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Dust Bowl
Dust Bowl
The Dust Bowl or the Dirty Thirties was a
period of severe dust storms causing major
ecological and agricultural damage to
American and Canadian prairie lands from
1930 to 1936 (in some areas until 1940).
The phenomenon was caused by severe
drought coupled with decades of extensive
farming without crop rotation, fallow fields,
cover crops or other techniques to prevent
erosion.[1] Deep plowing of the virgin
topsoil of the Great Plains had displaced the
natural grasses that normally kept the soil in
place and trapped moisture even during
periods of drought and high winds.
During the drought of the 1930s, with no
natural anchors to keep the soil in place, it
dried, turned to dust, and blew away
eastward and southward in large dark
A farmer and his two sons during a dust storm in Cimarron County, Oklahoma,
clouds. At times the clouds blackened the
1936. Photo: Arthur Rothstein.
sky reaching all the way to East Coast cities
such as New York and Washington, D.C. Much of the soil ended up deposited in the Atlantic Ocean, carried by
prevailing winds which were in part created by the dry and bare soil conditions itself. These immense dust
storms—given names such as "Black Blizzards" and "Black Rollers"—often reduced visibility to a few feet (around
a meter). The Dust Bowl affected 100000000 acres (400000 km2), centered on the panhandles of Texas and
Oklahoma, and adjacent parts of New Mexico, Colorado, and Kansas.[2]
Millions of acres of farmland became useless, and hundreds of thousands of people were forced to leave their homes;
many of these families (often known as "Okies", since so many came from Oklahoma) traveled to California and
other states, where they found economic conditions little better than those they had left. Owning no land, many
traveled from farm to farm picking fruit and other crops at starvation wages. Author John Steinbeck later wrote The
Grapes of Wrath, which won the Pulitzer Prize, and Of Mice and Men about such people.
Causes
Agricultural and settlement history
During early European and American exploration of the Great Plains, the region in which the Dust Bowl occurred
was thought unsuitable for European-style agriculture; indeed, the region was known as the Great American Desert.
The lack of surface water and timber made the region less attractive than other areas for pioneer settlement and
agriculture. However, following the Civil War, settlement in the area increased, encouraged by the Homestead Act,
the transcontinental railroads, and new immigration.[3] [4] An unusually wet period in the Great Plains mistakenly led
settlers and government to believe that "rain follows the plow" (a popular phrase among real estate promoters) and
that the climate of the region had changed permanently.[5] The initial agricultural endeavors were primarily cattle
ranching with some cultivation; however, a series of harsh winters beginning in 1886, coupled with overgrazing
followed by a short drought in 1890, led to an expansion of land under cultivation.
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Dust Bowl
2
Continued waves of immigration from Europe brought settlers to the plains at the beginning of the 20th century. A
return of unusually wet weather confirmed a previously held opinion that the "formerly" semi-arid area could support
large-scale agriculture. Technological improvements led to increased automation, which allowed for cultivation on
an ever greater scale. World War I increased agricultural prices, which also encouraged farmers to drastically
increase cultivation. In the Llano Estacado, farmland area doubled between 1900 and 1920, and land under
cultivation more than tripled between 1925 and 1930.[6] Finally, farmers used agricultural practices that encouraged
erosion[1] . For example, cotton farmers left fields bare over winter months, when winds in the High Plains are
highest, and burned the stubble (as a form of weeding prior to planting), which deprived the soil of organic nutrients
and increased exposure to erosion.
This increased exposure to erosion was revealed when a severe drought struck the Great Plains in 1934. The native
grasses that covered the prairie lands for centuries, holding the soil in place and maintaining its moisture, had been
eliminated by the intensively increased plowing. The drought conditions caused the topsoil to grow dry and friable
and it was simply carried away by the wind. The dusty soil aggregated in the air forming immense dust clouds which
further prevented rainfall. It was not until the government promoted soil conservation programs that the area slowly
began to rehabilitate.[7]
Geographic characteristics
The Dust Bowl area lies principally west of the 100th meridian on the
High Plains, characterized by plains which vary from rolling in the
north to flat in the Llano Estacado. Elevation ranges from 2500 feet
(760 m) in the east to 6000 feet (1800 m) at the base of the Rocky
Mountains. The area is semi-arid, receiving less than 20 inches
(510 mm) of rain annually; this rainfall supports the shortgrass prairie
biome originally present in the area. The region is also prone to
extended drought, alternating with unusual wetness of equivalent
duration.[8] During wet years, the rich soil provides bountiful
agricultural output, but crops fail during dry years. Furthermore, the
region is subject to winds higher than any region except coastal regions.[9]
A dust storm approaches Stratford, Texas, in
1935.
