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THE SOY GLOSSARY
A farmer-led organization comprised of 64 farmer-directors, the United Soybean Board
oversees the investments of the soybean check-off on behalf of all U.S. soybean
farmers. For more information, please visit: www.talksoy.com
5322-112004-1000
THE SOY
GLOSSARY
+ FUNDED BY THE UNITED SOYBEAN BOARD
+ Health Benefits
+ Soybean Oil
+ Soyfoods
+ Soybean Processing
Techniques
+ Food Biotechnology
+ Industrial Uses
+ Farming Terms
www.talksoy.com
[email protected]
table of contents
Preface .....................................................................................1
Health & Nutrition Benefits....................................................3
Soybean Oil .............................................................................9
Soyfoods ................................................................................13
Soybean Processing Techniques .........................................17
Food Biotechnology ..............................................................19
Industrial Uses ......................................................................25
Farming Terms.......................................................................29
The Soy Glossary
1
preface
The United Soybean Board (USB) has developed the following glossary of soy
terms as a reference tool for story and article development. This glossary has
been designed with the reporter in mind, as a convenient means of researching
various aspects of soy. Included in this glossary are seven sections on soyrelated topics: Health & Nutrition Benefits, Soybean Oil, Soyfoods, Soybean
Processing Techniques, Food Biotechnology, Industrial Uses and Farming
Terms. We encourage you to contact us directly for additional information or
to further answer any of your questions.
THE ROLE OF THE UNITED SOYBEAN BOARD
Run by volunteer farmers from across the United States, the United Soybean
Board is today’s leading source for soybean data and marketing expertise, soyrelated health news, and support for soy product research and development.
American soybean growers are committed to sustaining and advancing the
quality, usefulness and quantity of their product. They have a particular interest
in expanding awareness of soy’s human health benefits.
USB was created by the Farm Bill of 1990 to manage and direct the National
Soybean Checkoff. At a rate of 0.5 percent of the market price per bushel sold,
soybean farmers across the nation invest in their future through the checkoff
program. Half of the farmers’ funds go to work at the state level, supporting
marketing and research programs right where their beans are grown. The
other half is forwarded to USB, where it is invested in international marketing,
domestic marketing, new uses and production.
USB is dedicated to spreading knowledge and understanding of the soybean.
USB comprises 64 volunteer farmers who represent the interests of 663,880
fellow soybean growers nationwide. Qualified State Soybean Boards nominate
each board member, who is then officially appointed by the U.S. Secretary of
Agriculture. USB manages funding allocated toward the marketing and promotion of soy products, with an overall goal of increasing domestic utilization of
U.S. soybeans from 1.2 billion bushels in 1996 to 2.0 billion bushels by 2007.
The Soy Glossary
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health & nutrition benefits
THE HISTORY OF THE SOYBEAN
The humble soybean has blossomed from legendary Chinese origins to the
“miracle crop” vastly produced on modern-day American farms. As early
as 5,000 years ago, records show that farmers in China grew soybeans as
an important staple crop for their everyday diet. In fact, ancient Chinese
scholars referred to soy as one of the “five sacred grains.” In 1804, sailors
on a Yankee clipper ship leaving China brought soybeans with them to the
United States -- though for a very different reason than one might imagine.
They loaded the ship with soybeans as inexpensive ballast. Upon arrival in
the United States, they dumped the soybeans to make room for cargo.
In 1829, U.S. farmers grew soybeans for the first time, cultivating a variety
for use in soy sauce. During the Civil War, soldiers brewed soybeans as
“coffee berries” when real coffee was scarce. In the late 1800s, significant
numbers of farmers began to grow soybeans as forage for cattle. In 1904,
at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, George Washington Carver began
studying the soybean. His discoveries changed the way people thought
about the soybean. No longer was it just a forage crop; now soybeans
provided valuable protein and oil.
Prior to World War II, the United States imported 40 percent of its edible
fats and oil. At the advent of the war, this oil supply was cut off and processors turned to soybean oil. By 1940, the U.S. crop had grown to 78 million
bushels and the United States was a net exporter of soybeans and soybean
products. That year, Henry Ford took an ax to a car trunk made with soybean plastic in a publicity stunt to demonstrate its durability.
In the early ‘50s, soybean meal became available as a low-cost, high protein
animal feed ingredient, triggering an explosion in U.S. livestock and poultry
production. The soybean industry then began to look at ways to expand
export markets, starting with Japan.
Allergenicity – The state of hypersensitivity of the body’s immune system
in response to exposure to specific substances (allergens), such as pollen, bee stings, poison ivy, drugs or certain foods. The incidence of true
food allergy is about 1 percent to 2 percent in adults. Only a very small
percent of the population are allergic to soy.
Amino Acids – Amino acids are the building blocks of protein, which is
essential for human growth and maintenance. Of the 20 amino acids
humans require, our bodies produce 11 and the remaining nine must
come from the foods we eat. Soy protein provides all nine missing amino
acids, making it a complete protein. The soybean is the only vegetable
offering a complete protein profile.
Anticarcinogen – A substance or agent that counteracts the effect of
a carcinogen or a cancer-producing substance. Ongoing research
is investigating the anticarcinogenic role of the isoflavones found in
soyfoods. Isoflavones are found in significant amounts only in soybeans
and soyfoods. A 1990 National Cancer Institute workshop identified five
different chemical classes of anticarcinogens in soybeans - phytosterols,
phytates, saponins, protease inhibitors and isoflavones.
Antiestrogen – A substance or agent that can prevent the full expression
of estrogen. In soy, weak estrogen-like isoflavones can take the place
of estrogen and connect with receptors in estrogen-sensitive tissues,
like the breast. By competing with estrogen for the limited number of
estrogen receptors, the isoflavones prevent estrogen from binding to the
receptors and, hence, may block proliferation of hormone-dependent
cancers by interfering with the growth of estrogen-dependent tumors.
The isoflavones, therefore, act as antiestrogens.
