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SoyGlossaryCover1_8.pdf 11/9/04 9:47:15 AM THE SOY GLOSSARY A farmer-led organization comprised of 64 farmer-directors, the United Soybean Board oversees the investments of the soybean check-off on behalf of all U.S. soybean farmers. For more information, please visit: www.talksoy.com 5322-112004-1000 THE SOY GLOSSARY + FUNDED BY THE UNITED SOYBEAN BOARD + Health Benefits + Soybean Oil + Soyfoods + Soybean Processing Techniques + Food Biotechnology + Industrial Uses + Farming Terms www.talksoy.com [email protected] table of contents Preface .....................................................................................1 Health & Nutrition Benefits....................................................3 Soybean Oil .............................................................................9 Soyfoods ................................................................................13 Soybean Processing Techniques .........................................17 Food Biotechnology ..............................................................19 Industrial Uses ......................................................................25 Farming Terms.......................................................................29 The Soy Glossary 1 preface The United Soybean Board (USB) has developed the following glossary of soy terms as a reference tool for story and article development. This glossary has been designed with the reporter in mind, as a convenient means of researching various aspects of soy. Included in this glossary are seven sections on soyrelated topics: Health & Nutrition Benefits, Soybean Oil, Soyfoods, Soybean Processing Techniques, Food Biotechnology, Industrial Uses and Farming Terms. We encourage you to contact us directly for additional information or to further answer any of your questions. THE ROLE OF THE UNITED SOYBEAN BOARD Run by volunteer farmers from across the United States, the United Soybean Board is today’s leading source for soybean data and marketing expertise, soyrelated health news, and support for soy product research and development. American soybean growers are committed to sustaining and advancing the quality, usefulness and quantity of their product. They have a particular interest in expanding awareness of soy’s human health benefits. USB was created by the Farm Bill of 1990 to manage and direct the National Soybean Checkoff. At a rate of 0.5 percent of the market price per bushel sold, soybean farmers across the nation invest in their future through the checkoff program. Half of the farmers’ funds go to work at the state level, supporting marketing and research programs right where their beans are grown. The other half is forwarded to USB, where it is invested in international marketing, domestic marketing, new uses and production. USB is dedicated to spreading knowledge and understanding of the soybean. USB comprises 64 volunteer farmers who represent the interests of 663,880 fellow soybean growers nationwide. Qualified State Soybean Boards nominate each board member, who is then officially appointed by the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture. USB manages funding allocated toward the marketing and promotion of soy products, with an overall goal of increasing domestic utilization of U.S. soybeans from 1.2 billion bushels in 1996 to 2.0 billion bushels by 2007. The Soy Glossary 1 health & nutrition benefits THE HISTORY OF THE SOYBEAN The humble soybean has blossomed from legendary Chinese origins to the “miracle crop” vastly produced on modern-day American farms. As early as 5,000 years ago, records show that farmers in China grew soybeans as an important staple crop for their everyday diet. In fact, ancient Chinese scholars referred to soy as one of the “five sacred grains.” In 1804, sailors on a Yankee clipper ship leaving China brought soybeans with them to the United States -- though for a very different reason than one might imagine. They loaded the ship with soybeans as inexpensive ballast. Upon arrival in the United States, they dumped the soybeans to make room for cargo. In 1829, U.S. farmers grew soybeans for the first time, cultivating a variety for use in soy sauce. During the Civil War, soldiers brewed soybeans as “coffee berries” when real coffee was scarce. In the late 1800s, significant numbers of farmers began to grow soybeans as forage for cattle. In 1904, at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, George Washington Carver began studying the soybean. His discoveries changed the way people thought about the soybean. No longer was it just a forage crop; now soybeans provided valuable protein and oil. Prior to World War II, the United States imported 40 percent of its edible fats and oil. At the advent of the war, this oil supply was cut off and processors turned to soybean oil. By 1940, the U.S. crop had grown to 78 million bushels and the United States was a net exporter of soybeans and soybean products. That year, Henry Ford took an ax to a car trunk made with soybean plastic in a publicity stunt to demonstrate its durability. In the early ‘50s, soybean meal became available as a low-cost, high protein animal feed ingredient, triggering an explosion in U.S. livestock and poultry production. The soybean industry then began to look at ways to expand export markets, starting with Japan. Allergenicity – The state of hypersensitivity of the body’s immune system in response to exposure to specific substances (allergens), such as pollen, bee stings, poison ivy, drugs or certain foods. The incidence of true food allergy is about 1 percent to 2 percent in adults. Only a very small percent of the population are allergic to soy. Amino Acids – Amino acids are the building blocks of protein, which is essential for human growth and maintenance. Of the 20 amino acids humans require, our bodies produce 11 and the remaining nine must come from the foods we eat. Soy protein provides all nine missing amino acids, making it a complete protein. The soybean is the only vegetable offering a complete protein profile. Anticarcinogen – A substance or agent that counteracts the effect of a carcinogen or a cancer-producing substance. Ongoing research is investigating the anticarcinogenic role of the isoflavones found in soyfoods. Isoflavones are found in significant amounts only in soybeans and soyfoods. A 1990 National Cancer Institute workshop identified five different chemical classes of anticarcinogens in soybeans - phytosterols, phytates, saponins, protease inhibitors and isoflavones. Antiestrogen – A substance or agent that can prevent the full expression of estrogen. In soy, weak estrogen-like isoflavones can take the place of estrogen and connect with receptors in estrogen-sensitive tissues, like the breast. By competing with estrogen for the limited number of estrogen receptors, the isoflavones prevent estrogen from binding to the receptors and, hence, may block proliferation of hormone-dependent cancers by interfering with the growth of estrogen-dependent tumors. The isoflavones, therefore, act as antiestrogens. Antioxidant – A synthetic or natural substance or agent that neutralizes Today, farmers in over 29 states grow soybeans, making soybeans the sec- free radicals and prevents cell damage that may lead to cancer. The isoflavones found in soy, such as genistein, are good antioxidants. ond largest crop in cash sales and the number one value crop export. The Chemopreventive – The ability of a natural or laboratory-made substance soybean has become the foremost provider of protein and oil in the world. 