Download Modern England - Hourly History

BRITISH HISTORY IN 50 EVENTS
BY
Henry Freeman
2015 © Copyright by Hourly History
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means including
information storage and retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the author.
Table of Contents
Early British History
2500 BCE - Stonehenge is created by Druids:
55 BCE - Caesar explores Britain:
AD 50 - A town first appears at London:
AD 122 - Hadrian’s Wall is constructed:
AD 407 - Last Romans leave Britain:
AD 450 - Invasions by Angles, Saxons, and Jutes begin:
AD 577 - Celts in Wales cut off from Celts in England:
AD 865 - Danes invade Britain:
AD 871 - Alfred the Great becomes King of England:
British Middle Ages
AD 1066 - The Battle of Hastings:
AD 1170 - Thomas Becket killed:
AD 1189 - Richard I becomes King of England:
AD 1215 - The Magna Carta is signed:
AD 1283 - Wales is conquered:
AD 1295 - The Model Parliament is called:
AD 1337 - The Hundred Years’ War begins:
AD 1348 - The Black Plague reaches Britain:
AD 1455 - Wars of the Roses begin:
Tudor England
AD 1509 - Henry VIII becomes King of England:
AD 1534 - The Church of England is created:
AD 1553 - Mary Tudor becomes Queen of England:
AD 1558 - Elizabeth Tudor becomes Queen of England:
AD 1564 - William Shakespeare is born:
AD 1588 - The British defeat the Spanish Armada:
An Empire
AD 1600 - The East India Company is created:
AD 1603 - James I becomes King of England:
AD 1605 - The Gunpowder Plot is unsuccessful:
AD 1642 - Isaac Newton is born:
AD 1653 - Oliver Cromwell becomes Lord Protector of England:
AD 1666 - The Great Fire of London:
AD 1688 - The Glorious Revolution takes place:
AD 1707 - Acts of Union signed:
AD 1780 - The Industrial Revolution begins:
AD 1783 - Britain signs the Treaty of Paris, giving America independence:
AD 1798 - Edward Jenner discovers the smallpox vaccine:
AD 1815 - Napoleon is defeated at Waterloo:
AD 1859 - Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species:
AD 1899 - The Boer War begins:
Modern England
AD 1914 - World War I Begins:
AD 1936 - George VI becomes King of England:
AD 1939 - World War II begins:
AD 1940 - The Battle of Britain is fought:
AD 1949 - George Orwell’s book, 1984, is published:
AD 1952 - Elizabeth Windsor becomes Queen of England:
AD 1956 - Suez Crisis in Egypt:
AD 1965 - Britain abolishes capital punishment:
AD 1979 - Margaret Thatcher becomes the first woman to be Prime Minister:
AD 1982 - The Falklands War is waged:
AD 1994 - The Chunnel opens:
AD 2012 - The London Olympic Games are staged:
Early British History
2500 BCE - Stonehenge is created by Druids
In about 2500 BCE, a group known as the Druids constructed a monument known as Stonehenge. Very
little information about the Druids remains, as it appears that the Druids left no written history. These
Druids were a Celtic people, who, it is believed, functioned as a priestly caste among their fellow
citizens. It is believed that Druids were likely well educated, and made up an elite portion of Celtic
society.
The construction of Stonehenge remains largely a mystery, although many scholars have formulated
theories to explain its existence. In fact, scholars still debate over the exact nature of the construction
used to create the site. What is known, without conjecture, is that Stonehenge’s construction used very
advanced techniques, and that the orientation of the site is aligned with the winter solstice.
Both of these facts have given rise to myth and legend, making Stonehenge a mystery even today. But, it
is important to note that Stonehenge paints a picture of Celtic and Druidic culture during the early
history of Britain, and it is a record that is still being gleaned for information. Stonehenge reveals a very
different picture of life in Britain from the one many people believe about savages huddled around a
fire, with no technology to speak of, and no hope of advancement. In point of fact, Stonehenge
demonstrates that early settlers in Britain had a high degree of skilled labor—typically a mark of an
advanced society.
55 BCE - Caesar explores Britain
After rising to power in 60 BCE and being named consul of the Roman Republic, Julius Caesar began
planning a series of expansive raids, designed with the conquest of new territory in mind. The British
Isles, long known as a source of tin, was an important part of Caesar’s plan. Taking control of the natural
resources of Britain (as the island came to be known), became a focus for Caesar’s expansion.
In 55 BCE, Caesar led an expedition to Britain, hoping to land at Dover, a region on the southern coast of
Britain with an excellent harbor. However, the Britons (the people of Britain) gathered on an overlook of
the harbor, and their apparent ferocity forced Caesar to land elsewhere, at a point never specified by
the expedition.
This contact between Britons and Romans was highly important, as it was the first time that Britons had
been exposed to Hellenic culture. Further, this meeting convinced Caesar, and later other emperors,
that the Britons were very warlike, meaning that Rome would need to commit a very large force if the
hoped-for invasion would ever take place. On the British side, this contact introduced the Britons to
Roman religion and military strategy. This contact set the stage for cultural diffusion, and when the
Roman Empire fell, Britain helped to preserve Roman culture and technology.
AD 50 - A town first appears at London
Approximately five years after Caesar first came to Great Britain, a Roman settlement was created on
the site of modern-day London. This site was chosen for its strategic value—the Thames River offered
protection, easy travel, and direct trade. This town was called Londinium, after which the modern city is
named. This first settlement was destroyed by a group of Britons known as the Iceni. However, the
Romans quickly built the city again, in order to regain the city’s strategic value.
During the second century, Rome moved its British capital to Londinium, and the city flourished. The city
became a religious center, as well as a center for the arts and entertainment. Despite this, during the
third century, Londinium began to decline, leading the Romans to build the London Wall as a measure of
defense against Celtic tribes that desired to overthrow the Roman government. The footprint of that
wall approximately covers modern London today, demonstrating how vital the wall was for the growth
of London. As the Roman Empire began to decline, so too did the settlement of Londinium. By the fifth
century, Romans had abandoned Londinium, and the region was settled by Anglo-Saxons. However,
much of Londinium was itself untouched, as the Anglo-Saxons preferred the surrounding area.
AD 122 - Hadrian’s Wall is constructed
When Hadrian became the Roman Emperor in AD 117, Britain had been undergoing a period of
rebellion, causing great difficulty for the Romans. Hadrian visited Britain in AD 122, and during his tour,
the structure known as Hadrian’s Wall underwent construction. Although Hadrian never left official
evidence to explain the construction of the wall, many historians believe it was designed to keep British
“barbarians” out of Roman controlled territory. The wall measured approximately twenty feet high,
approximately ten feet wide, and seventy-three miles long.
Although a wall of such construction could not prevent small groups of people from passing, it was a
large enough structure that it did prevent large groups (such as an army) from passing. Along the wall,
castles were built to ensure its overall effectiveness and maintenance. At various locations, other
fortifications were built—possibly intended as a toll road. Hadrian’s Wall marked the northern boundary
of the Roman Empire, and was a symbol to the Celts of the power and resources of the Roman Empire.
Portions of the wall remain and can be visited today, reminding visitors of the lasting influence of Roman
culture on British culture. Once the wall was abandoned by Rome, more and more of the “barbarians”
living in Britain began to migrate south toward Londinium. This migration would end with the invasion of
Britain by mainland Europeans.