Antioxidant – A synthetic or natural substance or agent that neutralizes
Today, farmers in over 29 states grow soybeans, making soybeans the sec-
free radicals and prevents cell damage that may lead to cancer. The isoflavones found in soy, such as genistein, are good antioxidants.
ond largest crop in cash sales and the number one value crop export. The
Chemopreventive – The ability of a natural or laboratory-made substance
soybean has become the foremost provider of protein and oil in the world.
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The Soy Glossary
to help prevent cancer. Researchers continue to study the chemopreventive effects of soy isoflavones.
The Soy Glossary
3
Daidzein – One of the two primary soy isoflavones. Daidzein is the second
most plentiful isoflavone in soy (after genistein).
Epidemiological Study – A research study that investigates the factors
determining and influencing the frequency and distribution of disease,
injury and other health-related events and their causes in a defined
human population.
Estradiol – The most potent of the naturally occurring estrogens that is
administered in its natural or semisynthetic form especially to treat
menopausal symptoms. The soybean isoflavones have between 1/1,000
and 1/100,000 the activity of estradiol.
Estrogen – The female sex hormone essential for the reproductive process
and for the development of the uterus, breasts and other physical changes
associated with puberty. Researchers are studying the estrogen-like
effect of soy isoflavones in the reduction of cancer cell proliferation in
hormone-dependent and non-hormone-dependent cancers.
Estrogen Receptor – A cellular protein that binds hormones, found on
nearly all cell types, but particularly in estrogen sensitive tissues like the
uterus and the breast. The weak estrogenic qualities of soy isoflavones
may function as antiestrogens because they can compete with endogenous estrogen for binding to estrogen receptors. In doing so, they block
the more potent endogenous estrogens from exerting their effect. Since
high blood levels of estrogen are an established risk factor for breast
cancer, weak estrogens have been postulated as being protective against
this form of cancer.
Free Radical - A molecule that is unstable because it is missing an electron
(a negatively charged subatomic particle), which makes it highly reactive
and able to damage other molecules and, therefore, cells in the body.
Genistein – One of the two primary soy isoflavones. Genistein is being
Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) – The substitution of
naturally declining hormones with synthetic or artificial hormones in
women during menopause.
Hydrogenation - See “Processing” section.
Isoflavones - One of the five chemical classes of anticarcinogens found
in soy. Isoflavones are chemically similar in structure to estrogen and,
in fact, are weak estrogens (about 1/1000 to 1/100,000 the potency of
endogenous estrogen). The two primary isoflavones in soybeans are
daidzein and genistein. Soybeans and soyfoods have attracted much
attention because they are unique as the only nutritionally significant
dietary sources of isoflavones. Isoflavones may directly inhibit bone
resorption and prevent the onset of osteoporosis and the weak estrogenic effect of isoflavones have been postulated as being protective
against various forms of cancer.
LDL Cholesterol – See “Lipoprotein” entry.
Lipoprotein – The combination of protein, fat and cholesterol found in
the blood. Depending on their size and weight, lipoproteins are classified
as high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) or low-density lipoproteins (LDLs).
LDLs transport cholesterol to body tissue, which can damage
arteries. A high level of LDL-cholesterol is a major risk factor for
cardiovascular disease.
HDLs bring cholesterol back to the liver where it is broken down and
eliminated from the body. HDL-cholesterol differs from LDL-cholesterol in
that it is not a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. In fact, a high level
of HDL-cholesterol actually helps reverse your risk for cardiovascular
disease. An extensive body of research demonstrates that consuming
25 grams of soy protein per day can lower cholesterol and reduce the
risk of heart disease.
studied for its ability to inhibit the growth of cancer cells.
HDL Cholesterol – See “Lipoprotein” entry.
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The Soy Glossary
The Soy Glossary
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Osteoporosis - A condition of excessive skeletal fragility resulting in
bones that break easily. A combination of genetic, dietary, hormonal,
age-related and lifestyle factors all contribute to this condition. The
isoflavones found in soy protein may play an important role in protecting
bones by increasing bone mineral content and bone density. This suggests
that eating soyfoods could help reduce the risk of osteoporosis.
Peptide – Two or more amino acids – the building blocks of proteins
– linked to each other by chemical bonding. Scientists believe soy peptides may play a role in reducing blood pressure and cholesterol, as well
as preventing cancer. While peptides can occur naturally in soybeans,
they can also be created as a product of human digestion of soy or in the
lab through enzymatic hydrolysis.
Phytate – One of the five chemical classes of anticarcinogens found in
soy. Phytate’s antinutrient effects may help prevent cancer.
Phytochemicals – The active health-protecting compounds found in
plants, including soy. Many of these non-nutritive substances have
potent biological activity and may help to lower risk for many chronic
diseases. Soybeans contain a variety of phytochemicals and are the only
food source with nutritionally significant amounts of one type of phytochemical called isoflavones. Currently, the terms “phytochemical” and
“phytonutrient” are being used interchangeably to describe those plant
compounds that are thought to have health-protecting qualities.
Phytoestrogens – Weak, estrogen-like substances found in plants,
especially soy. Because of their high phytoestrogen content, there is
increasing interest in the role that soyfoods can play in women’s health.
Phytoestrogens are associated with a lowered risk of many diseases,
including heart disease, osteoporosis and breast cancer.
Phytosterols – One of the five chemical classes of anticarcinogens found
in soy. Phytosterols are also believed to reduce cholesterol levels by
inhibiting cholesterol absorption thus reducing the risk of heart disease.
Protease inhibitors – One of the five chemical classes of anticarcino-
Protein - A large molecule made up of units called amino acids. Dietary
protein is essential for building, repairing, and maintaining body tissues.
Soybeans are exceptionally high in quality protein: 35 to 38 percent of
the calories in soybeans come from protein. The soybean is the only vegetable offering a complete protein profile. An extensive body of research
demonstrates that consuming 25 grams of soy protein per day can lower
cholesterol and reduce the risk of heart disease.
Saponins – One of the five chemical classes of anticarcinogens found
in soy. Saponins are a large family of modified carbohydrates found
in many vegetables and herbs. So far, researchers have identified 11
different saponins in soybeans alone. In addition to having anti-cancer
activity, there is evidence that some of these substances lower circulating
levels of certain lipids.