2 The Soy Glossary to help prevent cancer. Researchers continue to study the chemopreventive effects of soy isoflavones. The Soy Glossary 3 Daidzein – One of the two primary soy isoflavones. Daidzein is the second most plentiful isoflavone in soy (after genistein). Epidemiological Study – A research study that investigates the factors determining and influencing the frequency and distribution of disease, injury and other health-related events and their causes in a defined human population. Estradiol – The most potent of the naturally occurring estrogens that is administered in its natural or semisynthetic form especially to treat menopausal symptoms. The soybean isoflavones have between 1/1,000 and 1/100,000 the activity of estradiol. Estrogen – The female sex hormone essential for the reproductive process and for the development of the uterus, breasts and other physical changes associated with puberty. Researchers are studying the estrogen-like effect of soy isoflavones in the reduction of cancer cell proliferation in hormone-dependent and non-hormone-dependent cancers. Estrogen Receptor – A cellular protein that binds hormones, found on nearly all cell types, but particularly in estrogen sensitive tissues like the uterus and the breast. The weak estrogenic qualities of soy isoflavones may function as antiestrogens because they can compete with endogenous estrogen for binding to estrogen receptors. In doing so, they block the more potent endogenous estrogens from exerting their effect. Since high blood levels of estrogen are an established risk factor for breast cancer, weak estrogens have been postulated as being protective against this form of cancer. Free Radical - A molecule that is unstable because it is missing an electron (a negatively charged subatomic particle), which makes it highly reactive and able to damage other molecules and, therefore, cells in the body. Genistein – One of the two primary soy isoflavones. Genistein is being Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) – The substitution of naturally declining hormones with synthetic or artificial hormones in women during menopause. Hydrogenation - See “Processing” section. Isoflavones - One of the five chemical classes of anticarcinogens found in soy. Isoflavones are chemically similar in structure to estrogen and, in fact, are weak estrogens (about 1/1000 to 1/100,000 the potency of endogenous estrogen). The two primary isoflavones in soybeans are daidzein and genistein. Soybeans and soyfoods have attracted much attention because they are unique as the only nutritionally significant dietary sources of isoflavones. Isoflavones may directly inhibit bone resorption and prevent the onset of osteoporosis and the weak estrogenic effect of isoflavones have been postulated as being protective against various forms of cancer. LDL Cholesterol – See “Lipoprotein” entry. Lipoprotein – The combination of protein, fat and cholesterol found in the blood. Depending on their size and weight, lipoproteins are classified as high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) or low-density lipoproteins (LDLs). LDLs transport cholesterol to body tissue, which can damage arteries. A high level of LDL-cholesterol is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease. HDLs bring cholesterol back to the liver where it is broken down and eliminated from the body. HDL-cholesterol differs from LDL-cholesterol in that it is not a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. In fact, a high level of HDL-cholesterol actually helps reverse your risk for cardiovascular disease. An extensive body of research demonstrates that consuming 25 grams of soy protein per day can lower cholesterol and reduce the risk of heart disease. studied for its ability to inhibit the growth of cancer cells. HDL Cholesterol – See “Lipoprotein” entry. 4 The Soy Glossary The Soy Glossary 5 Osteoporosis - A condition of excessive skeletal fragility resulting in bones that break easily. A combination of genetic, dietary, hormonal, age-related and lifestyle factors all contribute to this condition. The isoflavones found in soy protein may play an important role in protecting bones by increasing bone mineral content and bone density. This suggests that eating soyfoods could help reduce the risk of osteoporosis. Peptide – Two or more amino acids – the building blocks of proteins – linked to each other by chemical bonding. Scientists believe soy peptides may play a role in reducing blood pressure and cholesterol, as well as preventing cancer. While peptides can occur naturally in soybeans, they can also be created as a product of human digestion of soy or in the lab through enzymatic hydrolysis. Phytate – One of the five chemical classes of anticarcinogens found in soy. Phytate’s antinutrient effects may help prevent cancer. Phytochemicals – The active health-protecting compounds found in plants, including soy. Many of these non-nutritive substances have potent biological activity and may help to lower risk for many chronic diseases. Soybeans contain a variety of phytochemicals and are the only food source with nutritionally significant amounts of one type of phytochemical called isoflavones. Currently, the terms “phytochemical” and “phytonutrient” are being used interchangeably to describe those plant compounds that are thought to have health-protecting qualities. Phytoestrogens – Weak, estrogen-like substances found in plants, especially soy. Because of their high phytoestrogen content, there is increasing interest in the role that soyfoods can play in women’s health. Phytoestrogens are associated with a lowered risk of many diseases, including heart disease, osteoporosis and breast cancer. Phytosterols – One of the five chemical classes of anticarcinogens found in soy. Phytosterols are also believed to reduce cholesterol levels by inhibiting cholesterol absorption thus reducing the risk of heart disease. Protease inhibitors – One of the five chemical classes of anticarcino- Protein - A large molecule made up of units called amino acids. Dietary protein is essential for building, repairing, and maintaining body tissues. Soybeans are exceptionally high in quality protein: 35 to 38 percent of the calories in soybeans come from protein. The soybean is the only vegetable offering a complete protein profile. An extensive body of research demonstrates that consuming 25 grams of soy protein per day can lower cholesterol and reduce the risk of heart disease. Saponins – One of the five chemical classes of anticarcinogens found in soy. Saponins are a large family of modified carbohydrates found in many vegetables and herbs. So far, researchers have identified 11 different saponins in soybeans alone. In addition to having anti-cancer