AD 407 - Last Romans leave Britain
In the fifth century, Roman territories throughout Europe began to rebel and to revolt. During this time,
the city of Rome was in rapid decline, and, as such, Rome began struggling to keep control over its vast
territory. Many Celtic tribes noticed the lack of attention that was being given to Britain, and used this
time to start reclaiming land. As the Romans no longer had the resources to fully police Britain, the
solution was a gradual pullback of Roman troops and settlers. By approximately AD 407, the last Roman
soldiers were leaving Britain.
As the Roman influence in Britain waned, the Celtic culture began to dominate. For many Celts, an end
to Roman rule was seen as a victory for freedom. However, in less than fifty years, a series of invaders
would come to Britain, and they would rule more completely than Rome ever did, making the departure
of the Romans something of a mixed blessing for the Celts. Despite the influence of Celtic culture on
British history, once invading tribes from Europe began to conquer Britain, that influence was decreased
significantly, and Celtic peoples were displaced to the farthest regions of Great Britain. And it would all
begin with an invasion by a group known as the Angles.
AD 450 - Invasions by Angles, Saxons, and Jutes begin
After the departure of the Roman Empire and its soldiers from Britain, a power vacuum occurred in
England. For a short time from 407 to 450, Celtic peoples were free to self-govern. In AD 450, a series of
invasions of Britain begin. The first group to invade was a group known as the Angles. The Angles were a
Germanic tribe from the northern region of what is known today as Germany. Seeking new territory and
resources, the Angles began to invade the eastern portion of Britain, and they set up kingdoms that
covered much of modern England and Scotland. The Britons and Celts were forced to flee to the western
shores of Britain, or live under the rule of the Angles.
Following the invasion of the Angles, a second group came to England seeking a conquest. This group,
the Saxons, came from the country known today as Denmark. The Saxons, who were not Danes, sought
land of their own, and based on the success of the Angles, chose Britain as the target for their invasion.
The final group who invaded Britain were the Jutes, another Germanic tribe from the same region as the
Saxons. Unusually, after the Jute invasion, the three separate tribes, in an effort to avoid conflict in
Britain, began to intermarry, leading to the union of tribes that is now known as Anglo-Saxon. These
people transformed Britain from a Roman outpost to a Germanic center of culture. This shift had a
lasting impact on the development of the language and culture that would become British in the future.
AD 577 - Celts in Wales cut off from Celts in England
During the period of the Anglo-Saxon invasions, many of those who were of Celtic origin fled to the
farthest reaches of Britain in order to escape the Anglo-Saxon rule. Two distinct groups of Celts banded
together for protection, one in the area we know as Scotland, and the other in the area we know as
Wales. In AD 577, during the Anglo-Saxon conquest, the two groups of Celts were completely cut off
from one another due to Anglo-Saxon troop movements.
As the Anglo-Saxons cemented their control of northwest England, the two groups of Celts were
permanently separated from one another, leading to two very distinct cultures emerging in Wales and
Scotland. Those Celts who would become Welsh maintained self-rule until AD 1283, when England
conquered them, and the Scottish Celts remained independent until 1603, when a Scottish king
assumed the throne of England. This separation had a great impact on the political reality of Britain, as,
with three major groups vying for power, England was suddenly immersed in a series of conflicts as the
various groups sought supremacy over the others.
AD 865 - Danes invade Britain
Seeking territory, the Danes began a series of conquests in the early 800s. Given the mineral and
strategic value of Britain, it was not long before the Danes turned their attention towards the island.
However, the Danes, who mounted an invasion in 865, found a Celt/Anglo-Saxon army waiting on the
eastern shore hoping to prevent a landing. However, the Danes, being fierce warriors, were able to land,
and carved out a section of Britain for their own use.
And thus, in 865, there were a total of five distinct kingdoms in Britain, and these separate kingdoms
adopted the feudal system of continental Europe in an effort to protect themselves from the other
kingdoms. These kingdoms would continue to war with one another in one form or another until 1707
when England, Scotland, and Wales were finally united into a single kingdom. This conflict shaped the
character of the peoples involved, and it would have an impact on how a United Kingdom would rule its
territories. A positive effect of the many kingdoms was that the culture that would ultimately emerge as
English would have a wide range of legal precedents from which to craft its own body of law—a body of
law that would go on to impact the legal traditions of much of the modern world.
AD 871 - Alfred the Great becomes King of England
Throughout history, in moments of great crisis, strong individuals find a way to grasp power and shape
world events with that power. One such example is Alfred the First. Ethelred, Alfred’s brother, and king
of the Danes in England, died in 871. Ethelred and Alfred had an agreement that the throne would pass
to Alfred instead of Ethelred’s sons, as they were far too young for such an office.
When Alfred became king, he was faced with the threat of a Viking invasion. His forces were not strong
enough to expel the Vikings, and, Alfred was forced to make peace with the Vikings. His efforts were
successful, and the Vikings left Alfred’s holdings untouched. As a result, Alfred was able to turn his
attention to matters of state.
Despite the fact that Alfred’s reign was full of further conflict (which allowed him to gain much territory
for his people), his most notable achievements are in the fields of history and law. Alfred, who took the
title “Great,” knew that a written history of his people would be of great value to future kings and
leaders. So, Alfred commissioned a work known as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was a
comprehensive history from the time of Caesar’s conquest until Alfred’s rule. In fact, some copies of the
Chronicle were updated for over two hundred years.
This work provides historians with the most complete picture of medieval England that exists. It is also
considered to be one of the earliest texts that contain Middle English, making it an important part of the
English language’s morphology. Beyond this monumental effort to compile a history of the AngloSaxons, Alfred dedicated himself to law. Drawing on diverse sources, including the Old Testament, Alfred
set about codifying law so that he could administer justice fairly to his people. Alfred’s legal code is the
basis for the modern legal codes of both Great Britain and the United States, as well as many of the
territorial possessions of the British Empire.
British Middle Ages
AD 1066 - The Battle of Hastings
One of the most pivotal battles in British history was the Battle of Hastings. The battle occurred on
October 14, 1066. The battle took place near the town of Hastings, which is located in southeast
England. The battle was between a French and Norman army under the command of William II, Duke of
Normandy, and the Anglo-Saxon army, commanded by King Harold II. The battle occurred because the
prior king, Edward the Confessor, died without issue, and succession was in doubt. When Harold II was
crowned, William II was angered, believing in his own right to the throne.
During the battle, Harold was killed, although no definitive account of his death exists. It is believed that
Harold died late in the battle, and that his death led to the collapse of his army. What is known is that
William was victorious, and, after securing the submission of Harold’s lieutenants, was crowned King of
England on December 25, 1066. William faced several uprisings during his reign as king, but he was able
to successfully put them down, and his reign was secure. In order to have a full account of his vassals
and their holdings, William commissioned the Domesday Book, which scholars speculate allowed him to
increase taxes on his vassals.
AD 1170 - Thomas Becket killed
The Middle Ages in Europe was a time when the Catholic Church exerted enormous influence over
almost every facet of life. In fact, many kings owed their throne to the Pope, a situation that gave the
church great power in political matters. Unsurprisingly, many kings were not pleased with the authority
of the church and the way in which this authority gave bishops and cardinals the ability to act
independently of a king and face little to no repercussions for their behavior.