Soy Protein Health Claim – November 1999 FDA-approved health
claim stating that consuming 25 g of soy protein per day can lower LDL
cholesterol and reduce the risk of heart disease. Health claims are statements characterizing the relationship between any nutrient or substance
in a food and a disease or health-related condition. In order for a health
claim to be used on a food label, the product must meet specific criteria
for that particular health claim and be supported by significant research.
Toxicity – The state of being related to or caused by a toxin or other
poison. The term is also used to describe something that is capable of
causing injury or death, especially by chemical means.
Triglycerides – The chemical form in which most fats exist in food as well
as in the body. They are also present in blood plasma and, in association
with cholesterol, form the plasma lipids. Hormones regulate the release
of triglycerides from fat tissue so they meet the body’s needs for energy
between meals.
Vitamin E – Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant vitamin that prevents
cell damage that may lead to cancer. By inhibiting the oxidation of LDL
cholesterol, Vitamin E may reduce the risk of heart disease. Vitamin E is
found in vegetable oils like soybean oil.
gens found in soy. Protease inhibitors also protect against the damaging
effects of radiation and free radicals, which can attack DNA.
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The Soy Glossary
The Soy Glossary
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soybean oil
Cis fatty acids – Unsaturated fatty acid with a bent carbon chain. Most
naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids are cis fatty acids.
Emulsifier – An agent that binds two substances together that do not normally mix. For example, an emulsifier is used to mix oil and water to form
salad dressing. Lecithin is a natural emulsifier derived from soy.
Essential fatty acids – Fatty acids necessary for human health that
can only be obtained from dietary sources. This type of fatty acid is not
produced by the human body. Soybean oil contains two essential fatty
acids, linoleic and linolenic.
Fire point – The temperature at which an oil will ignite and burn for at
least five seconds. For refined soybean oil the fire point is between
700 – 710 degrees Fahrenheit.
Flash point – The temperature at which an oil ignites momentarily, but will
not sustain a flame. For refined soybean oil the flash point is between
635 – 645 degrees Fahrenheit.
Fry life – The length of time an oil lasts in a fryer before it turns rancid,
becomes dark in color or forms free fatty acids. Stable oils have a
longer fry life.
Hydrogenation – The process whereby hydrogen is added to an unsaturated oil to increase the stability of the oil. Most oils are partially
hydrogenated, providing an increase in stability while maintaining a
healthy oil profile.
Lauric oils – Common term for fats and oils that contain a large percentage of lauric acid, which is a saturated fatty acid. Lauric oils are generally
not used in deep-frying applications. The most common lauric oils are
coconut oil and palm kernel oil.
The Soy Glossary
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Lecithin – A naturally occurring emulsifier, lecithin is extracted from crude
soybean oil through the refining process. Soybeans are a significant
source of lecithin. Lecithin is believed to have health benefits, including
increased brain capacity and improved memory. It plays a vital role in
human cell function and is believed to aid in liver function, cardiovascular health, physical and athletic performance, and reproduction and fetal
development. Lecithin is a natural element of HDL (the “good” cholesterol). Lecithin is used in the food manufacturing process in products
high in fats and oils such as chocolate, cake and biscuit mixes, margarine, mayonnaise and salad dressings.
Linoleic acid – One of the two polyunsaturated fatty acids found in soybean
oil. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids can lower blood lipid levels and
thus lower cholesterol. Soybean oil contains approximately 50 percent of
this essential fatty acid.
Linolenic acid – An omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid found in many
seed-derived oils such as soybean oil and fish oil. Soybean oil contains
approximately eight percent of this essential fatty acid.
Melting point – The temperature in which the solid and liquid phases are
in equilibrium. For refined soybean oil the melting point is between 59
– 68 degrees.
Monounsaturated fatty acid – A type of unsaturated fatty acid in which
the chain of carbon atoms is missing one pair of hydrogen atoms. Monounsaturated fat is found mostly in vegetable oils such as olive, canola,
soybean and peanut. Because it aids stability, oils high in monounsaturated fatty acids are good for frying applications. Soybean oil contains
approximately 24 percent monounsaturated fatty acids. When substituted for saturated fat, monounsaturated fat helps lower LDLs while
leaving HDLs unchanged.
Oleic acid – A monounsaturated fatty acid. An oil high in oleic acid
is stable and resists rancidity. Oleic acid also contributes to
increased shelf life.
Omega-3 fatty acids – A type of polyunsaturated fatty acid that has
Palmitic acid – A saturated fatty acid very stable for frying purposes.
Soybean oil contains approximately 10 percent palmitic acid.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids – A type of unsaturated fatty acid in which
the chain of carbon atoms is missing two or more pairs of hydrogen
atoms. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are found in nuts and vegetable oils
such as soybean, safflower and sunflower, and in fatty fish. When used
instead of saturated fats, polyunsaturated fats tend to lower LDL cholesterol levels. Soybean oil contains approximately 61 percent polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Rancidity – An oil or fat becomes rancid when oxygen is allowed to break
it down. Oils higher in unsaturated fatty acids are more prone to rancidity than oils high in saturated fat.
Saturated fatty acids – Saturated fats are among the most common
fats in our diet. They are found predominantly in animal foods like meat,
poultry and full-fat dairy products, and in tropical oils like palm and
coconut. Diets high in saturated fats are associated with higher risks of
heart disease, certain cancers and stroke. Soybean oil is considered one
of the most well-balanced vegetable oils, with a low saturated fat content
of 15 percent.
Shelf life – The length of time a product lasts on the shelf before becoming
rancid. The more stable an oil is, the longer the shelf life of the finished
product and the oil.
Shortening – A common term for hydrogenated oils used for specific
applications. There are different types, including frying, baking and allpurpose shortenings.
Smoke point – The temperature at which oil produces a thin continuous
stream of smoke. A high smoke point is indicative of proper processing
of oil. Smoke point decreases the longer the oil is in use. The smoke
point for refined soybean oil is 440 – 460 degrees.
Stearic acid – A saturated fatty acid very stable for frying purposes.
