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Student’s Book Student’s Book FET FIRST FET FIRST Level 3 Level 3 ElectronicAuthor Control and Author Digital Electronics NQF Level 4 Student's Book R. van Heerden , S. Jowaheer, R. Jonker FET FIRST Electronic Control and Digital Electronics NQF Level 4 Student’s Book © R. van Heerden, S. Jowaheer, R. Jonker 2009 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act, 1978 [as amended]. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable for criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. First published 2009 by Troupant Publishers (Pty) Ltd P O Box 4532 Northcliff 2115 Distributed by Macmillan South Africa (Pty) Ltd Typeset by: Marie Eksteen Edited by: Jeannie van den Heever Cover design by Brandtalk ISBN: 978-1-920311-25-4, eISBN: 978-1-430801-67-2 It is illegal to photocopy any page of this book without written permission from the publishers. Printed by _______________________ While every effort has been made to ensure the information published in this work is accurate, the authors, editors, publishers and printers take no responsibility for any loss or damage suffered by any person as a result of reliance upon the information contained therein. The publishers respectfully advise readers to obtain professional advice concerning the content. To order any of these books contact Macmillan Customer Services at: Tel: (011) 731 3403 Fax: (011) 731 3500 e-mail: [email protected] Contents Topic 1 Replacing faulty components on PC boards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Module 1 Safety precautions and procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Unit 1.1: Safety procedures when soldering and desoldering on a PC board. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Unit 1.2: Desoldering and soldering components on a PC board. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Unit 1.3: Handling circuit boards containing MOSFET components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Module 2 Reading and interpreting semiconductor manuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Unit 2.1: Finding and interpreting the operational limits of semiconductor devices in manuals . . . . 13 Unit 2.2: Looking up replacement parts in manuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Module 3 Constructing basic electronic circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Unit 3.1: Revision of RLC circuits and resonance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Unit 3.2: Timing circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Unit 3.3: Filter circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Unit 3.4: Oscillator circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Unit 3.5: Inverting power supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Unit 3.6: Designing, constructing and testing circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Topic 2 Binary decoding and loading software onto a computer. . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Module 4 Binary code. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Unit 4.1: The binary system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Module 5 Software loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Unit 5.1: Software loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Unit 5.2: Problems affecting computer software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Topic 3 PLCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Module 6 Synchro-servo motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Unit 6.1: Symbols used in synchro-servo motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Unit 6.2: The operation and construction of synchro-servo motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Unit 6.3: Applications of synchro-servo motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Module 7 Designing and fault-finding simple control circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Unit 7.1: Introduction to PLCs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Unit 7.2: Simple ladder logic diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Unit 7.3: Basic fault-finding in PLCs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 PoE Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Module 1: Module title iii Topic 1 Replacing faulty components on PC boards Module1 Safety precautions and procedures