
The sudden change in a neuron from the resting state to an outburst of
electrical activity and back to the resting state.
One of four styles of social interaction which, according to Lorna Wing,
may be characteristic of adults on the autism spectrum. The adult seeks
people out and tries to make contact, but their approaches tend to be
inappropriate. For instance, they may talk at great length about their
special interest, regardless of relevance or interest to others or come up
too close to other people. (See also aloof; passive and friendly; overly
formal and stilted.)
See attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.
See Autism Diagnostic Interview.
See Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule.
A broad term for a class of interventions in which an adult decides which
skills are targeted for development or enhancement. This contrasts with
child-centred approaches. (See also child-centred approach.)
The study of causes of, or factors contributing to, a particular condition or
disorder.
Emotional.
A different form or variant of a gene.
One of four styles of social interaction which, according to Lorna Wing,
may be characteristic of adults on the autism spectrum. The adult avoids
interaction with others, remaining withdrawn and apparently unaware of
the existence of others. (See also active but odd; passive and friendly;
overly formal and stilted.)
An almond-shaped structure in the brain located under the cerebral
hemispheres. It has an important role in emotion and in regulating
associated behavioural responses such as flushing, trembling or
sweating when frightened.
See autism-spectrum quotient.
See Asperger syndrome.
See autism spectrum conditions.
See autism spectrum disorders.
A sub-type within the autism spectrum. Asperger syndrome differs from
classic autism in that communication difficulties are less pronounced (e.g.
early speech milestones are normal) and IQ is in the normal or above
normal range. Asperger syndrome currently has its own diagnostic
criteria in DSM-IV and ICD-10.
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Term
association
studies
attention-deficit
hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD)
atypical autism
Definition
Studies that test whether a particular allele is associated with a condition
or trait. Most commonly, association studies compare the frequency of a
particular gene variant in cases (e.g. individuals with autism) with the
frequency of this gene variant in controls. If the allele is more frequently
found in cases than controls, this gene variant may constitute a risk factor
for the condition. Association studies can either test the role of particular
candidate genes (see also candidate genes), or scan the whole genome
(see also genome-wide association study).
A condition characterised by persistent and pronounced overactivity and
difficulty in attending.
In the DSM-IV-TR diagnostic system, this term is used interchangeably
with PDD-NOS, in relation to individuals with autistic-like symptoms, who
do not meet the strict criteria for autistic disorder (the DSM-IV-TR term for
classic autism.) In ICD-10, atypical autism is defined more specifically in
relation to atypically late onset of autistic symptoms, or the absence of
one or more typical symptoms. (See also PDD-NOS.)
Augmentative and A collective term for systems offered as an alternative or supplement to
Alternative
speech, which aim to enhance a child's communication by the use of
Communication
simplified vocabulary, clear structure and visual aids such as pictorial
(AAC)
symbols. (See also Blissymbols; PECS.)
autism
Neurodevelopmental condition(s) characterised by moderate to profound
difficulties in communication and social interaction, and repetitive
activities and interest. The term autism is used both specifically for the
'classic' form of the condition, and collectively for the spectrum of related
difficulties. (See also classic autism; autism spectrum; autism spectrum
disorder.)
Autism Bill
Draft legislation aimed at enhancing services and support for adults on
the autism spectrum. In 2009 the draft proposals passed through all
stages of the English parliamentary scrutiny process, and became the
Autism Act 2009. This Act requires both national and regional
government in England to address the serious needs of adults with
autism as set out in the Bill.
Autism Diagnostic An interview designed for use with the parents of children or adults who
Interview (ADI)
are being assessed for an autism spectrum diagnosis. The ADI
comprises questions about current skills and behaviours, as well as how
these behaviours were manifested at age four to five years or at any point
during development.
Autism Diagnostic An interactive assessment tool used in making autism spectrum
Observation
diagnoses. It consists of four separate modules, each comprising tasks
Schedule (ADOS) designed for use with children of different ages and different levels of
development and language.
autism-friendly
An educational environment that works with and around the special
school
difficulties in autism and their implications for schooling. Features include
specialised staff, staff training and briefing, liaison with parents and local
service providers and adaptations to the school curriculum and physical
environment.
autism spectrum
Term first introduced by Lorna Wing to evoke variation in the expression
of autistic symptoms across individuals and sub-groups. The autism
spectrum is treated both as a continuum of variation between individuals,
and as a collection of diagnostic sub-types, including classic autism,
Asperger syndrome and PDD-NOS.
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Term
autism spectrum
conditions (ASC)
Definition
Term used by some professionals and some families as a more
acceptable description of the autism spectrum than autism spectrum
disorders. (See also autism; autism spectrum disorders; autism
spectrum.)
autism spectrum
Term used in formal diagnosis, and by many professionals in the context
disorders (ASD)
of clinical practice to refer the autism spectrum and its sub-types. (See
also autism; autism spectrum conditions; autism spectrum.)
autism-spectrum
A questionnaire-based measure of autistic-type traits devised by Simon
quotient (AQ)
Baron-Cohen and colleagues. A person's AQ score is derived by scoring
their answers to questionnaire items concerning the way they react to
other people, social situations and physical entities. Any individual may
be scored on this measure. Those with an autism spectrum diagnosis are
predicted to score at the extremely high end of the range of scores for a
population.
autistic disorder
A formal term for classic autism introduced into the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual) in 1987. In the ICD diagnostic system, the
corresponding term is childhood autism. (See also classic autism;
childhood autism.)
autistic traits
Psychological or personality characteristics typically associated with
autism, such as being withdrawn, emotionally detached, or obsessed with
particular objects or interests. They do not necessarily mean that the
person meets the diagnostic criteria for autism. (See also broader autism
phenotype.)
average
An average is the single ‘middle’ value used to represent a set of
observations or measurements. Most often the average is the mean of
the measurements, calculated by adding all the measurements together
and dividing by the number of measurements taken.
awareness of self The capacity to be aware of one’s own inner states, experiences and
characteristic ways of engaging with the world.
axon
The part of a neuron that sends signals to other cells (output).
BAP
See broader autism phenotype.
bar chart
A form of visual representation of data similar to a graph and widely used
in scientific research. Bars set out along the horizontal axis are used to
represent different groups of participants and/or different sets of
observations. Bars of different heights represent different scores on a
variable which is represented by the vertical axis. For instance, in the
evaluation of an intervention for autism, one pair of bars may be used to
represent the scores of intervention and control groups on the outcome
variable before the intervention, while a second pair of bars represents
the scores of these two groups after the intervention.
base or unit within A separate division within a mainstream primary or secondary school
a mainstream
which provides some specialised classes for students with a disability
school
such as autism. The students join classes in the mainstream school when
appropriate and are educated in the base or unit for the rest of the time.
This definition refers to the UK but similar provision exists in some other
countries. (See also mainstream school.)
baseline period
The period prior to introduction of an intervention within a multiplebaseline study. Measurements of participants' behaviour during the
baseline period are compared with those made after the intervention, to
evaluate whether the intervention has had any effect. (See also multiplebaseline study.)
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Term
basic emotions
behaviour
modification
behavioural
interventions
biological
perspective
blind rating
Blissymbols
block design
bonding
broader autism
phenotype (BAP)
bullying
calendrical
calculation
CAMHS
candidate gene
case history
Definition
Usually applied to six emotions – happiness, sadness, anger, fear,
disgust and surprise. These emotions are said to evoke characteristic
facial expressions that are universally expressed and recognised across
cultures. Research studies differ as to whether people on the autism
spectrum have difficulty recognising basic emotions. (See also complex
emotions.)
The application of principles of learning and conditioning to influence or
improve a person's behaviour, by eradicating maladaptive behaviours
and learning new ones. Based on the work of B.F.Skinner, and pioneered
in the autism field by Ivar Lovaas.
A broad term for the class of interventions that employ principles of
learning such as operant conditioning to bring about changes in a child or
adult's behaviour. Behaviour deemed desirable is rewarded or reinforced,
while unwanted behaviour is reduced or extinguished. These approaches
are adult-directed. (See also adult-directed approach; behaviour
modification; operant conditioning.)
Seeking to understand and explain aspects of human behaviour in terms
of biological concepts and theories.
A procedure to ensure that when a researcher evaluates or interprets
observed behaviour, their judgements are not influenced by expectations
about how the individuals being observed should behave. In autism
research, for instance, the researcher making the observations may not
be told whether or not the individuals being observed have autism
diagnoses.
A form of Alternative and Augmentative Communication employing a
system of pictorial symbols, and used to help children with poor verbal
communication. Each symbol represents a concept and can be combined
with others to represent further concepts. (See also Augmentative and
Alternative Communication.)
A sub-test within a non-verbal intelligence (IQ) test, in which the
participant is asked to arrange some coloured blocks to copy a geometric
pattern. (See also intelligence tests.)
The development of a close emotional relationship between family
members or friends. Bonding is a mutual, interactive process involving
reciprocity or 'give and take'. In typical development, bonding between
infant and mother is thought to develop from birth onwards. (See also
reciprocity.)
Milder manifestations of traits characteristic for autism in relatives of
people with autism.
Verbal or physical intimidation or maltreatment of somebody weaker or in
a more vulnerable situation. Bullying causes fear, distress and often has
long-term effects.
The highly specialised ability to work out what day of the week it was on
a randomly chosen and distant date such as 20 January 1809. (See also
savant syndrome.)
See Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service.
A gene whose function, or location on a chromosome, suggests that it
might be associated with a condition or disorder.
A detailed account of facts relevant to the development of an individual's
problems or situation. The material is structured and organised as an
informative record for use by a psychiatrist, psychologist, social worker
etc.
