Download Sociology Ch 2 S 1 The Meaning of Culture

Sociology Ch 2 S 1
The Meaning of Culture
Obj: Define the meaning of the
term culture and explain how
material culture and nonmaterial
culture differ; identify and describe
the basic components of culture
Most sociologists believe
that, unlike other animals,
humans are not controlled
by natural instincts.
Because humans are not
locked into a set of
predetermined behaviors,
they are able to adapt and
change their environment.
The methods by which
collections of people-be
they small groups or
entire societies-deal with
their environment form the
foundation of their culture.
What is Culture?
Culture consists of all
the shared products
of human groups.
These products
include both physical
objects and the
beliefs, values and
behaviors shared by a
group.
The physical objects that people create and
use form a group’s material culture.
Examples of material culture include
automobiles, books, buildings, clothing,
computers, and cooking utensils. Abstract
human creations form a group’s
nonmaterial culture. Examples of
nonmaterial culture include beliefs, family
patterns, ideas, language, political and
economic systems, rules, skills, and work
practices.
In everyday speech, people tend to use the
terms society and culture interchangeably.
However, sociologists distinguish between
the two terms. A society is a group of
interdependent people who have
organized in such a way as to share a
common culture and feeling of unity.
Society consists of people, and culture
consists of the material and nonmaterial
products that people create.
The Components of Culture
Culture is both learned and shared. This
idea does not mean that everyone in the
US dresses the same way, belongs to the
same church, or likes the same type of
music. It does mean that most people in
the US choose from among the same
broad set of material and nonmaterial
elements of culture in dealing with and
making sense of their environment.
Many languages are spoken in the US;
however, English is the most shared
language.
Specific examples of the material and
nonmaterial elements of culture vary from
society to society, but all cultures have
certain basic components. These
components are technology, symbols,
language, values, and norms.
Technology
A society’s culture
consists of not only
physical objects but
also the rules for using
those objects.
Sociologists
sometimes refer to this
combination of objects
and rules as
technology.
Using items of material culture, particularly
tools, requires knowledge of various skills,
which is part of the nonmaterial culture. For
example, an understanding of how silicon
chips work, knowledge of computer
languages, and the ability to access and
surf the Internet are all skills related to the
computer. Sociologists are not only
interested in skills but also in the rules of
acceptable behavior when using material
culture. For example, the practice of
“hacking” – accessing Web sites or
computer systems illegally – is usually
considered unacceptable behavior.
Symbols
The use of symbols is the
very basis of human
culture. It is through
symbols that we create
our culture and
communicate it to
group members and
future generations. As
you learned in Chapter
1, a symbol is anything
that represents
something else.
In other words, a symbol has a shared
meaning attached to it. Any word, gesture,
image, sound, physical object, event, or
element of the natural world can serve as a
symbol as long as people recognize that it
carries a particular meaning. A church
service, a class ring, the word hello, the
Lincoln Memorial, and a handshake are
examples of common symbols in the US.
Although, specific examples vary from
culture to culture, all cultures communicate
symbolically.
Language
One of the most obvious
aspects of any culture
is its language.
Language is the
organization of written
or spoken symbols into
a standardized system.
When organized
according to accepted
rules of grammar,
words can be used to
express any idea.
In the US most people learn to speak an
American form of English and use this
language as their primary means of
communicating with one another. English is
the principal language used in schools, in
books and magazines, on radio and
television, and in business dealings, even
though there are members of American
society who do not speak English. Have
you ever visited a foreign country and been
unable to speak the language? If so, you
will realize how important the use of
language is in daily life.
Values
Language and other
symbols are important
partly because they
allow us to communicate
our values to one
another and to future
generations. Values are
shared beliefs about
what is good or bad,
right or wrong, desirable
or undesirable.
The types of values held by a group help to
determine the character of its people and
the kinds of material and nonmaterial
culture they create. A society that values
war and displays of physical strength
above all else will be different from one
that places emphasis on cooperation and
sharing. The Yanomamo of South
American and the San provide examples
of how different value systems produce
different cultures.
