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THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Sociology as a Science
•Vocabulary of Science
• Quantitative versus Qualitative
• Steps of conducting research
•
THE SCIENCE OF SOCIOLOGY
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THE SCIENCE OF SOCIOLOGY
Sociology is a Science, more specifically a social science.
Sociology is the scientific study of human activity in
the society.
 Sociology is one of 6 social sciences.
 A
social science studies human behaviour,
institutions, or functions of human society in a
scientific manner.
 Other social sciences include:
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Anthropology
Psychology
Economics
Political Science
History
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The belief that sociology is a science is called
positivism.
 It is important to note that sociology is
extremely complex because social life is
complex.
 So although traditional sociologists may have
applied the characteristics of a science, it is
not as simple as a conventional science to
investigate.
 People are very complex creatures.
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What makes sociology a science?
◦ Empirical – observable facts
◦ Theoretical – a set of ideas used to explain a
phenomenon
◦ Cumulative – builds on previous knowledge
◦ Objective – bias-free, not influenced by personal
opinion
◦ Value-free – free from criteria
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ETHICS
When most people think of ethics (or morals), they
think of rules for distinguishing between right and wrong,
such as the Golden Rule ("Do unto others as you would
have them do unto you"), a code of professional conduct
like the Hippocratic Oath ("First of all, do no harm") or a
religious creed like the Ten Commandments ("Thou Shalt
not kill...").
 This is the most common way of defining "ethics“:
norms for conduct that distinguish between
acceptable and unacceptable behavior.
 Most people learn ethical norms at home, at school, in
church, or in other social settings. Although most people
acquire their sense of right and wrong during childhood,
moral development occurs throughout life and human
beings pass through different stages of growth as they
mature (NIH 2013).
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ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH
Confidentiality
 Honesty
 Integrity
 Objectivity
 Openness
 Respect for Intellectual Property
 Issues re: Illegal Activities
 Source and use funding
 Political Influences
 Human Subject Protection
 Level of Attachment/Involvement
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THE RESEARCH PROCESS
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In this section we would examine the
research process as it relates to:
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Positivism and interpretivism
Quantitative, qualitative and triangulation
Surveys and sampling methods
Document studies
Observation (participant and non-participant)
Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
During the past century, science has
revolutionized the way we live and die.
 We have identified earlier that there are
several characteristics that make Sociology a
Science:
1. Empirical
2. Theoretical
3. Cumulative
4. Objective
5. Value-Free

THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Science basically follows a relatively
simple method:
1. Determine
concepts
of
interest
(phenomena)
2. Posit or suggest some relationship
between those concepts
3. Test whether the posited relationship
reflects what happens in the real world.
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VOCABULARY OF SCIENCE
Variable – Independent vs Dependent
 Hypothesis
 Relationships (Correlation)
 Operational definitions
 Tables & Figures
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VARIABLES
Variable – Independent vs Dependent
 When sociologists speak or write about
their research, they tend to use the word
“variable” a lot.
 A variable is an element, feature or factor.
 Variables
have
two
important
characteristics:
1. It influences or is influenced by another
thing
2. It also means variation or difference

Independent Variable is the variable
that is changed by the researcher to test
the effects on the dependent variable.
 Dependent Variable is the variable
being tested.
 For example: A Sociologist may want to
examine the increasing level of crime in
the country. Based on the literature, they
may further narrow down their search to
class, gender & race.