Overview Strict safety procedures and a logical method must be followed when you service or repair an electronic device. You must also ensure that you use the correct tools. Make sure that you know precisely where the fault is and whether you must replace components or not. If you have to replace components, have the correct components at hand. Units in this module Unit 1.1: Safety procedures when soldering and desoldering on a PC board Unit 1.2: Desoldering and soldering components on a PC board Unit 1.3: Handling circuit boards containing MOSFET components Unit 1.1 Safety procedures when soldering and desoldering on a PC board Unit outcomes By the end of this unit, you will be able to: • demonstrate safety procedures to be followed when soldering and desoldering on a PC board and on a viro board. Safety procedures When you replace components on a PC board, there are two procedures that take place, namely desoldering and soldering. You will learn more about these procedures in Unit 1.2. There are many safety procedures or practices that you should follow when replacing components. Here are some of the most important safety practices. General safety practices • Remember that water is a conductor of electricity. Avoid coming into contact with water when working with electricity and when using a soldering iron. • Take care when using an extension cord. Make sure it is in good condition and that the earth connection is not corroded or dirty. • Never carry out maintenance or repairs on moving or rotating machinery. 2 Module 1: Safety precautions and procedures • Be careful when fault-finding on live equipment. If possible, always use an isolating transformer to supply the device with power. • You cannot tell whether an electrical conductor or terminal is live just by looking at it – always assume that everything is live until proven otherwise. • Obtain the required authorisation before you start working on equipment. • Make sure you have emergency numbers at hand and know who to contact in case of an emergency. Safety practices when soldering • Make sure that the soldering iron is properly earthed. • Heat is the most obvious danger when soldering. Solder starts to melt at around 250 °C but the iron tip needs to be hotter than this to ensure a good flow of solder. Always place the soldering iron on the soldering stand when not soldering. • Use a sponge to clean the tip of the soldering iron. Do not throw the melted solder off the tip of the soldering iron as it may land on someone else. • Always switch off the equipment and soldering iron when you leave the workbench. • Keep children out of the room while the soldering iron is hot. • If you do not wear spectacles, then wear eye protection. • Solder is a mixture of lead and tin. Lead is poisonous so do not put the solder in your mouth. • Always secure your work so that it does not move while you are soldering as this will affect the accuracy of your work. Various holding frames are available to hold printed circuit boards. • Some capacitors can remain charged up to high voltages even after the power is disconnected. You will hurt yourself if you discharge capacitors with your fingers. You can also damage the electronics if you spill solder or multicore desolder wick across the circuit board, and inadvertently connect a charged-up capacitor to a sensitive chip. Give capacitors time to discharge before you carry out any work on the equipment. • Be careful not to cut your fingers on the wires underneath the circuit board. The machine-cut edges of metal covers and base plates are also extremely sharp. • You present a danger to semiconductors. If you wear synthetic fibre clothing, walk across a nylon carpet or do anything to acquire a charge of static electricity, you can discharge several thousand volts into the circuit. (See Unit 1.3.) Assessment activity 1.1 Work on your own. Write an essay describing how you would prepare a work area when you wanted to do maintenance on a PC board. List at least 10 safety precautions that you would follow when planning to replace components on the PC board. Module 1: Safety precautions and procedures 3 Unit 1.2 Desoldering and soldering components on a PC board Unit outcomes By the end of this unit, you will be able to: • demonstrate the manual dexterity needed to remove and replace various components on a PC board. Terminology Study the following definitions of terms related to soldering