In 1162, Thomas Becket was appointed to the position of Archbishop of Canterbury, making him the
most powerful religious figure in England at the time. It is believed that King Henry hoped Becket would
help him usurp power from the church, as Becket himself had only been made a member of the clergy
the day before his election to archbishop. Instead, Becket sought to bring more power to the position,
which put him and the king at great odds.
After much tension, Becket had Henry excommunicated from the church. Henry’s anger was such that
he ordered the death of Becket. On December 29, 1170, Henry’s knights found Becket and murdered
him. Less than three years later, Pope Alexander III canonized Becket. The death of Becket at the hands
of the king’s men is an example of the tension between the church and state until well after the
Protestant Reformation ended.
AD 1189 - Richard I becomes King of England
Richard I is perhaps the most well-known English king in history (other than Arthur, who evidence
suggests never existed). His name has become associated with children’s stories, but even during his
lifetime, he was seen as a hero to his people. Richard I became king in 1189 when he forced his father,
King Henry II, to name him as his heir, despite his father’s desire to name his younger son, John, as his
heir. Henry died two days after making Richard his heir, leading some to believe that Richard had played
a role in his father’s death, although no concrete evidence for that exists.
In any case, Richard immediately turned his attention to the problem of the Crusades. In 1188,
Jerusalem had fallen to Saladin, meaning that the Holy City was in the hands of invaders. Richard,
answering the call of the Pope, began to prepare an invasion force to reclaim Jerusalem for the church.
By 1191, Richard had landed in Cyprus, and he did battle with Saladin’s troops. Richard was renowned
for his courage on the battlefield to such an extent that he became known as “The Lionheart,” a
descriptor that has continued into modern times. Although he never reached Jerusalem, Richard’s
exploits went a long way in encouraging soldiers to seek glory on a Crusade. Richard was one of the few
kings in history that was a noted warrior in addition to his prowess as a leader.
AD 1215 - The Magna Carta is signed
After Richard’s death, his younger brother, John, became the King of England. Unlike Richard, who was
seen as a noble, gifted ruler, John was weak and myopic. This weakness led to a revolt by the English
nobles, who sought to overthrow John and replace him with a king of their liking. John met the nobles at
Runnymede on the Thames River. At this meeting, the nobles offered John a choice—a volitional
guarantee of the preservation of noble rights or a war with the nobles. John, knowing that his support
was weak, chose to empower his nobles.
He did this by signing the Magna Carta, which not only gave irrevocable rights to the nobles, but also
curbed excesses of royal behavior and set the foundation for the protection of citizens under codified
law. Due to the inclusion of certain provisions, the Magna Carta fundamentally set the nobility at odds
with the king, as, according to the Magna Carta, the nobles could seize crown lands if the king, in their
opinion, was failing to abide by the document. Despite the value of the Magna Carta, many historians
view the document as a mixed blessing—simultaneously codifying law and paving the way for great
internal conflict. Although the Magna Carta is not considered a constitution in any real sense, the
principal of limiting government found in the document was central to much of the codified law that
would follow.
AD 1283 - Wales is conquered
In the 1200s, Wales, which had been populated by Celts, was split between natives of the region and
Anglo-Saxon forces. This division made Wales a weak state and a promising target for England. Edward I,
King of England, attempted to conquer Wales starting in 1277. Edward’s army had great success and
began stripping away Welsh territory. In 1283, Edward’s army conquered the entirety of Wales, and
Edward claimed the lands for England.
After the conquest was complete, some of the land was given to English supporters, while the rest was
made into a personal fief of the crown. Over time, kings began entrusting the care of Wales to their heir.
The title for this position was Prince of Wales, and, over time, the tradition has been that the Prince of
Wales is the titular head of the fief, and the prince maintains this title until ascending to the throne of
England. This merger between the two states led to a decline in the native Celt population, meaning that
the ethnicity of Wales shifted from Celtic to the Germanic/Norman/French mixture that is the backbone
of English society.
AD 1295 - The Model Parliament is called
After signing the Magna Carta, the nobles in England established Parliament—an advisory body to the
king. Beyond simply being an advisory body, Parliament was responsible for raising taxes for the king.
This was done to ensure that Parliament could shape the king’s actions by threatening to (or acting to)
defund the king. This, in theory, would ensure cooperation between the king and his advisors.
Although Parliament and the ruling monarch have not always worked well together, in many cases, kings
have learned to rely on Parliament, and England prospered during those times. In 1295, Edward I called
Parliament in order to raise taxes for his military exploits. However, the relationship between Edward
and his Parliament was such that the nobles were able to use the meetings as a method of airing
grievances before the king.
Edward, being gifted at political strategy, understood the value of addressing his advisor’s concerns
quickly and thoroughly. Parliament responded to Edward’s leadership by approving much of what he
desired, and where they did not, worked with Edward to find solutions acceptable to all. This Parliament
became known as the Model Parliament for two reasons: first, the structure of the Parliament was the
basis for all parliaments that would follow, and second, because the cooperation between both sides
was a model of governmental cooperation for all future governments to emulate (if they chose to do
so).
AD 1337 - The Hundred Years’ War begins
Due to the complexities of royal intermarriages in a feudal system, lands that were traditionally part of
one nation could be transferred to another nation based on the birth, death, or marriage of its monarch.
Often, those who lived on the lands that were transferred between royal families found themselves
suffering from the neglect of their current monarch. It follows then, that many of these people would
support a return to the oversight of their previous country. Add to this the natural desire of a country to
expand its territory, and the prospects for conflict seemed inevitable.
In 1337, the ruling family of England, the Plantagenet family, began a war with the Valois family, who
ruled France. The war was fought over control of France. Prior to the war, England had been a vassal of
France, and, to control the English, the French threatened to claim English territory if the English were
not responsive. The war itself would last for over one hundred years, but was named the “Hundred
Years’ War” as an approximation. During this war, five generations of kings and soldiers competed for
control in the contested lands.
By the end of the war, Europe had fundamentally changed in several ways. First, the idea of conscripted
peasant soldiers had been replaced by professional soldiers. Second, the war led to ideas of nationalism,
a concept that did not exist in a feudal system. Thirdly, the war resulted in a loss of territorial
possessions for both sides—meaning that England controlled English territory and vice versa. Finally, the
war resulted in an end to the notion of chivalric behavior and “noble” warfare. Thanks to the loss of
territorial possessions, many nobles in England were left discontent, and this loss is often attributed as a
leading cause of the Wars of the Roses, which would take place after the Hundred Years’ War ended.
AD 1348 - The Black Plague reaches Britain
Throughout the Middle Ages, trade with Asian countries had become a major source of materials and
knowledge. However, disease was also spread due to this trade. During the mid-1300s, rats carrying the
bubonic plague (so known for the puss bubbles it caused) reached Europe. During the course of the
pandemic, estimates put the death toll at almost one quarter of the population of Europe. Without an
understanding of epidemiology, no effective prophylaxis was possible, and the disease was left to run its
course.
Britain, being an island, did not have an outbreak until later than mainland Europe, but, due to the small
size of Britain, people had no place to evacuate to, nor any means of getting there if a plan was created.