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Term
case study
CDC
cell body
central coherence
cerebellum
cerebral cortex
cerebral
hemispheres
CFCS
challenging
behaviours
CHAT
Checklist for
Autism in
Toddlers (CHAT)
chelation
Child and
Adolescent
Mental Health
Service (CAMHS)
Child and Family
Consultation
Service (CFCS)
child-centred
approach
Child
Development
Centre (CDC)
Definition
In-depth observation and description of the specific characteristics of a
selected individual. Pooling of case study material across individuals may
permit identification of general features. The method is used by clinical
practitioners, and in some forms of research.
See Child Development Centre.
The main part of a neuron where the information is processed. (See also
axon; dendrite.)
Focusing on overall form and meaning rather than fine detail when
processing information from the environment. This has been considered
as both a perceptual phenomenon (seeing whole figures, or hearing
whole patterns of sounds) and a conceptual phenomenon (processing
the meaning or gist from spoken or written language). A key theory of
autism suggests that central coherence is lacking in people on the autism
spectrum, though this is now proposed as a cognitive style rather than a
fixed deficit in processing information. (See also weak central coherence;
cognitive style.)
A structure in the brain located under the occipital lobe of the cortex. It
plays an important role in the control of motor movements, posture and
balance. It is particularly important in movements with a social function,
such as gestures and expression.
The outer layer of the brain.
The brain is divided into two approximately symmetrical halves, referred
to as the left and the right cerebral hemispheres.
See Child and Family Consultation Service.
Behaviour of such intensity, frequency or duration that the physical safety
of the person or others is placed in serious jeopardy and/or access to and
use of ordinary community facilities is impeded.
See Checklist for Autism in Toddlers.
One of the first tools developed for the screening of autism in preschool
children. It was originally designed to be administered at a routine
developmental assessment of children at 18 months of age, carried out
by health visitors or GPs. Key items include questions about pointing,
shared attention and pretend play.
An intervention which involves injecting people with autism with agents
that reduce the levels of heavy metals such as lead and mercury.
Considered very hazardous.
A service within the National Health Service in the UK, which provides
assessment and treatment for young people with mental health and
psychiatric difficulties.
A UK service to which children and adolescents, and their family
members, may be referred if there are problems with behaviour or
development at school or at home.
A broad term for the class of interventions which involve following the
child's own interests and motivation as a means of encouraging
interaction and learning. This contrasts with adult-directed approaches.
(See also adult-directed approaches.)
Child Development Centres carry out thorough assessments of children
who appear to have developmental problems. Social Communication
Clinics within CDCs specialise in assessing children with language and
communication difficulties. (See also Social Communication Clinic.)
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Term
childhood autism
Definition
A formal term for classic autism within the ICD diagnostic system. In the
DSM diagnostic system, the corresponding term is autistic disorder. (See
also classic autism; autistic disorder.)
chromosome
Structural unit in all living cells, composed of long strands of DNA on
which genes are found. (See also DNA; X and Y chromosomes.)
chronological age A person's age in years and months. In psychological tests, a person's
chronological age is often considered alongside their mental age.
classic autism
The term classic autism is often used to differentiate the prototypical form
of autism, with full expression of the characteristic triad of impairments,
from other sub-types of autism such as Asperger syndrome. (See also
autism; Asperger syndrome.)
clinical
A psychologist with specialist qualifications and experience in the use of
psychologist
psychological methods and theories to help people of all ages who have
learning disabilities or mental health problems, such as depression or
anxiety. Unlike psychiatrists, clinical psychologists do not have to be
medically qualified.
co-morbidity
A medical term for the presence of one or more conditions or disorders
alongside a primary condition. In autism, epilepsy is a common co-morbid
condition.
codes
Words, phrases or symbols that provide concise summaries of
information. In psychological research coding (the use of codes) is
employed to provide informative short-hand headings for rich data such
as spontaneous behaviour, spoken or written language.
cognition
The mental processes involved in thinking, understanding and using
language, planning activities and solving problems.
cognitive style
A strategy or preference affecting the way a person processes
information, emphasising that there is scope for the individual to control
what they attend to and select. The idea that attention to detail or weak
central coherence is a cognitive style in autism contrasts with the earlier
claim that this is a fixed and immutable bias. (See also central
coherence; weak central coherence.)
complex emotions Emotions such as embarrassment, shame and pride. Typically these
emotions cannot be recognised from a person's facial expression alone,
but require the integration of other sources of information, especially the
context in which the emotion has arisen. For instance, to recognise that a
person is feeling embarrassed, it may be necessary to know that they
have done something that would cause them to feel this way (See also
basic emotions.)
comprehensive
Interventions, also known as ‘integrated approaches’ that aim to help and
approaches
support individuals on the autism spectrum across many key aspects of
functioning, including learning, behaviour, social and communication
needs. These approaches are called comprehensive because they
address a broad range of skills and deficits, and also because they may
be used in different settings (at home, school, in respite services and
other locations), as well as across the lifetime of the individual. Examples
are TEACCH, Lovaas and the Son-Rise programme.
concordance
The occurrence of the same (or similar) condition, characteristic or trait in
both members of a pair of twins.
concordance rate The proportion or percentage of cases in which both members of a pair of
twins show the same (or similar) condition, characteristic or trait.
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confounding
factor
Definition
An extraneous variable in a research study or clinical evaluation that
varies between groups or conditions in such a way that the influences
responsible for observed effects on outcomes are unclear. For instance,
if participants receiving an intervention are high-functioning, while those
not receiving the intervention are low-functioning, differences in
outcomes may be due to this rather than to the effects of the intervention.
connectivity
The connections between different parts of the brain and how well they
communicate.
control group
A group of participants in an experiment or other systematic study which
differs from the experimental group in not having a characteristic of
interest, or not receiving a 'treatment' which the experimental group
receives. For instance, the control group may be typically developing
individuals, while the experimental group has autism spectrum
diagnoses; alternatively the control group and experimental group may
both have similar characteristics but be presented with different stimuli or
task conditions in an experiment. (See also experiment; experimental
group.)
core deficit
Models that assume that a single underlying problem or deficit accounts
models
for the wide range of behavioural and psychological difficulties that are
observed in autism.
correlations
A correlation is a statistical relationship between two variables. A
correlation of 1 means that the two variables are perfectly correlated, a
correlation of 0 means that the two variables bear no relationship at all.
cortex
See cerebral cortex.
cross-sectional
Studies that collect information in individuals at only a single point in time.
studies
These contrast with longitudinal studies in which individuals are followed
over time to track their development. (See also longitudinal studies.)
Daily Life Therapy A whole school approach to children with autism originally developed in
Japan, and now also practised in Higashi schools in the UK and USA.
Educational goals include independence in daily life skills, improved
awareness of body and behaviour and group participation. (See also
whole school approach.)
de novo mutation Literally a 'new' mutation: a new genetic variant that neither parent
possessed nor transmitted which is expressed for the first time in the
offspring.
deletion
A type of genetic mutation in which a sequence of DNA has been lost. A
deletion is the opposite of a duplication. (See also duplication; mutation.)
dendrites
The parts of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons (input.)
deoxyribonucleic
See DNA.
acid
Department for
A UK government department with responsibility for all issues affecting
Education and
people up to the age of 19 including child protection and education. In
Skills (DfES)
England this is now the Department for Children, Schools and Families
(DCSF.)
dependent
A variable which is observed to vary under the influence of another
variable
variable. In experimental research, the experimenter manipulates or
changes one variable (the independent variable) in order to observe the
effects on another variable (the dependent variable.) For instance, the
experimenter might observe how different characteristics between an
experimental and a control group influence the scores achieved by the
two groups on a memory test. (See also outcome measure; variable.)
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Term
Developmental,
Dimensional and
Diagnostic
interview (3Di)
Developmental,
Individualdifference,
Relationshipbased (DIR)
developmentalpragmatic
approaches
developmental
trajectory
DfES
3Di
Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual
of Mental
Disorders (DSM)
diagnostic criteria
Diagnostic
Interview for
Social and
Communication
Disorders
(DISCO)
DIR
DISCO
discrete trial
procedures
Definition
An interview designed for use with the parents of children or adults who
are being assessed for an autism spectrum diagnosis. The format of the
3Di is similar in structure to the ADI, but uses computer analysis of the
responses in an attempt to reduce the time burden on clinicians. Like the
DISCO, the 3Di offers a dimensional framework, allowing for graded
evaluation of how far the individual matches the criteria for a pervasive
developmental disorder. (See also ADI; DISCO.)
A developmental-pragmatic intervention, intensely child-centred, and
based on the idea that children on the spectrum do not connect social
and emotional knowledge to their developing motor and symbolic skills.
The intervention involves following and imitating the child's actions using
sensorimotor techniques such as swinging or physical pressure, and
presenting the child with challenges to be overcome by gestures or
verbal communications. Also known as Floortime. (See also child-centred
approach; developmental-pragmatic approaches.)
A class of interventions, also known as social pragmatic approaches,
based upon an understanding of typical developmental processes,
particularly in relation to early social communication and interaction skills.
A term for the developmental sequence. This emphasises two facets of
typical development: (1) There is a characteristic sequence of
'milestones' such as crawling, sitting up and walking. (2) Early
developmental skills such as pointing and looking are thought to lay the
foundations for later more sophisticated skills such as play with siblings,
friendships with peers, or the complex relationships of the teenage years
and adulthood. The idea of an atypical developmental trajectory is an
important concept in work on autism.
See Department for Education and Skills.
See Developmental, Dimensional and Diagnostic interview.