Drought and dust storms
The unusually wet period, which encouraged increased settlement and
cultivation in the Great Plains, ended in 1930. This was the year in
which an extended and severe drought began which caused crops to
fail, leaving the plowed fields exposed to wind erosion. The fine soil of
the Great Plains was easily eroded and carried east by strong
continental winds.
On November 11, 1933, a very strong dust storm stripped topsoil from
desiccated South Dakota farmlands in just one of a series of bad dust
storms that year. Then, beginning on May 9, 1934, a strong two-day
A dust storm; Spearman, Texas, April 14, 1935.
dust storm removed massive amounts of Great Plains topsoil in one of
the worst such storms of the Dust Bowl. The dust clouds blew all the
way to Chicago where dirt fell like snow. Two days later, the same storm reached cities in the east, such as Buffalo,
Boston, Cleveland, New York City, and Washington, D.C.[10] That winter, red snow fell on New England.
On April 14, 1935, known as "Black Sunday", twenty of the worst "Black Blizzards" occurred throughout the Dust
Bowl, causing extensive damage and turning the day to night; witnesses reported that they could not see five feet in
Dust Bowl
front of them at certain points.
Human displacement
This catastrophe intensified the economic impact of the Great Depression in the region.
Canada
Two-thirds of farmers in "Palliser's Triangle", in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan, had to rely on government
aid. This was due mainly to drought, hail storms, and erratic weather rather than to dust storms as was occurring on
the U.S. Great Plains. Many Canadians fled to urban areas such as Toronto.[11]
U.S.
Dust Bowl conditions fomented an exodus of the displaced from
Texas, Oklahoma, and the surrounding Great Plains to adjacent
regions. More than 500,000 Americans were left homeless. 356 houses
had to be torn down after one storm alone.[12] Many Americans
migrated west looking for work. Some residents of the Plains,
especially in Kansas and Oklahoma fell ill and died of dust pneumonia
or malnutrition.[13]
The Dust Bowl exodus was the largest migration in American history
within a short period of time. By 1940, 2.5 million people had moved
Buried machinery in a barn lot; Dallas, South
out of the Plains states; of those, 200,000 moved to California.[14] With
Dakota, May 1936
their land barren and homes seized in foreclosure, many farm families
were forced to leave. Migrants left farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas,
Colorado and New Mexico, but all were generally referred to as "Okies". The second wave of the Great Migration by
African Americans from the South (esp. the states of Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee and
Texas) to the North was larger, involving more than 5 million people, but it took place over decades, from 1940 to
1970.[15] Also to note the small but influential migration of Mexican-Americans of dust-bowl and poverty stricken
areas of Texas (see Tejanos), New Mexico, Arizona and Colorado, as they headed westward to other Hispanic
communities and farming valleys of California.
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Dust Bowl
Characteristics of migrants
When James N. Gregory examined the Census Bureau statistics as well as other surveys, he discovered some
surprising percentages. For example, in 1939 the Bureau of Agricultural Economics surveyed the occupations of
about 116,000 families who had arrived in California in the 1930s. It showed that only 43 percent of southwesterners
were doing farm work immediately before they migrated. Nearly one-third of all migrants were professional or white
collar workers.[16]
U.S. Government response
During President Franklin D. Roosevelt's first 100 days in 1933,
governmental programs designed to conserve soil and restore the
ecological balance of the nation were implemented. Interior Secretary
Harold L. Ickes established the Soil Erosion Service in August 1933
under Hugh Hammond Bennett. In 1935 it was transferred and
reorganized under the Department of Agriculture and renamed the Soil
Conservation Service. More recently it has been renamed the Natural
Resources Conservation Service (NRCS).[17]
Additionally, the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) was
created after more than six million pigs were slaughtered to stabilize
An Oklahoman boy during a dust storm, 1936
prices. The pigs went to waste. The FSRC diverted agricultural
commodities to relief organizations. Apples, beans, canned beef, flour and pork products were distributed through
local relief channels. Cotton goods were later included, to clothe the needy.[18]
In 1935, the federal government formed a Drought Relief Service (DRS) to coordinate relief activities. The DRS
bought cattle in counties which were designated emergency areas, for $14 to $20 a head. Animals unfit for human
consumption – more than 50 percent at the beginning of the program – were destroyed. The remaining cattle were
given to the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) to be used in food distribution to families nationwide.
