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EVERYTHING YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT WRITING
Writing a Thesis Statement
A thesis statement is a sentence (or sentences) that expresses the
main ideas of your paper and answers the question or questions
posed by your paper. It offers your readers a quick and easy to follow
summary of what the paper will be discussing and what you as a
writer are setting out to tell them. The kind of thesis that your paper
will have will depend on the purpose of your writing. This handout will
cover general thesis statement tips, explain some of the different
types of thesis statements, and provide some links to other resources
about writing thesis statements.
General Thesis Statement Tips
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A thesis statement generally consists of two parts: your topic,
and then the analysis, explanation(s), or assertion(s) that you're
making about the topic. The kind of thesis statement you write
will depend on what kind of paper you're writing.
In some kinds of writing, such as narratives or descriptions, a
thesis statement is less important, but you may still want to
provide some kind of statement in your first paragraph that
helps to guide your reader through your paper.
A thesis statement is a very specific statement -- it should
cover only what you want to discuss in your paper, and be
supported with specific evidence. The scope of your paper will
be determined by the length of your paper and any other
requirements that might be in place.
Generally, a thesis statement appears at the end of the first
paragraph of an essay, so that readers will have a clear idea of
what to expect as they read.
You can think of your thesis as a map or a guide both for
yourself and your audience, so it might be helpful to draw a
chart or picture of your ideas and how they're connected to help
you get started.
As you write and revise your paper, it's okay to change your
thesis statement -- sometimes you don't discover what you
really want to say about a topic until you've started (or finished)
writing! Just make sure that your "final" thesis statement
accurately shows what will happen in your paper.
Analytical Thesis Statements
In an analytical paper, you are breaking down an issue or an idea into
its component parts, evaluating the issue or idea, and presenting this
breakdown and evaluation to your audience. An analytical thesis
statement will explain:
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what you are analyzing
the parts of your analysis
the order in which you will be presenting your analysis
Example: An analysis of barn owl flight behavior reveals two kinds of
flight patterns: patterns related to hunting prey and patterns related to
courtship.
A reader who encountered that thesis in a paper would expect an
explanation of the analysis of barn owl flight behavior, and then an
explanation of the two kinds of flight patterns.
Questions to ask yourself when writing an analytical thesis statement:
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What did I analyze?
What did I discover in my analysis?
How can I categorize my discoveries?
In what order should I present my discoveries?
Argumentative Thesis Statements
In an argumentative paper, you are making a claim about a topic and
justifying this claim with reasons and evidence. This claim could be
an opinion, a policy proposal, an evaluation, a cause-and-effect
statement, or an interpretation. However, this claim must be a
statement that people could possibly disagree with, because the goal
of your paper is to convince your audience that your claim is true
based on your presentation of your reasons and evidence. An
argumentative thesis statement will tell your audience:
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your claim or assertion
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the reasons/evidence that support this claim
the order in which you will be presenting your reasons and
evidence
Example: Barn owls' nests should not be eliminated from barns
because barn owls help farmers by eliminating insect and rodent
pests.
A reader who encountered this thesis would expect to be presented
with an argument and evidence that farmers should not get rid of barn
owls when they find them nesting in their barns.
Questions to ask yourself when writing an argumentative thesis
statement:
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What is my claim or assertion?
What are the reasons I have to support my claim or assertion?
In what order should I present my reasons?
How to Write a Thesis Statement
What is a Thesis Statement?
Almost all of us—even if we don’t do it consciously—look early in an
essay for a one- or two-sentence condensation of the argument or
analysis that is to follow. We refer to that condensation as a thesis
statement.
Why Should Your Essay Contain a Thesis Statement?
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to test your ideas by distilling them into a sentence or two
to better organize and develop your argument
to provide your reader with a “guide” to your argument
In general, your thesis statement will accomplish these goals if you
think of the thesis as the answer to the question your paper explores.
How Can You Write a Good Thesis Statement?
Here are some helpful hints to get you started.
How to Generate a Thesis Statement if the Topic is Assigned
Almost all assignments, no matter how complicated, can be reduced
to a single question. Your first step, then, is to distill the assignment
into a specific question. For example, if your assignment is “Write a
report to the local school board explaining the potential benefits of
using computers in a fourth-grade class,” turn the request into a
question like “What are the potential benefits of using computers in a
fourth-grade class?” After you’ve chosen the question your essay will
answer, compose one or two complete sentences answering that
question.
Q: “What are the potential benefits of using computers in
a fourth-grade class?”
A: “The potential benefits of using computers in a fourthgrade class are . . . .”
OR
A: “Using computers in a fourth-grade class promises to
improve . . . .”
The answer to the question is the thesis statement for the essay.
How to Generate a Thesis Statement if the Topic is Not
Assigned.
Even if your assignment doesn’t ask a specific question, your thesis
statement still needs to answer a question about the issue you’d like
to explore. In this situation, your job is to figure out what question
you’d like to write about.
A good thesis statement will usually include the following four
attributes:
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take on a subject upon which reasonable people could disagree
deal with a subject that can be adequately treated given the
nature of the assignment
express one main idea
assert your conclusions about a subject
Let’s see how to generate a thesis statement for a social policy
paper.
Brainstorm the topic.
Let’s say that your class focuses upon the problems posed by drug
addiction. You find that you are interested in the problems of crack
babies, babies born to mothers addicted to crack cocaine.