and desoldering: • alloy: a metal made by combining two or more metallic elements, especially to give greater strength or resistance to corrosion • arcing: when a luminous electrical discharge occurs between two points • brazing: a process also called hard soldering, in which a filler metal is melted at a temperature above 450 °C but below the melting point of the base metals to form a joint between two base metals • clamp: device used to join, grip, support or compress mechanical or structural parts • cold joint: a dull, poorly soldered joint that does not provide good conductivity • conduction: the transmission of heat or electricity across matter • conductivity: the measure of a material’s ability to conduct heat or electric current • desoldering: the removal of solder and components from a circuit for troubleshooting and repair purposes • flux: a substance that facilitates soldering, brazing and welding by chemically cleaning the metals to be joined • hand soldering: soldering that is performed manually with a soldering iron • heat transfer: the passage of thermal energy, or energy in the form of heat, from a hot to a cold body • joint: the point at which two pieces of metal make contact and are bonded together with solder • lead: a soft, heavy, toxic and malleable metal often used in solder • oxidation: a material’s chemical reaction with oxygen, causing rust and tarnish to form on metal surfaces • PCB: printed circuit board used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components, using conductive pathways called traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive surface • resin-based: flux composed of resin, a substance derived from the sap of some trees and other plants • short circuit: an interruption in the intended flow of electricity, especially when current flows short of reaching a device and that causes excess current flow 4 Module 1: Safety precautions and procedures • solder:a fusible metal alloy, with a melting point or melting range below 450 °C, that is melted to join metallic surfaces • soldering:a process in which a filler metal is melted at temperatures below 450 °C to form a joint between two base metals • solderingiron: a tool used to transfer heat to a metal surface to melt solder and form a joint or circuit; most soldering irons resemble a large pen • solderingironstand:a non-flammable stand on which to place a hot soldering iron • tinning:the action of applying a trace amount of solder to the tip of the soldering iron to facilitate the heat transfer process • toxic:poisonous or harmful; lead is considered to be highly toxic Desoldering and removing components from PC boards Remember to apply all safety procedures, whether you are removing or adding a component to a PC board. There are different types of PC boards: Words & Terms • Single-sidedboards • Double-sidedboards • Multi-sidedboards. You are going to work only with single-sided boards. Components mounted on a single-sided board are normally soldered to the tracks at the bottom of the board. You have to desolder the components to remove them from the board. Desoldering is the removal of solder and components from a circuit board for troubleshooting and repair purposes. You may want to remove a component to correct an error, to modify the circuit or to replace a faulty component. braid: threads wo ven into a band Tools required Firstly, you will need some special tools to perform this task. These tools include: • • • • • • • • asolderingironandstand(Fig.1.1) solder(Fig.1.2) adesolderingpump(Fig.1.3) desolderingbraid (Fig. 1.4) long-nosepliers(Fig..1.5) wirecuttersorsidecutters(Fig.1.6) helpinghandsorapanavice(Fig.1.7) asmallflat-tipPhillipsscrewdriver(Fig.1.8). Module 1: Safety precautions and procedures 5 Fig. 1.1 Soldering iron and stand Fig. 1.2 Solder Fig. 1.4 Desoldering braid Fig. 1.7 Helping hands 6 Module 1: Safety precautions and procedures Fig. 1.3 Desoldering pump Fig. 1.5 Long-nose pliers Fig. 1.8 Flat-tip screwdriver Fig. 1.6 Wire or side cutters Rules for desoldering components The first rule for desoldering components is: The board is more important than the component you are replacing . Always sacrifice a component before risking damage to the PC board. It is much easier and less costly to replace a component than to try to repair or replace a damaged PC board. Sometimes the tracks are actually as thin as a human hair! Double-sided boards are even