Stearic acid is solid at room temperature.
been recognized as having health benefits, including helping to regulate
blood pressure and blood lipid levels. Omega-3 fatty acids also may
help to lower the risk of heart disease, help prevent cancer, and may be
essential for brain development in infants. They are found primarily in
fish oils but are also found in a few plant sources like soybeans.
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The Soy Glossary
The Soy Glossary
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Trans fatty acids – Trans fatty acids are produced during the hydrogenation
of vegetable oils, a process that adds hydrogen to unsaturated fatty
acids in vegetable oil and changes the fat from a liquid to a soft or solid
state. Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils can replace naturally solid,
saturate-rich fats, such as lard and beef tallow, in margarines and baked
foods, as well as commercial frying where vegetable oils cannot be
used. Trans fatty acids occur naturally in small amounts in meats and
dairy products. Trans fats account for only 2 to 4 percent of the average
American’s total calories. Regular, non-hydrogenated soybean oil does
not contain trans fatty acids.
Tropical oils – Fats produced from fruits, kernels or seeds of plants grown
in tropical regions of the world. The most common are coconut, palm,
palm kernel and cocoa butter.
Unsaturated fat – Unsaturated fats are found in foods from both plant
and animal sources. Unsaturated fatty acids are further divided into
monounsaturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Vegetable oils – A naturally occurring fat or oil derived from a plant or
vegetable. Soybean oil is the most commonly used vegetable oil in the
United States. Vegetable oils are considered more healthful than animal
fats because they are lower in saturated fats.
Vitamin E – See “Health & Nutrition” section.
soyfoods
Edamame/green vegetable soybeans – These large soybeans are a
specialty variety. They are harvested when the beans are still green and
sweet tasting and can be served as a snack or main vegetable dish after
boiling in slightly salted water. Edamame is high in protein and fiber.
Functional foods (nutraceuticals) – Foods or food ingredients that
are modified in order to provide a health benefit beyond the nutrients
traditionally contained. Scientific evidence is accumulating to support
the role of functional foods in the promotion of good health and the
prevention and treatment of diseases such as cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and hypertension. Isoflavone-fortified veggie burgers,
calcium-fortified orange juice, iron-fortified cereal and vitamin D-fortified
milk all qualify as “functional foods.”
Hydrolyzed vegetable protein (HVP) – A protein obtained from
any vegetable, including soybeans, which is broken down into amino
acids by a chemical process called acid hydrolysis. HVP is used as a
flavor enhancer.
Infant formulas, soy-based – Soy infant formula is produced using
soy protein isolate powder as the base, and carbohydrates and fats are
added to achieve a fluid similar to breast milk.
Meat analogs (alternatives/equivalents) – Soybean-based meat
alternatives contain soy protein or tofu and other ingredients that are
mixed together to simulate various kinds of meat. These meat alternatives are sold as frozen, canned or dried foods and usually can be used
the same way as the foods they replace.
Miso – This smooth paste is made from soybeans, a grain such as rice,
salt and a mold culture, then aged in cedar vats for one to three years.
In Japanese cooking, miso paste is traditionally made into miso soup
though it can also flavor sauces, dressings, marinades and patés.
Natto – Made from fermented, cooked soybeans, natto is traditionally
served in Asian countries as a topping for rice, in miso soups and with
vegetables. The fermentation process breaks down the beans’ complex
proteins, thus making natto more easily digestible than whole soybeans.
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The Soy Glossary
The Soy Glossary
13
Soy crumbles – This soy and wheat protein substitute can be used
in recipes calling for browned ground beef such as chili, spaghetti
sauce and lasagna.
Soy fiber (okara, soy bran and soy isolate fiber) – The three basic
types of soy fiber – okara, soy bran and soy isolate fiber – are all excellent sources of high-quality dietary fiber.
•
Okara is a pulp fiber by-product of soymilk, with a taste similar to
coconut milk. It contains less protein than whole soybeans, but the
remaining protein is high quality. Uses include baking, adding as
fiber to granola or cookies, and making into sausage.
•
Soy bran is made from hulls, the outer covering of the soybean,
which are removed during initial processing. Hulls contain a
fibrous material that can be extracted and then refined for use
as a food ingredient.
•
Soy isolate fiber, also known as structured protein fiber (SPF), is soy
protein isolate in a fibrous form.
Soy flour – Fifty percent protein, soy flour is made from roasted soybeans
ground into a fine powder. Soy flour comes in three forms: natural or
full-fat, which contains natural oils found in the soybean; defatted, which
has the oils removed during processing; and lecithinated, which has had
lecithin added to it. Soy flour is gluten-free so yeast-raised breads made
with soy flour are dense in texture.
Soy grits – Soybeans are toasted and cracked into coarse pieces rather
than made into the fine powder of soy flour. Soy grits are high in protein
and can replace soy flour in some recipes.
Soymilk – Soybeans – soaked, ground, and finely strained – produce a
fluid called soymilk. Plain, unfortified soymilk is an excellent source of
high quality protein and B-vitamins. Soymilk is usually sold in non-refrigerated, shelf-stable aseptic containers, but can also be found in some
regions in the dairy case in quart and half gallon containers or as a
powder that must be mixed with water.
Soy protein concentrate – Seventy percent protein, soy protein concentrate comes from defatted soy flakes. Retaining most of the beans’ dietary
fiber, it is a highly digestible source of amino acids and does not have a
strong flavor of its own.
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The Soy Glossary
Soy protein isolate – Soy protein isolate results from removing the
protein from defatted flakes. Soy protein isolate is made of 90 percent
protein, and is the most highly refined soy protein. Isolates are almost
tasteless and can be added to foods without jeopardizing their flavor
or characteristics.
Soy sauce (shoyu, tamari and teriyaki) – Soy sauce is a dark
brown liquid made from fermented soybeans. Specific types of soy
sauce are shoyu, tamari and teriyaki. Shoyu is a blend of soybeans
and wheat; tamari is made only from soybeans and is a by-product
of making miso; and teriyaki sauce includes other ingredients such
as sugar, vinegar and spices.