You start out with a thesis statement like this:
Crack babies.
This fragment isn’t a thesis statement. Instead, it simply indicates a
general subject. Furthermore, your reader doesn’t know what you
want to say about crack kids.
Narrow the topic
Your readings about the topic, however, have led you to the
conclusion that not only do these babies have a difficult time surviving
premature births and withdrawal symptoms, but their lives will be
even harder as they grow up because they are likely to be raised in
an environment of poverty and neglect. You think that there should be
programs to help these children.
You change your thesis to look like this:
Programs for crack kids.
This fragment not only announces your subject, but it focuses on one
main idea: programs. Furthermore, it raises a subject upon which
reasonable people could disagree, because while most people might
agree that something needs to be done for these children, not
everyone would agree on what should be done or who should do it.
You should note that this fragment is not a thesis statement because
your reader doesn’t know your conclusions on the topic.
Take a position on the topic.
After reflecting on the topic a little while longer, you decide that what
you really want to say about this topic is that in addition to programs
for crack babies, the government should develop programs to help
crack children cope and compete.
You revise your thesis to look like this:
More attention should be paid to the environment in
which crack kids grow up.
This statement asserts your position, but the terms ‘more attention’
and ‘the environment’ are vague.
Use specific language.
You decide to explain what you mean about “the environment,” so
you write:
Experts estimate that half of crack babies will grow
up in home environments lacking rich cognitive and
emotional stimulation.
This statement is specific, but it isn’t a thesis. It merely reports a
statistic instead of making an assertion.
Make an assertion based on clearly stated support.
You finally revise your thesis statement one more time to look like
this:
Because half of all crack babies are likely to grow up
in homes lacking good cognitive and emotional
stimulation, the federal government should finance
programs to supplement parental care for crack kids.
Notice how the thesis answers the question, “Why should anything be
done for crack kids, and who should do it?” When you started thinking
about the paper, you may not have had a specific question in mind,
but as you became more involved in the topic, your ideas became
more specific. Your thesis changed to reflect your new insights.
How to Tell a Strong Thesis Statement from a Weak One
1. A strong thesis takes some sort of stand.
Remember that your thesis needs to show your conclusions about a
subject. For example, if you are writing a paper for a class on fitness,
you might be asked to choose a popular weight-loss product to
evaluate. Here are two thesis statements:
There are some negative and positive aspects to the
Banana Herb Tea Supplement.
This is a weak thesis. First, it fails to take a stand. Second, the
phrase “negative and positive aspects” is vague.
Because Banana Herb Tea Supplement promotes
rapid weight loss that results in the loss of muscle
and lean body mass, it poses a potential danger to
customers.
This is a strong thesis because it takes a stand.
2. A strong thesis justifies discussion.
Your thesis should indicate the point of the discussion. If your
assignment is to write a paper on kinship systems, using your own
family as an example, you might come up with either of these two
thesis statements:
My family is an extended family.
This is a weak thesis because it states an observation. Your reader
won’t be able to tell the point of the statement, and will probably stop
reading.
While most American families would view
consanguineal marriage as a threat to the nuclear
family structure, many Iranian families, like my own,
believe that these marriages help reinforce kinship
ties in an extended family.
This is a strong thesis because it shows how your experience
contradicts a widely-accepted view. A good strategy for creating a
strong thesis is to show that the topic is controversial. Readers will be
interested in reading the rest of the essay to see how you support
your point.
3. A strong thesis expresses one main idea.
Readers need to be able to see that your paper has one main point. If
your thesis expresses more than one idea, then you might confuse
your readers about the subject of your paper. For example:
Companies need to exploit the marketing potential of
the Internet, and web pages can provide both
advertising and customer support.
This is a weak thesis statement because the reader can’t decide
whether the paper is about marketing on the Internet or web pages.
To revise the thesis, the relationship between the two ideas needs to
become more clear. One way to revise the thesis would be to write:
Because the Internet is filled with tremendous
marketing potential, companies should exploit this
potential by using web pages that offer both
advertising and customer support.
This is a strong thesis because it shows that the two ideas are
related. Hint: a great many clear and engaging thesis statements
contain words like “because,” “since,” “so,” “although,” “unless,” and
“however.”
4. A strong thesis statement is specific.
A thesis statement should show exactly what your paper will be
about, and will help you keep your paper to a manageable topic. For
example, if you write a paper on hunger, you might say:
World hunger has many causes and effects.
This is a weak thesis statement for two major reasons. First, “world
hunger” can’t be discussed thoroughly in five or ten pages. Second,
"many causes and effects" is vague. You should be able to identify
specific causes and effects. A revised thesis might look like this:
Hunger persists in Appalachia because jobs are
scarce and farming in the infertile soil is rarely
profitable.
This is a strong thesis because it narrows the subject to a more
specific and manageable topic and it also identifies the specific
causes for the existence of hunger.
How to Use Evidence
Why Should Writers Use Evidence?
Like lawyers in a jury trial, writers must convince audiences of the
validity of their argument by using evidence effectively. As writers, we
must also use evidence to persuade our readers to accept our claims.
But how do we use evidence to our advantage? By leading our
reader through our reasoning.