The American Psychiatric Association's formal system for the
classification and diagnosis of psychiatric conditions, mental health
problems and psychological disability. The diagnostic criteria and
guidelines are revised periodically, the current version, DSM-IV-TR,
being shortly due for replacement by DSM-V. (See also diagnostic
criteria; ICD.)
Formal descriptions of medical and psychiatric conditions, used in
making diagnoses. The criteria comprise a list of symptoms or features
that an individual must have for a condition or problem to be diagnosed,
and in some cases specify additional symptoms that should not be
present.
An interview designed for use with the parents of children or adults who
are being assessed for an autism spectrum diagnosis. The interview
offers a 'dimensional' framework, allowing for ‘graded’ evaluation of how
far an individual matches the criteria for a pervasive developmental
disorder, as defined in the ICD and DSM systems. (See also ADI; 3Di.)
See Developmental, Individual-difference, Relationship-based.
See Diagnostic Interview for Social and Communication Disorders
Procedures originating within the operant conditioning framework, and
employed within the Lovaas approach to intervention. They involve
analysing a child’s behaviour into components that can be individually
tackled using operant conditioning and reinforcement. (See also operant
conditioning; Lovaas approach.)
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Term
dizygotic (DZ)
twins
DNA
(deoxyribonucleic
acid)
Down syndrome
DSM
duplications
E-S theory
EarlyBird
echolalia
eclectic approach
ecological validity
EEG
EF
effectiveness
study
efficacy study
electroencephalo
graphy (EEG)
embedded figures
test
empathising
quotient (EQ)
Definition
Twins that are the product of two different eggs that were fertilised by two
different sperm cells. Dizygotic twins are genetically non-identical and
can therefore be of same sex or opposite sex. They are genetically no
more similar than non-twin siblings. (See also identical twins; twin
method.)
Molecules in the cell that contain the instructions necessary in the
development and functioning of all living organisms. Sections of DNA
form genes.
A disorder caused by chromosome abnormality and usually involves a
degree of intellectual disability, together with characteristic physical
features, and sometimes medical problems.
See Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.
A type of genetic mutation in which a sequence of DNA is present in two
or more copies on the chromosome. A duplication is the opposite of a
deletion. (See also deletion; mutation.)
See empathising-systemising (E-S) theory.
A three-month education programme providing support and
encouragement and promoting good practice for parents of newly
diagnosed (preschool) children on the autism spectrum, run by the
National Autistic Society. (See also Hanen.)
The repetition of words, phrases or sentences just spoken by others, in a
'parrot-like' fashion. Echolalia is common in individuals on the autism
spectrum, and also occurs in conditions such as schizophrenia and
Tourette's syndrome. In autism, the repetition may be immediate or
delayed.
The use of a combination of different interventions to support people with
autism in real-life settings such as the classroom or adult service.
The extent to which an experiment or other research task mirrors a reallife situation. Ecological validity can refer to features such as the type of
stimuli used, the responses that participants are required to make, or the
context in which the study is conducted.
See electroencephalography.
See executive function.
An evaluation of an intervention carried out under ‘real-world’ or everyday
conditions, e.g. the intervention is delivered by parents in the child's
home environment.
An evaluation of an intervention carried out under ideal conditions, e.g.
by highly trained specialists.
A procedure used in research and clinical practice, in which several
electrodes are attached to the scalp of the participant. These electrodes
measure the electrical activity that is produced by the neurons in the
brain.
A test of the capacity to identify an individual component or shape from a
pattern in which it is embedded.
A questionnaire devised by Baron-Cohen and colleagues to measure
levels of empathising or empathy. The assumption underlying the test is
that empathising is a dimensional or continuous trait. Each member of a
population can receive a low, high or average score on empathising; on
average, males are predicted to score lower than females; people on the
autism spectrum are predicted to score very low on empathising. (See
also empathising-systemising theory; systemising quotient.)
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Term
empathisingsystemising (E-S)
theory
empathy
epidemiological
study
epilepsy
EQ
evidence base
evidence-based
practice
excitatory
exclusion
executive function
(EF)
experiment
Definition
A theory formulated by Baron-Cohen, which proposes that autism is
characterised by poor empathising ability, combined with enhanced
systemising. (See also empathy; empathising quotient; systemising;
systemising quotient.)
Broadly defined as the capacity to understand and 'enter into' another
person's emotions. Different researchers employ this term in related but
slightly different ways. For Hobson, empathy involves a direct and
intuitive feeling 'for and with' another person, which will typically include
feeling the same emotion the other person feels. For Baron-Cohen,
empathy, or empathising, involves two separable components –
cognitive: recognising what someone else is feeling and affective:
experiencing an appropriate reaction, e.g. feeling sad yourself or trying to
comfort someone. Research suggests that empathy is impaired in
autism.
Study of the factors determining and influencing the frequency and
distribution of disease, injury and other health-related events and their
causes in a defined human population. Estimating the prevalence of the
condition in question is often an important part of an epidemiological
study. (See also prevalence.)
A group of neurological disorders characterised by recurrent seizures,
which reflect abnormal or excessive activity in one or more brain area.
Seizures may be accompanied by uncontrollable jerking and temporary
loss of consciousness.
See empathising quotient.
The quantity and quality of available evidence concerning the efficacy
and/or effectiveness of an intervention. (See also evidence-based
practice; efficacy study; effectiveness study.)
The approach which emphasises that interventions and other clinical
applications must be based on sound empirical research findings, i.e.
there must be a good evidence base for them. The approach is widely
advocated in clinical psychology. (See also evidence base.)
When a neurotransmitter induces an action potential in a postsynaptic
neuron or increases the existing activity of this neuron, the effect is said
to be excitatory.
An order that temporarily or permanently excludes a child from their usual
school.
A collective term for cognitive capacities such as planning, flexibly
transferring attention from one activity to another, inhibiting inappropriate
responses in order to stay 'on task', and generating new activities and
ideas. (See also planning; mental flexibility; inhibition; generativity.)
Method used throughout the natural and social sciences to gather
evidence relevant to explaining particular phenomena. Typically an
experiment involves (a) testing a hypothesis by systematically
manipulating (varying) one variable, known as the independent variable,
and measuring the effects on another variable, known as the dependent
variable; (b) controlling all sources of variation except the ones under
study, so that the effects of the first variable on the second can be clearly
inferred. Psychological experiments frequently involve comparing one
group of participants (the experimental group) against a control group.
(See also dependent variable; hypothesis; variable.)
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Term
experimental
group
expressive
language
extreme male
brain theory
false belief test
falsifiable
firing
Floortime
fMRI
follow-up studies
fragile X
syndrome
Freudian
psychoanalysis
frontal lobe
full-scale IQ
Definition
A group of participants in an experiment or other systematic study,
defined in terms of a characteristic of interest and/or a 'treatment' that
distinguishes this group from the control group. For instance, participants
in the experimental group may have autism spectrum diagnoses, while
participants in the control group do not; alternatively both experimental
group and control group may have similar characteristics but be
presented with different stimuli or task conditions in an experiment. (See
also experiment; control group.)
Language that a person produces, typically in written or spoken form.
Difficulty with expressive language means that the person has delay
and/or difficulty in producing language. The person's spoken language
will be sparse in vocabulary and/or grammatically and syntactically
incorrect. The person is likely to have difficulty in putting thoughts into
words, and in using language appropriately in different settings. Difficulty
with expressive language is common on the autism spectrum, and is
often accompanied by receptive language difficulty. (See also receptive
language.)
An extension of Baron-Cohen's empathising-systemising theory which
claims that the cognitive profile in autism, characterised by an unusually
high score on systemising and an unusually low score on empathising, is
an accentuated version of the typical profile for males. This has led
Baron-Cohen to link autism to high levels of the 'male' hormone,
testosterone.
An experimental test of the ability to understand that another person's
belief about a situation may be false, that is, different from reality. Used
as test of theory of mind in people on the autism spectrum. The classic
false belief test for children is known as Sally-Anne.
Refers to the need for a theory to be formulated such that it is in principle
possible to prove that it is incorrect. A theory which is not falsifiable is
likely to have little explanatory power.
Neuronal signalling via the axons of these cells
Another term for Developmental, Individual-difference, Relationshipbased (DIR). See definition for that term.
See functional magnetic resonance imaging.
Studies in which the characteristics of a group of individuals are tracked
over an extended period of time, in order to evaluate progress and
development. For instance, the symptoms and intellectual functioning of
a group of autistic children may be re-assessed in adulthood.
A genetic disease syndrome caused by an expansion of a sequence of
the FMR1 gene located on the X chromosome. It is the second most
common cause of intellectual disability in males.
A theoretical and therapeutic framework developed by Sigmund Freud,
considered the founding father of psychoanalysis.
A lobe of the cerebral cortex. It is concerned with articulation of speech,
movement, emotions and problem solving. It is also important for
executive functions, such as reasoning and planning. Called 'frontal'
because it is located towards the front of the brain.
The overall score that a person achieves on an intelligence test,
reflecting a mean of their verbal and performance IQ. (See also
intelligence quotient.)
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functional
magnetic
resonance
imaging (fMRI)
fusiform gyrus
GABA (gammaaminobutyric
acid)
generalisation
generativity
genes
genetic
genetic
counsellors/
counselling
genetic
heterogeneity
genome-wide
association study
glutamate
grammar
graph
grey matter
Definition
A variant of MRI scanning that offers insight into the brain at work. fMRI
can give very detailed information about the location of the brain activity,
but is limited to changes that take place over about a second. (See also
imaging; magnetic resonance imaging.)
A part of the brain in the temporal lobe, known to play an essential role in
recognising faces and for differentiating between different faces, objects
and emotions.
A neurotransmitter that plays an important role in early brain
development. It primarily has an inhibitory effect in the brain.
