Download minorities in sport

Chapter 8
SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS
指導教授：許光麃老師
報告者：陳乃嘉
班級：體碩一A
學號：19701018
OBJECTIVES
• Show how sport is a socializing force in the
American Culture.
• Discuss the nature and scope of sport.
• Trace the growth of sport in educational
institutions in the United States and the
attitude of educators toward the growth.
• Know the dimensions of concerns in sport
today including girls and women, children,
minorities in sport, violence, and use of
performance-enhancing substances.
ABSTRACT-part1
• Sport is an important part of this
nation’s culture and other cultures
throughout the world.
1. To captures newspaper headline.
2. To hole television viewers’ attention.
3. To produce millions of dollars a year in
revenue for entrepreneurs.
4. To impact international affairs.
ABSTRACT-part2
• Sport exerts a strong influence on many
aspects of the American life-style.
1. To be “glued” on their chairs when featured
sports programs.
2. To buy airtime during sporting events to
sell their wares.
• Professional sports teams attracts
millions of spectators each year.
 To sustain spectator support and interest
and to ensure a profitable year for
management.
ABSTRACT-part3
• The big business of sport has also
influenced the nature of college and
secondary school sport.
• Within the last 10 years, the number of
sport participants in our society has
increased dramatically. Millions of people
of all ages and abilities participate in a
diversity of sport activities.
SOCIOLOGY OF SPORT
-Definition and Scope
• Sport permeates virtually every social
institution in society.
• Sport influences and is influenced by
social institutions.
• Sport, as social phenomena, have “meanings
that go far beyond score and performance
statistic. Sport are related to the social
and cultural contexts in which we live…”
SOCIOLOGY OF SPORT
-Definition and Scope
• Sociology is concerned with the study of
people groups, institutions and human
activities in terms of social behaviors and
order within society.
• Sociology is a science interested in such
institutions of society as religion, family,
government, education, and leisure.
• Sociologist are concerned with the influence
of social institutions on the individual, the
social behavior and human relations.
• Sport sociology focuses on examining the
relationship between sport and society.
SOCIOLOGY OF SPORT
-Definition and Scope
• The major goals of sport sociology:
1. The relationship between sport and other
aspects of society, such as family, education,
politics, the economy, the media, and the
religion.
2. The influence of sport and sport participations
on individuals, beliefs relative to equity, gender,
race, ethnicity, disability, and other societal
issues.
3. The social processes associated with sport,
including competition, socialization, conflict,
and change.
SOCIOLOGY OF SPORT
-Historical Development
• Social scientists studied the nature and
social functions of play, games ,and sport –
how these activities contributed to
development and the building of character
and reflected the culture during the midto late 1800s. (writings)
1. 1899  The theory of the Leisure Class
2. 1953  Sports in American Life
3. 1965  Toward a Sociology of Sport
4. 1969  A Sociology of Sport
SOCIOLOGY OF SPORT
-Historical Development
• The growth of interest and the desire to
discuss ideas and to share research led to
development of scholarly organizations and
journals. (organizations)
1. 1964  International Committee of Sport Sociology
(ICSS)
2. 1976  AAHPER founded the Sociology of Sport
Academy. (now AAHPERD)
(American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,
Recreation and Dance-美國健康、體育、休閒與舞蹈聯合會)
3. 1980  the North American Society of Sport (NASSS)
• 4. 1994  The International Sociology of Sport
Association (become by ICSS)
SOCIOLOGY OF SPORT
-Historical Development
• As research grew, scholarly journals
focusing ob sport sociology were
developed. (journals)
1. 1966  ICSS : International Review of Sport
Sociology
(became the International Review for Sociology of Sport
in 1984)
2. 1977  Journal of Sport and Social Issues
3. 1984  Sociology of Sport Journal, Quest and
the Research Quarterly for Exercise and
Sport
SOCIOLOGY OF SPORT
-Historical Development
• In the 1970s  socioeconomic inequalities and class
relations in sport.
• In the 1980s  gender and sexual orientation
inequities in sport.
• In the 1990s  racial and ethnic inequities in sport
(African American-非裔美國人), the
globalization of sport, the impact of
media, economics, and the politics on
sport in different cultures.
