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S T N E T N O C Topic: European Retreat from Empire and the Aftermath, 1945–90 ........................................................................2 1. Case study: British withdrawal from India, 1945–47 .......................2 Key personality ..........................................................................................13 Key concepts .............................................................................................13 Past exam questions on British withdrawal from India, 1945–47 .........13 2. Case study: The secession of Katanga, 1960–63 ............................15 Key personality ......................................................................................... 15 Key concepts .............................................................................................23 Past exam questions on The secession of Katanga, 1960–63..................25 3. Case study: Race relations in France in the 1980s ..........................26 Key concepts .............................................................................................34 Past exam questions on Race relations in France in the 1980s ...............34 For permission to reproduce photographs, the author and publisher gratefully acknowledge the following: © Alamy: 32; © Getty Images: 6T, 6B, 7, 13, 15, 16, 24, 29. European Retreat from Empire and the Aftermath, 1945–90 1. Case study: British withdrawal from India, 1945–47 After studying this section, you should understand: l The implications of World War II for British rule in India l The reasons why Britain decided to withdraw from India l Britain’s proposals to give independence to India l Direct Action Day and its impact l Mountbatten’s plans to transfer power l Problems Britain faced in transferring power l The results of British withdrawal from India l The role Gandhi played in British withdrawal from India (Key personality, p. 13) l The relation between Britain and India and Pakistan after independence How was India ruled in 1945? Note: India or British India covered the area of present-day India and Pakistan British India Afghanistan Princely states Kashmir Simla Nepal 1. British India had a Karachi population of about 400 million. Most of these were Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. 2. British India was ruled Arabian through a Viceroy, but Sea Britain ruled part of India indirectly through the princely states. 3. The Government of India Act (1935) set up provincial assemblies and British India in 1945 governments that ran local Delhi Burma Calcutta Bombay Bay of Bengal Ceylon EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH 3 government in the provinces. Viceroys of India These were mostly controlled by Linlithgow 1936–43 the majority Congress Party. The Wavell 1943–47 Viceroy still controlled foreign Mountbatten 1947 affairs and defence. 4. Relations between Hindus and Muslims: Conflict between Hindus and Muslims went back many centuries. This was based on historic and religious differences which led to local conflict. Now Muslims thought they would suffer in a Hindudominated India; Hindus did not want to make concessions to the minority Muslim League, which would give them separate powers in a united India. What were the implications of World War II for British rule in India? 1. Declaration of war: When Britain declared war on Germany in September 1939, the Viceroy (then Lord Linlithgow) also declared war on behalf of India. He did this without consulting Indian leaders and this angered many people. The Congress Party ordered all its members to resign from provincial ministries. 2. Muslim demands: Jinnah and the Muslim League demanded a separate state for Muslims (in the Lahore Resolution (1942)). The Muslim League co-operated with Britain during the war, which increased their importance. 3. Atlantic Charter (1941): Churchill and Roosevelt agreed the Atlantic Charter that said all people should have the right to independence after the war. The United States put pressure on Britain to give independence to India. 4. Cripps mission (1942): Sir Stafford Cripps was sent by the British government to get agreement between the Indian leaders about the future of India. He proposed that India would get full dominion status as part of the Commonwealth after World War II. l But he failed to get Congress and the Muslim League to agree. 5. Quit India: Gandhi and the Congress Party demanded Britain quit India immediately. l Britain responded by jailing Gandhi and other Congress leaders. l Then it put down the Quit India campaign. 6. Defeat of British forces: The Japanese defeat of the British army in Singapore (1942) undermined the confidence of the British. It also encouraged Indians to believe that they could overthrow the British as well. 7. Japanese Indian National Army: The Japanese Indian National Army was organised by Chandra Bose, but it was easily defeated when it attacked eastern India from Burma (1944). After the war, some soldiers were court-martialled in the Red Fort Trials. This outraged many Indians and contributed to the Indian Navy Mutiny in 1946. This mutiny showed Britain that it could not depend on its forces in India. 