The types of evidence you use change from discipline to discipline—
we use quotations from a poem or from a literary critic, for example,
in a literature paper; we use data from an experiment in a lab report.
The process of putting together your argument is called analysis—it
interprets evidence in order to support, test, and/or refine a claim.
The chief claim in an analytical essay is called the thesis. A thesis
provides the controlling idea for a paper and should be original (that
is, not completely obvious), assertive, and arguable. A strong thesis
also requires solid evidence to support and develop it because
without evidence, a claim is merely an unsubstantiated idea or
opinion.
This document covers these basic guidelines:
When should you incorporate evidence?
Once you have formulated your claim, your thesis, you should use
evidence to help strengthen your thesis and any assertion you make
that relates to your thesis. Here are some ways to work evidence into
your writing:
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Offer evidence that agrees with your stance up to a point, then
add to it with ideas of your own.
Present evidence that contradicts your stance in order to argue
against (refute) it and therefore strengthen your position.
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Use sources against each other, as if they are experts on a
panel discussing your proposition.
Use quotations to support your assertion, not merely to state or
restate your claim.
Weak and Strong Uses of Evidence
In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly
into your paragraph by following this pattern:
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State your claim.
Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim.
Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim.
To see the differences between strong and weak uses of evidence,
here are two paragraphs.
Weak Use of Evidence
1) Today, we are too self-centered. Most families no
longer sit down to eat together, preferring instead to eat
on the go while rushing to the next appointment (Gleick
148). Everything is about what we want.
This is a weak example of evidence because the evidence is not
related to the claim. What does the claim about self-centeredness
have to do with families eating together? The writer doesn’t explain
the connection.
The same evidence, however, can be used to support the same
claim, but only with the addition of a clear connection between claim
and evidence, and some analysis of the quotation’s content.
Stronger Use of Evidence
2) Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our
families don't matter as much anymore as they once did.
Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the
evidence shows that most American families no longer
eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while
rushing to the next appointment (Gleick 148). Sit-down
meals are a time to share and connect with others;
however, that connection has become less valued, as
families begin to prize individual activities over shared
time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity.
This is a far better example, as the evidence is more smoothly
integrated into the text, the link between the claim and the evidence is
strengthened, and the evidence itself is analyzed to provide support
for the claim.
Using Quotations: A Special Type of Evidence
One effective way to support your claim is to use quotations, but
because quotations involve someone else’s words, you need to take
special care to integrate the evidence into your paragraph.
Here are two examples of quotation use, one ineffective and one
more effective.
Ineffective Use of Quotation
1) Today, we are too self-centered. “We are consumerson-the-run…the very notion of the family meal as a sitdown occasion is vanishing. Adults and children alike
eat…on the way to their next activity” (Gleick 148).
Everything is about what we want.
This example is ineffective because the quotation is not integrated
with the writer’s ideas. Notice how it is dropped into the paragraph
without any connection between the claim and the quotation.
Furthermore, the quotation’s significance is not discussed, which
makes it difficult for the reader to see the relationship between the
evidence and the writer’s point.
A More Effective Use of Quotation
2) Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our
families don't matter as much anymore as they once did.
Other people and activities take precedence, as James
Gleick says in his book, Faster,” We are consumers-onthe-run…the very notion of the family meal as a sit-down
occasion is vanishing. Adults and children alike eat…on
the way to their next activity” (148). Sit-down meals are a
time to share and connect with others; however, that
connection has become less valued, as families begin to
prize individual activities over shared time, promoting selfcenteredness over group identity.
The second example is more effective because it follows the
guidelines for incorporating evidence into a paragraph. Notice, too,
that it uses a “lead-in” phrase to introduce the direct quotation. This
“lead-in” phrase helps to integrate the quotation with the writer’s
ideas. Also notice that the writer discusses and comments upon the
quotation immediately afterwards, which allows the reader to see the
relationship between the quotation and the writer’s point.
REMEMBER: Discussing your evidence’s significance develops and
expands a paper!
Citing Your Sources
Evidence appears in paragraphs in the form of quotations,
paraphrases, and summaries. Each form of evidence must be cited in
your text,, not just in your bibliography. Citing evidence means
distinguishing the information from your own and giving credit to your
sources. There are plenty of acceptable ways to introduce citations,
but here are three standard ways of doing so. Be sure to note both
the lead-in phrases and the punctuation (except the brackets).
Quote: According to Source X, “[direct quotation]” ([date
or page #]).
Paraphrase: Although Source Z argues that [his/her point
in your own words], a better way to view the issue is [your
own point] ([URL, date of publication or access]).
Summarize: In her book, Source P’s main points are Y,
W, and R [information in condensed form].
Remember that your job during the course of your essay is to
persuade your readers that your claims are feasible and the most
effective way of interpreting the evidence.
Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper:
1. Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining
how my evidence is representative?
2. Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each
assertion I make in my paper?
3. Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my
ideas?
4. Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies
my paper’s main claims?
5. Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to
just confirm them?
6. Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?
Paragraphs and Topic Sentences
A paragraph is a series of sentences that are organized and
coherent, and are all related to a single topic. Almost every piece of
writing you do that is longer than a few sentences should be
organized into paragraphs. This is because paragraphs show a
reader where the subdivisions of an essay begin and end, and thus
help the reader see the organization of the essay and grasp its main
points.