Although it was difficult for farmers to give up their herds, the cattle slaughter program helped many of them avoid
bankruptcy. "The government cattle buying program was a God-send to many farmers, as they could not afford to
keep their cattle, and the government paid a better price than they could obtain in local markets."[19]
President Roosevelt ordered the Civilian Conservation Corps to plant a huge belt of more than 200 million trees from
Canada to Abilene, Texas to break the wind, hold water in the soil, and hold the soil itself in place. The
administration also began to educate farmers on soil conservation and anti-erosion techniques, including crop
rotation, strip farming, contour plowing, terracing, and other improved farming practices.[20] [21] In 1937, the federal
government began an aggressive campaign to encourage Dust Bowlers to adopt planting and plowing methods that
conserved the soil. The government paid the reluctant farmers a dollar an acre to practice one of the new methods.
By 1938, the massive conservation effort had reduced the amount of blowing soil by 65 percent. Nevertheless, the
land failed to yield a decent living. In the fall of 1939, after nearly a decade of dirt and dust, the nearly decade long
drought ended as regular rainfall finally returned to the region.
Lasting consequences
By the time the major drought concluded in the mid 1940s the demographics and political economy of the plains of
the 100th meridian had fundamentally changed. The out migration of the 1930s and the demands of World War II
employment outside the region of almost all the male and head-of-household migrating population in the war and in
war-related industries outside of the region permanently removed from these great western plains small-scale
single-family farming agriculture which had been the origin of the disaster in the first place.
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Dust Bowl
The families who migrated experienced a permanent, significant increase in their household incomes in the aftermath
of the war in their new locations and settings as non-farm workers. This guaranteed that they had no desire to return
to the harrowing poverty of their rural existence as it was, even before the great drought. Advances in agriculture,
transportation and agri-business in the post war period further contributed to the collapse in demand for the
small-scale farming that had taken place in the region. In simple terms, the cost of returning these lands to useful
agricultural production, given the need to protect the delicate soil environment of the region, would have produced
wholesale farm product prices that were uncompetitive with prices for products produced elsewhere in the US.
Influence on the arts
The crisis was documented by photographers, musicians, and authors. Many were hired by various U.S. federal
agencies during the Great Depression. The Farm Security Administration hired numerous photographers to
document the crisis. This helped the careers of many notable artists, including Dorothea Lange. She captured iconic
images of the storms and migrant families. The work of independent artists, such as folk singer Woody Guthrie and
American novelist John Steinbeck, also was influenced by the crises of the Dust Bowl and the Depression.
Migrants' leaving the Plains states took their music with them. Oklahoma migrants, in particular, were descended
from rural Southerners and transplanted country music to California. Today, the "Bakersfield Sound" describes this
blend, which developed after the migrants brought country music to the city. Their new music inspired a
proliferation of country dance halls as far south as Los Angeles.
Future Dust Bowls
The conditions that produced the Dust Bowl of the 1930s can occur again. Some arid regions are being stressed by
overgrazing of livestock. Conditions that put China, Africa, and Australia at risk are detailed below.
Africa
The Sahel region, between the Sahara Desert and the Sudanese savannas, is a transition zone nearly 1,000 kilometers
wide across Africa that is particularly prone to devastating droughts. Normally, a few years of drought are relieved
by a few rainy years. Since the late 1960s, however, the Sahel has endured extensive and severe drought. When the
land is dry, desertification can be caused by overgrazing of cattle, on which the people depend.[22]
Australia
Australia's largest river system, the Murray River, is drying up. Crop yields have dropped drastically after seven
years of drought.[23] Australia had a major dust storm in 2009.
China
In 2007, the WorldChanging web site stated that China was turning productive land into desert at the rate of one
million acres per year, which has produced huge sandstorms. The population of grazing animals had quadrupled
since the 1960s, with overgrazing contributing to desertification. The government tries to reduce overgrazing by
resettling traditional herders to villages.[24]
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Dust Bowl
United States of America
A 1°C (1.8°F) rise in global temperatures due to the effects of global warming could turn much of the semi-arid
American Midwest into a shrub-steppe, likely starting with an area near the Sand Hills in Nebraska, severely
impacting food supplies and exports from the American breadbasket.[25]
See also
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1936 North American heat wave
Rain follows the plow
The Plow That Broke the Plains
Timeline of environmental events
Great Plains Shelterbelt
Natural disaster
Desertification
Ogallala Aquifer
Palliser's Triangle
Bibliography
• Donald Worster, Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930's. Oxford University Press (1979).