• Sport sociologists used different methods (such as
theoretical and methodological approaches) to collect
quantitative and qualitative data for their research..
SOCIOLOGY OF SPORT
-Areas of study
• Sport sociologists are concerned with understanding
the influence of social relationships, past social
experience, and the social setting of sport
activities on the behavior of individuals and groups
within sport. These questions are as follows:
1. building character
2. individual’s life
3. minorities issues
(girls and women, disabilities, and negroes in sport)
4. mass media
5. educational goals
(academic achievement vs. athletic achievement)
6. parents’ and coaches’ attitude
7. the value of sport worlds in the future
SPORT:A DEFINITION
• Coakly defines sport as follows:
1. Sport are institutionalized competitive activities
that involve rigorous physical exertion or the use
of relatively complex physical skills by participants
motivated by personal enjoyment and external
rewards.
(1) Sport Activities:
(physical vs. nonphysical skills, complex vs. simple motor
requirements, vigorous vs. non-vigorous activities)
(2) Conditions:
(informal and unstructured vs. formal and structured)
(3) Participation Motives:
(intrinsic vs. extrinsic)
SPORT CLASSIFICATION
-摘路自 王宗吉老師《體育運動社會學》
高
強
社會控制
弱
高
職業運動
制
度
體
系
之
水
準
正式的運動
如全國性、國際性比賽
技
術
水
準
半正式的運動
如校內或地方性競賽
非正式之運動
如各種簡易運動
低
大
參加者本身之自由度
小
低
THE DIMENSIONS OF CONCENS
IN SPORT TODAY
• SPORT IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
(Interscholastic Sports and Intercollegiate
Sports)
• GIRLS AND WOMEN IN SPORT
• MINORITIES IN SPORT
• SPORT FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH
• VIOLENCE
• PERFORMANCE-ENHANCING SUBSTANCES
IN SPORT
SPORT IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
• In the United States, organized sports are
accepted as an integral part of the
extracurricular offerings of schools and
colleges.
• Since the initial inclusion of athletics in
educational institutions in the late 1800s,
concerns were raised about the educational
worth of athletics and its relevancy to the
educational mission of the schools.
SPORT IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
• Participation at the collegiate level has also
experienced strong growth. (reported by the
National College Athletic Association “NCAA”,
the largest governing body of collegiate
athletics)
• Interscholastic and Intercollegiate sports play
an important role in our American culture, a
role not limited to the participants or coaches
involved in the experiences.
SPORT IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
-Interscholastic sports
• Interscholastic sports are viewed by
many, including the National Federation
of State High School Associations, as
an integral part of the educational
experience for high school students
and, increasingly, junior/middle –school
students as well.
SPORT IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
-Interscholastic sports
• Participation in sport can help students:
1. To develop a high level physical fitness.
2. To attain a high degree of proficiency in selected
sport skills and knowledge of various aspects of the
game.
3. To develop sportspersonship, cooperation, leadership,
and loyalty.
4. To provide opportunities for personal growth.
5. To pave the way for the development of friendships.
6. To develop decision-making and thinking skills.
7. To teach self-discipline and commitment.
8. To enhance one’s self-esteem and personal status.
9. To promote the acceptance of others regardless of
race or ethnic origins.
SPORT IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
-Interscholastic sports
• Whether participation in sport enhance academic
achievement is a very complex and debatable
question.
• High school athletes generally have better grade
point averages (GPA-學業成績總平均) and express
more interest in further education then their
non-athletic peers.
• Interscholastic sports can also heighten school
spirit and engender parental support. In many
locales across the country, interscholastic
athletics provide a focal point for the community.
 The movie in 1971 “Friday Night Lights”
SPORT IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
-Interscholastic sports
• Critics of interscholastic sport denounce:
1. overemphasis on winning
2. restriction of opportunities for students
3. eligibility requirements for participation
4. drug abuse
5. soaring costs
6. pressures from parents, community
supporters, and coaches, behavior
7. A “pay-to-play” policy
SPORT IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
-Interscholastic sports
• Overemphasis on winning is one of the most frequently
voiced criticisms interscholastic sports.