Paragraphs can contain many different kinds of information. A
paragraph could contain a series of brief examples or a single long
illustration of a general point. It might describe a place, character, or
process; narrate a series of events; compare or contrast two or more
things; classify items into categories; or describe causes and effects.
Regardless of the kind of information they contain, all paragraphs
share certain characteristics. One of the most important of these is a
topic sentence.
TOPIC SENTENCES
A well-organized paragraph supports or develops a single controlling
idea, which is expressed in a sentence called the topic sentence. A
topic sentence has several important functions: it substantiates or
supports an essay’s thesis statement; it unifies the content of a
paragraph and directs the order of the sentences; and it advises the
reader of the subject to be discussed and how the paragraph will
discuss it. Readers generally look to the first few sentences in a
paragraph to determine the subject and perspective of the paragraph.
That’s why it’s often best to put the topic sentence at the very
beginning of the paragraph. In some cases, however, it’s more
effective to place another sentence before the topic sentence—for
example, a sentence linking the current paragraph to the previous
one, or one providing background information.
Although most paragraphs should have a topic sentence, there are a
few situations when a paragraph might not need a topic sentence.
For example, you might be able to omit a topic sentence in a
paragraph that narrates a series of events, if a paragraph continues
developing an idea that you introduced (with a topic sentence) in the
previous paragraph, or if all the sentences and details in a paragraph
clearly refer—perhaps indirectly—to a main point. The vast majority
of your paragraphs, however, should have a topic sentence.
PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE
Most paragraphs in an essay have a three-part structure—
introduction, body, and conclusion. You can see this structure in
paragraphs whether they are narrating, describing, comparing,
contrasting, or analyzing information. Each part of the paragraph
plays an important role in communicating your meaning to your
reader.
Introduction: the first section of a paragraph; should include the
topic sentence and any other sentences at the beginning of the
paragraph that give background information or provide a transition.
Body: follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea, using
facts, arguments, analysis, examples, and other information.
Conclusion: the final section; summarizes the connections between
the information discussed in the body of the paragraph and the
paragraph’s controlling idea.
The following paragraph illustrates this pattern of organization. In this
paragraph the topic sentence and concluding sentence
(CAPITALIZED) both help the reader keep the paragraph’s main
point in mind.
SCIENTISTS HAVE LEARNED TO SUPPLEMENT THE SENSE
OF SIGHT IN NUMEROUS WAYS. In front of the tiny pupil of the
eye they put, on Mount Palomar, a great monocle 200 inches in
diameter, and with it see 2000 times farther into the depths of
space. Or they look through a small pair of lenses arranged as a
microscope into a drop of water or blood, and magnify by as much
as 2000 diameters the living creatures there, many of which are
among man’s most dangerous enemies. Or, if we want to see
distant happenings on earth, they use some of the previously
wasted electromagnetic waves to carry television images which
they re-create as light by whipping tiny crystals on a screen with
electrons in a vacuum. Or they can bring happenings of long ago
and far away as colored motion pictures, by arranging silver atoms
and color-absorbing molecules to force light waves into the patterns
of original reality. Or if we want to see into the center of a steel
casting or the chest of an injured child, they send the information
on a beam of penetrating short-wave X rays, and then convert it
back into images we can see on a screen or photograph. THUS
ALMOST EVERY TYPE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
YET DISCOVERED HAS BEEN USED TO EXTEND OUR SENSE
OF SIGHT IN SOME WAY.
George Harrison, “Faith and the Scientist”
COHERENCE
In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates clearly to the topic
sentence or controlling idea, but there is more to coherence than this.
If a paragraph is coherent, each sentence flows smoothly into the
next without obvious shifts or jumps. A coherent paragraph also
highlights the ties between old information and new information to
make the structure of ideas or arguments clear to the reader.
Along with the smooth flow of sentences, a paragraph’s coherence
may also be related to its length. If you have written a very long
paragraph, one that fills a double-spaced typed page, for example,
you should check it carefully to see if it should start a new paragraph
where the original paragraph wanders from its controlling idea. On
the other hand, if a paragraph is very short (only one or two
sentences, perhaps), you may need to develop its controlling idea
more thoroughly, or combine it with another paragraph.
A number of other techniques that you can use to establish
coherence in paragraphs are described below.
Repeat key words or phrases. Particularly in paragraphs in which
you define or identify an important idea or theory, be consistent in
how you refer to it. This consistency and repetition will bind the
paragraph together and help your reader understand your definition
or description.
Create parallel structures. Parallel structures are created by
constructing two or more phrases or sentences that have the same
grammatical structure and use the same parts of speech. By creating
parallel structures you make your sentences clearer and easier to
read. In addition, repeating a pattern in a series of consecutive
sentences helps your reader see the connections between ideas. In
the paragraph above about scientists and the sense of sight, several
sentences in the body of the paragraph have been constructed in a
parallel way. The parallel structures (which have been emphasized)
help the reader see that the paragraph is organized as a set of
examples of a general statement.
Be consistent in point of view, verb tense, and number.
Consistency in point of view, verb tense, and number is a subtle but
important aspect of coherence. If you shift from the more personal
"you" to the impersonal “one,” from past to present tense, or from “a
man” to “they,” for example, you make your paragraph less coherent.
Such inconsistencies can also confuse your reader and make your
argument more difficult to follow.