• Woody Guthrie, The (Nearly) Complete Collection of Woody Guthrie Folk Songs, Ludlow Music, New York
(1963).
• Alan Lomax, Woody Guthrie, Pete Seeger, Hard-Hitting Songs for Hard-Hit People, Oak Publications, New
York (1967).
• C. Vann Woodward, The Origins of the New South, Louisiana State University Press (1967).
• The Worst Hard Time: The Untold Story of Those Who Survived the Great American Dust Bowl, Timothy Egan,
Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, 2006, hardcover. ISBN 0-618-34697-X.
• Survival in the Storm: The Dust Bowl Diary of Grace Edwards, Dalhart, Texas, 1935, Katelan Janke, Scholastic
(September 2002). ISBN 0-439-21599-4.
• Out of the Dust, Karen Hesse, Scholastic Signature. New York First Edition, 1997, hardcover (paperback January
1999). ISBN 0-590-37125-8.
External links
NASA Explains "Dust Bowl" Drought [26]
The Dust Bowl photo collection [27]
The Dust Bowl [28] (EH.Net Encyclopedia)
Black Sunday, April 14, 1935, Dodge City, KS [29]
The Bibliography of Aeolian Research [30]
Surviving the Dust Bowl, Black Sunday (April 14, 1935) [31]
Voices from the Dust Bowl: The Charles L. Todd and Robert Sonkin Migrant Worker Collection, 1940–1941 [32]
Library of Congress, American Folklife Center Online collection of archival sound recordings, photographs, and
manuscripts
• Youtube Video: "The Great Depression, Displaced Mountaineers in Shenandoah National Park, and the Civilian
Conservation Corps (C.C.C.)" [33]
• Farming in the 1930s [34] (Wessels Living History Farm)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• Flash: Out of the Dust [35] (The Modesto Bee)
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Dust Bowl
• Africa Data Dissemination Service [36], part of the Famine Early Warning Systems Network, U.S. Geological
Service
• Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Dust Bowl [37]
References
[1] "Drought: A Paleo Perspective – 20th Century Drought" (http:/ / www. ncdc. noaa. gov/ paleo/ drought/ drght_history. html). National
Climatic Data Center. . Retrieved 2009-04-05.
[2] Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509514-6.
[3] "The Great Plains: from dust to dust" (http:/ / www. planning. org/ 25anniversary/ planning/ 1987dec. htm). Planning Magazine. December
1987. . Retrieved December 6, 2007.
[4] Regions at Risk: a comparison of threatened environments (http:/ / www. unu. edu/ unupress/ unupbooks/ uu14re/ uu14re00. htm). United
Nations University Press. 1995. . Retrieved December 6, 2007.
[5] Drought in the Dust Bowl Years (http:/ / www. drought. unl. edu/ whatis/ dustbowl. htm). National Drought Mitigation Center. 2006. .
Retrieved December 6, 2007.
[6] Regions at Risk: a comparison of threatened environments (http:/ / www. unu. edu/ unupress/ unupbooks/ uu14re/ uu14re0n. htm#6. the ilano
estacado of the american southern high plains). United Nations University Press. 1995. . Retrieved December 6, 2008.
[7] "The American Experience: Surviving The Dust Bowl: People & Events: The Drought" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ amex/ dustbowl/
peopleevents/ pandeAMEX06. html). PBS. . Retrieved 2008-12-29.
[8] "A History of Drought in Colorado: lessons learned and what lies ahead" (http:/ / ccc. atmos. colostate. edu/ pdfs/ ahistoryofdrought. pdf)
(PDF). Colorado Water Resources Research Institute. February 2000. . Retrieved December 6, 2007.
[9] "A Report of the Great Plains Area Drought Committee" (http:/ / newdeal. feri. org/ hopkins/ hop27. htm). Hopkins Papers, Franklin D.
Roosevelt Library. August 27, 1936. . Retrieved December 6, 2007.