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The carrying over of a skill or response to a different situation or context,
e.g. one that is more complex, more ‘real-life’ or involves interacting with
different people.
The capacity to generate new activities and ideas. A component of
executive function. (See also executive function.)
Genes are small sections of very long molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA.) Genes contain the codes for proteins, which are in turn necessary
in the development and functioning of all living organisms.
Refers to the influence of genes on a condition or trait (physical,
psychological, etc.)
An educational counselling process for individuals and families who have
a genetic condition or disorder or who are at risk for such a
condition/disorder. Genetic counselling is designed to provide patients
and their families with information about their condition and about the
risks that further offspring may also be at risk of developing the disorder.
Given the current state of knowledge about genetic factors in autism,
genetic counselling cannot provide a definitive risk assessment.
The notion that a single condition or disorder may be caused by different
genes. Autism is genetically heterogeneous: the set of genes involved in
causing autism in one individual is likely to be different from the set of
genes involved in autism in another individual. Autism is also polygenic:
in a given individual, the condition is likely to be influenced by the
combined effects of multiple genes. (See also polygenic.)
An association study that systematically assesses DNA variation
throughout the genome.
A neurotransmitter found throughout the brain. Glutamate has an
excitatory effect on the postsynaptic neuron and is thought to be crucial
in neural plasticity and in cognitive functions such as learning and
memory.
A set of rules that govern the composition of sentences, phrases, and
words in a given language. Each language (English, French, etc.) has its
own grammar. (See also syntax.)
A visual diagram showing the relationship between two or more variables
(for instance height and age) which are plotted against each other.
Typically, the basic framework of a graph is a vertical line or axis (the 'y'axis) crossing or joining a horizontal line (the 'x'-axis) to form an L shape
or a cross. The y-axis shows the possible values of one variable, while
the x-axis shows the possible values of the other variable. Observations
of the relationship between the two variables are plotted as the
coordinates of the two sets of values.
Refers to the cortical regions of the brain. Because the cortex has such a
high density of cell bodies, it has a relatively dark colour. (See also white
matter.)
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gyrus
Hanen
health visitor
heritability
HFA
high-functioning
autism (HFA)
horizontal axis
hormone
human genome
human primacy
hypothesis
ICD
idiopathic
IEP
imaging
incidental
teaching
inclusion
Definition
The smooth areas of the cortex between foldings, which form a crown,
are termed gyri (singular term is gyrus.)
An education programme developed in Canada in which parents and
other care-givers of children on the autism spectrum learn techniques for
promoting children’s communication and language development during
everyday activities. (See also EarlyBird.)
A qualified nurse or midwife, who works in the community, providing
advice and help on health matters, especially to parents with young
children.
The extent to which a condition or feature can be attributed to genetic
influences. If a condition is highly heritable it means that parents are
likely to pass on the condition to their child(ren) through their genes.
See high-functioning autism.
A term used by some specialists to describe cases of autism where the
individuals’ full-scale IQ scores are above 70. HFA is not a formal
diagnostic category: the term is used in everyday situations and
research. The difference, if any, between HFA and Asperger syndrome is
a matter of debate. (See also low-functioning autism; Asperger
syndrome.)
The horizontal dimension of a graph. Also known as the 'x'-axis. (See
also graph.)
Type of chemical that has a major role in transmitting signals around the
body.
All the hereditary information carried within each human cell.
Refers to the observation that from birth onwards infants engage with
other humans in ways which are distinct from how they engage with nonhumans and the physical world.
A proposed explanation for an observed phenomenon, which is tested
using the experimental method. Typically the hypothesis will predict the
outcome that will occur if one variable has an effect on, or relationship to,
another. (See also experiment; variable.)
See International Classification of Diseases.
A term used to describe conditions or disorders which are of unknown
cause.
See Individual Education Plan.
Collective name given to any of a number of techniques that allow a
computer-generated image of a living brain or other internal body
structure to be produced. (See also fMRI; MEG; MRI.)
A naturalistic intervention harnessing naturally occurring interactions
between an adult and a child in contexts such as free play. These
opportunities are used by the adult to transmit information or give the
child practice in developing a skill.
The aspiration that all children, regardless of disability, religion, ethnic
group or other differences, should have the opportunity to learn, achieve
and participate fully in the life of their school. In relation to disabilities
such as autism, inclusion is quite often interpreted to mean the right of a
child to be educated in their own community, alongside other children of
the same age without disabilities – thus in the mainstream. However, this
environment may not necessarily provide the most inclusive experience
for a child on the autism spectrum.
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Term
independent
school
Individual
Education Plan
(IEP)
inhibition
inhibitory
innate
integrated
approaches
intellectual
disability
intelligence
quotient (IQ)
intelligence tests
(IQ tests)
inter-rater
reliability
International
Classification of
Diseases (ICD)
intervention group
interventions
intonation
Definition
A mainstream, special or residential school, also known as a nonmaintained school, which is not funded by the local authority and is
therefore fee-paying. Parents may opt to educate a child at their own
expense, or seek local authority funding to support their child's education.
This definition refers to the UK but similar provision exists in some other
countries. (See also mainstream school; special school; residential
school.)
A plan designed to support and enhance the educational progress of an
individual child by specifying short-term targets and strategies, tailored to
the specific educational needs of the child.
Suppressing or inhibiting inappropriate responses in order to stay 'on
task'. A component of executive function. (See also executive function.)
When a neurotransmitter decreases the level of existing activity in a
postsynaptic neuron, the effect is said to be inhibitory.
Characteristics that are present before or at birth.
An alternative term for comprehensive interventions. See definition for
that term.
Marked difficulty in tasks involving thinking, logical reasoning and
problem solving. Usually defined as an IQ score less than 70.
The score that a person achieves on an intelligence test standardised by
comparison with the scores of other individuals within the same age
range. Some intelligence tests include a separate verbal and
performance intelligence quotient. In this case, their full-scale intelligence
quotient is the mean of these two.
Standardised tests used to provide an objective measure of a person's
intellectual abilities, as compared with the average for the population.
The person receives an intelligence quotient (IQ score) based on their
performance on tests of intellectual ability including acquisition of
concepts and information, problem solving and logical reasoning. One
widely used system includes verbal tests such as vocabulary,
comprehension and general knowledge, and performance or non-verbal
tests, such as block design and picture completion. (See also block
design; picture completion; intelligence quotient.)
An estimate of the extent to which two or more researchers, working
independently of one another, agree in the way they rate or interpret
observed behaviour. Inter-rater reliability is an important step in
quantitative observational research. (See also observational method;
quantitative method.)
The World Health Organisation's formal system for the classification and
diagnosis of physical disorders, psychiatric conditions, mental health
problems and psychological disability. The diagnostic criteria and
guidelines are revised periodically; the current version, ICD-10, is due for
replacement in 2014. (See also diagnostic criteria; DSM.)
The group receiving an intervention in a study evaluating its efficacy or
effectiveness. The intervention group is equivalent to the experimental
group in a research study, and is compared with a control group which
does not receive the intervention.
Procedures for supporting and improving the health and functioning of
someone with a clinical problem such as autism.
The characteristic rise and fall of speech, which plays a role in
communication, and may be atypical in people on the autism spectrum.
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intuitive physics
intuitive
understanding
IQ
ironic
joint attention
language
Learning Support
Assistants
LFA
linkage analysis
local authorities
longitudinal
studies
Lovaas approach
low-functioning
autism (LFA)
MA
MAA
Definition
Everyday insights into the forces governing physical objects, the
implication being that these insights are acquired relatively
spontaneously, rather than being the result of education. A test of
intuitive physics devised by Baron-Cohen and colleagues has been used
to demonstrate that people on the autism spectrum may be good
systemisers, i.e. highly attuned to physical systems. (See also
systemising; empathising-systemising theory.)
A direct or spontaneous understanding of other people, which does not
depend on conscious processes of working out their thoughts and
feelings. (See also empathy.)
See intelligence quotient.
Irony is the use of an expression or phrase to mean something different
from or opposite to what it normally means. Being ironic means speaking
with irony.
The phenomenon in which one person coordinates or shares their
attention with another, in order to focus on the same object or event.
Joint attention emerges in typically developing children by about 12
months of age. Children later receiving autism spectrum diagnoses show
poor joint attention skills. (See also protodeclarative pointing.)
Narrowly defined, language is a system of sounds, signs or written items
(letters, word fragments and words), together with rules for combining
these elements in ways that convey meaning to others who share a
knowledge of this language.
Learning support staff, also known as Teaching Assistants, who work
alongside teachers in the classroom, helping students progress with their
learning. In some cases they specialise in areas such as literacy,
numeracy, special educational needs, music, English as an additional
language, and the creative arts.
See low-functioning autism.
A technique that detects linkage between DNA markers (landmarks in the
DNA) and a condition or a trait. The technique is used to get an idea of
what region of which chromosomes may be involved in the risk for a
condition such as autism.
Regional government bodies in the UK with responsibilities in areas such
as education, health and social services.
Studies involving repeated observations over an extended period of time.
Longitudinal studies are often employed to follow the development of
individuals over time. These studies contrast with cross-sectional studies,
in which data are collected in each individual at one time point only. (See
also cross-sectional studies.)
A comprehensive behavioural intervention for children on the autism
spectrum developed by Ivar Lovaas and colleagues. The technique
employs reinforcement to modify children's behaviour through operant
conditioning. The technique typically targets language development,
social interaction and school integration skills. (See also behavioural
interventions; comprehensive or integrated approaches; operant
conditioning; reinforcement.)
A term used by some specialists to describe cases of autism where the
individuals' full-scale IQ score is below 70, i.e. in the disabled range. LFA
is not a formal diagnostic category; the term is used in everyday
situations, and in research. (See also high-functioning autism.)