• This disproportionate emphasis is reflected in the
increased specialization in one sport by athletes the
participation of injured athletes, the subversion of the
educational process, and coaches’ job depending on
their win-loss records.
• In an effort to win, coaches may resort to undesirable
behaviors. They may pressure athletes to practice and
play when injured. In an effort to maintain player
eligibility, coaches may steer athletes toward easier
courses, pressure teachers to pass athletes or, in the
some cases, alter athletes’ grades.
SPORT IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
-Interscholastic sports
• The restricted number of opportunities for
participation is another criticism of interscholastic
sports.
• Many students who are less highly skilled are
exhausted, despite their love of the game, and often
no other scholastic sport opportunities are provided
for them.
• Academic requirements for eligibility are also a
controversial issue. Most high schools require that
students meet certain academic standards to be
eligible to participate in extracurricular activities,
including sports.
 “No pass, no play.”
SPORT IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
-Interscholastic sports
• One of the most serious problems in the schools is
drug abuse.
• When taken in amounts far exceeding the
recommended dosage and couple with intense physical
workouts, anabolic steroids an build muscle and
enhance performance.
代謝類固醇
• Anabolic steroids, even in small doses, have been shown
to stop growth too soon. Adolescents also may be at
risk for becoming dependent on steroids.
• Coaches also must be prepare to address other serious
problems, including the use of tobacco, alcohol, and
illegal drugs such as marijuana, amphetamines, and
cocaine.
安非他命
古柯鹼
大麻
SPORT IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
-Intercollegiate sports
• In smaller institutions, the athletic
program may be part of the physical
education department and be funded from
its budget, the coaches have faculty
teaching status, and one individual may
serve as the coach for two or more teams.
• At larger institutions, separate athletic
departments exist: Athletics has its own
budget and generates substantial revenue
from gate receipt and contributions;
coaches have no teaching status; and an
individual coaches only one sport.
SPORT IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
-Intercollegiate sports
• Intercollegiate sport is regulated by
three primary governing bodies:
1. the National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA)
2. the National Association of Intercollegiate
Athletics (NAIA)
3. the National Junior College Athletic
Association (NJCAA)
SPORT IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
-Intercollegiate sports
• The NCAA is the largest, most powerful
governing body in intercollegiate athletics.
1. In 2007  divided into five divisions.
2. Division Ⅰ includes 326 schools and is divided
into three divisions.
(1) Division Ⅰ-FBS
(2) Division Ⅰ-FCS
(3) Division Ⅰ-AAA
3. Division Ⅱ and Division Ⅲ are composed of 281
and 920 schools respectively.
SPORT IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
-Intercollegiate sports
• Athletes who participate in the big Division Ⅰ
programs generally possess a higher level of
athletic talent, face a greater time commitment to
their sport, receive full athletic scholarships,
experience a greater amount of travel, and benefit
from greater media exposure.
• The overemphasis on winning, concerns about the
academic achievements of athletes (studentathletes) and their eligibility for participation, and
the use of drugs are some of the problems
associated with Intercollegiate sports.
SPORT IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
-Intercollegiate sports
• The graduation rates show that athletic
administrators need to pay greater
attention to fostering, learning, and
focusing on improving the educational
experiences of athletes.
1. Graduation Success Rate (GSR)
2. Academic Progress Rate (APR)
3. Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT-學術性向測驗)
4. American College Test (ACT-美國大學測驗)
SPORT IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
-Intercollegiate sports
• After reviewing the academic performance of studentathletes, the escalating spending on athletics, and the
growing commercialization of intercollegiate sport, the
Knight commission recommended a “one- plus-three”
model to reform collegiate athletic.
1. The “one” was the establishment of a Coalition Presidents who
would work in concert with such group as the American Council
on Education to restore athletics as an integral part of the
educational enterprise.
2. The “three” were academic reform, de-escalation of the
athletics arms race, and de-emphasis of commercialization of
intercollegiate athletics.
GIRLS AND WOMEN IN SPORT
• Within the past 35 years, there has been a
dramatic increase in girls’ and women’s
participation in sports.
• This increase is visible at all levels of
competition – the Olympics, professional and
amateur sports, intercollegiate and
interscholastic sports, and youth sports.