Use transition words or phrases between sentences and
between paragraphs. Transitional expressions emphasize the
relationships between ideas, so they help readers follow your train of
thought or see connections that they might otherwise miss or
misunderstand. The following paragraph shows how carefully chosen
transitions (CAPITALIZED) lead the reader smoothly from the
introduction to the conclusion of the paragraph.
I don’t wish to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of
the large-bodied "stegosaurus" houses little brain from
our subjective, top-heavy perspective, BUT I do wish to
assert that we should not expect more of the beast.
FIRST OF ALL, large animals have relatively smaller
brains than related, small animals. The correlation of
brain size with body size among kindred animals (all
reptiles, all mammals, FOR EXAMPLE) is remarkably
regular. AS we move from small to large animals, from
mice to elephants or small lizards to Komodo dragons,
brain size increases, BUT not so fast as body size. IN
OTHER WORDS, bodies grow faster than brains, AND
large animals have low ratios of brain weight to body
weight. IN FACT, brains grow only about two-thirds as
fast as bodies. SINCE we have no reason to believe that
large animals are consistently stupider than their smaller
relatives, we must conclude that large animals require
relatively less brain to do as well as smaller animals. IF
we do not recognize this relationship, we are likely to
underestimate the mental power of very large animals,
dinosaurs in particular.
Stephen Jay Gould, “Were Dinosaurs Dumb?”
SOME USEFUL TRANSITIONS
(modified from Diana Hacker, A Writer’s Reference)
To show addition:
again, and, also, besides, equally important, first (second, etc.),
further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, moreover,
next, too
To give examples:
for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is, to illustrate
To compare:
also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly
To contrast:
although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even though,
however, in contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on the contrary,
on the other hand, still, though, yet
To summarize or conclude:
all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in summary, on
the whole, that is, therefore, to sum up
To show time:
after, afterward, as, as long as, as soon as, at last, before,
during, earlier, finally, formerly, immediately, later, meanwhile,
next, since, shortly, subsequently, then, thereafter, until, when,
while
To show place or direction:
above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on, here,
nearby, opposite, to the left (north, etc.)
To indicate logical relationship:
accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this reason,
hence, if, otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thus
Proofreading for Common Surface Errors: Spelling, Punctuation,
and Grammar
What is proofreading?
Proofreading refers to the process of reading written work for “surface
errors.” These are errors involving spelling, punctuation, grammar,
and word choice.
Why should I care about proofreading, and what should I know
about it?
In most college courses, instructors expect that your writing will be
free of surface errors, but you may be uncertain of the rules for
spelling, punctuation, grammar and word choice. The following rules
and examples, taken primarily from The St. Martin’s Handbook, 3rd
ed., by Andrea Lunsford and Robert Connors, may help you find and
correct some of the most common surface errors in your writing. If
you have questions about these rules, consult any good grammar
book.
How can I proofread effectively?
The following four steps should help you become a better
proofreader.
1. Familiarize yourself with the errors you commonly make by
looking over writing that has already been marked. Make a list
of your errors, and check your writing for each of them.
2. Carefully and slowly read your writing out loud. Often your ear
will hear what your eye did not see.
3. Read your writing, sentence by sentence, from the last
sentence to the first sentence. This technique interrupts the
logical flow of the prose and neutralizes any impression of
correctness arising from your knowledge of what you meant to
say.
4. Use your dictionary to check any words of which you are
unsure, and to check for correct prepositions, verb tenses, and
irregular forms.
What are some of the more common surface errors?
Here is a listing of some of the more common surface errors, broken
down by category. Either select the link you would like to view or
scroll down to the appropriate topic.
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Spelling
Punctuation
o Commas
o Apostrophes
o Periods
Verbs
Subject-verb agreement
Pronouns
Other grammatical errors
o Sentence fragments
o Misplaced or dangling modifiers
Spelling
Spelling errors are among the most common surface errors as well as
the most easily corrected. To correct spelling errors, use a spellchecker, regardless of your spelling skill, along with a dictionary to
help you find the right alternative for a misspelled word. Remember
that the spell-checker won’t help with homonyms, words that sound
alike but have different spellings and meanings. Some words that can
cause trouble are listed below.
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
their (possessive form of they)
there (in that place)
they’re (contraction of they are)
accept (a verb, meaning to receive or to admit to a group)
except (usually a preposition, meaning but or only)
who’s (contraction of who is or who has)
whose (possessive form of who)
its (possessive form of it)
it’s (contraction of it is or it has)
your (possessive form of you)
you’re (contraction of you are)
affect (usually a verb, meaning to influence)
effect (usually a noun, meaning result)
than (used in comparison)
then (refers to a time in the past)
were (form of the verb to be)
we’re (contraction of we are)
where (related to location or place)
Punctuation
Commas
1. Use a comma to signal a pause between the introductory
element of a sentence and the main part of the sentence.


Frankly, the committee’s decision baffled us.
Though I gave him detailed advice for revising, his draft only
became worse.
2. Use a comma when you join two independent sentences with a
conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

Meredith wore jeans to the hotel, but she changed before the
wedding.
3. Use a comma to signal the presence of a nonrestrictive element,
that is, a word, phrase, or clause that gives additional information
about the preceding part of the sentence, but which can be deleted
without changing the basic meaning of the sentence. If the element is
in the middle of the sentence, use a comma before and after the
element.