See mental age.
See multi-agency assessment.
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Definition
magnetic
A readily available and widely used imaging technique that reveals the
resonance
structural anatomy of the brain. (See also imaging.)
imaging (MRI)
magnetoencepha- A method that measures brain activity directly. MEG exploits the fact that
lography (MEG)
active neurons induce weak magnetic fields, so when a group of neurons
is collectively active, they produce a signal that is strong enough to be
measured. MEG detects the brain’s electrical activity during a task
directly (without much time delay), but it is less precise than fMRI in
determining the exact location of brain activity. (See also imaging.)
mainstream
The type of primary or secondary school that is provided for the majority
school
of children. While some children with disabilities such as autism do attend
mainstream school, the curriculum and environment is not specifically
tailored to children with special needs. Some need a more specialised
education environment and are educated in different schools. This
definition refers to education systems in the UK but similar provision
exists in some other countries. (See also special school; residential
school.)
mean
The most commonly used type of average, calculated by adding a set of
measurements together, and dividing by the number of measurements
made.
median
A type of average used in statistics and research reports. The median is
calculated by arranging a set of values in order of magnitude and
identifying the middle value. If two values are in the middle the median is
the mean of these two values.
medical model
The approach that interprets conditions such as autism as disabling
disorders akin to physical diseases, and therefore requiring clinical
diagnosis and treatment, with the aim of rendering the person with the
disorder as near to 'normality' as possible.
MEG
See magnetoencephalography.
mental age (MA)
A way of expressing a child's level of intellectual functioning in terms of
the age of children whose performance on IQ tests matches this level.
For instance, a child with a chronological age of 10 years, who has an IQ
score equivalent to the average of a group of 14 year-olds, has a mental
age of 14 years. A child with an IQ score equivalent to the average of a
group of 7 year-olds has a mental age of 7 years. Mental age is
sometimes a useful concept in considering intellectual disability. (See
also chronological age; IQ.)
mental flexibility
Readily shifting one's attention from one completed activity or task to
another quite different one. A component of executive function. (See also
executive function.)
mental states
A collective term for the processes, including thinking, believing and
feeling, which characterise human thought.
mentalising
Similar to mind-reading mentalising means the act of thinking about
mental states. (See also theory of mind; mind-reading.)
metaphors
A metaphor is a word or phrase applied to a concept with which it has no
literal relationship.
milieu
Another term for naturalistic approaches. See definition for that term.
approaches
mind-reading
The term has a similar meaning to theory of mind, but emphasises that
mental state understanding in everyday life involves more than the formal
theory of mind skills tested with false belief tasks.(See also theory of
mind; mentalising.)
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mirroring
MMR (measles,
mumps and
rubella) vaccine
modality
model
molecular
genetics
monozygotic (MZ)
twins
motor behaviour
MRI
multi-agency
assessment
(MAA)
multi-modal
emotion
recognition
multiple-baseline
study
multiple factor
model
multiplex autism
family
Definition
Broadly defined as the phenomenon in which one individual echoes or
copies the behaviour of another with whom they are in social interaction.
In emotional mirroring, one individual experiences the same emotion as
another with whom they are interacting. This is also known as empathy.
Some scientists have suggested that the capacity for different forms of
mirroring depends on neurons in the brain which are activated not only
when one individual does something or feels something, but when that
individual simply observes another person's behaviour. Thus watching
someone dancing is reported to activate neurons in the areas of the brain
involved in motor activity. (See also empathy.)
A combined vaccine administered to children (initially at 12–15 months)
to protect them against measles, mumps and rubella. The vaccine was
linked to autism in 1998, in a controversial research paper by Wakefield
and colleagues. The paper is now discredited and subsequent research
indicates no link.
In relation to sensation and perception, modality means a specific
channel or dimension of input, such as sound, touch or taste.
A form of theoretical explanation, often specifying mechanisms or
processes depicted in visual form such as a chart. In psychological
research on autism, the term model often means a broad approach or
conceptualisation embracing several related theories. (See also theory.)
The understanding of genes at the level of the molecules involved.
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Twins derived from a single fertilised egg that divided and separated in
an early stage of pregnancy. Monozygotic twins, also known as identical
twins, are genetically identical and are therefore always of the same sex.
(See also twin method.)
Patterns of movement which depend on the coordinated activity of
muscles, joints and other anatomical structures.
See magnetic resonance imaging.
A system of good practice advocated for use in assessing children or
adults for conditions such as autism. The assessment involves close
collaboration and joint working arrangements between different agencies
and specialists, such as educational psychologist, speech and language
therapist, social worker, medical doctor, to facilitate an in-depth picture of
all aspects of the individual's difficulties, and family support needs.
The integration of facial expression and voice with other sources of
information including gesture, body posture and context.
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A study that evaluates the effect of an intervention on a small number of
participants, in which a baseline (pre-intervention) period is followed by
an intervention commencing at a different time for each participant. (See
also baseline period.)
Model that assumes that separate influences, working alongside one
another, result in the difficulties in communication, social interaction and
inflexibility of thought and behaviour observed in autism.
A family in which more than one child/family member is on the autism
spectrum. The existence of a substantial number of such families
provides strong evidence that genetic factors play a role in causing
autism. Without such genetic vulnerability the probability of autism
occurring in more than one member of the same family would be very
low.
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Term
mutation
mutism
myelin
NAP-C
NAS
National Adult
Autism Strategy
National Autism
Plan for Children
(NAP-C)
National Autistic
Society (NAS)
naturalistic
naturalistic
approaches
nervous system
neural plasticity
neuroanatomy
neurobiology
neuron
neurotransmitter
neurotypical (NT)
non-maintained
schools
non-verbal
communication
Definition
A change in the sequence of units of the DNA. Examples of mutations
include duplications and deletions of DNA sequences. (See also
deletions; duplications.)
Mutism, meaning absence of speech, is observed in some individuals on
the autism spectrum, and is usually assumed to reflect an inability to
communicate using speech. In some individuals mutism may reflect the
avoidance of speech due to extreme anxiety.
A fatty white substance that encases axons. It provides an insulation
layer and thereby increases the speed at which a signal can travel along
the axon.
See National Autism Plan for Children.
See National Autistic Society.
A national governmental strategy for England setting out the means to
address the problems of adults with autism highlighted in the Autism Bill,
and now enshrined in the Autism Act 2009. (See also the Autism Bill.)
A voluntary framework in the UK setting out guidelines and
recommendations for good practice in relation to the identification and
diagnosis of children with autism.
The National Autistic Society was founded in 1962 as an organisation for
people with autism, their families and carers. It acts as a forum for
exchange of ideas and information, pioneers important national and
international initiatives and raises public consciousness about the needs
of people on the autism spectrum.
Representative of real life.
A class of interventions, also known as milieu approaches, that makes
some use of behavioural techniques but employs them to support the
development of target skills within a child's everyday environment, or in
naturally occurring situations. Considered to be intermediate between
adult-directed and child-centred approaches. (See also adult-directed
approach; child-centred approach.)
The network of neurons in the body, including the brain. The collection of
cells together ensures the handling and processing of information
throughout the body.
The ability of synapses to change their size and ability to communicate
with other neurons, muscles and organs that produce hormones.
The anatomical organisation of the brain.
The biology of the nervous system.
The main type of cell that forms the nervous system and is specialised in
processing information.
A chemical involved in carrying a signal from one neuron to another.
The term neurotypical (NT) was first coined within the autism community
to denote people who are not on the autism spectrum. The implication is
that their brain and mental functioning is typical rather than atypical,
particularly in relation to communication and social interaction. The term
avoids the problematic connotations of ‘normal’ (as opposed to
‘abnormal’.) It has been quite widely adopted, and is recommended by
the National Autistic Society. (See also typically developing children.)
An alternative term for independent schools. See definition for that term.
The use of non-verbal means, including prosody (pitch, intonation and
stress), facial expression and gestures, to express meaning in
communication. (See also prosody.)
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Term
NT
object-focused
attention
observational
method
occipital lobe
Ofsted
operant
conditioning
outcome measure
overly formal and
stilted
oxytocin
paediatrics
parietal lobe
participants
Definition
See neurotypical.
A term used in developmental research for attention which is focused
towards objects. This is inferred from behaviours such as where a child
looks, what they orient to, what they smile at or speak to. (See also social
attention.)
A method widely used in the natural and social sciences, focusing on
naturally occurring behaviour. As such the observational method
contrasts with the experimental method, which studies responses to
specially devised tests in a controlled setting. The observational method
usually involves coding of the observations. Coded observations are
treated quantitatively in some types of observational research, and
qualitatively in others.
A lobe of the cerebral cortex important for many aspects of visual
perception and for the processing of spatial information.
The body empowered by the Education and Inspections Act of 2007 to
inspect the standards in schools in England. Comparable bodies with
different names operate in Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.
A principle of learning formulated by the psychologist B.F.Skinner.
Skinner stated that an organism's active behaviour 'operates' on the
environment, with consequences that modify the organism's tendency to
repeat that behaviour in the future. If the consequences are rewarding for
the organism, the behaviour is more likely to be repeated. Skinner
showed that operant behaviour can be modified (increased or reduced)
by the application of reinforcement. For instance, a reward for completing
homework is likely to reinforce the behaviour of completing homework.
Operant conditioning using reinforcement is central to the technique of
behaviour modification involved in the Lovaas approach to intervention
for autism. (See also Lovaas approach; reinforcement.)
A measure of the outcome of an intervention for a disorder or condition,
and thus a type of dependent variable. Outcome measures used to
evaluate interventions for autism spectrum conditions typically focus on
changes in the participants' behaviour and/or psychological functioning.