activity, there is evidence that some of these substances lower circulating levels of certain lipids. Soy Protein Health Claim – November 1999 FDA-approved health claim stating that consuming 25 g of soy protein per day can lower LDL cholesterol and reduce the risk of heart disease. Health claims are statements characterizing the relationship between any nutrient or substance in a food and a disease or health-related condition. In order for a health claim to be used on a food label, the product must meet specific criteria for that particular health claim and be supported by significant research. Toxicity – The state of being related to or caused by a toxin or other poison. The term is also used to describe something that is capable of causing injury or death, especially by chemical means. Triglycerides – The chemical form in which most fats exist in food as well as in the body. They are also present in blood plasma and, in association with cholesterol, form the plasma lipids. Hormones regulate the release of triglycerides from fat tissue so they meet the body’s needs for energy between meals. Vitamin E – Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant vitamin that prevents cell damage that may lead to cancer. By inhibiting the oxidation of LDL cholesterol, Vitamin E may reduce the risk of heart disease. Vitamin E is found in vegetable oils like soybean oil. gens found in soy. Protease inhibitors also protect against the damaging effects of radiation and free radicals, which can attack DNA. 6 The Soy Glossary The Soy Glossary 7 soybean oil Cis fatty acids – Unsaturated fatty acid with a bent carbon chain. Most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids are cis fatty acids. Emulsifier – An agent that binds two substances together that do not normally mix. For example, an emulsifier is used to mix oil and water to form salad dressing. Lecithin is a natural emulsifier derived from soy. Essential fatty acids – Fatty acids necessary for human health that can only be obtained from dietary sources. This type of fatty acid is not produced by the human body. Soybean oil contains two essential fatty acids, linoleic and linolenic. Fire point – The temperature at which an oil will ignite and burn for at least five seconds. For refined soybean oil the fire point is between 700 – 710 degrees Fahrenheit. Flash point – The temperature at which an oil ignites momentarily, but will not sustain a flame. For refined soybean oil the flash point is between 635 – 645 degrees Fahrenheit. Fry life – The length of time an oil lasts in a fryer before it turns rancid, becomes dark in color or forms free fatty acids. Stable oils have a longer fry life. Hydrogenation – The process whereby hydrogen is added to an unsaturated oil to increase the stability of the oil. Most oils are partially hydrogenated, providing an increase in stability while maintaining a healthy oil profile. Lauric oils – Common term for fats and oils that contain a large percentage of lauric acid, which is a saturated fatty acid. Lauric oils are generally not used in deep-frying applications. The most common lauric oils are coconut oil and palm kernel oil. The Soy Glossary 9 Lecithin – A naturally occurring emulsifier, lecithin is extracted from crude soybean oil through the refining process. Soybeans are a significant source of lecithin. Lecithin is believed to have health benefits, including increased brain capacity and improved memory. It plays a vital role in human cell function and is believed to aid in liver function, cardiovascular health, physical and athletic performance, and reproduction and fetal development. Lecithin is a natural element of HDL (the “good” cholesterol). Lecithin is used in the food manufacturing process in products high in fats and oils such as chocolate, cake and biscuit mixes, margarine, mayonnaise and salad dressings. Linoleic acid – One of the two polyunsaturated fatty acids found in soybean oil. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids can lower blood lipid levels and thus lower cholesterol. Soybean oil contains approximately 50 percent of this essential fatty acid. Linolenic acid – An omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid found in many seed-derived oils such as soybean oil and fish oil. Soybean oil contains approximately eight percent of this essential fatty acid. Melting point – The temperature in which the solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium. For refined soybean oil the melting point is between 59 – 68 degrees. Monounsaturated fatty acid – A type of unsaturated fatty acid in which the chain of carbon atoms is missing one pair of hydrogen atoms. Monounsaturated fat is found mostly in vegetable oils such as olive, canola, soybean and peanut. Because it aids stability, oils high in monounsaturated fatty acids are good for frying applications. Soybean oil contains approximately 24 percent monounsaturated fatty acids. When substituted for saturated fat, monounsaturated fat helps lower LDLs while leaving HDLs unchanged. Oleic acid – A monounsaturated fatty acid. An oil high in oleic acid is stable and resists rancidity. Oleic acid also contributes to increased shelf life. Omega-3 fatty acids – A type of polyunsaturated fatty acid that has Palmitic acid – A saturated fatty acid very stable for frying purposes. Soybean oil contains approximately 10 percent palmitic acid. Polyunsaturated fatty acids – A type of unsaturated fatty acid in which the chain of carbon atoms is missing two or more pairs of hydrogen atoms. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are found in nuts and vegetable oils such as soybean, safflower and sunflower, and in fatty fish. When used instead of saturated fats, polyunsaturated fats tend to lower LDL cholesterol levels. Soybean oil contains approximately 61 percent polyunsaturated fatty acids. Rancidity – An oil or fat becomes rancid when oxygen is allowed to break it down. Oils higher in unsaturated fatty acids are more prone to rancidity than oils high in saturated fat. Saturated fatty acids – Saturated fats are among the most common fats in our diet. They are found predominantly in animal foods like meat, poultry and full-fat dairy products, and in tropical oils like palm and coconut. Diets high in saturated fats are associated with higher risks of heart disease, certain cancers and stroke. Soybean oil is considered one of the most well-balanced vegetable oils, with a low saturated fat content of 15 percent. Shelf life – The length of time a product lasts on the shelf before becoming rancid. The more stable an oil is, the longer the shelf life of the finished product and the oil. Shortening – A common term for hydrogenated oils used for specific applications. There are different types, including frying, baking and allpurpose shortenings. Smoke point – The temperature at which oil produces a thin continuous stream of smoke. A high smoke point is indicative of proper processing of oil. Smoke point decreases the longer the oil is in use. The smoke point for refined soybean oil is 440 – 460 degrees. Stearic acid – A saturated fatty acid very stable for frying purposes. Stearic acid is solid at room temperature. been recognized as having health benefits, including helping to regulate blood pressure and blood lipid levels. Omega-3 fatty acids also may help to lower the risk of heart disease, help prevent cancer, and may be essential for brain development in infants. They are found primarily in fish oils but are also found in a few plant sources like soybeans. 