8. British army in India: There were only 50,000 soldiers in India at the end of the war in 1945. The British government would not increase the size of the army and many 4 LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS HISTORY FOR LEAVING CERT of the solders wanted to go home after the war. This made it very difficult for the British government to control disturbances in India. 9. Growing Indian influence: 2.5 million Indians joined the British armed forces. Most of these supported the independence cause. They were now experienced in war. l Many Indians were employed in the Indian civil service, which meant they were ready to take over after independence. 10. The British economy: Britain was virtually bankrupt at the end of World War II, and the country was heavily dependent on US loans. Shortages and unemployment continued in Britain for some years after the war. l By the end of World War II, it was clear that Britain could not govern India and that Hindus and Muslims would go their separate ways. British withdrawal from India World War II (1939–45) l Quit India campaign l Wavell as Viceroy l Cripps Mission 1945 l British general election 1946 l Red Fort Trials l Mutinies l Cabinet Mission l Simla Conference l Direct Action Day l Interim government l Mountbatten as Viceroy l Plan Balkan l Menon or Partition Plan l Independence of India Act l Independence for India and Pakistan l Deaths of Gandhi and Jinnah 1947 1948 Why did Britain decide to withdraw from India? Britain promised post-war independence to India. 1. Indian nationalism: The Indian Congress Party led the demand for independence for India. 2. Gandhi’s campaigns: In the 1920s and 1930s, Gandhi, leader of the Congress Party, used non-violent civil disobedience to reduce British power in India. This led to the Government of India Act (1935), which gave power to provincial governments controlled by the Congress Party. EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH 5 3. Educated leadership: The leaders of the Indian nationalist movement were mostly educated, middle-class lawyers. It became easier to organise the vast Indian subcontinent with the spread of the telegraph and telephone, the use of the railway and the English language. 4. World War II: The Japanese successes in capturing parts of the British Empire/ Commonwealth in Asia showed up the weakness of Britain. 5. The British economy: The British economy was weakened before World War II, but the war brought Britain to the verge of bankruptcy. It was now dependent on American loans. The country owed £3 billion by 1945 and money was needed for reconstruction after the war and to develop the Welfare State. l The cost of maintaining an army and administration in India was too great. l The Indian economy was not as important to Britain anymore – British exports to India had fallen; and British investment in India fell before World War II. 6. Attitude to India: Britain wanted to prevent a civil war in India between Hindus and Muslims. It also wanted to keep independent India in the Commonwealth. Britain felt the best way to do these things was to negotiate a withdrawal sooner than later. It wanted to withdraw peacefully in order to maintain its international reputation. 7. The Labour Party victory: The Labour Party was committed to Indian independence, so its victory in the 1945 British general election speeded up British withdrawal. If Churchill and the Conservative Party had won the election, the process of withdrawal might have been slowed down because Churchill was very much opposed to Indian independence. 8. The influence of the US and USSR: Both the United States and the USSR were opposed to colonialism (imperialism). The US put pressure on Britain to move COLONIAL RULE: towards independence. Britain feared the USSR would Rule by one country extend its influence southwards and Britain needed a over another country. friendly India to maintain its influence in Asia. What proposals did Britain make to give India its independence? (1) What problems did Britain 1. Wavell’s proposals (1945): Viceroy Wavell encounter in negotiating made efforts to get the Congress leaders withdrawal from India and the Muslim League to agree to a between 1945 and 1947? system for transferring power. He proposed an Executive Council which would be composed of both Muslims and Hindus. l There was disagreement about how Muslims on the Council would be chosen. Jinnah said the Muslim League would nominate them; the Congress Party wanted to nominate some Muslims. They failed to agree on how the Executive Council would be chosen. 