Soy sprouts – Although not as popular as bean sprouts or alfalfa sprouts,
soy sprouts (also called soybean sprouts) are used in salads or as a
cooked vegetable. Soy sprouts come from germinated beans.
Soybean oil – Soybean oil is the natural oil extracted from whole soybeans. It is the most widely used oil in the United States, and is sold as
either pure soybean oil or as an ingredient in vegetable oil. Processed
into margarine and shortenings, soybean oil’s 85 percent unsaturated fat
profile is among the lowest of the vegetable oils.
Soybeans, black – Dried black soybeans have a mild soy flavor, a
pleasant sweetness, and a texture that works well in many dishes,
especially chili and soups. Black soybeans are the fermented black
beans found in Asian cooking.
Soybeans, whole – Whole soybeans are the edible seed of the soybean
plant. They are high in protein and contain beneficial phytochemicals,
such as isoflavones. They are light tan or yellow in color, belong to the
legume family, and are native to East Asia. Whole soybeans are available
in several forms, the most basic of which are canned and dried.
Soynuts – Roasted soynuts are whole soybeans that have been soaked in
water and then baked until browned. They have a strong taste (similar to
peanuts), a dry crunch and are a rich source of protein and isoflavones.
Soynut butter – Soynut butter is made from roasted whole soynuts,
which are crushed and blended with soybean oil and other ingredients
into a spreadable form. It has a slightly nutty taste and is lower in fat
than peanut butter.
The Soy Glossary
15
Tempeh – Tempeh is a traditional Indonesian soy food. It is a chunky,
tender soybean cake made of whole, cooked soybeans that have been
fermented. It has a smoky or nutty flavor and a chewy texture. Tempeh
is an excellent source of nutrients such as calcium, iron and B-vitamins,
and is a fiber-rich food because it is made from whole soybeans.
Textured soy protein/Textured vegetable protein (TSP/TVP)
– TSP is made from defatted soy flour and is sold in a dried, granular
form. It is used as a meat extender or analog and can be added to a
meal to increase its protein content. TSP has a texture similar to ground
beef or other meat products and must be rehydrated with boiling
water before use.
Tofu – Tofu, also known as soybean curd, is a soft cheese-like food made
by curdling fresh, hot soymilk. Nigari, calcium sulfate, and vinegar or
lemon juice are added to soymilk, excess moisture is squeezed out,
and the remaining curds are pressed into soft blocks. When combined
with other foods, tofu acts like a sponge and absorbs the flavors of the
other ingredients when it is cooked. Firm, soft and silken varieties of
tofu are available.
Yuba – Yuba is made by carefully lifting and drying the thin layer that forms
on the surface of heated soymilk once it has cooled. It is commonly sold
dried as thin, brittle, brown sheets that are soaked in water before using.
soybean processing techniques
Bleaching – Treatment of a fat or oil with a material such as activated
charcoal which removes or reduces the amount of coloring materials
normally present in a refined oil.
Cracking – The breaking of the whole seed into several pieces to facilitate
dehulling and flaking.
Crude soybean oil – Sometimes referred to as crude raw soybean oil; the
unrefined oil produced by any one of the procedures described for the
extraction of oil from soybeans.
Defatted soy flakes – Soybean flakes produced by the nearly complete
removal of the oil from soybeans. Defatted soy flakes are the basis of a
variety of soy protein products including soy flour, soy concentrates and
soy isolates.
Degumming – The removal of phosolipids from vegetable oil by a water
washing step.
Dehulling – The process of removing the outer covering from grains or
other seeds.
Deodorizing – A process involving use of high vacuum and superheated
steam in washing of fats and oils. Deodorization removes from fats and
oils materials originally present or introduced during previous processing, which would contribute objectionable flavors and odors to the
finished product.
Extrusion – A process for texturizing soy flours or other proteins using
high pressures and temperatures.
Flaking – A process for converting typically dehulled oilseeds into thin
flakes for solvent extraction or other processing.
Full fat flakes – Ground whole soybeans containing all of the original oil
(usually 18 to 20 percent).
Hull – The tough outer skin of a soybean. A major source of dietary fiber,
the hull is processed to create a fiber additive for breads, cereals and
snacks. Livestock feed is also produced from soybean hulls.
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The Soy Glossary
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17
Hydrogenation – The process of chemically adding hydrogen in the
presence of a catalyst to the unsaturated “hydrogen short” portions of
a natural fat. The addition of hydrogen reduces the reactivity of the fat
toward oxygen and thus stabilizes and retards rancidity development
in the fat. Hydrogenation usually raises the melting point of a fat or
changes it from a liquid oil to a solid fat. Partial hydrogenation is the
degree to which a fat is hydrogenated. Completely hydrogenated fats are
solid and, therefore, more stable. Partially hydrogenated fats are used in
various applications, such as crackers and baked goods.
Intersterification – A process that rearranges fat molecules without
adding hydrogen molecules; possible alternative to hydrogenation.
Oxidation – A chemical reaction involving the addition or combination of
oxygen with the other reacting material. Oxidation in fats or food products containing fat eventually results in development of rancidity and its
accompanying objectionable flavors and odors.
Phytosterols – A sterol found only in plants, including soybeans.
Researchers have found that some plant sterols appear to lower
cholesterol levels.
Rancidity – The stage in fat oxidation which is characterized by development
of easily recognized, sharp, acrid and pungent off-flavors and odors.
Sterols – Compounds naturally found in the fatty tissues of plants and
food biotechnology
Allergenicity – The state of hypersensitivity of the body’s immune system
in response to exposure to specific substances (allergens), such as
pollen, bee stings, poison ivy, drugs or certain foods. The Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) requires testing for any potential allergic reactions
in humans before all newly developed plants or foods are approved,
whether biotech-derived or conventional-breeding derived.
Antibiotic-resistance marker genes – Antibiotic-resistance genes
are used as markers during research to identify genetic material
transferred from one organism to another. The marker gene is used to
verify whether the designated gene has been successfully transferred to
another organism.
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) – A naturally occurring soil bacterium that
creates a toxin poisonous to a variety of crop-destroying caterpillars, but
is harmless to people and animals. Bt insect-resistant crops currently on
the market include corn (primarily for control of European corn borer),
cotton (for control of tabacco budworm and cotton bollworm).