Marina, who was the president of the club, was the first to
speak.
Puerto Rico was a Spanish colony until 1898, when it was
ceded to the U.S.
4. Do NOT use a comma with a restrictive element, that is, a word,
phrase, or clause that restricts the meaning of the word or phrase it
modifies. A restrictive element cannot be deleted without changing
the sentence’s basic meaning.
Wrong: I’ll return the sweater, that I borrowed, after I wear
it tonight
Right: I’ll return the sweater that I borrowed after I wear
it tonight.
Wrong: The people, who vandalized the school, were
never caught.
Right: The people who vandalized the school were
never caught.
To see why these are restrictive elements, try eliminating them from
the sentence. Once you do so, you see that the first sentence implies
that there is only one sweater, while the second implies that all the
people were never caught.
5. Traditionally, commas separate all the items in a series (three or
more words, phrases, or clauses that appear consecutively in a
sentence). Some instructors don’t require a comma before the and or
or between the last two items. Check your teacher’s preference, and
be consistent in either using or omitting this comma.

Sharks eat squid, shrimp, crabs, and fish.
Apostrophes
1. To show that one thing belongs to another, either an apostrophe
and an s or an apostrophe alone is added to the word representing
the thing that possesses the other. An apostrophe and an s are used
for singular nouns, indefinite pronouns (anybody, everyone,
nobody, somebody), and for plural nouns that do not end in s. When
plural nouns end in s only the apostrophe is used.



Overambitious parents can be harmful to a child’s well-being.
The accident was nobody’s fault.
Both drivers’ cars were damaged in the accident.
2. The word its, spelled without an apostrophe, is the possessive
form of it, meaning of it or belonging to it. The word it’s, spelled with
an apostrophe, is a contraction of it is or it has. Even though with
nouns an apostrophe usually indicates possessive form, the
possessive in this case is the one without the apostrophe.

The car is lying on its side in the ditch. It’s a white 1986 Buick.
Periods
1. A comma splice occurs when two or more clauses that could each
stand alone as a sentence are written with only a comma between
them. To correct this error, separate the clauses with a period or
semicolon, connect the clauses with a word like and, for,
because, or although, or combine them into one clause.
Wrong: The ship was huge, its mast stood thirty feet high.
Right: The ship was huge; its mast stood thirty feet high.
Right: The ship was huge, and its mast stood thirty feet
high.
Right: The mast of the huge ship stood thirty feet high.
2. Fused sentences are created when two or more groups of words
that could each be written as an independent sentence are written
without any punctuation between them. To eliminate a fused
sentence, divide the groups of words into separate sentences, or
join them in a way that shows their relationship.
Wrong: Our fiscal policy is not well defined it confuses
many people.
Right: Our fiscal policy is not well defined. It confuses
many people.
Right: Our fiscal policy is not well defined, and it confuses
many people.
Verbs
Active and Passive Verbs
1. Verbs can be in either active or passive voice. In active voice, the
subject of the sentence performs the action of the verb; in passive
voice, the subject receives the action of the verb. Readers typically
find active voice sentences more vigorous and clearer; for these
reasons, writers usually prefer active voice.
Passive: The ball was kicked by the boy.
Active: The boy kicked the ball.
Passive: A decision was reached by the committee.
Active: The committee reached a decision.
Passive: Many arguments are offered against abortion.
Active: Religious leaders offer many arguments against
abortion.
Notice that in the passive voice examples, the doer of the action is
either at the end of the sentence in a prepositional phrase or, in the
third example, is missing entirely from the sentence. In each active
voice example, however, the doer of the action is in the subject
position at the beginning of the sentence.
2. On some occasions, however, you might have a good reason for
choosing a passive construction; for example, you might choose the
passive if you want to emphasize the receiver of the action or
minimize the importance of the actor.
Appropriate passive: The medical records were destroyed
in the fire.
Appropriate passive: The experiment was performed
successfully.
Passive voice verbs always include a form of the verb to be, such as
am, are, was, is being, and so on. To check for active versus passive
voice, look for sentences that contain a form of this verb, and see
whether in these sentences the subject of the sentence performs the
action of the verb.
Shifting Verb Tense
1. If you shift verb tense (for example, from past to present tense) in a
sentence or passage without a good reason, you may confuse your
reader.
Wrong: After he joined the union, Sam appears at a rally
and makes a speech.
Right: After he joined the union, Sam appeared at a rally
and made a speech.
To proofread for verb tense errors, circle all verbs in your writing.
Look at the verbs in sequence and check that you haven’t changed
tense unintentionally.
Subject-Verb Agreement
1. Make sure that the subject and verb of each clause or sentence
agree—that is, that a singular subject has a singular verb, and a
plural subject a plural verb. When other words come between subject
and verb, you may mistake the noun nearest to the verb—before or
after—for the verb’s real subject.
Wrong: A central part of my life goals have been to go to
law school.
Right: A central part of my life goals has been to go to
law school.
Wrong: The profits earned by the cosmetic industry is
not high enough.
Right: The profits earned by the cosmetic industry are
not high enough.