more difficult to work on. The second rule for desoldering components is: Do not overheat the solder joints . Overheating a solder joint can damage the PC board by causing a pad or trace to detach. Procedure for desoldering components Step1: Locate the solder joints for the component that you want to desolder. This can be a difficult task on a densely populated board. You want to be certain that you locate the correct joints so that you do not damage other components needlessly. Step2: When you have located the correct solder joints, remove as much of the solder as possible using a desoldering pump. The goal is to remove as much of the solder as possible. Place the tip of your soldering iron on the solder joint so that when the solder melts it heats both the lead and the pad. At the same time, position the tip of the desoldering pump so that it sucks up the molten solder. Trigger the pump when the solder has melted. The trick is to heat the solder joint sufficiently to melt all the solder on the pad and in the hole. Since this takes some judgment, you will only become more proficient with practice. PC boards that have plated through-holes will need to be heated a little longer thean normal solder pads. Do not overheat the solder pads. Perform this procedure on all the solder joints holding the component. In some cases, especially with components that have only one or two leads, you may find that you have removed enough of the solder so that the component is loose and can be easily removed. However, this does not often happen and you should not try to force the component off the board. You can also use desoldering braid instead of the soldering pump. Place the desoldering braid flat against the solder pad. Place the tip of the soldering iron on the desoldering braid. When the braid becomes sufficiently hot, you will see it wick up the excess solder. Remove the soldering iron from the braid and the braid from the solder pad at the same time. The pad will appear tinned but should be free of excess solder. Words & Terms wick: draw up by capillary action Step3: The next step is to cut the component’s leads on the component side of the board by carefully using the wire cutters. This is where you sacrifice the component if necessary to avoid damaging the board. The goal is to remove the component leads from the board, one at a time. Module 1: Safety precautions and procedures 7 Step 4: When you have removed the component, heat each solder joint and remove the lead from the hole with the long-nose pliers. See which side of the board has the most exposed lead. Hold the lead with the long-nose pliers. Place the tip of the soldering iron against the pad and the lead. This must be done on the bottom side of the board unless the board is double-sided or has plated through-holes. Remove the lead when the solder has melted. Step 5: Now remove any remaining solder from the holes using the desoldering pump. Place the soldering iron against the pad while holding the desoldering pump against the hole. This usually works better if you can hold the desoldering pump on the opposite side of the board from the soldering iron. If you have a board holder, it will leave both hands free to perform this step. Trigger the pump when the solder has melted. Remove the remaining solder so that the hole is open. You can now insert the new component on the PC board and start the soldering process. Note that you must first remove the solder before you cut off the component leads. The reason for this is that, when you snip the component leads, you are applying stress to the board that may damage it by lifting a pad or trace. By removing the excess solder, you minimise the component’s mechanical connection to the board and reduce the chance of damage. It is difficult to remove integrated circuits from boards, especially boards with plated through-holes, even when you have the correct tools, because the solder goes all the way through the hole. In these cases, it is better to cut off all the leads of the IC and remove them one by one to avoid damaging the PC board. Soldering components onto PC boards Soldering is the process of joining less fusible metals by using a lowmelting alloy, especially one based on tin and lead. All parts including the iron tip itself must be clean and free from contamination. Solder will not take to dirty parts. Old components or copper board can be difficult to solder because