GIRLS AND WOMEN IN SPORT
• Passed in 1972, Title Ⅸ (美國教育修正案)
prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in
any educational program or activity receiving
federal financial assistance it states that “no
person in the United States shall, on the basis
of sex, be excluded from participation in, be
denied the benefit of, or be subjected to
discrimination under and educational program
or activity receiving federal assistance.”
• Since Title Ⅸ, sports opportunities for girls
and women have increase. Sports are no longer
just for fathers and sons.
GIRLS AND WOMEN IN SPORT
• In compliance with Title Ⅸ, a school must meet
one of these three tests to be within the law:
1. Proportionality. (within 5%)
2. History and continued practice. (add more
women’s sports)
3. Accommodation of interests and abilities.
• Masculinity vs. Femininity
• The 1993 NCAA Gender Equity Panel may be
helpful in thinking about this issue:
“An athletics program in gender equitable when
either the men’s or women’s sports programs
would be pleased to accept as its own the
overall program of the other gender.”
GIRLS AND WOMEN IN SPORT
• The report “Physical Activity and Sport in the Lives of
Girl” emphasized the contributions physical activity
and sport can make to the “complete girl” – her social,
physical, emotional, and culture environment – rather
than to just one aspect of the girl’s life.
• Professional opportunities for women are also
increasing. In 1996, two professional women’s
basketball leagues were organized offering elite women
athlete the opportunity to continue to participate in
their sport.
1. the American Basketball League (ABL) - folded
2. the Women’s National Basketball Association
(WNBA) - grown
GIRLS AND WOMEN IN SPORT
• School are choosing to cut program rather than ask
all teams to operate on smaller pieces of the
financial pie. In fact, schools are spending more
money on men’s sports than ever…The 1999 NCAA
Revenue and Expenses of Division Ⅰ and Ⅱ
Intercollegiate Athletics Programs study revealed
(Division Ⅰ-A ):
1. total operating expenses for women’s sport – $3,741,000
2. total operating expenses for men’s sport – $9,544,000
• “The legitimate and long-overdue need to support
women’s athletic programs and comply with Title Ⅸ
in not used as an excuse for soaring casts while
expenses in big-time sports are unchecked.” (from
the 2001 Knight Commission Report)
MINORITIES IN SPORT
• Sport is often extolled as an avenue by which
to transcend differences in race and cultural
background.
• “Sport is color blind.”
• On the playing field, a person is recognized for
ability alone and rewards are given without
regard to race and class.
• However, the sport phenomena reveals that
sport organizations are typically characterized
by the patterns of prejudice discrimination
found in the surrounding society.
MINORITIES IN SPORT
• Historically, sport in the United States has
been characterized by racism and prejudice.
• Black and minorities were rarely given access
to mainstream sport competition in the
professional league, colleague, universities, and
schools. They organized their own league, and
competed within them.
• Until 1946, when Jackie Robinson “broke the
color barrier” by playing for the then
Brooklyn Dodgers.
MINORITIES IN SPORT
• Currently, the participation of black athletes
remains concentrated in a few sports. They
are overrepresented in certain sports such as
football, basketball, and baseball, but not
volleyball, swimming, gymnastics, soccer, golf,
and tennis. Cos these sports require no
expensive equipment, training, coaches
available and offering visible role models to
aspiring athletes.
MINORITIES IN SPORT
• Minority men and women are significantly
underrepresented in coaching and managerial
positions in sport at all levels.
• College sports and professional sports (such as
MLB,NBA,WNBA, MLS, and, NHL)
organizations are assigned a grade based on
their hiring practice. The grade range from A+
to F, with one grade given for gender, one for
race, and a combined grade.
MINORITIES IN SPORT
• The 2005 Racial and Gender Report Cards for
professional sports and for intercollegiate
sports (RGRC) reveal some progress in hiring
within professional and college ranks for
minority and women. grade range from A+ to F,
with one grade given for gender, one for race,
and a combined grade.
The NBA’s record for race was the best of all
organizations, earning the NBA a grade of “A” for
race. Almost 78% of the NBA players were “people
of color”.