6 LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS HISTORY FOR LEAVING CERT 2. The new Labour government: The new Labour government, headed by the Prime Minister, Clement Attlee, was committed to Indian independence. There were also strong links between the Labour Party and the Congress Party. The government wanted to hold elections for the provincial councils and to set up a group to work on a new constitution. 3. 1946 Indian elections: The Congress Party won most of the seats, but the Muslim League won most of the support in Muslim areas. The election showed that the demand for a separate country for Muslims – Pakistan – was strong. 4. The Cabinet Mission (1946): Attlee sent a threeperson mission to India to get agreement between Congress and Muslim League leaders. Its purpose was to set up the structure which would lead to a transfer of power and to enable an independent India, as Attlee said, ‘to attain her freedom as speedily and fully as possible’. l The main driving force behind the mission was Stafford Cripps, whose earlier mission in 1942 had failed. 5. Simla Conference (1946): The Cabinet Mission brought the Indian leaders together in Simla to J. Nehru discuss the Mission’s main proposals: l A united independent India, based on a federal government to run foreign affairs and defence l Provincial governments to run local affairs. 6. Nehru claimed that these proposals would lead to a Congress-dominated India. Jinnah and the Muslim League rejected this and withdrew their agreement to them. 7. The May Statement: The Cabinet Mission failed to get agreement between the two sides. Instead, it proposed to create a Constituent Assembly which would draft a constitution for a new united state. d Jinnah l It also proposed to create an Interim Government made Muhamma up entirely of Indian leaders, with Wavell as governor-general. 8. The failure of the Cabinet Mission to get both sides to agree ended any possibility of an agreed united India. What was Direct Action Day and what was its impact? 1. Jinnah and the Muslim League decided that they wanted to show: l that they were opposed to the Cabinet Mission’s proposals l their demand for an independent Pakistan was serious. EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH 7 2. They called for a Direct Action Day on 16 August 1946. This was meant to be a peaceful protest, but it developed into clashes between Muslims and Hindus in Calcutta. l Over 4 days, about 6,000 people were killed in the Great Calcutta Killings, most of them Muslim. These riots and clashes later spread to other parts of India. 3. Effects: These clashes and deaths made a united India more unlikely. l The communal clashes between Hindus and Muslims continued into the winter of 1946. l Wavell warned the British government that India was on the brink of civil war. He made plans to evacuate British people from India. What proposals did Britain make to give India its independence? (2) 1. The Interim government: Wavell appointed an Interim Government of Indian leaders (September 1946). These were dominated by the Congress Party since the Muslim League refused to take part. l The appointment of an Interim government meant a huge transfer of power to Indian leaders. For example, Nehru acted as Prime Minister and dealt with foreign affairs while Patel controlled home affairs, including security. 2. Eventually, Jinnah and the Muslim League were Lord Mo persuaded to take part in the interim government. untbatte n 3. London talks: Attlee invited the Indian leaders – Nehru, Jinnah and others – to London for further talks. These talks made no BRITISH COMMONWEALTH: progress. An association of former British 4. Mountbatten, the last Viceroy: Attlee colonies which work towards common goals such as democracy replaced Wavell as Viceroy of India in March and economic development. 1947. l He was given the authority to establish a single government for British India and the princely states, within the British Commonwealth. l He had to complete the transfer of power no later than June 1948. What were Mountbatten’s plans to transfer power? 1. Mountbatten consulted with Indian leaders. He developed good relations with leaders of the Congress Party, but he did not get on well with Jinnah. He soon learnt from Jinnah that the creation of Pakistan was necessary. 2. Plan Balkan: Mountbatten first proposed the 11 British provinces of India would each decide whether they wanted to be independent or join a larger grouping of states. The princely states could also do the same. 8 LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS HISTORY FOR LEAVING CERT Mountbatten consulted Nehru privately about the Plan before he announced it. Nehru said it would lead to ‘fragmentation, conflict and disorder’. Plan Balkan was dropped. 