(See also dependent variable.)
One of four styles of social interaction which, according to Lorna Wing,
may be characteristic of adults on the autism spectrum. The adult strives
to overcome their social difficulties, but tends to conform to rigid rules of
behaviour, thus appearing formal and excessively polite. (See also aloof;
active but odd; passive and friendly.)
A hormone produced in the brain of women after stimulation of the
nipples by breastfeeding. (See also hormone.)
The specialist branch of medicine dealing with infants, children and
adolescents.
A lobe of the cerebral cortex. It is concerned with the perception of stimuli
related to touch, pressure, temperature and pain (also referred to as
somatosensory perception.)
People who volunteer to take part in a research or clinical study.
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passive and
friendly
pathologising
pathway
PDD
PDD-NOS
PDD-unspecified
PECS
peer-reviewed
journal
perception
perceptual
difficulties
perceptual
processing
perseveration
pervasive
developmental
disorder,
unspecified
(PDDunspecified)
pervasive
developmental
disorder not
otherwise
specified (PDDNOS)
Definition
One of four styles of social interaction which, according to Lorna Wing,
may be characteristic of adults on the autism spectrum. The adult is able
to tolerate the company of others, but does little to interact with them. He
or she may seem quiet and shy rather than autistic, as long as remaining
within a familiar and non-stressful environment. (See also aloof; active
but odd; overly formal and stilted.)
Tending to attribute all problems to medical or psychological abnormality,
even when alternative, non-pathological explanations are possible.
Network of neurons that are specialised for a particular neurotransmitter.
For example, the serotonergic pathway refers to the collection of neurons
that communicate with each other through the release of serotonin.
See pervasive developmental disorders.
See pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified.
See pervasive developmental disorder, unspecified.
See Picture Exchange Communication System.
An academic journal that publishes articles relating to a particular theme.
Articles submitted for potential publication are assessed by independent
(usually anonymous) reviewers, who are experts in the area covered.
Reviewers will only pass articles for publication if they are satisfied that
they are coherent and scientifically sound.
The processes involved in organising and interpreting information
provided by the different sense organs. (See also sensation; sense
organs; sensory processing.)
Difficulties in processing, integrating and making sense of information
received via the sense organs. Various forms of difficulty are common in
people on the autism spectrum.
Spontaneous activity of the nervous system, including the brain, in
interpreting and making sense of information transmitted by sense
organs. The distinction between sensory processing and perceptual
processing is not always well-defined. For instance, the eye is a sense
organ, but perceptual processing also commences in the retina of the
eye.
Inability to relinquish a rule, strategy or activity that has become
ineffective or unhelpful.
A formal diagnostic term within the ICD-10 system, used for individuals
with autistic-like symptoms, but where the information is inadequate,
incomplete or contradictory, such that criteria for the more specific
diagnosis of childhood autism (the ICD-10 term for classic autism) cannot
be met. (See also PDD-NOS; atypical autism.)
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A formal diagnostic term within the DSM-IV-TR system, used in relation
to individuals with autistic-like symptoms who do not meet the strict
criteria for autistic disorder (the DSM term for classic autism.) In DSM-IVTR the term atypical autism is used interchangeably with PDD-NOS.
(See also PDD-unspecified; atypical autism.)
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Term
pervasive
developmental
disorders (PDD)
pharmacological
interventions
phenomena
phenotype
phonology
picture
completion test
Picture Exchange
Communication
System (PECS)
pilot
pitch
planning
pointing
Definition
A broad 'umbrella’ term used in both DSM-IV-TR and ICD-10 for
conditions characterised by difficulties in communication, social
interaction and range of activities and interests. 'Pervasive' means that
the difficulties embrace many key aspects of developmental, rather than
just a specific developmental capacity such as language or reading. The
main conditions included under this heading are the sub-types of the
autism spectrum- classic autism, Asperger syndrome and PDD-NOS. A
small number of much rarer conditions are sometimes considered part of
the autism spectrum and sometimes not. (See also DSM; ICD; autism
spectrum.)
Interventions involving the use of medicines, i.e. drugs.
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1
Phenomena is the plural of phenomenon, a Greek word meaning an
observable event or occurrence. In psychology, the term phenomena is
used quite broadly to mean directly observable aspects of human
behaviour, such as the way a person speaks or moves, and less
observable aspects of cognition, such as how a person's memory works,
which must be inferred from their responses in psychological tasks.
Phenotype means the sum of an individual’s characteristics, as
determined by the combined effects of their genetic make-up or genotype
with environmental influences. The phenotype comprises all those
characteristics of an individual which are 'observable', including directly
observable characteristics such as eye colour, height and physique, and
others such as blood group and IQ, which are indirectly observable using
scientific instrumentation and/or psychological tests.
The system of rules governing how the words in a language should
sound. A grasp of phonology means that a person understands how
words should be pronounced, and also how to make sense of sequences
of speech sounds that he or she hears. As such, phonology is an aspect
of both expressive and receptive language ability. The term phonology
also means the study of the rules governing the sound of language. (See
also expressive language; receptive language.)
A sub-test within a non-verbal IQ test, in which the participant is asked to
arrange some coloured blocks to copy a geometric pattern. (See also
intelligence tests.)
An intervention widely used in clinical, educational and home settings to
help children on the autism spectrum communicate using pictures or
symbols. Especially suited for children with classic autism and little or no
language.
A preliminary study conducted in advance of a full-scale research study.
In clinical work, a pilot may be an informal evaluation of a proposed
intervention involving a single participant or a very small group of
participants.
Refers to whether a sound is high or low. The pitch of speech plays a role
in communication and may be atypical in people on the autism spectrum.
Mentally organising one's actions to achieve a goal. A component of
executive function. (See also executive function.)
The use of the index finger to indicate an item of interest.
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Term
polygenic
positive
reinforcement
post-mortem
study
pragmatics
prevalence
primary
intersubjectivity
probability
prodigious skills
prognosis
prompt fading
pronoun reversal
prosody
Definition
A condition or trait that is due to the combined effects of multiple genes
(as opposed to the influence of a single gene.) In each individual with
autism, the condition is likely to be due to a combination of different
genes acting together. There is also genetic heterogeneity for autism: the
set of genes involved in causing autism in the one individual may be
different from the set of genes predisposing to autism in another
individual. (See also genetic heterogeneity.)
A central principle in behaviour modification and behavioural
interventions. Involves shaping an individual's behaviour by the
application of influences known as reinforcers which increase the
frequency of a particular response. Often the influence will have the
quality of a reward which the individual works to receive by the way they
behave. For instance a child may be encouraged to sit still at a table by
the positive reinforcement of a sweet, which is given each time the child
manages to sit still. (See also behavioural interventions; behaviour
modification; operant conditioning; reinforcement.)
The study of tissues that takes place after an organism has died. Postmortem studies of brain tissue have shed useful light on structural
atypicalities in autism.
The aspect of language function concerning the ability to produce and
receive language effectively for purposes of two-way communication.
This requires the ability to come up with the right utterances in social
context, and also to understand how social context affects the meaning of
what other people say.
The number of cases of a condition within a population at a particular
time.
A term derived from the work of Colwyn Trevarthen meaning that infants
and their mothers are ‘pre-programmed’ to respond to each other’s
behaviour, triggering an ongoing cycle of reciprocal interaction in which
the child’s and mother’s behaviour is closely attuned and synchronised.
Mathematical odds.
Under the broad heading of savant syndrome, a prodigious skill is a
talent so exceptional or outstanding that it is likely to attract widespread
public interest. Such prodigious skill is typically in an area such as visual
art or musical performance. An example is the work of the autistic artist
Stephen Wiltshire. (See also savant syndrome; splinter skills; talents.)
A prediction offered by a medical or other expert concerning the probable
course and outcome of a disorder or condition.
A behavioural technique in which an adult initially provides physical
prompts for a child's actions, but gradually reduces the prompts as the
child becomes more familiar with the actions. (See also naturalistic
approaches.)
Also known as pronominal reversal and meaning the use of impersonal
pronouns such as 'you', 'he', 'she' instead of 'I' or 'me'. This language
impairment, which is common in autism, often occurs together with
echolalia. For instance, the answer to 'do you want a biscuit' might be an
exact repetition of this phrase to mean 'yes I would like a biscuit'. (See
also echolalia.)
Non-verbal aspects of a person's speech such as pitch, intonation and
stress that help to convey meaning in communication. (See also pitch;
intonation; stress.)
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Term
prosopagnosia
protodeclarative
pointing
protoimperative
pointing
psychiatry
psychological
perspective
psychometric
techniques
psychosocial
interventions
qualitative
method
quantitative
method
RAD
randomised
control trial (RCT)
RDI
reactive
attachment
disorder (RAD)
Definition
A condition in which the ability to recognise faces is seriously impaired,
while the ability to see and recognise objects and other physical entities
is intact. Prosopagnosia occurs in a proportion of people on the autism
spectrum but the frequency is not known.
The use of pointing to draw someone else's attention to an object or item
of interest, thus enabling the individual to share their interest with
another. Thus a child might point protodeclaratively to a bird so that his
mother will look at it too. Children on the autism spectrum tend not to use
this form of pointing. (See also protoimperative pointing.)
The use of pointing to indicate an object or item that the individual wants
or desires. Thus a child might point protoimperatively to a biscuit to
convey that they want to have it. Children on the autism spectrum may
use this form of pointing. (See also protodeclarative pointing.)
The branch of medicine that deals with the understanding and treatment
of mental disorders and problems affecting the mind.
Seeking to understand and explain aspects of human behaviour in terms
of psychological concepts and theories.