2. Be particularly careful that your subject and verb agree when your
subject is made up of two or more parts joined by and or or; when
your subject is a word like committee or jury, which can take either a
singular or a plural verb depending on whether it is treated as a unit
or as a group of individuals; or when your subject is a word like
mathematics or measles, which looks plural but is singular in
meaning.
Wrong: My brother and his friend commutes every day
from Louisville.
Right: My brother and his friend commute every day
from Louisville.
Wrong: The committee was taking all the responsibility
themselves.
Right: The committee were taking all the responsibility
themselves.
(Note that the use of the word themselves shows that
committee is being treated as a group of individuals, not
as a unit.)
Wrong: Measles have become less common in the
United States.
Right: Measles has become less common in the United
States.
To proofread for subject-verb agreement, circle the subject and verb
in each sentence and be sure they agree.
Pronouns
1. A pronoun (like I, it, you, him, her, this, themselves, someone, who,
which) is used to replace another word—its antecedent—so the
antecedent does not have to be repeated.Check each pronoun to
make sure that it agrees with its antecedent in gender and number.
Remember that words like each, either, neither, and one are singular;
when they are used as antecedents, they take singular pronouns.
Antecedents made up of two or more parts joined by or or nor take
pronouns that agree with the nearest antecedent. Collective-noun
antecedents (audience, team) can be singular or plural depending on
whether they refer to a single unit or a group of individuals.
Wrong: Every one of the puppies thrived in their new
home.
Right: Every one of the puppies thrived in its new home.
Wrong: Neither Jane nor Susan felt that they had been
treated fairly.
Right: Neither Jane nor Susan felt that she had been
treated fairly.
Wrong: The team frequently changed its positions to get
varied experience.
Right: The team frequently changed their positions to get
varied experience.
To proofread for agreement of pronouns and antecedents, circle each
pronoun, identify its antecedent, and make sure that they agree in
gender and number.
2. As noted above, most indefinite pronouns (like each, either,
neither, or one) are singular; therefore, they take singular verbs. A
relative pronoun, like who, which, or that, takes a verb that agrees
with the pronoun’s antecedent.
Wrong: Each of the items in these designs coordinate
with the others.
Right: Each of the items in these designs coordinates
with the others.
Wrong: He is one of the employees who works overtime
regularly.
Right: He is one of the employees who work overtime
regularly.
(In this example, the antecedent of who is employees,
and therefore the verb should be plural.)
3. A vague pronoun reference occurs when readers cannot be sure of
a pronoun’s antecedent. If a pronoun could refer to more than one
antecedent, or if the antecedent is implied but not explicitly stated,
revise the sentence to make the antecedent clear.
Wrong: Before Mary assaulted Mrs. Turpin, she was a
judgmental woman.
Right: Before Mary assaulted Mrs. Turpin, the latter was
a judgmental woman.
(In the first sentence, she could refer to either Mary or
Mrs. Turpin.)
Wrong: They believe that an egg is as important as a
human being, but it can’t be proved.
Right: They believe that an egg is as important as a
human being, but such an assertion can’t be proved.
(In the first sentence, the antecedent of it is unclear.)
Other Grammatical Errors
Sentence Fragments
1. The sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence punctuated as a
sentence. To make it a complete sentence, join it to the main
clause or rewrite it.
Wrong: She is a good friend. A person whom I trust and
admire.
Right: She is a good friend, a person whom I trust and
admire.
Wrong: In the workshop, we learned the value of
discipline. Also how to take good notes.
Right: In the workshop, we learned the value of discipline.
We also learned how to take good notes.
Wrong: The old aluminum boat sitting on its trailer.
Right: The old aluminum boat was sitting on its trailer.
To proofread for sentence fragments, check all sentences for a
subject, a verb, and at least one clause that does not begin with a
subordinating word like as, although, if, when, that, since, or who.
Misplaced or Dangling Modifiers
1. Misplaced or dangling modifiers are words, phrases, or clauses not
clearly connected to the word they modify. Move a misplaced modifier
closer to the word it describes, or revise a sentence to give a
dangling modifier a word to modify.
Wrong: They could see the eagles swooping and diving
with binoculars.
Right: With binoculars, they could see the eagles
swooping and diving.
Wrong: Nixon told reporters that he planned to get out of
politics after he lost the 1962 gubernatorial race.
Right: After he lost the 1962 gubernatorial race, Nixon
told reporters that he planned to get out of politics.
Wrong: A rabbit’s teeth are never used for defense even
when cornered.
Right: Even when cornered, a rabbit never uses its
teeth for defense.
Wrong: As a young boy, his grandmother told stories of
her years as a country schoolteacher.
Right: As a young boy, he heard his grandmother tell
stories of her years as a country schoolteacher.
To proofread for misplaced or dangling modifiers, circle all modifiers
and draw a line to the word they describe; be sure they can’t
mistakenly modify some other word.
Taking an Essay Exam
You may often be asked in college to take essay exams. In certain
ways, the same principles for writing good out-of-class essays apply
to writing good in-class essays as well. For example, both kinds of
essays are more successful when you take into consideration your
purpose, audience and information; when you develop a thesis with
support; when you prove your assertions with evidence; when you
guide your readers with transitions, etc.
However, there are some differences to keep in mind as you prepare
to write. The most important one is the purpose for writing. Usually
you write a research paper, for example, to learn more about your
selected topic; however, you write essay exams to demonstrate your
knowledge. You are not only conveying information, but also proving
to your audience--the examiner--that you have mastered the
information and can work with it. In other words, your purpose is both
informative and persuasive. Keeping this purpose in mind will help
you both prepare for and write the essay.