The Racial and Gender Report Cards (RGRC)
•
•
•
•
•
Racial and Gender Report Card:
1. 中文直譯為「種族與性別成績單」。
2. 美國五大運動聯盟NBA、MLB、NFL、WNBA、MLS 與NCAA在每個球季
結束之後下個球季開始之前，都會發表這一個成績單在各大媒體上，來告
訴大眾他們本季聯盟當中的所有雇員﹝包括所有球員、教練以及工作人
員，有的球團有兩三百個雇員﹞有沒有合乎社會大眾種族以及性別的標
準。
大眾種族以及性別的標準：
1. 美國是個民族大鎔爐，充滿著各色人種，而每年美國政府都會統計出每一
個種族佔全美國人口的百分比，只要是白人之外的各色人種﹝包括黑人、
黃種人、拉丁美洲人以及其他﹞總稱為People of Color。
2. 2005年美國統計出People of Color人口佔了全美的24%，所以只要是各
聯盟當中的People of Color到達24%，就可以拿到A，百分比越低分數就
越低，以2005年的標準來看，5%以下就會拿到F。性別也是一樣的道
理，用全美國女性人口佔的比例來看各聯盟有沒有達到標準。
Racial and Gender Report Card不是要挑起種族或性別戰爭，也不是要強調
誰雇用比較多的少數民族誰就比較好。重點是希望各聯盟可以給所有人平等
的工作機會，不管人種不管性別，只管工作能力。
http://www.roundballcity.com/blogs/sunnyshas_magic/archive/2006/11/01/4120
6.aspx
http://www.bus.ucf.edu/sport/public/downloads/2005_racial_gender_report_ca
rd_NBA.pdf
MINORITIES IN SPORT
• The RGRC shows that professional sports are
making progress, albeit slowly at times, in the
employment of minorities and women within
their organizations.
 white males occupy:
1. power and senior administration positions
2. the majority of team owners and staff
3. head or assistant coaches positions
MINORITIES IN SPORT
• The impact of societal beliefs about different
racial and ethnic groups can be seen in the
pattern of positions and roles played by
athletes from different racial and ethnic
background.
• In some team sports, such as baseball, football,
and women’s volleyball, racial and ethnic
stereotypes are reflected in the positions
played by the athletes.
MINORITIES IN SPORT
• Players from certain racial or ethnic groups
are disproportionately represented at certain
positions in a phenomenon known as stacking.
stacking
black players
white players
baseball
outfield positions
pitcher, catcher, and
the infield
Soccer
wide forward
position
goalie, and midfield
position
Speed, agility, and
quick reactions
leadership,
dependability, and
decision-making skills
characteristic
MINORITIES IN SPORT
• Participation by Native American in most
sports has been and continues to be limited.
• Poverty, poor health, lack of equipment, and a
dearth of programs are factors that often
serve to limit Native American sport
participation.
• Concern about loss of cultural identity,
prejudice, lack of understanding, and
insensitivity by others toward Native American
act in concert with the other factors
previously mentioned to curb sport involvement.
MINORITIES IN SPORT
• One example of this lack of sensitivity is the use of
school names and mascots that perpetuate the white
stereotypes of Native American.
• Team names such as Indians or Redskins or a team
mascot dressed up as a savage running around waving a
tomahawk threatening to behead an opponent reflects
distorted beliefs of Native American.
• Such inappropriate or distorted caricatures of Native
American who, as school mascots, are painted on
gymnasium walls and floors, do little to increase
student and public awareness of the richness and
diversity of Native American culture.
MINORITIES IN SPORT
• Concern American Indian Parents is a group
committed to the elimination of Native
American stereotypes in advertising and
sport.
• By calling for elimination of stereotypes in
the form of American Indian images, we can
contribute positively to the education of all
of our children, Indian and non-Indian alike.
SPORT FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH
• For many Americans, participants in
youth sport activities is an integral
part of growing up.
 Over 20million boys and girls
participate each year in youth sport,
that is, organized sport activities
that take place outside the school
setting.
 Over 3 million coaches are involved with
these programs.
SPORT FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH
• While participation in youth sports ha grown
tremendously over the past decade, there is
widespread concern about the nature and
outcomes associated with these programs.