Techniques that provide ways of measuring intelligence, language skills
and other cognitive and behavioural capacities or traits.
Interventions that aim to influence an individual’s behaviour, social and
communication skills and/or thinking processes. Such interventions are
directly or indirectly informed by knowledge of learning and other
psychological processes. Psychosocial interventions are the most widely
used and successful type of interventions for people on the autism
spectrum.
A type of research method typically used to gather rich descriptive
information which is difficult to quantify or measure. (See also
quantitative method.)
A type of method used to gather quantitative data, that is, information
dealing with numbers and anything that is measurable. Quantitative
methods are the norm in natural sciences such as physics, chemistry and
biology, and are also widely used in the disciplines relevant to studying
autism, including psychology. Quantitative methods in these fields
include experiments, questionnaires, psychometric techniques, and
certain forms of observational study. These methods contrast with
qualitative methods, which do not involve measurement. A combination
of quantitative and qualitative methods is sometimes very useful in
elucidating psychological phenomena. (See also qualitative method.)
See reactive attachment disorder.
A systematic method for evaluating interventions in which participants are
assigned randomly to intervention and control groups. The purpose of
random allocation is to avoid biases in the group of participants selected
for the intervention which may affect the outcome of the evaluation.
See Relationship Development Intervention programme.
The clinical and diagnostic term for a condition characterised by markedly
disturbed and developmentally inappropriate ways of relating socially in a
range of situations. Unlike autism spectrum conditions, RAD may reflect
emotional attachment problems resulting from a lack of nurturing in early
childhood.
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Term
receptive
language
reciprocity
reflexivity
regression
reinforcement
Relationship
Development
Intervention (RDI)
programme
replication
Research Autism
residential school
resilience
respite care or
provision
rote memory
Definition
The process of receiving and understanding language which is spoken or
written by others. Difficulty with receptive language means that the
person has delay and/or difficulty in making sense of what other people
say or write down. Problems are likely to include difficulty in
understanding vocabulary or grammar, difficulty in distinguishing speech
sounds and in understanding the meaning of sentences. Difficulty with
receptive language is common on the autism spectrum and is often
accompanied by expressive language difficulty. (See also expressive
language.)
Processes of ‘give and take’ and ‘turn-taking’ in communication and
social interaction.
A term with several different meanings. In the context of developmental
psychology, reflexivity means the capacity to reflect on one's own
thoughts, or to have an 'inner dialogue'. This is thought to play an
important role in developing the child's ability to see themselves as a self
or individual distinct from other individuals.
Regression is the phenomenon in which a child first seems to be
developing normally, and then the development ‘tails off’ and even
reverses to behaviour the child showed at a younger age. Regression is
most notable for language development.
A central principle in behaviour modification and behavioural intervention.
Involves shaping an individual's behaviour by the application of
influences known as reinforcers which increase or decrease the
frequency of a particular response. (See also behaviour modification.)
A developmental-pragmatic child-centred intervention in which parents
are trained to foster the social communication skills of their child with
autism via stimulating and enjoyable activities. Parents are trained to use
indirect prompts and invitations rather than directive forms of interaction.
(See also child-centred; developmental-pragmatic approaches.)
Replication is said to occur when a research study is repeated,
sometimes with slight variations, with the same outcome. Replication
plays an important role in establishing if a research finding is robust.
A UK charity dedicated to research into interventions for autism. The
organisation supports and/or commissions independent evaluations of
new and existing health, education, social and other interventions. Their
website includes a database of interventions with ratings of their current
evidence base.
A school that provides overnight accommodation and 24 hour support for
children and young people on the autism spectrum, sometimes up to 23
years of age. Residential schools typically cater for more profoundly
affected individuals. This definition refers to the UK but similar provision
exists in some other countries. (See also mainstream school; special
school.)
The ability to withstand hardship and to overcome adversity, becoming
stronger and more resourceful as a result.
A short residential break away from the family for a person with a
disability such as autism. This is designed to provide a rest and
'breathing-space' for other family members.
Learning or memorisation by accurate repetition e.g. word by word recall
of a string of words. The term may also imply that memorisation takes
place without an understanding of the reasoning or relationships involved
in the material that is remembered.
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Term
sample
savant syndrome
screening
second-order
false belief
secondary
intersubjectivity
seeing leads to
knowing
selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors
(SSRIs)
self-injurious
self-reference
effect
semantics
SENCo
sensation
sense organs
sensory
hypersensitivity
sensory
hyposensitivity
Definition
The group of individuals who are selected from a wider population to take
part in a study.
An isolated, narrow area of ability or skill in the context of profound
disability. The term is often treated as an umbrella term for abilities
ranging from moderately developed splinter skills, through talents, to
prodigious skills which are sufficiently outstanding to attract widespread
attention and interest. It is estimated that about 30% of individuals on the
autism spectrum have an area of special skill, though very few have
prodigious skills. (See also splinter skills; talents; prodigious skills.)
A procedure for identifying which individuals in a population have, or are
at risk of developing, a certain condition.
A complex form of false belief in which a person understands that a
second person has a false belief about a third person's belief about a
situation.
A term from the work of Colwyn Trevarthen for the phase, during the
second year of life, when typically developing infants not only coordinate
one-to-one with a parent, but also start to join with the parent in attending
to something or someone else.
Refers to the fact that a person’s belief or knowledge about a situation
depends partly on what perceptual information has been available to
them.
A group of antidepressant drugs that act to increase the availability of the
neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain. Serotonin is thought to be
involved in mood regulation.
Self-harming behaviour such as head banging, scratching, biting, or eye
gouging.
A reported phenomenon in which people tend to remember more about
their own actions and experiences than about those of other people.
The aspect of language function that relates to using words appropriately
to convey meaning, and to understanding the meaning of words, phrases
and sentences.
See Special Educational Needs Coordinator.
The detection of information from the environment by specialised sense
organs (See also sense organs; sensory processing).
Specialised systems in all animals that enable them to detect and
process information from the environment. In humans the main sense
organs are eyes, ears, touch receptors in the skin, smell receptors in the
nostrils, taste receptors in the tongue, movement receptors in muscles
and joints, and balance receptors in the inner ear.
Heightened sensitivity to sounds, tastes, visual and other stimuli,
compared with what most people experience. Common in people on the
autism spectrum. (See also sensory hyposensitivity.)
Reduced sensitivity to sounds, tastes, visual and other stimuli compared
with what most people experience. Common in people on the autism
spectrum. (See also sensory hypersensitivity.)
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Term
sensory overload
sensory
processing
serotonin
sex-linked
sibling recurrence
risk
SLT
social attention
social cognition
Social
Communication
Clinic
social pragmatic
approaches
Social Stories
somatosensory
perception
Son-Rise
programme
Definition
Broadly defined as a state in which individuals are exposed to many
sensory stimuli, or to stimuli at such high intensities, that they become
unable to deal with them. For instance, they may become very stressed
and/or become unresponsive to sensory input. In autism, hypersensitivity
to sensory stimuli means that a person may experience overload even for
moderate levels of stimulation that would not be disagreeable for a
person without autism.
The means by which we acquire information about the environment
through specialised sense organs, each of which deals with a different
modality or dimension of input. (See also sensation; sense organs.)
A neurotransmitter involved in complex brain processes, including the
regulation of mood, emotions, aggression, sleep and body temperature.
(See also neurotransmitter.)
A term for characteristics that are coded by genes located on the X
chromosome. Since females have two X chromosomes, while males only
have one, a characteristic coded by a particular allele of a gene located
on the X chromosome may be expressed in males but masked in
females.
The likelihood that a condition diagnosed in one family member will also
occur in his or her sibling.
See speech and language therapist.
A term used in developmental research for attention that is focused on
people and other social stimuli. It is inferred from behaviours such as
whether the child looks at people, orients to them, smiles at them or
vocalises (makes sounds) to them.
An aspect of cognition concerned with how people process and make
sense of social information, especially other people’s behaviour and
‘mental life’ – what they are thinking and feeling.
A term for a clinic specialising in assessing children with language and
communication difficulties. Children with problems that might indicate an
autism spectrum condition are often referred to Social Communication
Clinics. (See also Child Development Centre.)
An alternative term for developmental-pragmatic approaches. See
definition for that term.
An intervention designed to help children on the autism spectrum
understand social situations and react appropriately. The child is
provided with stories describing social situations as if from the child's
perspective, with concrete description of details and examples of
appropriate responses.
The perception of stimuli related to touch, pressure, temperature and
pain.
An intervention originally developed by the Kaufmans to help their own
son, Raun. As a child-centred intervention, the approach involves
following the child’s interests and motivation as a means of encouraging
interaction and learning. For instance, a parent might join in their child's
repetitive and ritualistic behaviours or build on the child's interest in
something as an opportunity for learning. Strong but currently
unsubstantiated claims have been made for recovery through use of this
programme. (See also child-centred approach.)
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Term
Special
Educational
Needs
Coordinator
(SENCo)
special school
specificity
speech and
language
therapist (SLT)
SPELL (Structure,
Positive,
Empathy, Low
arousal, Links)
splinter skills
SQ
SSRIs
Statement of
Special
Educational
Needs
statistical tests
statistically
significant
stereotypy
Definition
A teacher within a school with responsibility for overseeing the teaching
of children with special needs.
Chapter
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A school or stand-alone unit whose main purpose is to provide education
specially suited to the additional support needs of children and young
persons with a significant level of special educational needs. Some
special schools are designed specifically for children on the autism
spectrum, while others cater for a range of special needs. This definition
refers to the UK but similar provision exists in some other countries. (See
also mainstream school; residential school.)