Because of these factors, the plague affected as many as half of all British citizens. As devastating as the
plague was for most of Europe, it was almost doubly as harmful in Britain. This reduction in population
had the effect of creating a labor shortage in Britain. The shortage caused an increase in demand for
labor, which led to an increase in the wages for laborers. However, many nobles opposed this increase
in pay. The tension thus caused would lead to the Peasant’s Revolt, which began the downfall of the
feudal system in England.
AD 1455 - Wars of the Roses begin
When the Hundred Years’ War ended in 1453, the external threat facing Britain was diminished,
allowing Englishmen to focus on internal problems that had been put aside in the face of a common
enemy. One such issue was the issue of the legitimacy of the royal claim to the throne. Two factions of
the royal House of Plantagenet each claimed they were the rightful heir to the throne. Some Englishmen
supported the Duke of York, and still others supported the House of Lancaster’s claimant, Henry Tudor.
The conflict between the two parties became known as the Wars of the Roses as both families had a
rose as their heraldic symbol.
The war began with the First Battle of St. Albans in 1455. The war lasted until 1487, when Henry Tudor
defeated Richard III in battle. After ascending to the throne, Henry (now Henry VII) married the eldest
York daughter, which added legitimacy to Henry’s claim to the throne. Henry established the Tudor Line,
which would rule in England for over one hundred years. After the war, Henry took steps to ensure the
longevity of his family, one of which was to execute any other potential claimant to the throne.
Although this tactic is unseemly by modern standards, at the time, it was viewed as politically expedient,
and as a measure of security for the realm, protected it from another protracted struggle for the throne.
In addition to gaining the throne, Henry paved the way for one of England’s most powerful kings—his
son, Henry VIII.
Tudor England
AD 1509 - Henry VIII becomes King of England
In 1509, Henry VII died, and his son Henry VIII assumed the throne. Henry was seventeen at the time of
his ascendancy. Henry then married Catherine of Aragon, the first of his six wives. Henry was obsessed
with the line of his succession, and when Catharine was unable to provide him with a male heir, Henry
divorced her. This divorce was not allowed under Catholic law, and in order to make the divorce stick,
Henry was forced to break with the Catholic Church. To legitimize the divorce, Henry then proclaimed
himself head of the Church of England, meaning that he had the authority to secure his own divorce.
Henry’s split from the Catholic Church was the beginning of the Protestant Reformation in England. As
king and religious leader, Henry’s scope of power was largely unmatched by other monarchs, and he had
the ability to act as he saw fit. After divorcing Catherine, Henry married Anne Boleyn. Anne’s inability to
produce the required male heir led to her execution under charges of infidelity.
Henry immediately married Jane Seymour, who produced a male heir for Henry. Edward VI’s birth
caused his mother’s death, after which Henry married Anne of Cleves. The marriage quickly ended in an
annulment, and Henry married Catherine Howard. Catherine was put to death when details of her
infidelity emerged.
Finally, Henry married Catherine Parr, his final wife. Catherine oversaw the keeping of Henry, who
suffered from obesity, and (many scholars postulate) a rampant case of syphilis. Catherine was more
nurse than wife to Henry, and she outlived her husband. Henry had been the epitome of an absolute
ruler, but, despite this, had left England in a vastly better state than it had been prior to his kingship.
AD 1534 - The Church of England is created
In order to marry his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII was required to obtain special
dispensation from the Pope. The Pope assented, as Catherine was his niece, and the marriage would be
of great advantage to her. After the marriage began, Henry aided the church in several matters, and the
Pope gave Henry the title “Defender of the Faith” in appreciation for his aid.
In 1534, Henry sought to annul his marriage to Catherine, in order to marry a fertile woman who could
provide Henry with a male heir. However, given the dispensation previously given, as well as the Pope’s
familial connection with Catherine, the request was refused. Henry, in a fit of rage, severed his and
England’s submission to the Catholic Church.
In order to appease the people of England, and to provide legitimacy for his divorce, Henry created the
Church of England, and named himself its head. This action was the beginning of the Protestant
Reformation in England. The Anglican Church taught doctrines that were in direct conflict with the
Catholic Church. This was done to lead people away from obeying the Catholic Church into obeying the
Anglican Church. However, while much of the substance was changed, Henry kept the outward
trappings and ceremonies held by the Catholic Church. This was done to elevate Henry and his
handpicked church leadership to assume the unquestioned authority that the Pope and the Catholic
Church had claimed for hundreds of years. Although this reformation was not directly responsible for
the mainland Reformation, it certainly provided an example for the common people to follow.
AD 1553 - Mary Tudor becomes Queen of England
In 1547, Henry VIII died, and his son Edward VI assumed the throne of England. At the time, Edward was
nine years old. As a frail, sickly child, Edward was not a strong monarch, and most decisions were made
by a regency council in his name. During his time as king, his regents made Anglicanism the official
religion of England.
When it became apparent that Edward would likely not live into adulthood, a series of plans were made
by his regents in order to secure the line of succession in such a way as to protect the Protestant
movement in England. However, when Edward died in 1553, his half-sister, Mary, secured control of the
throne. Mary had been raised as a devout Catholic, and she was deeply angered by the creation of the
Anglican Church. Upon reaching the throne, Mary took a series of steps to reinstate Catholicism as the
official religion of England, steps that included the imprisonment, torture, and murder of Protestants.
These actions earned her the nickname “Bloody Mary.” In 1558, Mary died during an outbreak of
influenza.
AD 1558 - Elizabeth Tudor becomes Queen of England
Upon the death of her half-sister Mary, Elizabeth Tudor (now Elizabeth I) ascended to the throne of
England. Elizabeth had none of the religious convictions of either of her half-siblings, but understood the
need to resolve the Catholic/Anglican issue once and for all. So, she issued a decree that has become
known as the “Elizabethan Settlement” which stated that while the Anglican Church was the official
church in England, Catholics were free to worship as they saw fit, under the proviso that they
maintained the English Crown as their first allegiance.
Upon settling this issue, Elizabeth set out on a program of social and economic reform. Elizabeth spent a
great deal of time among the common people, which garnered her the nickname “Good Queen Bess.” In
order to preserve the English line of succession, and prevent a war between suitors, Elizabeth never
married; instead, she devoted herself to England.
During Elizabeth’s reign, the arts flourished. Elizabeth was a patron of Shakespeare, and she was so
popular among the artists that Edmund Spenser made a version of Elizabeth as the protagonist of his
epic The Faerie Queene. Elizabeth was also responsible for much of England’s exploration of the New
World and the raiding of Spanish and Portuguese ships. Her navy dealt a crushing blow to the Spanish
Armada, which cemented England as the world’s preeminent sea power. For all of these things,
Elizabeth is widely regarded as one of the most effective monarchs in English history.
AD 1564 - William Shakespeare is born
Six years after Queen Elizabeth I took the throne of England, William Shakespeare was born. Almost
universally, Shakespeare is considered the greatest English playwright in history, and his thirty-eight
plays are performed more often than any plays by any other playwrights. Shakespeare played a pivotal
role in English history, as he transformed the English theater.