3. The Menon Plan: Mountbatten developed a new plan – the Menon Plan or Partition Plan – and got the agreement of the British government and the Indian leaders to it. l Mountbatten proposed two states, India and Pakistan, with dominion status within the British Commonwealth. l Each provincial assembly would decide whether its state would join India or Pakistan, or remain independent l The princely states would do the same l The date for British withdrawal was brought forward from June 1948 to 15 August 1947. l What was Gandhi’s role in British withdrawal from India? 1. Before 1945: Gandhi’s campaigns in the 1920s, 1930s and during World War II helped undermine British rule in India. His methods of non-violent civil disobedience had weakened British control of the country. The British government agreed to the Government of India Act (1935), which transferred local power to the provinces. During the war, Gandhi’s Quit India campaign was not successful. How important was 2. 1945 and after – during the process of Mohandas (Mahatma) British withdrawal: Gandhi was 76 Gandhi in the movement for years old in 1945 and had resigned as Indian independence, 1945–47? leader of the Congress Party. But his influence was still strong, so he was consulted by Wavell, Mountbatten and the leaders of the Congress Party. 3. Gandhi wanted to see a united India with Hindus and Muslims. Other leaders of the Congress Party realised that if there was no compromise, India would be torn by civil war. 4. Gandhi tried to stop the violence between Hindus and Muslims. He walked and lived in the areas of the worst violence (e.g. East Bengal) to try to persuade local people to stop the fighting. In some areas he was listened to. 5. When the Cabinet Mission consulted him, he said he wanted power to be transferred to Congress leaders so that they would decide the future of India. He also proposed that Jinnah form the government with a Hindu majority in the parliament. Wavell said of him: ‘He is a tough politician and not a saint’. 6. Gandhi was opposed to the Indian Navy Mutiny (1946) – he wanted to ensure that the Congress Party had control of an independent India. 7. At the Simla Conference (1946), Gandhi said he would stop any moves towards partition. EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH 9 8. Gandhi ensured that Nehru was elected president of the Congress Party. 9. Gandhi was opposed to the Menon or Partition Plan. He wanted to create unity between Hindus and Muslims, so he proposed putting Muslims in charge of a united India. This was rejected by Congress leaders. 10. Independence: Gandhi went on a 24-hour fast when India was declared independent on 15 August 1947. He continued his campaign to create peace between Hindus and Muslims. He did a ‘fast to the death’ to stop violence in Delhi and Calcutta. This worked when local leaders promised to stop the violence. 11. Assassination: Gandhi was shot dead by a Hindu fanatic, Nathuram Godse, who blamed him for the partition of India and for giving more to Pakistan when the resources of the country were divided. 12. Influence: Gandhi undermined British rule in India. His methods became the acceptable methods for demanding Indian independence. Alternative methods such as fighting and going to war (as proposed by Chandra Bose before and during World War II) were rejected. Gandhi’s methods led to a democratic India. What problems did Britain face in transferring power? 1. The Indian Independence Kashmir Act was passed in June 1946. Punjab in India ir This laid out the stages of the Afghanistan Punjab in Pakistan shm Ka transfer of power. Lahore Amritsar b 2. The two countries: nja Pu Provinces with a Congress West Pakistan Nepal New Delhi East government formed India, Karachi Pakistan while Muslim majority Dhaka I n d i a provinces formed Pakistan. Calcutta Calcutta Burma Pakistan was divided Bombay Bay of between West and East Arabian Bay of Bengal Pakistan. Sea Arabian Bengal Sea 3. Bengal and the Punjab: Madras These states had large numbers of Hindus and Muslims. The states were Ceylon divided between India and Pakistan. East Bengal became India and Pakistan after independence with the disputed states of East Pakistan. Punjab and Kashmir. 4. The border: A boundary commission, led by Cyril Radcliffe, drew up a border – the Radcliffe Line – which divided the two countries, including the division of Bengal and the Punjab. It had to do its work in six weeks. It was very difficult to draw a border through the mixed populations of the Punjab. Its border here divided villages and valleys. 10 LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS HISTORY FOR LEAVING CERT 5. The princely states: The princely states could choose whether to join India or Pakistan. Mountbatten persuaded the majority of states to join with India. 6. Assets: All assets – the army, police, civil service, trucks, horses, pens, paper and many more things – were divided between India and Pakistan on an approximately 80/20 basis. 