Norms
All groups create norms to
enforce their cultural
values. Norms are shared
rules of conduct that tell
people how to act in
specific situations. For
example, in the US the
value of a democratic
government is reinforced
through norms governing
political participation,
respect for the American
flag, and the treatment of
elected officials.
It is important to keep in mind that norms are
expectations for behavior, not actual
behaviors. The fact that a group has norms
governing certain behaviors does not
necessarily mean that the actions of all
individuals will be in line with those norms. In
the US, for example, there are norms
concerning financial responsibility.
Nevertheless, some people do not pay their
bills.
A tremendous number of norms exists in our
society ranging from the unimportant, such as
cover your mouth when you yawn, to the very
important, such as do not kill a human being.
While some norms apply to everyone in
society, others are applied selectively. For
example, no one in American society is
legally allowed to marry more than one
person at a time. But only selected groups
of people, such as children and the clergy
of some religions, are forbidden from
marrying at all. Norms have also been
influenced by geographic factors.
Restrictions against campfires have been
placed in some regions of the western US
to prevent deadly and costly forest fires.
Even important norms are sometimes
applied selectively. The norm against
taking another person’s life, for example,
is applied differently to soldiers and police
officers acting in the line of duty than it is to
most members of society. Norms also vary
in the strictness with which they are
enforced. In recognition of all these
variations, sociologists distinguish between
two types of norms: folkways and mores.
Folkways are norms that describe socially
acceptable behavior but do not have great
moral significance attached to them. In
essence, they outline the common customs
of everyday life. All of the following are
folkways: do not put food in your mouth with
a knife: when lowering the American flag, do
not allow it to touch the ground, etc. Failure
to abide by such rules usually results in a
reprimand or a minor punishment. Some
degree of nonconformity to folkways is
permitted because it does not endanger the
well-being or stability of society.
Mores, on the other hand have great significance
attached to them. This relation exists because the
violation of such rules endangers society’s well-being
and stability. For example, dishonesty, fraud, and
murder all greatly threaten society.
Societies have established punishments for violating
mores in order to protect the social well-being. These
serious mores are formalized as laws – written rules
of conduct enacted and enforced by the government.
Most laws enforce mores essential to social stability,
such as those against arson, murder, rape, and theft.
However, laws may also enforce less severe folkways,
such as not parking in spaces reserved for drivers with
disabilities.
Examining Culture
Although some cultural
norms such as
prohibiting murder
have existed in almost
every society over
time, culture is
continually changing.
In sociological terms, it
is dynamic rather than
static.
New material objects are constantly being
introduced, as are new words,
expressions, and ideas. If cultures are so
vast and complicated and are constantly
changing, how do sociologists study
them? Sociologists examine a culture by
breaking it down into levels and studying
each level separately. The features of a
culture can be divided into three levels of
complexity: traits, complexes, and
patterns.
The simplest level of culture is the culture
trait. A culture trait is an individual tool, act,
or belief that is related to a particular
situation or need. Using knives, forks, and
spoons when eating is a culture trait.
Another trait is the specific greeting used
when meeting people. If you see a good
friend you probably say, “Hi”. On the other
hand, when greeting the human-resources
manager at a job interview you would
probably not be as informal. The greeting
you use is related to the particular situation
or need.
Individual culture traits combine to form the
next level – culture complexes. A culture
complex is a cluster of interrelated traits.
The game of football is a culture complex
that involves a variety of traits. Material
traits include the football, the measuring
chain, cleated shoes, helmets, etc,
Kicking, passing, etc are among the
specific acts of football.
Specific beliefs related to the game also
exist, including the belief that certain rules
should be followed and that penalties
should be given for rule violations. The
financing, marketing, and advertising of
football games also form a large part of
the sport’s culture. In industrial societies,
thousands of culture complexes can be
identified and studied.
Culture complexes combine to form larger
levels called culture patterns. A culture
pattern is the combination of a number of
culture complexes into an interrelated
whole. For example, the separate
complexes of baseball, basketball,
football, soccer, swimming, tennis, and
track combine to form the American
athletic pattern. Other patterns relate to
such aspects of society as agriculture,
education, family life, manufacturing, and
religion. These patterns form important
components of a society’s culture.