Prior to Shakespeare, most plays that were performed either were of Greek origin or performed in the
Greek style. Shakespeare wrote plays for the common man, and he filled them with humor designed for
the intelligentsia. His work with sonnets changed the form to such an extent that one of the two types
of sonnet is named after him (the Shakespearean sonnet). Queen Elizabeth was a patron of
Shakespeare’s, and her support of his work garnered her great popularity among her people. More than
any other writer, Shakespeare staked a claim for English literature in the annals of history. His work
continues to be performed and adapted, and this contribution to English culture cannot be overlooked.
AD 1588 - The British defeat the Spanish Armada
During the reign of Elizabeth I, many royal suitors approached her with an eye toward marriage.
Elizabeth, knowing that her army could not withstand an invasion, was forced into a difficult position. If
she married, her rejected suitors might band together to conquer England, and, if she rejected individual
suitors, they, in anger, might also attempt to conquer England.
Elizabeth took the only course that she felt was prudent—instead of outright refusals of marriage,
Elizabeth behaved coyly, and feigned weakness and stupidity in the presence of her suitors. These men
could not then take offense at her reticence to marry. Despite the plurality of suitors, not every nation
sought an alliance with England, most notably Spain. King Philip II was Elizabeth’s brother-in-law, but, as
a Catholic, viewed Elizabeth as an illegitimate heir due to her father’s proclivities.
Philip sought to end Elizabeth’s reign and restore a Catholic monarch to the throne. To that end, in 1588,
Philip gathered a fleet of ships in order to begin an invasion of England. The fleet, known as the “Spanish
Armada,” was made up of one hundred thirty ships, and almost 30,000 sailors. This fleet was one of the
largest ever gathered, and Philip had no doubt that his invasion would be successful.
However, fortune was not with the Spanish. As the fleet reached Britain, a massive storm struck, and the
Spanish fleet—comprised of very large but slow ships—struggled to match the speed and
maneuverability of the British fleet. Under the command of Sir Francis Drake, the British fleet pummeled
the Spanish, and the Spanish were forced to retreat. During the fighting, almost half of the Spanish fleet
was sunk, and almost one third of Spain’s soldiers were killed. As the Armada represented the vast bulk
of Spain’s military power, the defeat in 1588 marked Spain’s decline as a world power and announced
that England had become a major world player.
An Empire
AD 1600 - The East India Company is created
After the destruction of the Spanish Armada, England became a major international force. In both
military and trade matters, England began asserting its power. Queen Elizabeth knew that the most
effective way to influence global events was through trade. As such, Elizabeth authorized the creation of
the East India Company in 1600. The East India Company was the first company given the authority to
act in the name of the Queen, without the Queen’s oversight, except in a distant way.
The East India Company controlled all of England’s imports and exports in Asia. The company was
responsible for supplying Britain with tea and other important goods, and it was responsible for
maintaining a favorable balance of trade between England and the countries it traded with. The profit
for transporting tea to England was so great that the English began giving the Chinese opium in
exchange. Ultimately, this led to a severe problem in China, but it allowed the British to continue
profiting from trade. The company then moved on to India, and was instrumental in England’s efforts to
colonize that region. In a very real way, the East India Company is responsible for making England a
power around the entire world. At one point, it was rightly said that, “The sun never sets on the British
Empire.”
AD 1603 - James I becomes King of England
Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, without an heir, meaning that the line of English succession was once
again in question. In her place rose James Stuart, the heir to the throne of Scotland. James was also
Elizabeth’s cousin, as Henry VII was his grandfather as well as hers. This meant that James had a
legitimate claim to the English throne, one that was unmatched by others.
As such, James Stuart was crowned James I of England in 1603. He moved from Scotland to England and
ruled both states, as well as Ireland. In 1605, James survived the “Gunpowder Plot,” as he sought to
unite England and Scotland into a single nation.
James was also known as a scholar and a patron of the arts. During his reign, Shakespeare, Donne, and
Jonson all produced some of their finest works. Being a very religious man, James sought to obtain an
authoritative version of the Bible, one that would be the standard for all under his reign. So, in 1611, the
Authorized King James Version of the Bible was produced. This version sought to be the most accurate
translation of the Bible, while emphasizing submission to authority. James was loved by his people, as
his reign was a time of peace.
AD 1605 - The Gunpowder Plot is unsuccessful
After Elizabeth I died, many Catholics living in England had hope that James I would restore Catholicism
as the official religion in England. However, James was unable to accomplish this task, leaving many
Catholics angry at his seeming inaction. As a result, a group of these disenchanted men began to plot an
assassination attempt. The attempt was to occur on November 5, 1605, during the opening session of
Parliament when the king would be in attendance. A letter of unknown origins was delivered to the
House of Commons (where the attempt would take place) on November 4, stating the plans of the
assassins. Very quickly, a search was begun in the House of Commons and, in the basement, a man
named Guy Fawkes was discovered guarding enough gunpowder to level the building, which would have
killed everyone inside.
Fawkes had spent much of his life fighting against Protestantism, and so the Gunpowder Plot was simply
the next step. Fawkes was tortured until he confessed, at which time he was sentenced to death. While
waiting to be hung, Fawkes fell off the platform, severed his spine, and avoided the death sentence as
he had already died. The Gunpowder Plot is still commemorated in modern times, usually by burning an
effigy of Fawkes.
AD 1642 - Isaac Newton is born
On December 25, 1642, Isaac Newton was born in the town of Woolsthorpe. Newton is regarded by the
scientific community as one of the most important contributors to the fields of physics, mathematics,
and optics. Newton first published his “Laws of Motion” in his work Principia in 1687. These laws have
become the basis for describing the universe and the interactions between objects.
In order to better calculate the motion of the stars, Newton (along with Gottfried Leibniz) created the
mathematical branch of calculus. Between calculus and the laws of motion, Newton successfully
described all motion in the universe (except for quantum mechanics, which is governed by an entirely
different set of laws).
Newton’s work was so pioneering that even modern science cannot dispute his findings, nor find ways
to work around those laws. Calculus, while being misunderstood by many, is the math of integrating
unlike variables together to create mathematical models of physical behavior. This math has
applications in art, architecture, business, engineering, and even in evaluating the stock market.
Newton also used this math to finally, and ultimately, disprove the geocentric theory of the universe.
Newton’s work was so seminal that, upon his death, he was buried in Westminster Abbey, where,
traditionally, only royalty had been buried. Newton was a forerunner of the scientific revolution,
demonstrating that England had become a land of education and culture, and not simply a military
power.
AD 1653 - Oliver Cromwell becomes Lord Protector of England
In 1642, the English Civil War began. Charles I, the son and successor of James I, was despised by his
subjects, notably for being unwilling to work with Parliament for the good of England. At the end of the
Civil War, Charles I was executed, and a period known as the “Commonwealth of England” began.
In 1653, Oliver Cromwell, a leading figure who fought against the king, declared himself “Lord Protector
of England.” Under this title, Cromwell had the power of a king, but the name gave promise that
Cromwell would give up his power when England was ready.
Cromwell was a very religious man, who held himself to a high moral standard, and he believed that his
destiny was to rule England to protect it from the abuses of a monarch. In reality, under Cromwell (who
created laws of great severity), the English people fared little better than under a king. In fact, when
Cromwell died, he passed his title to his son, who was so unpopular that the people of England
petitioned for a king to replace him. This set the stage for the Glorious Revolution, which would alter the
nature of the monarchy and its relationship to the people, forever.