The Dependent Variable – CRIME
The Independent Variable –
GENDER & RACE.
CLASS,
HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a prediction about the
relationship between variables.
 It is usually based on theoretical expectations
about how things work.
 In Sociology, these hypotheses are divided into
Null & Alternative Hypotheses.
 Null is an absence of a relationship between
the variables. Alternative is a definite link
between the two.
 Null Hypothesis: There is no relationship
between socio-economic class and crime.
 Alternative Hypothesis: Members of the
lower socio-economic class are more likely to
commit crime.
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RELATIONSHIPS
There are causal and correlation
relationships.
 A causal relationship is when one
variable causes a change in another
variable. These types of relationships are
investigated by experimental research in
order to determine if changes in one
variable actually result in changes in
another variable.
 Does A cause B?
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RELATIONSHIPS
A correlation is the measurement of the relationship
between two variables. These variables already occur in
the group or population and are not controlled by the
experimenter.
 A positive correlation is a direct relationship where as
the amount of one variable increases, the amount of a
second variable also increases. For e.g. there is a positive
correlation between poverty & crime.
 In a negative correlation, as the amount of one variable
goes up, the levels of another variable go down. There is a
negative correlation between education and poverty.
 In both types of correlation, there is no evidence or proof
that changes in one variable cause changes in the other
variable. A correlation simply indicates that there is a
relationship between the two variables.
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OPERATIONAL
Operationalization is an attempt to define a
term that may have more than one meanings or
its meaning may be vague.
 For example, it may be used to define bullying
or drug abuse or technology.
 So, it is important for the researcher to
conceptualise or operationalise the relationship
so that the reader could understand how the
research was done.
 For instance, the researcher may define bullying
as physical bullying, rather than emotional or
cyber, and the operational definition makes this
clear at the start of the project.
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TABLES & FIGURES
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It is very critical in Sociology (as in any
Science) to put data into a table or figure (bar
graph, pie chart, line graph) to present those
data clearly.
When reading tables and charts it is important
to take the following into consideration:
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Read the title of the table or figure carefully
Determine the source of the data
Read any notes that accompany the table or graph
Examine the footnotes
Look for trends in the data
QUANTITATIVE VS QUALITATIVE
Quantitative research is conducted with
the focus being on statistics, numbers and
figures. (What is the percentage of males
who commit crimes?)
 Qualitative research on the other hand
focuses on words, expression and details.
(Why did the males in Golden Grove
commit crimes?)
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QUANTITATIVE VS QUALITATIVE
QUANTITATIVE
QUALITATIVE
Statistics, Numbers
Words, Pictures
Large number participants
Few participants
Generalisations possible
Rich in detail
Test specific hypotheses
Exploratory in nature
STEPS OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH
Introduction (Statement of the Problem,
Research Aims & Objectives)
 Literature Review
 Theoretical / Conceptual Framework
 Research Design (Sampling & Data
Collection)
 Analysis of Data & Interpretation of
Findings
 Conclusions
 Bibliography
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DE-SHIFTING AND CONVERSION:
AN ANALYSIS OF STUDENTTEACHER RELATIONSHIPS AT A
FORMER JUNIOR SECONDARY
SCHOOL (A CASE STUDY) –
Sara Chookolingo (2012)
INTRODUCTION
The statement of the problem:
 This case study seeks to discover how
de-shifting and conversion may have
affected student-teacher relationships at
the Chaconia South Secondary School.
AIMS & OBJECTIVES
The goals, intents and purposes of the paper:
1. To discover the extent to which de-shifting
and conversion would have implications for
student-teacher relationships at Chaconia
South
2. To
describe
the
student-teacher
relationships in the school following deshifting of the school
3. To determine what influences the nature
and extent of student-teacher relationships
at a former Junior Secondary school
LITERATURE REVIEW
A literature review is a compilation of all
the contemporary literature done on a
particular topic or phenomenon.
 The information sourced is usually not
older than10 years.
 In my research, my literature review
encompassed de-shifting & conversion
and student-teacher relationships.
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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Each research project should be
accompanied by a theory.
 In my dissertation, I used the Social
Exchange Theory (Behavioural theory by
P. Blau).
 You use the theory as a guide for the
research.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
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The Research Design is made up of:
◦ Type of Research used (Qualitative
Quantitative)
◦ The instrument used to collect data
◦ Sampling
vs
Data Collection Methods
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There are many methods used by Social
Scientists to collect data:
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Questionnaires
Interviews
Observation
Case Study
Life Histories
Pilot Studies
Longitudinal Research
Data Collection Methods
QUANTITATIVE
QUALITATIVE
Questionnaires/Surveys
Life documents,
Historical Sources
Official Statistics
Interviews
Observation
Case Study
Data Collection Methods
Primary Sources are data that you collect for yourself.
Secondary Sources are data that you use from other
sources.
PRIMARY SOURCES
SECONDARY
SOURCES
Questionnaires/Surveys
Interviews
Observation
Case Studies
Statistics
Historical Documents
Mass Media
Life documents
Questionnaire
A questionnaire consists of written
questions.
 There are many types of questionnaires;
these include postal, email, internet or
blog, telephone or direct questionnaires.
 In each questionnaire, there are openended (where the participants could write
their view) and closed-ended questions
(where there are fixed choices to choose
from).
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Another type of question that is popular
in Sociology is the Likert Scale which is
used to get the opinions of people.
Agree
Strongly
1. No student should
be
allowed
to
consume alcohol on
campus.
2. Faculty should be
subject to a dress
code.
Agree
Somewhat
Neutral
(Unsure)
Disagree
somewhat
Disagree
strongly
Interview
An interview is a one-on-one discussion between
the interviewer and the person or persons being
interviewed.There are many types of interviews:
 Structured – a list of questions are created and
interviewers stick by those questions and do not go
off topic.
 Unstructured – there is no preset list of questions
and the interview is conducted more like a
conversation.
 Group – occurs when there is more than one
person participating in the interview. It is used to
make the people more comfortable and also to
stimulate conversation and to bounce ideas off each
other.
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Observation
Observation is a form of data collection
where you observe what is taking place and
take notes of it. You then examine the
trends of what you have seen.
 There are two types of Observation:
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◦ Participant – occurs when the researcher is an
active part of the group being researched
◦ Non-participant – is when the researcher opts to
not be a part of the group but observes as a
silent observer.
INSTRUMENT
QUESTIONNAIRES
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
• Inexpensive
• Not as time consuming
• Large amounts of data
could be collected quickly
• Little
personal
involvement
• Confidentiality
is
enhanced
• For positivists (macro),
statistical patterns could
reveal theories/trends
• Access to subjects is easy
• It is reliable (replication)
• Questions
may
be
misinterpreted
by
respondents
• Researchers determine
what
should
be
investigated
• Validity
may
be
undermined
• Interviewers cannot get
in-depth into the answers
• Researchers are distant
from their subjects
• Answers
may
be
misinterpreted
by
researchers
INSTRUMENT
INTERVIEWS
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
• It is valid (represents a
true population of the
population)
• Feminists
prefer
interviews
• Its practical and flexible
• It may not be reliable.
• Interviewer Bias
• Ethnicity, sex, gender
may influence responses
• It is time-consuming
• Respondents may not
be
available
for
interviews or may not be
willing to be taped
• Interviewees may not
want to reveal personal
or illegal information
INSTRUMENT
OBSERVATION
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
• It is mostly used by
Qualitative
researchers
(micro)
especially
Interactionists
• Extremely valid
• You get to understand the
subject better
• You may get an in-depth
analysis of the problem and
discover more underlying
issues
• Interviewer
Bias
(Hawthorn Effect)
• Recording data may be
difficult
• Observer may not
recall everything
• Time-consuming
• Expensive
• It may be impossible to
observe some groups
• Samples too small for
generalisations
• Researchers lives may
become disrupted and
they may face dangers
The Hawthorne Effect
The Hawthorne Effect (Interviewer Bias)
resulted from a study done in a factory in
the 1920s-30s.
 What was discovered was that the
Interviewer could influence the findings of
the study just by being present.
 It was reported that the participants
altered their behaviour because of the
presence of the Interviewer.
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Sampling
A Census is a survey of everyone in the
population.
 A Sample is a survey of a proportion of the
population.
 There are many types of Sampling:

◦ Random –
probability
randomly
select
using
statistical
 Simple: Names are randomly from the list in any order
 Systematic:A list is obtained and every Nth is selected
 Stratified: The population is divided into portions and
persons are randomly selected
◦ Non-Random – purposely select individuals:
 Snowballing: a member of the sample puts researcher in
touch with other members
 Quota/Purposive: when you select who you want
PRESENTATION OF DATA

The data that is collected is put into
charts, tables, figures, or coded and
presented.
ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION
OF FINDINGS

The data that is collected is analysed and,
and using the literature review, trends are
noted.
CONCLUSION
In the conclusion, the findings are reiterated.
 The limitations (challenges) of the study
are stated.
 Recommendations are also made.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chookolingo, Sara. 2012. “De-Shifting &
Conversion: An Analysis of Student-Teacher
Relationships at a Former Junior Secondary
School (A Case Study).” M.Phil Thesis. UWI,
St.Augustine,T&T.
 Holborn, Martin & Peter Langley. 2002.
Haralambos and Holborn: Sociology:
Themes and Perspectives – Student
Handbook.
London:
HarperCollins
Publishers Ltd.
 McIntyre, Lisa. 2006. The Practical Skeptic:
Core Concepts in Sociology. 3rd Ed. New
York, NY: Mc Graw Hill.
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