10 The Soy Glossary The Soy Glossary 11 Trans fatty acids – Trans fatty acids are produced during the hydrogenation of vegetable oils, a process that adds hydrogen to unsaturated fatty acids in vegetable oil and changes the fat from a liquid to a soft or solid state. Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils can replace naturally solid, saturate-rich fats, such as lard and beef tallow, in margarines and baked foods, as well as commercial frying where vegetable oils cannot be used. Trans fatty acids occur naturally in small amounts in meats and dairy products. Trans fats account for only 2 to 4 percent of the average American’s total calories. Regular, non-hydrogenated soybean oil does not contain trans fatty acids. Tropical oils – Fats produced from fruits, kernels or seeds of plants grown in tropical regions of the world. The most common are coconut, palm, palm kernel and cocoa butter. Unsaturated fat – Unsaturated fats are found in foods from both plant and animal sources. Unsaturated fatty acids are further divided into monounsaturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Vegetable oils – A naturally occurring fat or oil derived from a plant or vegetable. Soybean oil is the most commonly used vegetable oil in the United States. Vegetable oils are considered more healthful than animal fats because they are lower in saturated fats. Vitamin E – See “Health & Nutrition” section. soyfoods Edamame/green vegetable soybeans – These large soybeans are a specialty variety. They are harvested when the beans are still green and sweet tasting and can be served as a snack or main vegetable dish after boiling in slightly salted water. Edamame is high in protein and fiber. Functional foods (nutraceuticals) – Foods or food ingredients that are modified in order to provide a health benefit beyond the nutrients traditionally contained. Scientific evidence is accumulating to support the role of functional foods in the promotion of good health and the prevention and treatment of diseases such as cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and hypertension. Isoflavone-fortified veggie burgers, calcium-fortified orange juice, iron-fortified cereal and vitamin D-fortified milk all qualify as “functional foods.” Hydrolyzed vegetable protein (HVP) – A protein obtained from any vegetable, including soybeans, which is broken down into amino acids by a chemical process called acid hydrolysis. HVP is used as a flavor enhancer. Infant formulas, soy-based – Soy infant formula is produced using soy protein isolate powder as the base, and carbohydrates and fats are added to achieve a fluid similar to breast milk. Meat analogs (alternatives/equivalents) – Soybean-based meat alternatives contain soy protein or tofu and other ingredients that are mixed together to simulate various kinds of meat. These meat alternatives are sold as frozen, canned or dried foods and usually can be used the same way as the foods they replace. Miso – This smooth paste is made from soybeans, a grain such as rice, salt and a mold culture, then aged in cedar vats for one to three years. In Japanese cooking, miso paste is traditionally made into miso soup though it can also flavor sauces, dressings, marinades and patés. Natto – Made from fermented, cooked soybeans, natto is traditionally served in Asian countries as a topping for rice, in miso soups and with vegetables. The fermentation process breaks down the beans’ complex proteins, thus making natto more easily digestible than whole soybeans. 12 The Soy Glossary The Soy Glossary 13 Soy crumbles – This soy and wheat protein substitute can be used in recipes calling for browned ground beef such as chili, spaghetti sauce and lasagna. Soy fiber (okara, soy bran and soy isolate fiber) – The three basic types of soy fiber – okara, soy bran and soy isolate fiber – are all excellent sources of high-quality dietary fiber. • Okara is a pulp fiber by-product of soymilk, with a taste similar to coconut milk. It contains less protein than whole soybeans, but the remaining protein is high quality. Uses include baking, adding as fiber to granola or cookies, and making into sausage. • Soy bran is made from hulls, the outer covering of the soybean, which are removed during initial processing. Hulls contain a fibrous material that can be extracted and then refined for use as a food ingredient. • Soy isolate fiber, also known as structured protein fiber (SPF), is soy protein isolate in a fibrous form. Soy flour – Fifty percent protein, soy flour is made from roasted soybeans ground into a fine powder. Soy flour comes in three forms: natural or full-fat, which contains natural oils found in the soybean; defatted, which has the oils removed during processing; and lecithinated, which has had lecithin added to it. Soy flour is gluten-free so yeast-raised breads made with soy flour are dense in texture. Soy grits – Soybeans are toasted and cracked into coarse pieces rather than made into the fine powder of soy flour. Soy grits are high in protein and can replace soy flour in some recipes. Soymilk – Soybeans – soaked, ground, and finely strained – produce a fluid called soymilk. Plain, unfortified soymilk is an excellent source of high quality protein and B-vitamins. Soymilk is usually sold in non-refrigerated, shelf-stable aseptic containers, but can also be found in some regions in the dairy case in quart and half gallon containers or as a powder that must be mixed with water. Soy protein concentrate – Seventy percent protein, soy protein concentrate comes from defatted soy flakes. Retaining most of the beans’ dietary fiber, it is a highly digestible source of amino acids and does not have a strong flavor of its own. 14 The Soy Glossary Soy protein isolate – Soy protein isolate results from removing the protein from defatted flakes. Soy protein isolate is made of 90 percent protein, and is the most highly refined soy protein. Isolates are almost tasteless and can be added to foods without jeopardizing their flavor or characteristics. Soy sauce (shoyu, tamari and teriyaki) – Soy sauce is a dark brown liquid made from fermented soybeans. Specific types of soy sauce are shoyu, tamari and teriyaki. Shoyu is a blend of soybeans and wheat; tamari is made only from soybeans and is a by-product of making miso; and teriyaki sauce includes other ingredients such as sugar, vinegar and spices. Soy sprouts – Although not as popular as bean sprouts or alfalfa sprouts, soy sprouts (also called soybean sprouts) are used in salads or as a cooked vegetable. Soy sprouts come from germinated beans. Soybean oil – Soybean oil is the natural oil extracted from whole soybeans. It is the most widely used oil in the United States, and is sold as either pure soybean oil or as an ingredient in vegetable oil. Processed into margarine and shortenings, soybean oil’s 85 percent