• One’s own youth sport experiences:
1. What did you like most and least?
2. What did you learn?
3. How about your parents’ influence?
4. Hoe did you build character?
5. Others responses when successes or failures?
6. At what age and for what reasons did you
discontinue or stop?
7. What changes would you make? Positive or negative
experience?
SPORT FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH
• The benefits to participant in youth sport:
1. Physical fitness promotion
2. Emotional development
3. Social adjustment
4. A competitive attitude
5. Self-confidence
6. Physical skills development
7. A greater level of skill achievement
8. Additional opportunities to play
9. Safer experience
SPORT FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH
• The greatest criticisms (shortages) to participant in youth
sport:
1. Overemphasis on winning:
The desire to win has led coaches to employ such
behaviors as conniving to get the best players in the
league on their team, holding lengthy practice
sessions and endless drills to perfect skills and
berating children fir their mistakes.
2. Specialization:
Children should e given an opportunity to develop
proficiency in fundamental motor skills and be
exposed to a variety of sports.
(1) To deprives their opportunities for other
interest and skills in a variety of sport.
(2) Training is serious and often occurs on a year-round
basis. (off-season)
(3) Psychologically, these participants may experience
burnout from doing the same thing year after year.
SPORT FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH
• The recommendations to participant in youth
sport – part1
1. Youth sport programs should be developmental in nature,
that is, they should be organized and conducted in such a
way as to enhance the physical, cognitive, and affective
development of each child and youth participant.
2. Under sound leadership, the welfare of the child is the
primary consideration, the environment is warm and
supportive, and the sport is administered in light of the
needs and characteristic of the participants, much good
can be accomplished.
3. The programs should be structured so that children can
experience success and satisfaction. (funny, variety, selfcontrol…)
SPORT FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH
• The recommendations to participant in youth sport – part2
1. These programs should emphasis understanding the growth
characteristics, developmental needs of children, modifying
existing programs to meet these needs, incorporating proper
training techniques into the design of the program, and
supporting the efforts of children while providing
developmentally appropriate opportunities to help them become
better players.
2. These programs should enhance children’s self-esteem,
recognizing their accomplishments, and praising their efforts are
more appropriate tan ridiculing, shaming, and belittling their
achievements and attempts.
SPORT FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH
• The recommendations to participant in youth
sport – part 3
1.The key to successful youth sport programs is
putting the needs of the child first.
2. Programs should be designed to meet the
children’s needs, not those of adults.
3. Youth sport programs should be organized on a
developmental model, not a professional model.
4. Programs should be on fostering children’s
physical, cognitive, and affective development.
VIOLENCE
• Violence (physical and psychological
intimidation of one’s opponent) is one of the
major problems facing sport today and is
particularly noticeable in professional contract
sports.
• Some reasons for its happening:
1. Coaches for “psyching up”, “kill”, and
“enforcers”
2. Mass media, newspapers, and special videos
3. imitation from lower levels competition or
younger athletes.
VIOLENCE
• Spectator violence in related to the actions of
the players during and following the game.
• The mass media promotion of games for their
potential for violence tend to encourage
spectator violence.
• The potential for violence increase when fans
believe that their team was robbed of a score
or a victory by incompetent or unfair
officiating.
VIOLENCE
• Violence between players and spectators is a
concern as well. One recent distressing
incidence occurred on November 19, 2004.
 NBA “Detroit pistons vs. Indiana Pacers”
 Five Pacers and four Pistons were suspended.
• Parental violence during youth sport events
appears to be occurring with distressing
frequency. One of the most shocking incidents
occurred in 2000.
 Ice Hockey ”Thomas Junta vs. Michael
Costin”
 As a manslaughter, Junta was sentenced to
6 to 10 years in state prison.
VIOLENCE
• It is important to note that the environment in which
the contest takes place contributes to its potential for
violence.
• Spectators bring the issues and ideologies that are
reflective of the events within their communities to
sport events.
• When conflict and violence are an integral part of a
community, the likelihood of spectator violence at a
local sporting event increases.
 Highly publicized contests between rival high schools
 High levels of racial and ethnic tension exist in the
communities
VIOLENCE
• The question of how to deal with the problem
of violence in sport has no single, simple
solution.