AD 1666 - The Great Fire of London
As has occurred to many major cities throughout history, the city of London was the scene of a drastic
fire in 1666. Starting on September 2nd, at Thomas Farriner’s bakery on Pudding Lane, the fire burned
until September 5th. Due to a drought that London had been suffering for over a year, the wooden
houses in the district were quickly swept up in the fire.
The main firefighting technique of the time was to create firebreaks (starting a small, controlled fire to
burn up fuel in the path of the oncoming main fire) and let the fire burn itself out. However, the mayor
of London was slow to issue orders to the firefighters, and the fire spread throughout London.
At its largest, the fire demolished all of London that remained inside of the Roman wall created
approximately one thousand five hundred years prior. Over the course of three days, the fire consumed
as much as eighty-eight percent of the homes in London, as well as eighty-seven churches and St. Paul’s
Cathedral.
London was eventually rebuilt, but the extent of the damage was such that property issues came into
play. Instead of building a modern city, London was rebuilt to its original plan with only slight
modifications for fire safety. Some historians believe that the fire prevented a plague epidemic, as the
fire killed the rats, lice, and fleas that would have been carriers.
AD 1688 - The Glorious Revolution takes place
After the execution of Charles I and the death of Oliver Cromwell, the people of England sought a king to
replace Richard Cromwell, the new Lord Protector. Charles II, the son of Charles I was chosen to rule. His
son, James II, ruled after his father, and he was despised by the people. The English distaste for James II
was so great that the people sought a new monarch from outside of England.
They settled on William III of Orange and his wife Mary. With popular support, William made plans to
enter England and seize the throne from James. However, James was offered a choice—vacate his
throne or be executed. James chose to vacate.
In 1689, prior to William’s ascension to the throne, William was forced by Parliament to sign the English
Bill of Rights. When this was agreed to, William became the king of England. This transfer of power
became known as the “Glorious Revolution” because it executed a change of power without bloodshed.
Further, the English Bill of Rights gave Parliament far greater control over the king, and this was the
beginning of transitioning to a constitutional, parliamentary monarchy, a first in English history.
AD 1707 - Acts of Union signed
For much of English history, English kings had sought to bring Scotland under their rule. Although this
occurred, the two states were never formally joined together; rather both were ruled independently by
the same monarch. However, in 1707, Parliament passed the Acts of Union, which in effect was a treaty
between England and Scotland to unify the two states permanently.
For the English, these Acts were seen as a measure to prevent anyone other than the English king from
taking the Scottish throne, thus enabling a king to form alliances with other kingdoms who sought to
weaken England. For the Scottish, the Acts were a potential method to economic prosperity. With the
passage of the Acts, Scotland became part of the United Kingdom, as well as Great Britain.
Great Britain is a term that describes all of the peoples living on the island of Britain, which includes the
English, the Scottish, and the Welsh. The United Kingdom refers to Great Britain, and Northern Ireland.
After the passage of the Acts, Scotland became a fully enabled member of the United Kingdom, and was
entitled to, and given, all of the rights given to citizens of the United Kingdom.
AD 1780 - The Industrial Revolution begins
When discussing a series of events that take place over a wide range of time, but are lumped together
as a single event, parsing out the dates of these events becomes quite difficult. This is particularly true
of the period known as the “Industrial Revolution.” Although agricultural advances had been taking
place for well over two hundred years, it wasn’t until approximately 1780 that the Industrial Revolution
was firmly underway in England.
During the Revolution, machines that at one time had been powered by humans were now powered by
running water (such as a rivers or streams), and then by animals powering motors, and finally by engines
that used combustion as a power source. During the revolution, manufacturing underwent a radical
shift. Prior to this time, all goods were handmade by craftsmen in their homes. The process was slow,
expensive, and goods could not easily be replaced.
Thanks to the Revolution, a new process, known as the “Factory System,” took hold. In this system,
goods were made in part by humans and in part by machines, and they were produced in mass
quantities for the first time. Without the Industrial Revolution, the concept of interchangeable parts
would not exist, and modern conveniences would merely be a dream. The factory system prized
efficiency—both in time and money—and not skilled craftsmanship. This fundamental change
introduced the concept of consumerism, which played a large role in the creation of capitalism as it is
understood today.
AD 1783 - Britain signs the Treaty of Paris, giving America independence
As the Industrial Revolution was beginning to take hold in England, the matter of colonial governance
became a central issue for the British government. In particular, the colonies in America were in the
midst of a rebellion, which was costly and time consuming for the British. However, in 1781, George
Washington and his army forced the British commander, Charles Cornwallis, to surrender.
Between then and 1783, both the British government and the fledgling American government struggled
to find an acceptable peace accord. In 1783, representatives from both governments met in Paris (of
value as a neutral location) to sign the Treaty of Paris. This treaty gave America its independence from
England.
The terms of the treaty were designed to favor America, as the British government sought a new trading
partner, and they were afraid that a harsh treaty would strengthen the alliance between America and
France, which would result in a loss of trade (and revenue) for the British. The treaty marked out the
boundaries of the territory ceded by England, as well as preserving some territory (located in Canada)
for the British Crown. Although this treaty ended the war with America, it would not be until after the
War of 1812 that America would become full trading partners with England.
AD 1798 - Edward Jenner discovers the smallpox vaccine
During the Industrial Revolution, one of the most deadly diseases in the world was smallpox. Similar to
cowpox and chickenpox, this disease is noted for the marks it leaves on the skin of the infected.
However, unlike chickenpox and cowpox, smallpox is highly contagious in humans, and it is highly lethal.
As many as thirty-five percent of the humans infected would die during outbreaks of smallpox, making it
even more deadly than the Black Plague.
In 1798, Edward Jenner, a scientist, released a brand new form of medication—the vaccine. Jenner had
noted that people infected with cowpox could relatively easily fight off the smallpox virus, while those
who had not had cowpox could not. Working in secret, and with very small groups, Jenner began
infecting test subjects with cowpox to validate his hypothesis. By 1798, Jenner was confident that his
vaccine was effective, and he released it to the public. Besides simply being the first man-made vaccine
in history, Jenner opened up the possibility of curing other diseases via a similar method. The WHO
(World Health Organization) declared that smallpox had been eradicated worldwide in 1979, and it was
thanks to the efforts of Jenner in 1798.
AD 1815 - Napoleon is defeated at Waterloo
In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte became the Emperor of France. During a series of wars, Napoleon set up a
government known as the “Continental System,” which allowed him to rule a vast majority of Europe.
However, as this system was designed to force England into submission, it naturally drew British anger.
In 1814, after a disastrous campaign in Russia, Napoleon was forced to abdicate, and he was sent to the
Isle of Elba as a prisoner. However, in 1815, Napoleon returned to France and resumed his attempt to
conquer Europe.
In June of 1815, Napoleon met a British army at Waterloo, which is part of modern-day Belgium. Thanks
to the tactics of the British commander, the Duke of Wellington, Napoleon was defeated. He was sent
into permanent exile on the island of St. Helena, where he died. After the Battle of Waterloo, Britain
entered a time of peace and prosperity. It was a time where, once again, Britain was the premier power
in the world. Napoleon’s defeat also signaled the start of a time of technological progress and economic
advancement in Europe, and the beginning of an alliance system that would ultimately result in World
War I, almost exactly one hundred years later.