unsaturated fat profile is among the lowest of the vegetable oils. Soybeans, black – Dried black soybeans have a mild soy flavor, a pleasant sweetness, and a texture that works well in many dishes, especially chili and soups. Black soybeans are the fermented black beans found in Asian cooking. Soybeans, whole – Whole soybeans are the edible seed of the soybean plant. They are high in protein and contain beneficial phytochemicals, such as isoflavones. They are light tan or yellow in color, belong to the legume family, and are native to East Asia. Whole soybeans are available in several forms, the most basic of which are canned and dried. Soynuts – Roasted soynuts are whole soybeans that have been soaked in water and then baked until browned. They have a strong taste (similar to peanuts), a dry crunch and are a rich source of protein and isoflavones. Soynut butter – Soynut butter is made from roasted whole soynuts, which are crushed and blended with soybean oil and other ingredients into a spreadable form. It has a slightly nutty taste and is lower in fat than peanut butter. The Soy Glossary 15 Tempeh – Tempeh is a traditional Indonesian soy food. It is a chunky, tender soybean cake made of whole, cooked soybeans that have been fermented. It has a smoky or nutty flavor and a chewy texture. Tempeh is an excellent source of nutrients such as calcium, iron and B-vitamins, and is a fiber-rich food because it is made from whole soybeans. Textured soy protein/Textured vegetable protein (TSP/TVP) – TSP is made from defatted soy flour and is sold in a dried, granular form. It is used as a meat extender or analog and can be added to a meal to increase its protein content. TSP has a texture similar to ground beef or other meat products and must be rehydrated with boiling water before use. Tofu – Tofu, also known as soybean curd, is a soft cheese-like food made by curdling fresh, hot soymilk. Nigari, calcium sulfate, and vinegar or lemon juice are added to soymilk, excess moisture is squeezed out, and the remaining curds are pressed into soft blocks. When combined with other foods, tofu acts like a sponge and absorbs the flavors of the other ingredients when it is cooked. Firm, soft and silken varieties of tofu are available. Yuba – Yuba is made by carefully lifting and drying the thin layer that forms on the surface of heated soymilk once it has cooled. It is commonly sold dried as thin, brittle, brown sheets that are soaked in water before using. soybean processing techniques Bleaching – Treatment of a fat or oil with a material such as activated charcoal which removes or reduces the amount of coloring materials normally present in a refined oil. Cracking – The breaking of the whole seed into several pieces to facilitate dehulling and flaking. Crude soybean oil – Sometimes referred to as crude raw soybean oil; the unrefined oil produced by any one of the procedures described for the extraction of oil from soybeans. Defatted soy flakes – Soybean flakes produced by the nearly complete removal of the oil from soybeans. Defatted soy flakes are the basis of a variety of soy protein products including soy flour, soy concentrates and soy isolates. Degumming – The removal of phosolipids from vegetable oil by a water washing step. Dehulling – The process of removing the outer covering from grains or other seeds. Deodorizing – A process involving use of high vacuum and superheated steam in washing of fats and oils. Deodorization removes from fats and oils materials originally present or introduced during previous processing, which would contribute objectionable flavors and odors to the finished product. Extrusion – A process for texturizing soy flours or other proteins using high pressures and temperatures. Flaking – A process for converting typically dehulled oilseeds into thin flakes for solvent extraction or other processing. Full fat flakes – Ground whole soybeans containing all of the original oil (usually 18 to 20 percent). Hull – The tough outer skin of a soybean. A major source of dietary fiber, the hull is processed to create a fiber additive for breads, cereals and snacks. Livestock feed is also produced from soybean hulls. 16 The Soy Glossary The Soy Glossary 17 Hydrogenation – The process of chemically adding hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst to the unsaturated “hydrogen short” portions of a natural fat. The addition of hydrogen reduces the reactivity of the fat toward oxygen and thus stabilizes and retards rancidity development in the fat. Hydrogenation usually raises the melting point of a fat or changes it from a liquid oil to a solid fat. Partial hydrogenation is the degree to which a fat is hydrogenated. Completely hydrogenated fats are solid and, therefore, more stable. Partially hydrogenated fats are used in various applications, such as crackers and baked goods. Intersterification – A process that rearranges fat molecules without adding hydrogen molecules; possible alternative to hydrogenation. Oxidation – A chemical reaction involving the addition or combination of oxygen with the other reacting material. Oxidation in fats or food products containing fat eventually results in development of rancidity and its accompanying objectionable flavors and odors. Phytosterols – A sterol found only in plants, including soybeans. Researchers have found that some plant sterols appear to lower cholesterol levels. Rancidity – The stage in fat oxidation which is characterized by development of easily recognized, sharp, acrid and pungent off-flavors and odors. Sterols – Compounds naturally found in the fatty tissues of plants and food biotechnology Allergenicity – The state of hypersensitivity of the body’s immune system in response to exposure to specific substances (allergens), such as pollen, bee stings, poison ivy, drugs or certain foods. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires testing for any potential allergic reactions in humans before all newly developed plants or foods are approved, whether biotech-derived or conventional-breeding derived. Antibiotic-resistance marker genes – Antibiotic-resistance genes are used as markers during research to identify genetic material transferred from one organism to another. The marker gene is used to verify whether the designated gene has been successfully transferred to another organism. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) – A naturally occurring soil bacterium that creates a toxin poisonous to a variety of crop-destroying caterpillars, but is harmless to people and animals. Bt insect-resistant crops currently on the market include corn (primarily for control of European corn borer), cotton (for control of tabacco budworm and cotton bollworm). Biopharming – The cultivation of biotech-derived plants for the purpose of producing chemicals for pharmaceutical and industrial uses. Biosafety protocol – A summary agreement of the United Nations Con- animals. Cholesterol is a sterol found only in animals. Trypsin inhibitors – Proteins in soybeans believed to be responsible for growth inhibition when raw soybeans are fed to animals. Winterization – The process of chilling soybean oil slowly and then maintaining it at 5° C (41° F) for a specified period of time and removing the crystallized glycerides from the liquid fraction of the oil by the use of filter presses. Soy oil does not require winterizing unless it has been partially hydrogenated to increase stability. vention on Biological Diversity intended to protect an individual country’s natural biodiversity and prevent extinction of native species. The protocol provides a set of detailed requirements concerning the transnational-boundary movement of non-native living organisms, including genetically modified organisms, which could be willfully released into the new environment of a country in which it is not indigenous. Biotechnology – The use of living organisms or other biological systems to develop food, drugs, and other products. Codex (codex alimentarius) – A multi-volume food standards manual produced by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, a United Nations food safety agency representing 163 nations worldwide, that classifies international food trade principles, codes, commodity standards, labels, additives, irradiated foods and contaminants and toxins in foods. 18 The Soy Glossary The Soy Glossary 19 Crossbreeding – An agricultural breeding technique mixing thousands of GRAS – Acronym for Generally Recognized as Safe. GRAS refers to a list of genes carried from the pollen of one plant to a related plant to produce a desired trait or traits in a new variety. food additives/ingredients that a panel of Food and Drug Administration (FDA) pharmacologists and toxicologists judge to be safe based on the data accumulated over time about each ingredient and the ingredient’s extensive and common use in foods. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – The molecule that carries the genetic information for most living systems. Edible vaccine – Researchers are using biotechnology to develop edible vaccines. These vaccines are genetically incorporated into food plants and need no refrigeration, sterilization equipment or needles. For example, researchers are developing a hepatitis vaccine in bananas. Bananas were selected because they are one of the infant’s first foods, can be eaten raw, and are widely available throughout the world. Equivalency (substantial equivalence) – A principal employed by regulatory agencies to identify differences between foods and crops produced through biotechnology and their traditional counterparts. Foods produced through biotechnology are compared to traditional breeds based on composition, nutritional profile and safety, including allergenic potential. Genes – A unit of the cellular material which is the physical basis for the transmission of the characteristics of living organisms from one generation to another. Genetically modified organism (GMO) – An organism altered in its genetic makeup either through natural evolution or artificial means. Genetic engineering – The selective, deliberate alteration of genes or genetic material through artificial means. Genome – The total hereditary material of a cell, which comprises the entire chromosomal set and mitochondrial, found in each given species. Germ plasm – Refers to the total genetic variability within a given set (e.g., a seed company’s collection of seeds) for a particular organism. Glyphosate-tolerant soybeans (GTS) – Soybeans enhanced through biotechnology to survive the application of Roundup Ready herbicide. Roundup Ready herbicide contains the active ingredient glyphosate, which kills weeds by interrupting their metabolism. Golden Rice – Rice enhanced through biotechnology to produce beta-carotene, a nutrient that serves as a building block in humans for vitamin A, in the starchy interior part of the grain. 20 The Soy Glossary “Green” biotechnology – A slang term for agricultural biotechnology. Agricultural biotechnology involves the application of genetic engineering, molecular biology and other advanced scientific techniques to develop food and fiber crops with enhanced beneficial traits, such as resistance to destructive insects and diseases, and production of more healthful oils. Herbicide-tolerant soybeans – Soybeans enhanced through biotechnology or traditional breeding techniques to survive the application of one or more herbicides. Hybrid - Seed produced as the result of controlled cross-pollination as opposed to natural pollination. Hybrid seeds are selected to have higher quality traits (e.g. yield or pest tolerance). Hybridization – An agricultural breeding technique of mating two plants from different species or genetically different members of the same species to yield offspring possessing some of the characteristics of each parent. Identity preservation (IP) – A process by which a crop is grown, handled, delivered and processed under controlled conditions to assure the customer that the crop has maintained its unique identity from farmgate to end-use. Plant-Made Pharmaceuticals (PMPs) – Biotech-derived plants that produce therapeutic proteins, which are extracted, refined and used in pharmaceutical production. Plasmid - A small circular form of bacterial DNA containing certain genes capable of replicating independently in a host cell. Precautionary principle – The approach whereby any possible risk associated with the introduction of a new technology is avoided until there is full understanding of its health and environmental impacts. This concept generates international debate over how best to apply the principle without inhibiting important technological advances. The Soy Glossary 21 “Red” biotechnology – A slang term for pharmaceutical biotechnology. Pharmaceutical biotechnology involves the use of genomic information, molecular biology and other advanced scientific techniques to help produce safe and effective drug therapies. Recombinant DNA (rDNA) – DNA formed by the joining of genes or genetic material into a new combination. Super bugs – A slang term for bugs that could develop a resistance to the pesticides intended to eliminate them. Super weeds – A slang term for weeds that could breed with their genetically engineered plant relative and develop a resistance to the herbicides intended to eliminate them. Traceability – A process by which end-users are able to trace back a Regulatory agencies (FDA, EPA, USDA) – Agricultural biotechnology in the U.S. is regulated by three federal agencies: the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). FDA policy is based on existing food law, and requires that biotech foods meet the same rigorous safety standards as are required for all other foods. The EPA analyzes technical issues presented by advances in biotechnologyderived products applicable to pest control only and synthesizes these technical issues with laws necessary to develop regulatory programs for pest control-applicable products enhanced through biotechnology. Within the USDA, the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) is the government’s lead agency regulating the testing of biotechnology-derived, new plant varieties. A company, academic or research institution, non-profit organization or public sector scientist wishing to field test or move a biotechnology-derived plant must generally obtain APHIS