7. Kashmir: Kashmir was a majority-populated Muslim state with a Hindu prince. Mountbatten tried to persuade the prince to join with Pakistan. He refused to do so, but instead joined India when Kashmir was attacked by Muslim groups. What were the results of British withdrawal from India? Pakistan and India got their independence on midnight of 14–15 August 1947. 1. The transfer of power: the transfer of power between governments was done smoothly. Resources were divided by the Partition Council – later Pakistan was angry because resources which should have been handed over to it were not. 2. Partition: British India was partitioned. The partition avoided a civil war, but resulted in the massacre of Hindus and Muslims. 3. Massacre: 7 million Muslims and 7 million Hindus moved between the two countries – Muslims moving to Pakistan, and Hindus to India. Up to 1 million people were DECOLONISATION: massacred, largely in the Punjab. The process by which countries (colonies) 4. India: India was the largest country decolonised and it set an example for other countries, such as the African colonies. become independent of a colonial power. l Nehru as leader of the Congress Party created a modern, industrialised and secular society. l India made an important contribution to English as a world language and to post-colonial literature, e.g. Salman Rushdie, Arundhati Roy 5. Pakistan: Jinnah became governor-general of Pakistan, but died shortly after the country got its independence. It began as a democratic country, but later military governments took over. l East Pakistan broke away from West Pakistan in a civil war in 1971 and called itself Bangladesh. 6. The Commonwealth: India and Pakistan were republics, but they remained within the Commonwealth. They recognised the king of England as symbolic head of the Commonwealth, but not as head of state. Was partition inevitable? 1. Hindus and Muslims: Relations between Hindus and Muslims worsened so much during the 20th century that by the end of World War II it was impossible to bring them together. By then, Muslims believed that they would suffer in a Hindumajority state. EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH 2. Gandhi: Gandhi wanted a united India and peace between Hindus and Muslims. But actions which he and the Congress Party took often widened the gap between Hindus and Muslims. 3. Spread of violence: There was constant local violence between Hindus and Muslims. This was increased by the effects of the Direct Action Day. After this, violence spread through different parts of India where Hindus and Muslims clashed. 4. Mountbatten’s plan: Mountbatten was sent to India to transfer power to a united India. But very soon he realised he would have to accommodate the Muslim minority. He hoped that his partition plan would give Muslims a separate country and would prevent civil war. But the movement of people and the resulting massacres before and after independence showed how deeply divided Hindus and Muslims were. Could violence have been prevented or lessened? l l l l l Relations between Hindus and Muslims worsened in the early 20th century. The Muslim League’s Direct Action Day worsened the situation. Violence became more widespread after this and continued after partition. There were many extremist groups on both sides who wanted to increase the violence. The British army was small and Attlee refused to strengthen it, so it was not strong enough to control the violence. After independence, Attlee said the army was barred from intervening, and Nehru did not want the British army involved in peace-keeping duties. Relations between Hindus and Muslims in modern India continued to worsen. How did relations between Britain and India develop after independence? 1. Relations between Britain and India were influenced by l Membership of the Commonwealth l The development of the Non-Aligned Movement 2. India remained a dominion of the British Commonwealth until it agreed its own constitution and a republic was declared in 1950. 3. From 1947 to 1950, Mountbatten was governor-general of India, representing the king of England as head of state. 4. When India became a republic, it remained in the Commonwealth. It recognised the king of England as head of the Commonwealth, not head of state. This meant the Commonwealth could include future republics as other states in Asia and Africa became independent. 5. India’s membership changed the Commonwealth in another way. Prior to this, the Commonwealth was largely composed of states set up by white settlers (e.g. Canada, 11 12 LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS HISTORY FOR LEAVING CERT South Africa and Australia). Now the Commonwealth became multiracial. 6. India’s membership changed the balance of power in the Commonwealth as Britain’s power and influence was reduced. 7. India’s relationship with Britain was helped by Commonwealth Preference (dutyfree access to the British market) and the Sterling Area (the value of the Indian currency was tied to the pound sterling). 