Biopharming – The cultivation of biotech-derived plants for the purpose of
producing chemicals for pharmaceutical and industrial uses.
Biosafety protocol – A summary agreement of the United Nations Con-
animals. Cholesterol is a sterol found only in animals.
Trypsin inhibitors – Proteins in soybeans believed to be responsible for
growth inhibition when raw soybeans are fed to animals.
Winterization – The process of chilling soybean oil slowly and then
maintaining it at 5° C (41° F) for a specified period of time and removing
the crystallized glycerides from the liquid fraction of the oil by the use
of filter presses. Soy oil does not require winterizing unless it has been
partially hydrogenated to increase stability.
vention on Biological Diversity intended to protect an individual country’s natural biodiversity and prevent extinction of native species. The
protocol provides a set of detailed requirements concerning the transnational-boundary movement of non-native living organisms, including
genetically modified organisms, which could be willfully released into
the new environment of a country in which it is not indigenous.
Biotechnology – The use of living organisms or other biological systems
to develop food, drugs, and other products.
Codex (codex alimentarius) – A multi-volume food standards manual
produced by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, a United Nations
food safety agency representing 163 nations worldwide, that classifies
international food trade principles, codes, commodity standards, labels,
additives, irradiated foods and contaminants and toxins in foods.
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Crossbreeding – An agricultural breeding technique mixing thousands of
GRAS – Acronym for Generally Recognized as Safe. GRAS refers to a list of
genes carried from the pollen of one plant to a related plant to produce a
desired trait or traits in a new variety.
food additives/ingredients that a panel of Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) pharmacologists and toxicologists judge to be safe based on the
data accumulated over time about each ingredient and the ingredient’s
extensive and common use in foods.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – The molecule that carries the genetic
information for most living systems.
Edible vaccine – Researchers are using biotechnology to develop edible
vaccines. These vaccines are genetically incorporated into food plants
and need no refrigeration, sterilization equipment or needles. For
example, researchers are developing a hepatitis vaccine in bananas.
Bananas were selected because they are one of the infant’s first foods,
can be eaten raw, and are widely available throughout the world.
Equivalency (substantial equivalence) – A principal employed by
regulatory agencies to identify differences between foods and crops
produced through biotechnology and their traditional counterparts.
Foods produced through biotechnology are compared to traditional
breeds based on composition, nutritional profile and safety, including
allergenic potential.
Genes – A unit of the cellular material which is the physical basis for the
transmission of the characteristics of living organisms from one generation to another.
Genetically modified organism (GMO) – An organism altered in its
genetic makeup either through natural evolution or artificial means.
Genetic engineering – The selective, deliberate alteration of genes or
genetic material through artificial means.
Genome – The total hereditary material of a cell, which comprises the
entire chromosomal set and mitochondrial, found in each given species.
Germ plasm – Refers to the total genetic variability within a given set (e.g.,
a seed company’s collection of seeds) for a particular organism.
Glyphosate-tolerant soybeans (GTS) – Soybeans enhanced through
biotechnology to survive the application of Roundup Ready herbicide.
Roundup Ready herbicide contains the active ingredient glyphosate,
which kills weeds by interrupting their metabolism.
Golden Rice – Rice enhanced through biotechnology to produce beta-carotene, a nutrient that serves as a building block in humans for vitamin A,
in the starchy interior part of the grain.
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The Soy Glossary
“Green” biotechnology – A slang term for agricultural biotechnology.
Agricultural biotechnology involves the application of genetic engineering, molecular biology and other advanced scientific techniques to
develop food and fiber crops with enhanced beneficial traits, such
as resistance to destructive insects and diseases, and production of
more healthful oils.
Herbicide-tolerant soybeans – Soybeans enhanced through biotechnology or traditional breeding techniques to survive the application of
one or more herbicides.
Hybrid - Seed produced as the result of controlled cross-pollination as
opposed to natural pollination. Hybrid seeds are selected to have higher
quality traits (e.g. yield or pest tolerance).
Hybridization – An agricultural breeding technique of mating two
plants from different species or genetically different members of the
same species to yield offspring possessing some of the characteristics
of each parent.
Identity preservation (IP) – A process by which a crop is grown,
handled, delivered and processed under controlled conditions to assure
the customer that the crop has maintained its unique identity from
farmgate to end-use.
Plant-Made Pharmaceuticals (PMPs) – Biotech-derived plants that
produce therapeutic proteins, which are extracted, refined and used in
pharmaceutical production.
Plasmid - A small circular form of bacterial DNA containing certain genes
capable of replicating independently in a host cell.
Precautionary principle – The approach whereby any possible risk
associated with the introduction of a new technology is avoided until
there is full understanding of its health and environmental impacts.
This concept generates international debate over how best to apply the
principle without inhibiting important technological advances.
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21
“Red” biotechnology – A slang term for pharmaceutical biotechnology.
Pharmaceutical biotechnology involves the use of genomic information,
molecular biology and other advanced scientific techniques to help
produce safe and effective drug therapies.
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) – DNA formed by the joining of genes or
genetic material into a new combination.
Super bugs – A slang term for bugs that could develop a resistance to the
pesticides intended to eliminate them.
Super weeds – A slang term for weeds that could breed with their genetically engineered plant relative and develop a resistance to the herbicides
intended to eliminate them.
Traceability – A process by which end-users are able to trace back a
Regulatory agencies (FDA, EPA, USDA) – Agricultural biotechnology in the U.S. is regulated by three federal agencies: the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). FDA policy
is based on existing food law, and requires that biotech foods meet the
same rigorous safety standards as are required for all other foods. The
EPA analyzes technical issues presented by advances in biotechnologyderived products applicable to pest control only and synthesizes these
technical issues with laws necessary to develop regulatory programs
for pest control-applicable products enhanced through biotechnology. Within the USDA, the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
(APHIS) is the government’s lead agency regulating the testing of
biotechnology-derived, new plant varieties. A company, academic or
research institution, non-profit organization or public sector scientist
wishing to field test or move a biotechnology-derived plant must generally obtain APHIS approval before proceeding.
batch of agricultural produce or grains to the producer and the production methods used.