A criterion to be considered in evaluating theories of autism. A specific
factor or influence is one which affects only individuals on the autism
spectrum, rather than one which also affects individuals with other
conditions. A theoretical explanation which identifies such a specific
influence is likely to be more useful and convincing than one which does
not identify such a specific factor. (See also testability; universality.)
A health professional whose role is to assess and treat children and
adults with speech, language and communication difficulties.
7
The National Autistic Society 'whole school' framework for understanding
and responding to the needs for children, young people and adults with
autism. The acronym stands for Structure: a structured environment,
together with communication and learning activities with clear guidelines
which promote effective learning by increasing consistency and
predictability; Positive: approaches and expectations; Empathy: ability to
identify with and understand the feelings or difficulties of the person with
autism; Low arousal: an environment where distraction and aversive
factors are kept to a minimum; Links: the framework focuses on
environment, communication and staff interaction with children and adults
with autism. (See also whole school approach.)
Under the broad heading of savant syndrome, the term splinter skill
refers to a well-developed ability in an individual with other cognitive
disabilities. For example, an individual with a low IQ may nonetheless be
able to complete complex jigsaw puzzles. (See also savant syndrome;
talents; prodigious skills.)
See systemising quotient.
See selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors.
A legal document that identifies the type of support a child with some
form of disability or learning problem would need at school.
7
Tests designed to evaluate the probability that an observed result (e.g. in
an experiment) is statistically significant, or has occurred by chance
alone. Conclusions can only be drawn from the study if the result is
statistically significant. (See also probability; statistically significant.)
Refers to a result that is highly unlikely to have occurred by chance.
Often the term 'significant' is used alone.
A repeated or ritualistic movement, posture or utterance. It is a common
type of symptom in people on the autism spectrum, and also occurs in
certain movement disorders.
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Term
stress
structured
schedule
sulcus
symbolic capacity
symptoms
synapse
syndrome
synesthesia
syntax
systematic
methods
systematic review
systemising
Definition
The use of emphasis within speech to mark particular words or phrases.
Stress plays a role in communication, and may be atypical in people on
the autism spectrum.
A method used in research interviews to ensure consistency in the
treatment of different interviewees. The structured schedule specifies the
topics to be covered and the way the questions are asked.
The foldings of the cortex in the brain that form a groove are referred to
as sulci (singular term is sulcus.)
A symbol is something such as a numeral, object, pictorial symbol or
word that represents or stands for something else. Symbolic capacity,
broadly defined as the capacity to understand and operate with such
symbols, is essential for language understanding, and for activities such
as pretence and imagination. In order to pretend, a child must be able to
treat one object or entity (say a stick) as if it were another (say a sword.)
Features or characteristics that may indicate a clinical problem or
disorder. In some medical conditions (e.g. flu), symptoms may be
feelings that the individual experiences and reports to a doctor. In other
conditions, such as autism, an individual's symptoms are more likely to
be atypical behaviours observed by others such as the individual's
parent, or a clinician. Symptoms form the basis for formal diagnostic
classifications such as DSM-IV-TR or ICD-10.
The junction between two neurons where communication takes place via
neurotransmitters that cross the synapse.
A term denoting a co-occurring and characteristic set of symptoms,
usually assumed to be caused by a specific underlying disorder, even if
the causal mechanism is not well understood. Many syndromes are
named after the physicians credited with first reporting the association,
hence Kanner's syndrome and Asperger syndrome. Autism is now
considered more as a spectrum rather than as one or more specific
syndromes. (See also autism spectrum.)
The phenomenon in which specific sensory or perceptual stimuli
consistently trigger a different sensory or perceptual system from the one
receiving input. Thus a person may see a colour when hearing a sound
or tasting something, or when seeing particular numbers, letters or
words. Synesthesia occurs in a proportion of people on the autism
spectrum, but the frequency is not known.
A set of rules governing the ordering of words in sentences. Technically a
branch of grammar. (See also grammar.)
Studies in which the conclusions are derived from careful objective
evaluation of evidence following scientific principles.
An evaluation of evidence for the success of an intervention, based on a
review of findings conducted with clearly defined criteria, e.g. only
controlled studies carried out by independent researchers.
Systemising is defined by Simon Baron-Cohen as the drive to analyse or
construct systems, where a system is any domain that lends itself to a set
of rules predicting or explaining how the domain works. Baron-Cohen
proposes that people with autism have a cognitive profile characterised
by a high level of systemising ability, together with a low level of
empathising ability. (See also empathising-systemising.)
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Term
systemising
quotient (SQ)
talents
TEACCH
Teaching
Assistant
temporal lobe
testable /
testability
theoretical
construct
theory
theory of mind
(ToM)
Treatment and
Education of
Autistic and
related
Communicationhandicapped
Children
(TEACCH)
triad of
impairments
twin method
Definition
A questionnaire-based measure devised by Baron-Cohen and colleagues
to assess levels of systemising. The assumption underlying the test is
that systemising is a dimensional or continuous trait. Each member of a
population can receive a low, high or average score on systemising; on
average males are predicted to score higher than females; people on the
autism spectrum are predicted to score very high on systemising. (See
also empathising-systemising theory; systemising.)
Under the broad heading of savant syndrome, talent refers to a highly
developed and noticeable skill, such as the capacity to paint
accomplished pictures, or to do difficult mental calculations. (See also
savant syndrome; splinter skills; prodigious skills.)
See Treatment and Education of Autistic and related Communicationhandicapped CHildren
An alternative term for Learning Support Assistant. See definition for that
term.
A lobe of the cerebral cortex, it is involved in memory and language
functions and is concerned with perceiving and recognising auditory
information.
Refers to the need for a scientific theory to be formulated so that it makes
clear predictions about what outcomes should occur if it is correct.
Testability can thus be considered a criterion for evaluating the potential
usefulness of a theory: if it is not testable, it is not a useful theory.
A concise summary of theoretical ideas about the structures or processes
underlying observable events or behaviour. Theoretical constructs in
psychology are often formulated from observations of how people
perform in experimental tasks.
A theory provides an account of a set of observed phenomena in terms of
principles which offer an explanation of how and why the phenomena
occur. In science, theories often seek to identify the cause of the
phenomena in question.
The capacity to understand what other people are thinking, believing and
feeling. Most people on the autism spectrum are thought to have
difficulties with theory of mind; they may not understand mental states;
they may even be unaware that other people have a 'mental life'.
A programme of intervention for autism first developed in the USA in the
1970s, and widely used in educational, home and other settings.
TEACCH is designed to address core problems such as the need for
structure to harness common autistic skills, such as visual abilities and
attention to detail, and to promote the development of independence.
This often involves use of a visual timetable or planner, tailored to the
needs and interests of the individual.
Term for the three main and characteristic areas of difficulty in autism,
namely communication, social interaction and repetitiveness in activities
and interests. Difficulties in these three areas are the main symptoms
used in formal diagnosis of autism.
A research method used to evaluate how frequently a particular condition
or characteristic co-occurs in monozygotic (identical) twins as compared
with dizygotic non-identical) twins. Higher co-occurrence (concordance)
in monozygotic twins provides evidence that the condition or
characteristic is genetically inherited. Used in exploring the genetic basis
for autism. (See also concordance; concordance rate; monozygotic twins;
dizygotic twins.)
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The Autism Spectrum in the 21st Century: Exploring Psychology, Biology and Practice
Term
typically
developing
children
UK National
Screening
Committee
universality
variable
vertical axis
WCC
weak central
coherence (WCC)
white matter
whole school
approach
X and Y
chromosomes
Definition
Term used (e.g. in research) when comparing the characteristics of
children with autism with a group without autism. The opposite of the
term 'typically developing' is 'atypically developing'. Hence this phrase
avoids implying that the autistic group is 'abnormal'. (See also
neurotypical.)
A committee of health professionals who make decisions about whether
screening instruments should be used within the UK National Health
Service.
A criterion to be considered in evaluating theories of autism. A universal
factor or influence is one that affects all individuals on the spectrum,
rather than just a proportion of individuals. A theoretical explanation that
identifies such a universal influence is likely to be more useful and
convincing than one that does not identify a universal influence. (See
also testability; specificity.)
A variable is something that varies, either along a dimension, such as
height or weight, or from one group to another, such as gender (male or
female) or eye colour (blue or brown.) An independent variable in an
experiment is something that the experimenter manipulates (e.g. whether
participants have an autism diagnosis or not.) A dependent variable is
what the experimenter observes to vary as a result of manipulating the
independent variable (e.g. how participants with or without an autism
diagnosis perform on a memory task.) (See also experiment; hypothesis;
experimental group; control group.)
The vertical dimension of a graph. Also known as the 'y'-axis. (See also
graph.)
See weak central coherence.
Focusing on individual details rather than overall form and meaning when
processing information from the environment. This has been considered
as both a perceptual phenomenon (perceiving individual details in
scenes, music, etc.) and a conceptual phenomenon (processing
individual words rather than meaning or gist from written or spoken
language.) A key theory of autism suggests that it is characterised by
weak central coherence, though this is now proposed as a preferred
cognitive style rather than a fixed deficit in processing information. (See
also central coherence; cognitive style.)
Refers to the underlying regions of the brain that are primarily composed
of the axons of neurons. Because the axons are encased in myelin, these
brain areas look pale and are therefore referred to as white matter.
A framework for educating and supporting children on the autism
spectrum, comprising a collection of interventions, strategies and
therapies that are integral to the organisation and culture of the school.
(See also Daily Life Therapy; SPELL.)
Sex chromosomes. Body cells of human females typically possess two X
chromosomes, while the cells of males have one X chromosome and one
Y chromosome. (See also chromosomes; sex-linked.)
Copyright © 2010 The Open University
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