8. The relationship was also maintained by immigration from India to Britain in the 1940s and 1950s, the English language and cricket. 9. Relations between India and Britain were strained by Nehru’s development of an independent foreign policy. He did not want to join either side of the Cold War. Instead, India promoted a policy of non-alignment and became a founder of the Non-Aligned Movement. 10. India took a different position from Britain on certain issues – e.g. India backed Communist China to get a seat in the Security Council of the United Nations. 11. Nehru organised the Bandung Afro-Asian Conference in 1955. The conference denounced colonialism and criticised the Cold War. Nehru criticised the British for the part they played in the Suez Crisis in 1956, looking on it as an extension of British imperialism. 12. Nehru had to get significant help from Britain and the United States when the Sino-Indian border war was fought in October 1962. How did relations between Britain and Pakistan develop after independence? 1. Pakistan remained a dominion of the British Commonwealth until it became a republic in 1956. It recognised the king of England as head of state. Pakistan’s first governor-general was Muhammad Jinnah. 2. Pakistan developed a close relationship with Britain. Pakistan needed British and western support because it was facing a much stronger neighbour – India. 3. Britain needed Pakistan to block Soviet Union movement southwards. 4. Pakistan was drawn into the Cold War. It formed SEATO (South-east Asia Treaty Organisation) along with Britain, the United States and other countries to combat the spread of communism. 5. Pakistan also was part of CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation) with Britain and Middle Eastern countries to contain the spread of communism. 6. Relations with Britain disimproved because it felt that Britain favoured India in disagreements between Pakistan and India. 7. Pakistan left the Commonwealth in 1972 because Britain and other Commonwealth countries recognised East Pakistan as Bangladesh after a civil war between the two separate parts of Pakistan. 8. Pakistan did not re-enter the Commonwealth until 1989. EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH Key personality Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi – Summary l Main inspiration for the movement for Indian independence. l Used the methods of non-violence to encourage resistance to British rule. l Leader of the Indian Congress Party in the 1920s and 1930s, but handed over leadership to Nehru, who led the Congress Party during negotiations for British withdrawal. l Gandhi was 77 years old by the end of World War II, so he did not play a direct role in negotiations with the British, led by Lord Mountbatten. l Gandhi wanted a united India with Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs – opposed to a separate Muslim state. l Gandhi was originally opposed to Mountbatten’s partition plan. l He tried to stop the racial violence between Hindus and Muslims. l He persuaded the Congress Party to hand over £40 million due to Pakistan after independence. l He was assassinated in January 1948 by a Hindu fanatic, Godse, who blamed Gandhi for the partition of India. Key concepts Colonial rule: Rule by one country over another country. Decolonisation: The process by which countries (colonies) become independent of a colonial power. British Commonwealth: An association of former British colonies which work towards common goals such as democracy and economic development. Past exam questions on British Withdrawal from India, 1945–47 Higher level 2013 – 2012 – (DBQ Case study) What were the difficulties associated with British withdrawal from India? 2011 – 13 14 LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS HISTORY FOR LEAVING CERT 2010 – Did British withdrawal help or hinder India? Give reasons for your answer. 2009 – What were the aims and achievements of Mohandas Gandhi? 2008 – What were the difficulties associated with the British withdrawal from India, 1945–47? 2007 – 2006 – Ordinary level 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 – – (DBQ – Case study) For what reasons did the British partition India in 1947? – – How important was Mohandas Gandhi in the movement for Indian independence? – Did British withdrawal help or hinder India, 1945–47? Argue your case. – What problems did Britain encounter in negotiating withdrawal from India between 1945 and 1947? – How important was Mohandas Gandhi in the movement for Indian independence? – What problems faced the British government in deciding to withdraw from India in 1947? Contextualising the British withdrawal from India, 1945–47 British withdrawal from India, 1945–47 Implications of World War II for British role in India Immigration patterns and policies in Britain Key personality Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi Key concepts Colonial rule Decolonisation British Commonwealth Politics and administration Decolonisation in