approval before proceeding. batch of agricultural produce or grains to the producer and the production methods used. Traditional plant breeding (mass selection) – An agricultural breeding technique where superior plants are saved or inferior plants are eliminated during a growing season to amass planting stock seeds intended for future seasons. Trait – A characteristic of an organism that manifests itself through physical attributes. Transgenic – A type of organism formed by inserting foreign genetic material into the cells of an organism. Recombinant DNA techniques are commonly used to produce transgenic organisms. Roundup Ready ® soybeans – The brand name for the Monsanto Company soybeans enhanced through biotechnology that can be sprayed with glyphosate-based herbicides; one of which is Roundup®, without harming the crops. Segregation – A farming practice of separating crops and harvested agricultural produce and grains for discrete delivery based on a category, class or grade. StarLink/Cry9C protein – StarLink corn is the Aventis-bred corn enhanced through biotechnology to contain the Cry9C protein. The Cry9C protein is one of a number of “Cry” proteins that are toxic when eaten by the European corn borer, southwestern corn borer, black cutworm, and some species of armyworm. However, if eaten by a mammal, the Cry9C protein is nontoxic. 22 The Soy Glossary The Soy Glossary 23 industrial uses Acute oral toxicity – The lethal oral dose of a substance. In biodiesel, acute oral toxicity is greater than 17.4 g/Kg body weight. Comparatively, table salt (NaCL) is ten times more toxic. Aquatic toxicity – The lethal concentration of a substance for fish and other aquatic inhabitants. A 96-hour lethal concentration of biodiesel grade methyl esters for bluegill was greater than 1000 mg/L, “insignificant” according to National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) guidelines. B100 or “Neat fuel” – Pure, 100 percent, biodiesel fuel. B20 – See “Biodiesel blend.” Biodegradability – Capability of decomposition by natural biologic processes. Biodiesel degrades about four times faster than petroleum diesel. Within 28 days, pure biodiesel degrades 85 to 88 percent in water, the same rate as dextrose sugar (a test sugar used as the positive control when testing biodegradability). Blending biodiesel with diesel fuel accelerates its biodegradability. For example, B20 degrades twice as fast as #2 diesel alone. Biodiesel – A variety of clean burning ester-based oxygenated fuels made from renewable sources including soybean oil, other vegetable oils and animal fats, for use in compression-ignition (diesel) engines. Biodiesel fuel is extremely safe for human health and environmentally sound. It can be used instead of petroleum in cars, transit, and boats without any modifications to the conventional gas tank. Biodiesel is registered with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as a fuel or fuel additive, and is a legal fuel for commerce. Biodiesel blend or Bxx – Pure biodiesel fuel blended with petroleum diesel. Blends are referred to as Bxx, with the xx signifying the percentage of biodiesel in the blend, e.g., a B20 blend is 20 percent biodiesel and 80 percent petroleum diesel. Carbon monoxide (CO2) – A poisonous gas for humans, also contributing to global warming when released into the atmosphere. Exhaust emissions from CO2 are 50 percent lower with biodiesel. The Soy Glossary 25 Clean Air Act – Requires lengthy health effects testing for fuels and fuel additives. Biodiesel is the only alternative fuel, to date, to complete the three-year, $2.2 million testing regimen as mandated by section 211(b) of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. Energy Policy Act (EPACT) – Effective November 1998, B20 was approved by Congress as a compliance strategy for EPACT, originally enacted in 1992. The legislation allows EPACT fleets to meet their alternative fuel vehicle purchase requirements by buying 450 gallons of pure biodiesel and burning it in new or existing diesel vehicles in at least a 20 percent blend with diesel fuel. Biodiesel is the lowest cost alternative fuel option for meeting the Federal Government’s EPACT compliance requirements. Esterification – A method of producing biodiesel through direct acid catalyzation of the oil with methanol. Transesterification is a more economical and widely used means of production (see “transesterification” definition). A third method converts the oil to fatty acids, and then to Alkyl esters with acid catalysis. Flash point – The temperature at which a fuel will ignite when exposed to a spark or flame, a matter of safety for fuel storage, handling and use. Biodiesel’s flash point is over 300°F, well above diesel fuel’s flash point of 125°F. Biodiesel blends also have higher flash points than petroleum diesel. Because of the high flash point, biodiesel is also utilized in mining and national forests. Skin irritation – Irritation level in humans, as determined by patch test. A 24-hour human patch test indicated that undiluted biodiesel produced very mild irritation, significantly less than the result produced by a four percent soap and water solution. Sulfur – Sulfur oxides and sulfates, which are major components of acid rain. Sulfur emissions are essentially eliminated with pure biodiesel. Transesterification – Production of biodiesel through base-catalyzed reaction, the most economical and popular production method. The process involves reacting a fat or oil with an alcohol, such as methanol, in the presence of a catalyst to produce glycerine and methyl esters. The methanol is charged in excess to assist in quick conversion and recovered for reuse. The catalyst is usually sodium or potassium hydroxide, which has already been mixed with methanol. Beneficial characteristics of transesterification are low temperature (150° F) and pressure (20 psi) processing; high conversion (98%) with minimal side reactions and reaction time; direct conversion to methyl ester; and no need for unusual construction materials. Twenty-first Century Truck Initiative – Spearheaded by the U.S. Army’s Tank, Automotive and Armament Command (TAACOM) and the National Automotive Center, biodiesel blends have been championed as a leading alternative fuel for heavy-duty trucks since it can deliver the power and performance demanded by the heavy-duty sector. Hydrocarbons – A contributing factor in the localized formation of smog and ozone. Some aromatic compounds containing hydrocarbons are also suspected carcinogens. Exhaust emissions of total hydrocarbons is 93 percent lower with biodiesel. Nitrogen oxides – A contributing factor in the localized formation of smog and ozone. NOx emissions depend on the specific engine family and testing procedures, but biodiesel’s lack of sulfur allows the use of NOx control technologies that cannot be used with conventional diesel. Particulate matter – Breathing particulate matter contributes to respiratory disease and is considered a human health hazard. Exhaust emissions of particulate matter are 30 percent lower with biodiesel. 26 The Soy Glossary The Soy Glossary 27 farming terms Acre – One acre = 43,560 sq. ft = 208.7 ft.