[10] Stock, Catherine McNicol (1992). Main Street in Crisis: The Great Depression and the Old Middle Class on the Northern Plains, p. 24.
University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0807846899.
[11] ""The Dust Bowl"" (http:/ / history. cbc. ca/ history/ ?MIval=EpisContent. html& lang=E& series_id_1& episode_id=13& chapter_id=1&
page_id=2). CBC. . Retrieved 2007-03-11.
[12] "First Measured Century: Interview:James Gregory" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ fmc/ interviews/ gregory. htm). PBS. . Retrieved 2007-03-11.
[13] "Surviving the Dust Bowl" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ americanexperience/ dustbowl/ transcript/ 2/ ). 1998. . Retrieved October 20,
2009.
[14] Worster, Donald (1979). Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930's. Oxford University Press.
[15] "In Motion: African American Migration Experience, The Second Great Migration" (http:/ / www. inmotionaame. org/ migrations/ topic.
cfm?migration=9& topic=1). . Retrieved 2007-03-18.
[16] Gregory, N. James. 1991. American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture in California. Oxford University Press.
[17] Steiner, Frederick (2008). The Living Landscape, Second Edition: An Ecological Approach to Landscape Planning, p. 188. Island Press.
ISBN 1597263966.
[18] "The American Experience / Surviving the Dust Bowl / Timeline" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ amex/ dustbowl/ timeline/ ). .
[19] Monthly Catalog, United States Public Documents, By United States Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing
Office, Published by G.P.O., 1938
[20] Federal Writers' Project. Texas. Writers' Program (Tex.): Writers' Program Texas. p. 16.
[21] Buchanan, James Shannon. Chronicles of Oklahoma. Oklahoma Historical Society. p. 224.
[22] Schmidt, Laurie J., "From the Dust Bowl to the Sahel" (http:/ / earthobservatory. nasa. gov/ Features/ DustBowl/ ), NASA Earth
Observatory, 2001-05-18, accessed 2008-07-23
[23] Macdonald, Nancy. "Water Fights" (http:/ / www2. macleans. ca/ tag/ dustbowl/ ), Maclean's.ca, 2009 July 6, accessed 2009 July 25
[24] Hvistendahl, Mara. "Revitalizing China's Dust Bowl" (http:/ / www. worldchanging. com/ archives/ 007386. html), 2007-10-08, accessed
2009-07-25
[25] Lynas, Mark (2007). "One Degree". Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet. Fourth Estate. pp. 358.
[26] http:/ / www. gsfc. nasa. gov/ topstory/ 2004/ 0319dustbowl. html
[27] http:/ / www. weru. ksu. edu/ new_weru/ multimedia/ dustbowl/ dustbowlpics. html
[28] http:/ / eh. net/ encyclopedia/ ?article=Cunfer. DustBowl
[29] http:/ / www. kansashistory. us/ dustbowl. html
[30] http:/ / www. lbk. ars. usda. gov/ wewc/ biblio/ bar. htm
[31] http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ amex/ dustbowl/ peopleevents/ pandeAMEX07. html
[32] http:/ / hdl. loc. gov/ loc. afc/ collafc. af000011
[33] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=2jvbTwxdbvE
[34] http:/ / www. livinghistoryfarm. org/ farminginthe30s/ water_02. html
[35] http:/ / www. modbee. com/ outofthedust
[36] http:/ / earlywarning. usgs. gov/ adds/
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Dust Bowl
[37] http:/ / digital. library. okstate. edu/ encyclopedia/ entries/ D/ DU011. html
8
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Farmer walking in dust storm Cimarron County Oklahoma2.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Farmer_walking_in_dust_storm_Cimarron_County_Oklahoma2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: GerardM, Infrogmation, Mvuijlst, 2
anonymous edits
Image:Dust-storm-Texas-1935.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dust-storm-Texas-1935.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Bidgee, Epimethius,
Infrogmation, Leaflet, Saperaud, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Wea01422.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wea01422.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Original uploader was Bevo at en.wikipedia
Image:Dust Bowl - Dallas, South Dakota 1936.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dust_Bowl_-_Dallas,_South_Dakota_1936.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Sloan (?)
File:Oklahoman boy during the Dust Bowl era.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oklahoman_boy_during_the_Dust_Bowl_era.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Arthur Rothstein, for the Farm Security Administration. Original uploader was AgnosticPreachersKid at en.wikipedia
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/
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