AD 1859 - Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species
During the 1830s, Charles Darwin, an English naturalist, joined an expedition to explore the coast of
South America. The HMS Beagle was the ship that had been selected for the voyage. During a stop at
the Galapagos Islands, Darwin began to investigate the dispersion of finches that he observed. Over
time, as he took notes of his findings, Darwin began to formulate an idea that explained his findings.
Over the next twenty years, Darwin meticulously checked his findings to ensure that he had made no
errors. And, in 1859, he published On the Origin of Species, a book that summarized his findings in detail.
The main thrust of the book was a concept called natural selection—the idea that whatever animal has
the most beneficial adaptation to an environment will breed the most often and successfully, thus outbreeding its competition. In that way, species would evolve over time to best meet the needs of their
environment.
Using this idea and working backward, Darwin postulated that all animals could conceivably come from
a common ancestor, although Darwin made no effort to determine what that ancestor might be.
Darwin’s theory has become the backbone of evolutionary biology and related scientific fields. Despite
being mired in some controversy, Darwin’s discovery paved the way for other discoveries in the field of
biology.
AD 1899 - The Boer War begins
The late 1800s was a time of expansion and colonization for many European nations. As the majority of
the world had been populated, European countries turned their attention to Africa, which remained
largely unsettled. The southern portion of Africa was of interest to two groups—the Dutch and the
English. The Dutch viewed this land as excellent farmland, while the British sought the mineral wealth of
the region.
Conflict between the competing nations broke out in 1899. It was called the Boer War because the war
pitted Dutch farmers (called Boers) who fought for their freedom, against the British, who sought
dominion over all of South Africa. During the Boer War, the British were able to claim victory, and thus,
all territory that had been controlled by the Dutch. This war was an example of the violence that came
with empire building, and became the central theme in World War I. Further, although the British did
not know that World War I was coming, this war allowed the British army to polish its skills and perfect
its fighting tactics. Oddly, despite the Boer War, the British and the Dutch became allies, and the two
would fight together during the upcoming war.
Modern England
AD 1914 - World War I Begins
On June 28th, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a young Serbian nationalist, assassinated the Archduke Franz
Ferdinand, while Ferdinand was visiting the city of Sarajevo, Bosnia. After the assassination, Austria (the
home of Ferdinand) demanded that Serbia voluntarily surrender to Austria. If it refused, Austria would
conquer it by force. When the ultimatum expired on July 28th, Austria attacked Serbia, and World War I
had its beginning.
After Germany (an Austrian ally) invaded Belgium on August 4th, England declared war on Germany and
Austria. England entered the war in order to win back the freedom of Belgium, its ally. Britain’s entry to
the war forced Germany to adopt a new strategy, which, over the course of the next four years, would
ultimately result in Germany surrendering.
During the war, the British made great strides in military technology, and it was the British who first
introduced tanks on the battlefield. The tank, although clumsy and slow at the time, would continue to
develop over the next twenty years to become the backbone of ground wars into the next century. After
the war concluded, Britain was a major player involved in creating the Treaty of Versailles, which would
bring an end to the war. Sadly, the treaty would actually sow the seeds of World War II, as opposed to
ending war forever, as it had been intended.
AD 1936 - George VI becomes King of England
In 1936, George V, King of England, died, and his eldest son, Edward VII, assumed the throne. However,
Edward wanted to marry a divorcee named Wallis Simpson. Parliament advised Edward that he would
not be able to marry Simpson and still remain king. Edward chose to abdicate, and his younger brother,
George VI ascended to the throne. George VI had served in the military during World War I, and, as
such, was familiar with strategy and tactics—a trait that would serve England well during World War II.
During George’s reign, the dissolution of the British Empire accelerated, while the Commonwealth of
Nations was forged. The Commonwealth was an organization of former colonies of England that, while
still recognizing the British monarch, had complete freedom to self-govern. The Commonwealth is more
of an alliance of a shared heritage than an actual structure of governance. Beyond the Commonwealth,
George is credited as having been a source of strength and hope for his people during the early phases
of World War II. George fathered Elizabeth II, who, upon his death, would assume the throne of England.
AD 1939 - World War II begins
Throughout the late 1930s, Germany, under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, annexed a great deal of
territory. In September 1938, leaders of major European nations met with Hitler to put an end to his
territorial ambitions. During the meeting, Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister of England, proposed to
let Hitler annex a portion of Czechoslovakia, in exchange for a promise that Germany would end its
expansion at that point. Hitler ostensibly agreed, the Munich Pact was signed, and many leaders
believed that war had been averted.
However, Hitler did not keep his promise, and he invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. With the
invasion of Poland, England and France declared war on Germany. In disgrace, Chamberlain resigned his
post, and Winston Churchill became the Prime Minister. From 1939 until 1941, it appeared to the world
that Hitler’s army was unstoppable. His army met with success after success, and France was captured
less than a month after Germany invaded. During the early phase of the war, England sent troops to aid
France, but kept much of its force in reserve, in case Hitler attempted an invasion of England. During
World War II, England underwent a great change. For the first time in several hundred years, England
was no longer a dominant world power, and although still strong, did not have the might to defeat
Germany. This position would be reinforced by the Battle of Britain in 1940.
AD 1940 - The Battle of Britain is fought
After securing France, Belgium, and Poland, Hitler turned his attention toward Britain in 1940. Hitler
knew that an invasion of Britain by sea would likely fail, unless aided in other ways. To prepare for the
invasion, Hitler launched a series of attacks against England, known as the Battle of Britain. For the first
time in history, a major battle was fought completely in the air. Hitler sent bombers over England, and
much of London was destroyed. So much damage was done that people began living in subway stations,
as they were deep enough underground to escape damage.
During this time, Winston Churchill proved himself to be a hero to the British people. Churchill would
visit bomb sites as well as those living in the subway. Churchill understood that the battle was largely
psychological, and that if Hitler was successful, the people of England might surrender prior to an
invasion. However, thanks to the dedicated efforts of Churchill, his staff, and the British military, Hitler’s
air force was defeated, leaving Hitler’s military weakened, just as it prepared to launch an invasion in
Russia. Although it took several years after the war to fully rebuild London, the attitudes and actions of
the British during the battle demonstrated just how strongly committed to freedom the British people
were.
AD 1949 - George Orwell’s book, 1984, is published
In the wake of the fascist governments that had arisen in Europe during the 1930s, the world became
preoccupied with preventing fascism from taking hold in new places. One of the greatest concerns was
that fascism might arise without the knowledge of a citizenry, and how it might be possible to prevent
such an occurrence.
George Orwell, an English writer, dealt with this topic in his novel 1984. In the book, the government
seeks to maintain control over its people not only through physical means, but by limiting the thinking
process of the citizenry, and stripping it of enough language to prevent communication of heretical
thought. In Orwell’s novel, he paints a dystopian future so bleak that it frightened many of his readers.
This was Orwell’s intent, as he hoped to warn others about the dangers of letting go of language and of
thought. Although much of what Orwell wrote is still wildly prophetic, many linguists are concerned that
Orwell’s predictions might be correct, and that, as time goes on, more and more of our language will
disappear.