Traditional plant breeding (mass selection) – An agricultural
breeding technique where superior plants are saved or inferior plants
are eliminated during a growing season to amass planting stock seeds
intended for future seasons.
Trait – A characteristic of an organism that manifests itself through
physical attributes.
Transgenic – A type of organism formed by inserting foreign genetic material into the cells of an organism. Recombinant DNA techniques are
commonly used to produce transgenic organisms.
Roundup Ready ® soybeans – The brand name for the Monsanto
Company soybeans enhanced through biotechnology that can be
sprayed with glyphosate-based herbicides; one of which is Roundup®,
without harming the crops.
Segregation – A farming practice of separating crops and harvested agricultural produce and grains for discrete delivery based on a category,
class or grade.
StarLink/Cry9C protein – StarLink corn is the Aventis-bred corn
enhanced through biotechnology to contain the Cry9C protein. The
Cry9C protein is one of a number of “Cry” proteins that are toxic when
eaten by the European corn borer, southwestern corn borer, black cutworm, and some species of armyworm. However, if eaten by a mammal,
the Cry9C protein is nontoxic.
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industrial uses
Acute oral toxicity – The lethal oral dose of a substance. In biodiesel,
acute oral toxicity is greater than 17.4 g/Kg body weight. Comparatively,
table salt (NaCL) is ten times more toxic.
Aquatic toxicity – The lethal concentration of a substance for fish and
other aquatic inhabitants. A 96-hour lethal concentration of biodiesel
grade methyl esters for bluegill was greater than 1000 mg/L, “insignificant”
according to National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) guidelines.
B100 or “Neat fuel” – Pure, 100 percent, biodiesel fuel.
B20 – See “Biodiesel blend.”
Biodegradability – Capability of decomposition by natural biologic
processes. Biodiesel degrades about four times faster than petroleum
diesel. Within 28 days, pure biodiesel degrades 85 to 88 percent in
water, the same rate as dextrose sugar (a test sugar used as the positive
control when testing biodegradability). Blending biodiesel with diesel
fuel accelerates its biodegradability. For example, B20 degrades twice
as fast as #2 diesel alone.
Biodiesel – A variety of clean burning ester-based oxygenated fuels made
from renewable sources including soybean oil, other vegetable oils and
animal fats, for use in compression-ignition (diesel) engines. Biodiesel
fuel is extremely safe for human health and environmentally sound.
It can be used instead of petroleum in cars, transit, and boats without
any modifications to the conventional gas tank. Biodiesel is registered
with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as a fuel or fuel
additive, and is a legal fuel for commerce.
Biodiesel blend or Bxx – Pure biodiesel fuel blended with petroleum
diesel. Blends are referred to as Bxx, with the xx signifying the percentage of biodiesel in the blend, e.g., a B20 blend is 20 percent biodiesel
and 80 percent petroleum diesel.
Carbon monoxide (CO2) – A poisonous gas for humans, also contributing to global warming when released into the atmosphere. Exhaust
emissions from CO2 are 50 percent lower with biodiesel.
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Clean Air Act – Requires lengthy health effects testing for fuels and fuel
additives. Biodiesel is the only alternative fuel, to date, to complete the
three-year, $2.2 million testing regimen as mandated by section 211(b)
of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990.
Energy Policy Act (EPACT) – Effective November 1998, B20 was
approved by Congress as a compliance strategy for EPACT, originally
enacted in 1992. The legislation allows EPACT fleets to meet their
alternative fuel vehicle purchase requirements by buying 450 gallons
of pure biodiesel and burning it in new or existing diesel vehicles in at
least a 20 percent blend with diesel fuel. Biodiesel is the lowest cost
alternative fuel option for meeting the Federal Government’s EPACT
compliance requirements.
Esterification – A method of producing biodiesel through direct acid
catalyzation of the oil with methanol. Transesterification is a more economical and widely used means of production (see “transesterification”
definition). A third method converts the oil to fatty acids, and then to
Alkyl esters with acid catalysis.
Flash point – The temperature at which a fuel will ignite when exposed to
a spark or flame, a matter of safety for fuel storage, handling and use.
Biodiesel’s flash point is over 300°F, well above diesel fuel’s flash point
of 125°F. Biodiesel blends also have higher flash points than petroleum
diesel. Because of the high flash point, biodiesel is also utilized in mining and national forests.
Skin irritation – Irritation level in humans, as determined by patch test.
A 24-hour human patch test indicated that undiluted biodiesel produced
very mild irritation, significantly less than the result produced by a four
percent soap and water solution.
Sulfur – Sulfur oxides and sulfates, which are major components of acid
rain. Sulfur emissions are essentially eliminated with pure biodiesel.
Transesterification – Production of biodiesel through base-catalyzed
reaction, the most economical and popular production method. The
process involves reacting a fat or oil with an alcohol, such as methanol,
in the presence of a catalyst to produce glycerine and methyl esters. The
methanol is charged in excess to assist in quick conversion and recovered for reuse. The catalyst is usually sodium or potassium hydroxide,
which has already been mixed with methanol. Beneficial characteristics
of transesterification are low temperature (150° F) and pressure (20 psi)
processing; high conversion (98%) with minimal side reactions and
reaction time; direct conversion to methyl ester; and no need for unusual
construction materials.
Twenty-first Century Truck Initiative – Spearheaded by the U.S.
Army’s Tank, Automotive and Armament Command (TAACOM) and the
National Automotive Center, biodiesel blends have been championed as
a leading alternative fuel for heavy-duty trucks since it can deliver the
power and performance demanded by the heavy-duty sector.
Hydrocarbons – A contributing factor in the localized formation of smog
and ozone. Some aromatic compounds containing hydrocarbons are
also suspected carcinogens. Exhaust emissions of total hydrocarbons is
93 percent lower with biodiesel.
Nitrogen oxides – A contributing factor in the localized formation of
smog and ozone. NOx emissions depend on the specific engine family
and testing procedures, but biodiesel’s lack of sulfur allows the use of
NOx control technologies that cannot be used with conventional diesel.