of the layer of oxidation which builds up on the surface of the leads. This repels the molten solder. This becomes evident when the solder beads into globules going everywhere except where you need them. Dirt is the enemy of a good-quality solder joint. Step 1: Secure the board so that it does not move during soldering and affect your accuracy. Various holding frames are available to hold a PC board. Step 2: Insert all the parts on one side first and hold them in place with a special foam pad to prevent them from falling out. Turn the board over and snip off the wires with cutters before you start soldering the joints. Step 3: Before you start soldering, prepare the soldering iron, especially if it is a new iron. You must first tin the bit. Switch on the 8 Module 1: Safety precautions and procedures iron and allow the tip to heat up. As soon as it is hot enough, start melting resin core solder over the bit. Allow the melted solder to drip off while turning the iron over to coat all sides. The point on the tip where the resin core is placed is the place where the flux best cleans and coats. Wipe the solder off the tip with a moist sponge and then repeat the process. The point where the tip is tinned is the place where the solder will take to the bit from now on. The rest of the bit will eventually tarnish. If you want the bit to hold a lot of solder and have a large heating contact area, tin it halfway up. If you want a tip that holds only a little solder with a small contact area, just tin the tip of the tip. An old bit can get burnt, which prevents the solder from taking to it. Rub a piece of chalk into an old file and use it to clean the bit. You can then re-tin the bit. Use an old file because solder gets stuck in the teeth of the file. Step 4: To solder a joint, first feed a little bit of solder onto the tip to create a heat-conducting area. Then place the tip on the joint. Try to ensure that the tip is in contact with both parts of the joint. Feed the solder onto the joint where the two parts meet, not onto the tip of the iron. In some cases, it is necessary to feed the solder to the point where the tip of the iron meets the joint. Tin all wires and terminals before you put them together and solder them. Leads of components such as capacitors, resistors, transistors and ICs do not need tinning since they are already tinned. Study Fig. 1.9 to Fig. 1.10. Take note of good and bad soldering joints and also the way to mount components on a PC board. Terminal Right Solder CC lead Too little solder Just right Wrong Too much solder Solder CC lead Base material Fig. 1.9 Good and bad soldering joints Module 1: Safety precautions and procedures 9 Solder integrated circuits or small transistors as quickly as possible using a low temperature, as excessive heat will damage them. You can clamp paper clips over the pins of ICs to drain heat away while soldering or to prevent static damage to CMOS clips while handling. (See Unit 1.3 for handling CMOS components.) Assessment activity 1.2 Work on your own. 1. Describe briefly the procedure for desoldering components. 2. Describe briefly the procedure for mounting components on a PC board. 3. Demonstrate both these activities practically in the workshop. Unit 1.3 Handling circuit boards containing MOSFET components Unit outcomes By the end of this unit, you will be able to: • demonstrate what precautions to take when handling circuit boards containing MOSFET components. MOSFET and CMOS devices The FET or field-effect transistor is a three-terminal device which performs basically the same function as a bipolar transistor but has slightly different characteristics. A development of the standard FET is the metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor or MOSFET. These transistors have special characteristics which make them more sensitive to charges and static voltages. A further application of the MOSFET is the complementary-symmetry metal oxide semiconductor or CMOS made by combining the P-MOS and the N-MOS transistors. These devices need careful handling. Although you know by now that you must take reasonable care when handling all components, certain components, in particular the MOSFET and CMOS devices, can be damaged by high-voltage static charges. It is easy for static charges to occur without evidence of their presence because they are generated by friction between insulating materials and because so many