AD 1952 - Elizabeth Windsor becomes Queen of England
In 1951, George VI was found to have lung cancer. In an attempt to prolong his life, one of his lungs was
surgically removed. Several months later, in 1952, he died of a blood clot in his heart. Upon his death,
his eldest daughter, Elizabeth II, ascended the throne of England. Elizabeth remains Queen to this day,
and she has served as monarch longer than any other ruler in English history.
During her reign, India, a former British colony, gained full independence. Along with India, several other
countries, such as Jamaica and Belize have gained their independence during her rule. One of the very
few dark moments during her reign was the Suez Crisis, which made England look bad to most of the
world.
Despite the Suez Crisis, Elizabeth has done much to popularize the monarchy with the common people,
even going so far as to be a part of the “James Bond” opening of the 2012 London Olympic Games.
Although the monarchy in England has become more of a titular position than one of power, Elizabeth
has continued to be the voice and face of government to her people. Despite several personal tragedies,
including the deaths of her father, sister, mother, and daughter-in-law, Elizabeth continues to be very
much a public monarch, which, given her age, is a testament to her sense of duty to her people.
AD 1956 - Suez Crisis in Egypt
In 1956, Israel went to war with Egypt over control of both the Sinai Peninsula and the Suez Canal.
During the fight, which lasted just over one week, British and French troops were sent to help Israel
secure the Suez Canal and, hopefully, remove the Egyptian leader Abdel Nasser. England wanted to
regain control of the canal that they had built, so that they could reap the benefits in trade that
controlling the canal would provide.
In order to prevent a full-scale war, the United States and the Soviet Union put pressure on England,
France, and Israel to withdraw from Egypt. When England withdrew, this action signified that England
had fully lost its place as a world power, and it had been relegated to a strong ally of the United States,
who had taken on the role of world power during World War II. Despite this, England maintained a
powerful military, as well as a large nuclear strike force. Even though all empires must eventually
decline, England has used its decline as a method of focusing on internal improvement as opposed to
external dominance. After the Suez Crisis ended, in an effort to appear magnanimous, England began to
relinquish even more control over the territories that it still held, so that it might regain its standing in
the eyes of the rest of the world.
AD 1965 - Britain abolishes capital punishment
In the 1800s, Parliament began to recognize that England had many crimes that were punishable by
death; at one point, over two hundred offenses were capital crimes. Throughout the 1800s, a series of
reforms were passed that reduced not only the number of offenses that were capital, but also reduced
the types of crimes that were capital offenses.
In the early 1900s, Parliament passed laws making the execution of persons under the age of sixteen
illegal. In the 1940s, Parliament prepared to introduce a temporary moratorium on the death penalty, to
determine what impact this moratorium would produce. However, public opinion did not favor this
course, and Parliament withdrew the moratorium.
In 1965, a five-year suspension on the death penalty was invoked—again, to test its efficacy, and, in
1969, the suspension was made permanent. However, the death penalty would remain in place for
treason until 1998, at which time England became a signatory to the European Convention on Human
Rights, which prohibits all capital punishment except during a time of war. Although there are still
people who support the death penalty in England, the vast majority support the ECHR and its stance on
the value and dignity of human life.
AD 1979 - Margaret Thatcher becomes the first woman to be Prime Minister
In 1979, the Conservative Party in England, which at the time controlled Parliament, elected Margaret
Thatcher as Prime Minister. Not only was Thatcher the first woman to be elected Prime Minister, but
she also served a longer term than any other PM during the twentieth century. Thatcher gained the
nickname “Iron Lady” due to her personal strength and character.
Thatcher became the Prime Minister during a time of economic sluggishness, so she focused much of
her effort on long-term recovery projects. Also during her tenure, the Falklands War was fought, and
won by the British.
Thatcher favored an economic policy known as deregulation, whereby the government decreased the
regulation of an industry in order to make that industry more profitable. Although Thatcher was not
always popular with Parliament or the common people, she had a fierce resolve and a determination to
act in the best interests of her country. Thatcher also went a long way in strengthening the relationship
that England had with the United States, and that relationship would prove beneficial to the United
States during the Gulf War in Iraq in 1991.
AD 1982 - The Falklands War is waged
Near the southern tip of Argentina lie two small chains of islands: the Falkland Islands and the South
Georgia Islands. Control of these islands had belonged to England since 1833. However, Argentina,
looking to expand its territory, began eyeing the Falkland Islands. In 1982, Argentina, believing Britain
would not be able to defend its territories, invaded the islands. The British response was swift—a naval
task force was sent to the islands to defeat the Argentinian military and reclaim the islands for the
British.
During the conflict, which lasted ten weeks, six British ships and one Argentinian ship were sunk. At the
end of the conflict, Argentina withdrew its forces, and the islands remained in British control, although
Argentina added the islands to a list of its possessions as part of its constitution. The conflict in the
Falklands demonstrated yet again that the British Empire had become very weak (what little was left of
it), and that Britain did not have the resources to mount a full-scale war to protect its possessions.
Despite the conflict, and the decided lack of meaningful resolution, friendly relations between England
and Argentina resumed in 1989.
AD 1994 - The Chunnel opens
In 1985, the French and British governments began accepting proposals to build a rail tunnel under the
English Channel so that France and England could be connected by a rail line. A total of ten construction
companies banded together to undertake this massive project. Digging in England began at Shakespeare
Cliff, and digging in France began at Sangatte.
The Channel Tunnel, or Chunnel, would consist of two separate rail tunnels and a third service tunnel.
The two tunnels first met in 1990, although the Chunnel would not be open until 1994. The completed
rail line runs a distance of thirty-one miles, has tunnel diameters of twenty-five feet, and runs 250 feet
below the sea level.
The completion of the Chunnel not only marked a highpoint in intra-European relations, but it also
demonstrated the technical capabilities that could be brought to bear given the proper circumstances.
Lessons learned during construction of the Chunnel would help during the construction of the Large
Hadron Collider (particle accelerator / collider) in France and Switzerland during the 1990s and 2000s.
Finally, the completion of the Chunnel indicated to the world that although England might not be the
dominant power it once was, it was still a powerful nation with advanced technology and engineering.
AD 2012 - The London Olympic Games are staged
As is always the case, the Olympic Games, whether summer or winter, are always the result of incredible
planning and hard work. When it was announced that London would host the 2012 Summer Olympic
Games, planning was immediately put into effect. When England submitted its Olympic bid, emphasis
was placed on not only rebuilding parts of London that were in poor condition, but also making the
entire Olympics as sustainable (or green) as possible.
The Games were to be a showcase of British engineering and artistry. In several venues, the construction
of facilities was designed so that the buildings could be turned over to the public, who could use the
structures year round. In all areas, construction underwent close scrutiny, so that buildings could be
completed as quickly, cheaply, and efficiently as possible.
The Olympic pool, used for the swimming events, was a radical redesign that would encourage fast
swimming and great excitement for the fans. During the Opening Ceremonies, a history of England was
staged using hundreds of actors to paint a brief and exciting picture of British history. Queen Elizabeth
agreed to be part of a “James Bond” stunt entrance to the Olympic Stadium, where the crowds were
thrilled to see what appeared to be the Queen of England parachuting from a helicopter. The entire
Opening Ceremony was a wonderful display of the rich history that is England, and it reminded the
world of just how large a role England has had in helping shape the modern world.