² = 0.405 hectares; or 640 acres = 1 sq. mile (called a section). Agronomy – The science of crop production and soil management. Best management practices (BMPs) – A conservation practice or combination of practices designed to maintain agricultural productivity while reducing point- and nonpoint- source water pollution. State water quality agencies (or their designees) determine BMPs to fit local conditions and to make the most efficient use of natural resources and purchased inputs. The term has been defined as generally recognized farmer management practices designed to reduce or prevent contamination of ground water and surface water, erosion and runoff from cropland, including the use of conservation tillage, no-till, ridge plating, strip tillage, contour farming, strip cropping, irrigation water management, judicious fertilizer application, slow-release fertilizers, soil and tissue testing and vegetative buffer strips. Bushel – A dry volume measure of varying weight for grain, fruit, etc., equal to four pecks or eight gallons (2150.42 cubic inches). A bushel of soybeans weighs 60 pounds. Checkoff programs – Research and promotion programs authorized by law and financed by assessments. The programs are paid for by specified industry members such as producers, importers and handlers. The United Soybean Board, for example, is funded by a mandatory assessment of 0.5 of 1 percent of the net market price for a bushel of soybeans. Governed by the Agricultural Marketing Service and the United States Department of Agriculture, a producer poll is conducted every 5 years to determine if producers favor the conduct of a continuance referendum. Combine – A self-propelled machine for harvesting grain and other seed crops. In one operation, it cuts, threshes, separates and cleans the grain and scatters the straw. The Soy Glossary 29 Conservation tillage – Any tillage and planting system that leaves at least 30 percent of the soil surface covered by residue after planting. Conservation tillage maintains a ground cover with less soil disturbance than traditional cultivation, thereby reducing soil loss and energy use while maintaining crop yields and quality. Conservation tillage techniques such as minimum tillage, mulch tillage, ridge tillage, and no-till are often implemented in conjunction with glyphosate-tolerant soybean varieties. Basic commodities – Six crops (corn, cotton, peanuts, rice, tobacco and wheat) that are covered by legislated price support programs. Crop rotation – The practice of growing different crops in recurring session on the same land. Crop rotation plans are usually followed for the purpose of increasing soil fertility and maintaining good yields. Crop year – The year in which a crop is harvested. For corn and soybeans, it is from September 1 to August 31. Crop residue – That portion of a plant, such as a corn stalk, left in the field after harvest. Cooperative – An enterprise or organization owned by and operated for the benefit of those using its services. In agriculture, such an organization is owned and used by farmers mainly to handle the off-farm part of their businesses — buying farm supplies, marketing their products, furnishing electric and telephone service, and providing business services —at cost. Essential features are democratic control, limited return on capital, and operation at cost, with distribution of financial benefits to individuals in proportion to their use of the services made available by the cooperative (called patronage refunds). Erosion – The process in which water or wind moves soil from one location to another. Fertilizer – Any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin which is added to soil to provide nutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, necessary to sustain plant growth. Fungicide – A chemical substance used as a spray, dust or disinfectant to kill fungi infesting plants or seeds. Herbicide – Any agent or chemical used to destroy plants, especially weeds. Insecticide – A pesticide used to kill, deter, or control insects. 30 The Soy Glossary Legumes – A family of plants that includes many valuable food and forage species such as soybeans, peanuts, clovers, alfalfas, and beans. No-till farming – An environmentally-friendly cultivation technique in which the soil is disturbed only along the slit into which seeds are planted and natural debris from previous crops covers and protects the seedbed. The primary benefits of the no-till technique are a decreased rate of soil erosion; reduced need for equipment, fuel, and fertilizer; and significantly less time required for tending crops. Oilseed crops – Primarily soybeans, and other crops such as peanuts, cottonseed, sunflower seed, canola and mustard seeds used to produce edible and/or nonedible oils, as well as high-protein animal meal. Organic farming – Organic farming is a production system, which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, and livestock feed additives. To the maximum extent feasible, organic farming systems rely on crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures and mechanical cultivation to maintain soil productivity and tilth, to supply plant nutrients and to control weeds, insects and other pests. Pesticide – A substance used to kill, control, repel or mitigate any pest. Precision farming – Farmers use global positioning (GPS) technology involving satellites and sensors on the ground and intensive information management tools to understand variations in resource conditions within fields. They use this information to more precisely apply fertilizers and other inputs and to more accurately predict crop yields. Soil – In the United States, about 70,000 kinds of soil are recognized in the nationwide system of classification. Each has a unique set of characteristics and a potential for use. These characteristics are important in designing a conservation plan to protect the soil from erosion if it is being cultivated. Sustainable agriculture – An integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a site-specific application that will, over the long term, satisfy food and fiber needs; enhance environmental quality and natural resources; make the most efficient use of nonrenewable resources and on-farm resources; integrate natural biological cycles and controls; sustain the economic viability of farm operations; and enhance the quality of life. The Soy Glossary 31 Tilth – The cultivation of land; tillage. Vertical integration – The integrating of successive stages of the production and marketing functions under the ownership or control of a single management organization. For example, much of the broiler industry is highly vertically integrated in that processing companies own or control the activities from production and hatching of eggs, through the growth and feeding of the chickens, to slaughter, processing and wholesale marketing. Variety – A taxonomic subdivision of a species consisting of naturally occurring or selectively bred populations that differ from the remainder of the species in certain minor characteristics. Yield – The number of bushels (or pounds or hundredweight) that a farmer harvests per acre. 32 The Soy Glossary