different plastic materials with very low conductivity are commonly used every day. For example, if you walk across a nylon carpet from the door to the desk in a room, you can easily accumulate a static charge of several hundred volts. You know that with people it is the current that kills but with electronic devices it is the voltage that is lethal. MOSFET devices can be damaged by voltages as low as 250 V, so the first precaution to observe is to ensure that you are not carrying a 10 Module 1: Safety precautions and procedures Fig. 1.10 How to mount components on a PC board static charge. A person handling such devices in the course of his or her daily work may have an earthed mat on the bench and an earthed wrist strap to allow any charge to leak away. You can also earth your body momentarily before handling these devices. For example, you can touch the metal casing of any earthed electrical appliance which is plugged in but not switched on, for example a cold soldering iron. MOSFET and CMOS devices are supplied in a type of conductive packaging which may be simply aluminium foil or carbon-filled plastic foam. Shielding bags are sometimes used but the plastic tubes marked antistatic are not very effective. Handle ICs packed in these shielding bags with extra care. A sensible way to avoid damaging these devices is to use IC holders and to insert the devices only when construction is complete and the layout has been checked. Plastic insertion and removal tools are inexpensive and are preferable to fingers for manipulating the devices. No device should be inserted while power is applied to the circuit. Also make sure that the device is inserted the right way round. Internal protective diodes which limit voltages at the inputs to a safe level are built into the device as part of its internal construction, but care is still advisable when handling it. Words & Terms FET: a three-term inal device called a fie ld-effect transistor which performs basically the sam e function as a bipolar trans istor but has slightly di fferent characteristics MOSFET: a metal -oxide semiconductor fie ld-effect transistor with sp ecial characteristics wh ich make it more sensitive to charges and static voltage s CMOS: a complem entarysymmetry metal oxide semiconductor m ade by combining the PMOS and the N-MOS trans istors Some components are affected by heat. For example, resistors change their value when heated and extreme heat can damage semiconductors such as diodes and transistors. The best way to avoid such damage is toacquireasoundsolderingtechnique.Ifthesurfacesbeingsoldered are clean, you need only apply the soldering iron to the joint for a short time. The temperature rise in the body of the component will then be too small to cause any damage. You can buy soldering stunts to clip on transistor leads during soldering operations, but they are unnecessary. Rather use a pair of flat-nose pliers when you need to prevent heat from being conducted to a sensitive device. Assessment activity 1.3 Work in groups of five. 1. 2. 3. What is a MOSFET device? Write a paragraph of about 100 words on how to handle MOSFET devices. What is the main cause of failure in a MOSFET device when handled and how can you prevent this from happening? Module 1: Safety precautions and procedures 11 Summary • When you replace components on a PC board, there are two procedures that take place, namely desoldering and soldering. • There are many safety practices that you should follow when replacing components. • Desoldering is the removal of solder and components from a circuit board for troubleshooting and repair purposes. • The first rule for desoldering components is that the board is more important then the component you are replacing. • The second rule for desoldering components is to avoid overheating the solder joints. • Soldering is the process of joining less fusible metals by using a low-melting alloy, especially one based on tin and lead. • MOSFET and CMOS devices need careful handling as they can easily be damaged by highvoltage static charges. It is easy for static charges to occur because they are generated by friction between insulating materials and because so many different plastic materials with very low conductivity are commonly used every day. It is therefore recommended that you earth your body momentarily before handling these devices. Summative assessment Work in pairs. 