Particulate matter – Breathing particulate matter contributes to respiratory disease and is considered a human health hazard. Exhaust emissions of particulate matter are 30 percent lower with biodiesel.
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The Soy Glossary
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farming terms
Acre – One acre = 43,560 sq. ft = 208.7 ft.² = 0.405 hectares;
or 640 acres = 1 sq. mile (called a section).
Agronomy – The science of crop production and soil management.
Best management practices (BMPs) – A conservation practice or
combination of practices designed to maintain agricultural productivity
while reducing point- and nonpoint- source water pollution. State
water quality agencies (or their designees) determine BMPs to fit local
conditions and to make the most efficient use of natural resources and
purchased inputs. The term has been defined as generally recognized
farmer management practices designed to reduce or prevent contamination of ground water and surface water, erosion and runoff from cropland, including the use of conservation tillage, no-till, ridge plating, strip
tillage, contour farming, strip cropping, irrigation water management,
judicious fertilizer application, slow-release fertilizers, soil and tissue
testing and vegetative buffer strips.
Bushel – A dry volume measure of varying weight for grain, fruit, etc.,
equal to four pecks or eight gallons (2150.42 cubic inches). A bushel
of soybeans weighs 60 pounds.
Checkoff programs – Research and promotion programs authorized
by law and financed by assessments. The programs are paid for by
specified industry members such as producers, importers and handlers.
The United Soybean Board, for example, is funded by a mandatory
assessment of 0.5 of 1 percent of the net market price for a bushel
of soybeans. Governed by the Agricultural Marketing Service and the
United States Department of Agriculture, a producer poll is conducted
every 5 years to determine if producers favor the conduct of a
continuance referendum.
Combine – A self-propelled machine for harvesting grain and other seed
crops. In one operation, it cuts, threshes, separates and cleans the grain
and scatters the straw.
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Conservation tillage – Any tillage and planting system that leaves at
least 30 percent of the soil surface covered by residue after planting.
Conservation tillage maintains a ground cover with less soil disturbance
than traditional cultivation, thereby reducing soil loss and energy use
while maintaining crop yields and quality. Conservation tillage techniques
such as minimum tillage, mulch tillage, ridge tillage, and no-till are often
implemented in conjunction with glyphosate-tolerant soybean varieties.
Basic commodities – Six crops (corn, cotton, peanuts, rice, tobacco and
wheat) that are covered by legislated price support programs.
Crop rotation – The practice of growing different crops in recurring session on the same land. Crop rotation plans are usually followed for the
purpose of increasing soil fertility and maintaining good yields.
Crop year – The year in which a crop is harvested. For corn and soybeans,
it is from September 1 to August 31.
Crop residue – That portion of a plant, such as a corn stalk, left in the
field after harvest.
Cooperative – An enterprise or organization owned by and operated for
the benefit of those using its services. In agriculture, such an organization is owned and used by farmers mainly to handle the off-farm part
of their businesses — buying farm supplies, marketing their products,
furnishing electric and telephone service, and providing business services —at cost. Essential features are democratic control, limited return
on capital, and operation at cost, with distribution of financial benefits
to individuals in proportion to their use of the services made available by
the cooperative (called patronage refunds).
Erosion – The process in which water or wind moves soil from one location
to another.
Fertilizer – Any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin
which is added to soil to provide nutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, necessary to sustain plant growth.
Fungicide – A chemical substance used as a spray, dust or disinfectant to
kill fungi infesting plants or seeds.
Herbicide – Any agent or chemical used to destroy plants, especially weeds.
Insecticide – A pesticide used to kill, deter, or control insects.
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The Soy Glossary
Legumes – A family of plants that includes many valuable food and forage
species such as soybeans, peanuts, clovers, alfalfas, and beans.
No-till farming – An environmentally-friendly cultivation technique
in which the soil is disturbed only along the slit into which seeds are
planted and natural debris from previous crops covers and protects the
seedbed. The primary benefits of the no-till technique are a decreased
rate of soil erosion; reduced need for equipment, fuel, and fertilizer; and
significantly less time required for tending crops.
Oilseed crops – Primarily soybeans, and other crops such as peanuts,
cottonseed, sunflower seed, canola and mustard seeds used to produce
edible and/or nonedible oils, as well as high-protein animal meal.
Organic farming – Organic farming is a production system, which
avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, and livestock feed additives. To the
maximum extent feasible, organic farming systems rely on crop rotation,
crop residues, animal manures and mechanical cultivation to maintain
soil productivity and tilth, to supply plant nutrients and to control weeds,
insects and other pests.
Pesticide – A substance used to kill, control, repel or mitigate any pest.
Precision farming – Farmers use global positioning (GPS) technology
involving satellites and sensors on the ground and intensive information management tools to understand variations in resource conditions
within fields. They use this information to more precisely apply fertilizers
and other inputs and to more accurately predict crop yields.
Soil – In the United States, about 70,000 kinds of soil are recognized in the
nationwide system of classification. Each has a unique set of characteristics and a potential for use. These characteristics are important
in designing a conservation plan to protect the soil from erosion if it is
being cultivated.
Sustainable agriculture – An integrated system of plant and animal
production practices having a site-specific application that will, over the
long term, satisfy food and fiber needs; enhance environmental quality
and natural resources; make the most efficient use of nonrenewable
resources and on-farm resources; integrate natural biological cycles and
controls; sustain the economic viability of farm operations; and enhance
the quality of life.
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Tilth – The cultivation of land; tillage.
Vertical integration – The integrating of successive stages of the
production and marketing functions under the ownership or control of
a single management organization. For example, much of the broiler
industry is highly vertically integrated in that processing companies own
or control the activities from production and hatching of eggs, through
the growth and feeding of the chickens, to slaughter, processing and
wholesale marketing.
Variety – A taxonomic subdivision of a species consisting of naturally
occurring or selectively bred populations that differ from the remainder
of the species in certain minor characteristics.
Yield – The number of bushels (or pounds or hundredweight) that a farmer
harvests per acre.
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