• Some type of control (violence) must be
instituted, and star with person who love sport
and want to protect it from intrusions that will
lower the value of sport.
• Many spectators do not want to see players
hurt or crippled, and want to see clean, hard
tackles, and hard body checks.
• It has been suggested that to reduce violence
stricter penalties should be imposed at all
levels of sports.
PERFORMANCE-ENHANCING
SUBSTANCES IN SPORT
• The Olympic motto “Swifter, higher, stronger” embodies the
quest for excellence for many athletes.
• However, being swifter, higher, and stronger than one’s
competitors may lead athletes to seek “better performance
through chemistry” and use/abuse performance enhancing
substances.
• Professional leagues, sporting bodies, the International
Olympic Committee (IOC), and the NCAA are among the
organizations that have antidoping policies, which
accompanying long lists of banned substances, such as anabolic
steroids, human growth hormone, and amphetamines, as well as
their derivatives.
• In order to improve one’s performance, they use these
substances to gain strength, increase power, work harder
during training, and enhance their endurance.
PERFORMANCE-ENHANCING
SUBSTANCES IN SPORT
• In a discussion of deviance in sport, Jay Coakly invites us to
look at the use of performance-enhancing substances in sport
as a form of deviance associated with over-conformity to the
high power and performance sport ethic. (運動倫理)
• Sport ethic is a set of norms that many people in power and
performance sports have accepted as the dominant criteria
for defining what it means to be an athlete and to successfully
claim an identity as an athlete.
• The four norms associated with sport ethic are as follows:
 making sacrifices
 striving for distinction
 taking risk and playing through pain
 accepting no limits in pursuit of the “dream”
• When athletes go to the extreme to conform to the sport
ethic, the over-conformity carries with it significant risk to
their health and well-being.
PERFORMANCE-ENHANCING
SUBSTANCES IN SPORT
• Three reasons for over-conformity:
 Athletes will do anything to stay involved in sport because the sport
experience is so exhilarating. carries with it significant risk to their
health and well-being.
 Athletes perceive that their chances of staying involved and competing at
higher and higher levels are enhanced when their over-conform to the
sport ethic.
 Continued involvement where normative boundaries are exceeded infuses
drama and excitement into athletes’ lives.
• One way the sports would sought to cope with the use of
illegal performance-enhancing is through drug testing.
 the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)
 the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA)
• Death and serious health problems have been associated with
the use of performance-enhancing substances in sport.
• Coakley suggests that critical reflection on existing norms in
important, and rules and limits must be set if deviant overconformity is to be controlled.
SUMMARY
• Sport is an important part of American culture.
• Sport has a significant role in educational
institutions and have both a positive and negative
influence on the lives of its participants.
• Among the problems associated with sport in
educational institutions are an overemphasis on
winning, athletic goals overshadowing academic goals,
soaring expenditures, continued growth of big-time
sport, and inequities in opportunities for women and
minorities.
• It is hoped that as a physical educator, exercise
science, and sport professional in this field, you will
take a more active role in creating greater
opportunities for all people in sport.
PHOTOS-part1
• The emphasis on being number one is so strong in
the United States that oftentimes other value
derived from participation in sport get forgotten.
• Sport is said to be institutionalized when there are
standardization and enforcement of the rules,
emphasis on organization, and a formal approach to
skill development.
• Title Ⅸ legislation stimulated the growth of girls’
and women’s sports at all levels.
• Since the advent of Title Ⅸ in 1972, girls’ and
women’s sports have grown in popularity. The
University of Connecticut basketball players
autograph photos for their fans prior to their 2004
NCAA Championship appearance.
PHOTOS-part2
• Since Title Ⅸ, sports opportunities for girls and
women have increased. Sports are no longer just for
fathers and sons.
• As college football teams changed their offensive
strategies so that quarterbacks became more like
running backs, more African Americans were
recruited for the position.
• A poster used by Concerned American Indian Parents
to increase the public’s awareness of racism toward
Native American.
• Too often, our attention is focused on the game or
winning, leading us to overlook important messages
from the athlete.
• The quality of leadership exerts a significant
influence on the outcomes experienced by youth
sports participants.
~The End~
Thanks for your attention