1. Demonstrate how to desolder and solder components on a PC board, using the correct safety procedures. 2.Write a report on why you followed the safety procedures when desoldering and soldering the components. 12 Module 1: Safety precautions and procedures Module 2 Reading and interpreting semiconductor manuals Overview When you service or repair an electronic device, you must be able to use component manuals. Sometimes the exact component is not available. You can then use a manual to look up possible replacements. You will have to use your knowledge to select this replacement. It is therefore important that you know how to read these manuals and where to find the applicable information. Units in this module Unit 2.1: Finding and interpreting the operational limits of semiconductor devices in manuals Unit 2.2: Looking up replacement parts in manuals Unit 2.1 Finding and interpreting the operational limits of semiconductor devices in manuals unit outcomes By the end of this unit, you will be able to: • show how to find the operational limits of any semiconductor using technical manuals • interpret the data found in technical manuals. Introduction Electronic components are manufactured by many different companies. Two transistors manufactured in the UK and the USA may have two different numbers but exactly the same characteristics. Manufacturers publish the characteristics of their components in manuals. There are therefore as many different manuals as there are manufacturing companies. Different countries also have different identification systems. It is impossible to deal with all the different manuals in this book. The Internet is a good place to start when trying to familiarise yourself with different types of identification systems. Module 2: Reading and interpreting semiconductor manuals 13 Numbering systems American numbering system The United States uses the 1N-prefix for diodes and the 2N-prefix for all types of transistors, SCRs and triacs. Table 2.1 shows examples of diodes and their parameters while Table 2.2 gives parameters for transistors. Table 2.3 is a sample of explanatory notes for transistors. These parameters are the most common ones and the manufacturers usually show them in their data manuals. Type Reverse voltage Forward current Power dissipation Forward voltage Casing 1N 277 120 V - - <1.0 V DO-7 1N 278 60 V - - <1.0 V DO-7 1N 283 25 V - - <1.0 V DO-7 1N 695 20V 100 mA - <1.0 V DO-7 1N 695 A 25 V 150 mA - <0.5 V DO07 1N 994 8V 20 mA - <1.0 V DO-7 1N 995 15 V 30 mA - <0.5 V DO-7 1N 996 25 V 50 mA - <0.8 V DO-7 1N 3466 40 V 75 mA - <1.0 V DO-7 Table 2.1 Examples of the American numbering system for germanium diodes and their parameters 14 Module 2: Reading and interpreting semiconductor manuals Transistor number PM OA LT PACKAGE Lead info VCB Max VCE Max VEB Max IC Max TJ Max PTOT FT Min C08 Max HFE HFE Bias USE MFR EURO EQUIV USA 2CY17 2CY18 2CY19 2CY20 2CY21 PG PG PG PG PG TO5 TO5 TO5 TO5 TO5 LO4 LO4 LO4 LO4 LO4 70V 50V 50V 40V 40V - 12V 12V 12V 12V 12V 500MA 500MA 500MA 500MA 500MA 100C 100C 100C 100C 100C 240MWF 240MWF 240MWF 240MWF 240MWF 500K 500K 750K 500K 650K 40P 40P 40P 40P 40P 35/140 30/110 60/235 50/145 90/250 500MA 500MA 500MA 50MA 50MA AMH AMG AHG AMG AMG TIS TIS TIS TIS TIS ACY17 ACY18 ACY19 ACY20 ACT21 - 2CY22 2G101 2G102 2G103 2G104 PG PG PG PG PG TO5 TO5 TO5 TO18 TO18 LO4 LO4 LO4 LO1 LO1 20V 15V 15V 15V 15V 15V 15V 15V 15V 12V 1V 1V 2V 3V 500MA 20MA 20MA 50MA 50MA 100C 100C 100C 100C 100C 240MWF 100MWF 100MWF 300MWF 300MWF 400K 180M 200M 200M 200M 40P 5P 5P 5P 5P 20/210 20MN 20MN 20MN 20MN 500MA 2MA 2MA 10MA 10MA AMG RLA RLA RLS RLS TIS TIS TIS TIS TIS ACY22 ASZ21 ASZ21 ASZ21 ASZ21 2N2273 2N2273 2N2273 2N2273 2G106 2G110 2G210 2G220 2G221 PG PG PG PG PG TO18 TO5 TO3 TO3 TO3 LO1 LO4 LO5 LO5 LO5 18V 36V 60V 40V 60V 15V 15V 60V 40V 60V 4V 2V 20V 30V 30V 100MA 50MA 6A 10A 10A 100C 100C 100C 100C 100C 150MWF 300MWF 75WH 80WH 80WH 60M 100M 200K 200K 200K 5P 5P - 30MN 15MN 25/90 10MIN 10MIN 10MA 50MA 5A 10A 10A RLA RLS AHA AHG AHG TIS TIS TIS TIS TIS AF124 ASZ21 ASZ15 ASZ16 ASZ15 2N990 2N2273 2N1533 2N1536 2N1533 2G222 2G223 2G224 2G225 2G226 PG PG PG PG PG TO3 TO3 TO3 TO3 TO3 LO5 LO5 LO5 LO5 LO5 80V 40V 60V 40V 40V 80V 40V 60V 40V 40V 30V 30V 30V 30V 30V 10A 15A 15A 15A 20A 100C 100C 100C 100C 100C 80WH 80WH 80WH 80WH 80WH 200K 200K 200K 200K 200K - 10MN 10MN 10MN 10MN 10MN 10A 15A 15A 15A 20A AHH AHG AHG AHG AHG TIS TIS TIS TIS TIS ASZ16 AUY29 AUY29-5 