Asia – independence struggles and the reaction of the European powers English as a world language Post-independence relations with the colonial power Post-colonial literature EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH 15 2. Case study: The secession of Katanga, 1960–63 After studying this section, you should understand: l Why Katanga broke away (seceded) from the Congo l The efforts made by Lumumba and the Congolese government to end the secession l The reasons why Katanga was able to resist l The role of the United Nations in the secession of Katanga l The influence of the Cold War on the secession l The impact of the secession of Katanga l The role of Joseph Mobutu during and after the secession (See pp. 23–24) How and why did Belgium give independence to the Congo? COLONIAL RULE: 1. Since the 19th century, the Congo was ruled by King Rule by one country Leopold II of Belgium or the Belgian government. over another country. 2. Belgium exploited the Congo Free State for its mineral resources – its copper, diamonds and uranium. 3. The Belgians did not give the Congolese any rights, and they did not want to develop an educated middle class who would want to change the country. 4. A nationalist movement grew in the 1950s. One of its leaders was Patrice Lumumba. 5. There was widespread trouble in 1959, especially in Leopoldville, the Patrice Lumumba capital, and Belgium was forced to negotiate with Congolese leaders at the Round Table DECOLONISATION: Conference in Brussels . TRANSNATIONAL The process by which ECONOMY: 6. The Belgians wanted a gradual countries (colonies) An economy which transfer of power over four years; become independent joins several the Congolese leaders wanted of a colonial power. countries together. immediate independence. Belgium gave in and the Congo got its independence as the Democratic Republic of the Congo on 30 June 1960. 16 LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS HISTORY FOR LEAVING CERT Area of Katanga succession, 1960–63 Railways ORIENTALE State borders Diamonds Stanleyville EQUATEUR Gold Uganda Tin Manganese KIVU Coal Ruanda Burundi LÉOPOLDVILLE Albertville ny ik a Zinc KASAI ga Léopoldville Ta n Copper Cobalt Uranium KATANGA Iron ore Atlantic Ocean Angola (Portuguese colony) Elizabethville Northern Rhodesia (Zambia 1964) The provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, including the mineral-rich Katanga and Kasai. What difficulties did the Congo face after independence? Congo Facts Size: 2.3 million sq. kms (about ¼ size of the United States) Capital: Léopoldville (Kinshasa) Katanga Size: 0.5 million sq. kms Capital: Elizabethville (Lubumbashi) Direct distance from Léopoldville to Elizabethville: 1,000 miles/1,500 kms approx. 1. The Congolese President was Joseph Kasavubu and the Prime Minister was Patrice Lumumba. 2. Elections were held which showed how divided the country was. Many political parties gained support in different tribal areas. In the province of Katanga, for example, Moise Tshombe’s CONAKAT party won. 3. The government itself was headed by Lumumba with the support of twelve different parties. 4. Army mutiny: There was a rebellion in the Congolese army as native soldiers rebelled against their white Belgian officers and attacked white civilians. ombe 5. The Belgian government flew in thousands of troops Moise Tsh to protect white civilians. 6. Lumumba declared that Belgium was at war with the Congo. 7. Shortly after this, the province of Katanga rebelled and Moise Tshombe declared its independence on 11 July 1960. EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH 17 Why did Katanga secede (break away) from the Congo? 1. On 11 July 1960, Moise Tshombe announced Why did Katanga break that Katanga was seceding from the Republic away from the Congo, and of the Congo, which was led by President how did it affect relations Kasavubu and Prime Minister Patrice between the two states? Lumumba. 2. Katanga was influenced by the spread of independence in many African countries. Most British colonies in Africa got their independence between 1957 and 1964, especially after Macmillan’s ‘wind of change’ speech. French colonies also had a choice of becoming independent after de Gaulle’s speech in Brazzaville in 1958. As far as Katanga was concerned, if the Congo could get its independence from Belgium, then Katanga could gain its independence from the Congo. 3. Initially, Tshombe and his CONAKAT party favoured a federal government structure in the Congo. Katanga had been developed differently under Belgian rule; it was populated by the Lunda tribe, and it was distant from Léopoldville. Tshombe put forward these ideas in the negotiations for independence at the Round Table Conference in Brussels. He believed that this would give more power to the provinces, including Katanga. But Tshombe and other parties did not succeed. Instead, Lumumba wanted a strong central government and this is what was established. 