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Principles: Repetition Principle: Repetition Repetition is the notion that learning is facilitated by repeated experience. It is evident in Thorndike's law of exercise, multiple reinforced trials of behavioral learning, maintenance and elaborative rehearsal in cognitive learning theory, series of failed attempts followed by insight and success in Kohler's experiments with apes, learning of a concept through successive encounters with examples and non- examples in Ausubel's subsumption theory, Bruner's spiral curriculum, and Engeström's cycles of learning. Principles of learning subsumed by universal principle of repetition Theory Group Behavioral Local Principles Aristotle: Frequent repetition produces a natural tendency Law of frequency Exercise strengthens the memory of an image Thorndike: Law of exercise Repetition alone does not produce learning Pavlov: Association through repeated pairing of CS and UCS Watson: Frequency (repetition) is one of two principles that produce learning Skinner: Multiple trials for initial conditioning to approach food tray Significant change in behavior after a single reinforcement One-trial learning requires preliminary development of later reflexes in the chain Periodic reconditioning Shaping: reinforcement of successive approximations to the goal behavior Vanishing: gradual fading out of prompts Hull: Habit strength as a function of number of S-R pairings Guthrie: One trial learning (acquisition of movements) Obvious need for repeated practice (learning of acts or skills) Cognitive Estes: Successive sampling of stimulus elements across repeated trials Ebbinghaus: Frequent repetitions necessary to produce content from memory Surplus repetition is not wasted Insufficient repetition for reproduction is still useful Frequent repetitions necessary to prevent forgetting Clarity and longevity of new material increases in memory with repetition Number of repetitions needed to memorize a series increases with length Increased repetition in one study period produces a savings in later relearning Greater repetition to learn a longer series results in 1 Principles: Repetition Theory Group Local Principles longer lists being more easily Relearned Tolman: Repetition through repeated, non-goal-directed experience Repetition through mental review and comparison Kohler: Series of repeated failed attempts, followed by reflection, followed by success Cognitive Information Processing: Concept learning through multiple, systematically varied examples Maintenance rehearsal: short term retention of information Elaborative rehearsal: long term encoding Rehearsal increases the length of stay in STS and gives coding and other storage processes time to operate Almost any kind of operation on information is a form of rehearsal Only a limited number of items can be rehearsed at any given time Flashbulb memories: repeated mental rehearsal of shocking experiences Automaticity and possible entrenchment through repeated experience Mindless drilling does not lead to improvement Effective practice or drill must be mindful and deliberate Revisiting material with variation of time, context, purpose, and perspective Incidental learning as a result of repeated, periodic presentation Organization through repeated exposure Ausubel: Overlearning (excessive repetition) makes even rotely learned materials less vulnerable to forgetting Repetition is critical to the "perpetuation of dissociability" of subsumable or correlative concepts Explicit instruction can reduce or possibly eliminate the need for repetition Clarity and stability are influenced by repetition Criterial or defining attributes of a concept are acquired by successive encounters Multicontextual learning facilitates abstraction of commonality and strengthens transferability Sequential stages in concept acquisition Simultaneous availability of multiple instances in array Progressive differentiation Integrative reconciliation in response to additional experience Controlled sequencing of stimuli that provide successive contrast Consolidation of previously learned material through differential practice, review, and repeated exposure Transferability through application to a large number of different, specific contexts Practice and drill and the significance of repetition in meaningful learning Spaced review over long periods of time is required for retention of more complex ideas Value of both early and delayed review Benefits of repetition through practice Incidental practice often is not effective, due to haphazard frequency and distribution of trials Relation between repetition and feedback Fidelity of practice to the actual task to be learned Appropriate balance of repetition for consolidation versus diversification Schema Theory: Schema represent multiple instances of things that may be grouped based on a recurrent pattern of common features, functions, or characteristics 2 Principles: Repetition Theory Group Local Principles Schema are created, developed, tuned, and restructured through repeated experience Typical and default values for schema variables are learned through encountering multiple instances Increased precision of schema through experience Constructive Human General: Revisiting what has previously been learned to relate new information to it Piaget: Action schemes are the structure of actions generalized by repetition Consolidation: A reflex becomes stronger and more precise by exercising it First habits are formed through patterns of exercise Circular reactions Schemes of assimilation are repeated and elaborated as the child develops Adaptation comes through repeated use and accommodation Only practice leads to normal functioning Coordination of reflexes occurs through repeated contact with the environment Repetition of the reflex leads to a generalizing assimilation of objects to activity There is a natural or fundamental tendency toward repetition of behavior Bruner: Spiral curriculum Representing redundancy in the environment Cumulative constructionism: use of previously acquired information in guiding further discovery Learning the heuristics of discovery through practice Attribution Theory: Perception of patterns defined spatially and temporally Self-Efficacy: Repetition in progressively independent and varied circumstances to build self- efficacy Beliefs of self-worth and self-efficacy are built through repeated experiences of success Self-Regulation Theory: Self-regulated learning cycle phases (forethought, performance, self-reflection) Social Vygotsky: Children learn mental planning through repeated experiences Internalization occurs through repeated encounter Development proceeds in a spiral, passing through the same point at each new revolution The need for sign mediation subsides with repetition Bandura: Multiple observational trials may be required to reproduce modeled stimuli accurately Behavior repertoires of culture are transmitted on the basis of repeated observation Behavior that is repeatedly observed is learned most thoroughly New behavior is refined through self-corrective adjustments (in repeated practice) Multiple attempts made in solving problems Activity theory: Cycles of expansive learning Cognitive apprenticeship: Importance of repeated practice of a new skill in increasingly complex tasks 3