AUY29-5 AUY29-5 2N1533 2N1167 2N1167 2N1167 2N1167 2G227 2G228 2G229 2G230 2G231 PG PG PG PG PG TO3 TO3 TO3 TO3 TO3 LO5 LO5 LO5 LO5 LO5 60V 80V 40V 60V 80V 60V 80V 40V 60V 80V 30V 30V 30V 30V 30V 20A 20A 25A 25A 25A 100C 100C 100C 100C 100C 80WH 80WH 80WH 80WH 80WH 200K 200K 200K 200K 200K - 10MN 10MN 10MN 10MN 10MN 20A 20A 25A 25A 25A AHG AHG AHG AHG APG TIS TIS TIS TIS TIS AUY29-5 AUY29-5 AUY29-5 AUY29-5 AUY29-5 2N1167 2N1167 2N1167 2N1167 2N1167 2G240 2G301 2G302 2G303 2G304 PG PG PG PG PG TO3 TO1 TO1 TO1 TO1 LO5 LO1 LO1 LO1 LO1 80V 20V 20V 30V 30V 80V 20V 20V 30V 30V 1V 10V 10V 10V 10V 3A 300MA 300MA 300MA 300MA 65C 100C 100C 100C 100C 25WH 200MWF 200MWF 200MWF 300MWF 7M 3M 7M 3M 7M 12P 15P 15P 15P 40MN 30MN 45MN 30MN 45MN 500MA 1MA 1MA 1MA 1MA RPA RLS RLS RLA RLA TIS TIS TIS TIS TIS Al103 OC44N OC44N OC44N OC44N 2N2147 2N2614 2N2614 2N2614 2N2614 2G306 2G308 2G309 2G319 2G320 PG PG PG PG PG TO1 TO1 TO1 TO5 TO5 LO1 LO1 LO1 LO4 LO4 20V 20V 20V 30V 30V 20V 20V 20V 20V 20V 10V 10V 10V 3V 3V 300MA 300MA 300MA 200MA 200MA 100C 100C 100C 85C 85C 300MWF 300MWF 300MWF 225MWF 225MWF 12M 3M 12M 1M 1M 15P 15P 15P 50P 50P 90MN 40MN 120MN 20MN 30MN 1MA 120MA 120MA 20MA 20MA RLA RLS RLS ALA ALA TIS TIS TIS TAD TAD OC44N OC44N OC44N ACY17 ACY17 2N2614 2N2614 2N2614 2N1176 2N1176 2G321 2G322 2G323 2G324 2G344 PG PG PG PG PG TO5 TO5 TO5 TO5 TO1 LO4 LO4 LO4 LO4 LO2 30V 16V 16V 16V 15V 20V 16V 16V 16V 15V 3V 3V 3V 3V 10V 200MA 100MA 100MA 100MA 100MA 85C 85C 85C 85C 225MWF 150MWF 150MWF 150MWF 150MWF 2M 1M 2M 2M 8M 50P 50P 50P 50P 12P 50MN 25MN 30MN 50MN 50MN 20MA 1MA 1MA 1MA 1MA ALA ALA ALA ALA RLA TAD TAD TAD TAD TIS ACY17 ACY17 ACY17 ACY17 OC44N 2N1176 2N1176 2N1176 2N1176 2N2614 2G345 2G371 2G374 2G376 2G377 PG PG PG PG PG TO1 TO1 TO1 TO1 TO1 LO2 LO2 LO2 LO2 LO2 15V 20V 20V 30V 60V 15V 20V 20V 30V 60V 10V 10V 10V 10V 10V 100MA 300MA 100MA 300MA 300MA 85C 90C 85C 85C 85C 150MWF 200MWF 150MWF 150MWF 150MWF 2M 1M 1M 1M 1M 12P 40P 40P 40P 40P 25MN 25MN 60MN 30MN 30MN 1MA 1MA 1MA 100MA 100MA RLA ALA ALA ALG ALG TIS TIS TIS TIS TIS OC44N AC126 AC126 AC126 AC126 2N2614 2N2431 2N2431 2N2431 2N2431 2G381 2G382 2G383 2G384 2G385 PG PG PG PG PG TO1 TO1 TO5 TO5 TO5 LO2 LO2 LO4 LO4 LO4 20V 20V 70V 50V 50V 15V 15V 30V 25V 25V 3V 3V 12V 12V 12V 400MA 400MA 100MA 100MA 100MA 85C 85C 85C 85C 250MWF 250MWF 250MWF 250MWF 250MWF 1M 1M 1M 1M 1M 50P 50P 70P 70P 70P 75MN 75MN 40MN 55MN 100MN 300MA 300MA 50MA 50MA 50MA AMG AMG ALG ALG ALA TIS TIS TIS TIS TIS AC128 AC128 ACY17 ACY17 ACY17 2N2705 2N2705 2N1176 2N1176 2N1176 2G386 2G387 2G395 2G396 2G397 PG PG PG PG PG TO5 TO5 TO5 TO5 TO5 LO4 LO4 LO4 LO4 LO4 40V 40V 30V 30V 30V 20V 20V 15V 20V 15V 12V 12V 20V 20V 20V 100MA 100MA 200MA 200MA 200MA 85C 85C 85C 85C 85C 250MWF 250MWF 150MWF 150MWF 150MWF 1M 1M 2M 4M 6M 70P 70P 18P 18P 18P 55MN 100MN 20MN 30MN 40MN 50MA 50MA 10MA 10MA 10MA ALA ALA RLS RLS RLS TIS TIS TAD TAD TAD ACY17 ACY17 ASY27 ASY27 ASY27 2N1176 2N1176 2N1305 2N1305 2N1305 2G398 2G401 2G402 2G403 2G524 PG PG PG PG PG TO5 TO12 TO12 TO12 TO5 LO2 LO9 LO9 LO9 LO4 105V 20V 20V 40V 40V 60V 20V 20V 40V 30V 40V 3V 3V 3V 15V 200MA 10MA 10MA 25MA 500MA 85C 85C 85C 85C 85C 150MWF 100MWF 100MWF 100MWF 225MWF 800K 40M 40M 60M 1M 30P 5P 5P 5P 40P 30MN 25MN 50MN 50MN 15MN 1MA 1MA 1MA 1MA 1MA ALA RLA RLA RLA AMG TAD TIS TIS TIS TAD ACY17 AF124 AF124 AF124 ACY17 2N1176 2N990 2N990 2N990 2N1176 2G525 2G526 2G527 2G577 2G605 PG PG PG PG PG TO5 TO5 TO5 TO5 TO5 LO4 LO4 LO4 LO4 LO4 45V 45V 45V 70V 30V 30V 30V 30V 30V 20V 15V 15V 15V 20V 20V 500MA 500MA 500MA 500MA 200MA 85C 85C 85C 85C 85C 225MWF 225MWF 225MWF 225MWF 150MWF 1M 1M 1M 1M 4M 40P 40P 40P 40P 18P 30MN 30MN 40MN 30MN 40MN 1MA 1MA 1MA 1MA 5MA ALG ALG ALG ALG RLA TAD TAD TAD TAD TAD ACY17 ACY17 ACY17 ACY17 ASY27 2N1176 2N1176 2N1176 2N1176 2N1305 2G1024 2G1025 2G1026 2G1027 2N21 PG PG PG PG PG TO5 TO5 TO5 TO5 TO22 LO4 LO4 LO2 LO4 L37 70V 70V 70V 70V 100V 40V 40V 40V 40V - 20V 20V 20V 20V - 500MA 500MA 500MA 500MA 40MA 85C 85C 85C 85C 85C 225MWF 225MWF 225MWF 225MWF 120MWF 1M 1M 1M 1M 1M 40P 40P 40P 40P - 15MN 20MN 30MN 40MN - 1MA 1MA 1MA 1MA - ALA ALG ALG ALG ALS TAD TAD TAD TAD OBS ACY17 ACY17 ACY17 ACY17 OC77N 2N22 2N23 2N24 2N25 2N26 PG PG PG PG PG - - - - - - - - - - - - PCT PCT PCT PCT PCT OBS OBS OBS OBS OBS - 2N1176 2N1176 2N1176 2N1176 2N1176B - Table 2.2 Examples of the American numbering system for transistors and their parameters Module 2: Reading and interpreting semiconductor manuals 15