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Principles: Repetition
Principle: Repetition
Repetition is the notion that learning is facilitated by repeated experience. It is evident in
Thorndike's law of exercise, multiple reinforced trials of behavioral learning, maintenance and
elaborative rehearsal in cognitive learning theory, series of failed attempts followed by insight
and success in Kohler's experiments with apes, learning of a concept through successive
encounters with examples and non- examples in Ausubel's subsumption theory, Bruner's spiral
curriculum, and Engeström's cycles of learning.
Principles of learning subsumed by universal principle of repetition
Theory
Group
Behavioral
Local Principles
Aristotle:
Frequent repetition produces a natural tendency Law of frequency
Exercise strengthens the memory of an image
Thorndike:
Law of exercise
Repetition alone does not produce learning
Pavlov:
Association through repeated pairing of CS and UCS
Watson:
Frequency (repetition) is one of two principles that produce learning
Skinner:
Multiple trials for initial conditioning to approach food tray
Significant change in behavior after a single reinforcement
One-trial learning requires preliminary development of later reflexes in the chain Periodic
reconditioning
Shaping: reinforcement of successive approximations to the goal behavior Vanishing: gradual
fading out of prompts
Hull:
Habit strength as a function of number of S-R pairings
Guthrie:
One trial learning (acquisition of movements)
Obvious need for repeated practice (learning of acts or skills)
Cognitive
Estes:
Successive sampling of stimulus elements across repeated trials
Ebbinghaus:
Frequent repetitions necessary to produce content from memory Surplus repetition is not wasted
Insufficient repetition for reproduction is still useful
Frequent repetitions necessary to prevent forgetting
Clarity and longevity of new material increases in memory with repetition Number of
repetitions needed to memorize a series increases with length Increased repetition in one study
period produces a savings in later relearning Greater repetition to learn a longer series results in
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Principles: Repetition
Theory
Group
Local Principles
longer lists being more easily
Relearned
Tolman:
Repetition through repeated, non-goal-directed experience Repetition through mental review
and comparison
Kohler:
Series of repeated failed attempts, followed by reflection, followed by success
Cognitive Information Processing:
Concept learning through multiple, systematically varied examples Maintenance rehearsal: short
term retention of information
Elaborative rehearsal: long term encoding
Rehearsal increases the length of stay in STS and gives coding and other storage
processes time to operate
Almost any kind of operation on information is a form of rehearsal
Only a limited number of items can be rehearsed at any given time Flashbulb memories:
repeated mental rehearsal of shocking experiences Automaticity and possible entrenchment
through repeated experience Mindless drilling does not lead to improvement
Effective practice or drill must be mindful and deliberate
Revisiting material with variation of time, context, purpose, and perspective Incidental learning
as a result of repeated, periodic presentation Organization through repeated exposure
Ausubel:
Overlearning (excessive repetition) makes even rotely learned materials less vulnerable to
forgetting
Repetition is critical to the "perpetuation of dissociability" of subsumable or correlative
concepts
Explicit instruction can reduce or possibly eliminate the need for repetition Clarity and stability
are influenced by repetition
Criterial or defining attributes of a concept are acquired by successive encounters Multicontextual learning facilitates abstraction of commonality and strengthens transferability
Sequential stages in concept acquisition
Simultaneous availability of multiple instances in array
Progressive differentiation
Integrative reconciliation in response to additional experience
Controlled sequencing of stimuli that provide successive contrast
Consolidation of previously learned material through differential practice, review, and repeated
exposure
Transferability through application to a large number of different, specific contexts Practice and
drill and the significance of repetition in meaningful learning
Spaced review over long periods of time is required for retention of more complex ideas
Value of both early and delayed review
Benefits of repetition through practice
Incidental practice often is not effective, due to haphazard frequency and distribution of trials
Relation between repetition and feedback
Fidelity of practice to the actual task to be learned
Appropriate balance of repetition for consolidation versus diversification
Schema Theory:
Schema represent multiple instances of things that may be grouped based on a recurrent pattern
of common features, functions, or characteristics
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Principles: Repetition
Theory
Group
Local Principles
Schema are created, developed, tuned, and restructured through repeated experience Typical
and default values for schema variables are learned through encountering multiple instances
Increased precision of schema through experience
Constructive
Human
General:
Revisiting what has previously been learned to relate new information to it
Piaget:
Action schemes are the structure of actions generalized by repetition Consolidation: A reflex
becomes stronger and more precise by exercising it First habits are formed through patterns of
exercise
Circular reactions
Schemes of assimilation are repeated and elaborated as the child develops Adaptation comes
through repeated use and accommodation
Only practice leads to normal functioning
Coordination of reflexes occurs through repeated contact with the environment Repetition of the
reflex leads to a generalizing assimilation of objects to activity There is a natural or
fundamental tendency toward repetition of behavior
Bruner:
Spiral curriculum
Representing redundancy in the environment
Cumulative constructionism: use of previously acquired information in guiding further
discovery
Learning the heuristics of discovery through practice
Attribution Theory:
Perception of patterns defined spatially and temporally
Self-Efficacy:
Repetition in progressively independent and varied circumstances to build self- efficacy
Beliefs of self-worth and self-efficacy are built through repeated experiences of success
Self-Regulation Theory:
Self-regulated learning cycle phases (forethought, performance, self-reflection)
Social
Vygotsky:
Children learn mental planning through repeated experiences
Internalization occurs through repeated encounter
Development proceeds in a spiral, passing through the same point at each new revolution
The need for sign mediation subsides with repetition
Bandura:
Multiple observational trials may be required to reproduce modeled stimuli accurately
Behavior repertoires of culture are transmitted on the basis of repeated observation Behavior
that is repeatedly observed is learned most thoroughly
New behavior is refined through self-corrective adjustments (in repeated practice)
Multiple attempts made in solving problems
Activity theory:
Cycles of expansive learning
Cognitive apprenticeship:
Importance of repeated practice of a new skill in increasingly complex tasks
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