PREPARING FOR THE EXAM
Study connections between ideas. Your instructor is not looking for a
collection of unrelated pieces of information. Rather, he or she wants
to see that you understand the whole picture, i.e., how the
generalizations or concepts create the framework for the specific
facts, and how the examples or details fill in the gaps. So, when
you’re studying, try to think about how the information fits together.
Prepare practice questions. Try to prepare for questions that are
likely to be asked. If your instructor has given you the questions
themselves or a study sheet in advance, practice answering those
questions. Otherwise, try to anticipate questions your instructor is
likely to ask and practice those. At the very least, outline how you
would answer the test questions; however, it’s better to actually write
out the answers. That way, you will know where you need to study
more.
TAKING THE EXAM
Again, while you’re taking the exam, remember that it’s not simply
what you say or how much you say, but HOW you say it that’s
important. You want to show your instructor that you have mastered
the material.
Plan your time. Although you will be working under pressure, take a
few minutes to plan your time. Determine how many minutes you can
devote to each answer. You will want to devote most of your time to
the questions that are worth the most points, perhaps answering
those questions first. On the other hand, you might want to answer
first the questions that you are best prepared for.
Read the questions thoroughly. Take a few minutes before writing
your essay to read the question carefully in order to determine exactly
what you are being asked to do. Most essay exam questions, or
“prompts,” are carefully worded and contain specific instructions
about WHAT you are to write about as well as HOW you should
organize your answer. The prompt may use one or more of the
following terms. If you see one of these terms, try to organize your
essay to respond to the question or questions indicated.
classify: Into what general category/categories does this
idea belong?
compare: What are the similarities among these ideas?
What are the differences?
contrast: What are the differences between these ideas?
critique: What are the strengths and weaknesses of this
idea?
define: What does this word or phrase mean?
describe: What are the important characteristics or
features of this idea?
evaluate: What are the arguments for and against this
idea? Which arguments are stronger?
explain: Why is this the case?
identify: What is this idea? What is its name?
interpret: What does this idea mean? Why is it
important?
justify: Why is this correct? Why is this true?
outline: What are the main points and essential details?
summarize: Briefly, what are the important ideas?
trace: What is the sequence of ideas or order of events?
Plan your answer. Jot down the main points you intend to make as
you think through your answer. Then, you can use your list to help
you stick to the topic. In an exam situation, it’s easy to forget points if
you don’t write them down.
Write out your essay, using good writing techniques. As was said
earlier, essay exams are like other essays, so use the same good
writing strategies you use for other kinds of writing. Keep in mind that
your purpose is to persuade your reader—the examiner—that you
know the material.
First, create a thesis for your essay that you can defend. Often, you
can turn the questions stated or implied on the exam into an answer
and use it as your thesis. This sentence also functions as an
introduction.
For example, suppose you are given the following prompt in your
psychology class:
Define “procedural knowledge” and describe its
relationship to the results of studies of amnesic patients.
The implied question is:
What is “procedural knowledge” and how is it related to
the results of studies of amnesic patients?
Note how you can turn the answer to that implied question into the
thesis of your exam essay. This paragraph might serve as your
introduction.
“Procedural knowledge” is knowing how to perform a task,
such as tying a shoe or driving a car, and studies of
amnesia have shown that this type of knowledge or
memory is often retained by amnesic patients. Even in
anmesic patients who have lost most of their declarative
memory capacity, the ability to form new procedural
memories is often intact...
Then, proceed immediately to explain, develop, and support your
thesis, drawing upon materials from text(s), lectures, and class
discussions. Be sure to support any and all generalizations with
concrete evidence, relevant facts, and specific details that will
convince your reader that your thesis is valid. Make your main points
stand out by writing distinct paragraphs, and indicate the relationship
between them with transitions.
For example, in response to this prompt from a social work class,
Identify and give an example of four alternative solutions
available in cases of family conflict.
a student wrote the following paragraph. Note the transition phrase
and the generalization supported by specific evidence.
. . . The fourth alternative open in cases of family conflict
is violence, and this is not an uncommon response. 25%
of all homicides in the U.S. involve one family member
killing another; half of these are spouse homicides.
Violence usually takes one of two forms: explosive or
coercive. Explosive violence is not premeditated. When
the son takes and crashes the family car, for instance, the
father may explode and beat him. Coercive violence, on
the other hand, is pointed and intentional; it has the goal
of producing compliance or obedience. Thus, a blow
delivered with a threat not to repeat certain behaviors
would be coercive. . . .
Finally, sum up your argument with a brief conclusion that lends your
essay a clear sense of closure.
Finishing the Exam
Proofread your answer. Reserve a few minutes after completing
your essay to proofread it carefully. First, make sure you stick to the
question. Always answer exactly the question asked without
digressing. If you find you have digressed, neatly cross out the words
or paragraphs. It’s better to cross out a paragraph that is irrelevant
(and to replace it with a relevant one if you have time) than to allow it
to stand. In this context at least, quality is always preferable to
quantity. Also check sentence structure, spelling and punctuation.
Produced by Writing Tutorial Services, Indiana University,
Bloomington, IN