4. Tshombe was encouraged to make Katanga independent by the Belgian government and the Belgian mining company, Union Minière. Katanga was rich in minerals such as copper, diamonds, cobalt and tin. Their production was controlled by Union Minière, which made very large profits. Belgium also benefited through increased trade. Both the country and the company wanted to protect their investments there. They feared the spread of the chaos caused by the mutiny of soldiers of the Congolese army. Consequently, the Congolese army was expelled by local units helped by Belgian troops. 5. Tshombe and Katanga also feared the rule of Lumumba. He was regarded as a socialist and a communist and some feared he would establish another Cuba. This could lead to the government takeover of the rich mines in Katanga. Katanga would lose all the taxes it got from mining and the company would lose its profits. Lumumba was not strong enough to prevent the secession. His army had mutinied, Belgian troops came in to restore order and there were no United Nations troops in the country when Katanga seceded. At any rate, UN troops could do nothing since their mandate said they could not interfere in the internal affairs of a country. 6. Tshombe and Katanga were in a strong position to resist the Congolese government. They could use taxes from the mining companies to pay for Belgian officers and mercenaries who organised and trained the Katangan gendarmerie. The secession lasted almost two and a half years, until the United Nations forces moved from peacekeeping to peace enforcement and took over Katanga, bringing it back into the Congo. 18 LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS HISTORY FOR LEAVING CERT How was Katanga ruled during its secession? 1. Katanga was ruled from its capital, Elizabethville. 2. Tshombe got the help of Belgians to run the province and the mines. The mines paid taxes directly to Tshombe’s government. 3. Belgian officers trained the Katangan army and Tshombe recruited mercenaries to strengthen his army. He was also able to buy supplies and aircraft from Belgium, South Africa and Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). What efforts did the Congo make to end the secession of Katanga? TRIBALISM: 1. When Tshombe declared the secession, Lumumba A strong feeling of loyalty called on the Belgian army to withdraw. They to a tribe; actions shaped or refused to do so. influenced by tribal culture. 2. Lumumba got support from other African countries, such as Ghana, which were part of the non-aligned movement. But they could do little. 3. Lumumba’s position was weakened because the Congolese army was controlled by Mobutu, who favoured the United States. 4. Lumumba also called on the United Nations for help. The UN, led by SecretaryGeneral Dag Hammarskjöld, agreed to send military help to the Congo provided it could only be used in self-defence. It was meant to establish law and order. 5. UN troops landed in Léopoldville, the capital of the Congo. 6. Lumumba wanted the UN forces to move against Katanga, but the UN said it could not get involved in an internal conflict. The UN followed a policy of peacekeeping rather than peace enforcing. 7. Lumumba asked the Soviet Union for help. He wanted transport planes, trucks and weapons to move against Katanga (and another breakaway province, Kasai). 8. By the early 1960s, the Cold War was at its height as tension grew between the United States and the Soviet Union. 9. Soviet help arrived, which worried the Americans because the Soviet Union could use the Congo as a base to extend its influence to other countries in central Africa. The US feared that the Congo was ‘a Cuba in the making’. 10. The United States was also interested in uranium for nuclear power and cobalt for its space programme, as well as the other mineral wealth. 11. The United States planned to kill Lumumba. Belgium was also planning to do this, separately. The influence of the Cold War l l l The Cold War was a period of tension between the United States and the USSR (Soviet Union), which lasted from 1945 to 1990. The USSR saw an opportunity of using the Congo to gain influence in central Africa. The United States feared this and wanted to protect the mineral wealth for the West. EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH 19 Congo crisis and the secession of Katanga, 1960-63 Pre-1960 l Belgium took Congo in 19th century 1960 l Independence for Democratic Republic of the Congo Lumumba as Prime Minister Revolt of troops of Congolese army Secession of Katanga, led by Moise Tshombe Lumumba asked for UN intervention Lumumba ousted, Mobutu took control temporarily; Lumumba arrested, handed over to Katangan troops l l l l l 1961 l Death of Lumumba 1962 l l UN attacks Katanga Hammarskjöld in plane crash 1963 l UN capture of Katangan capital, end of secession of Katanga 1964 l Tshombe Prime Minister of the Congo 1965 and after l Mobutu set up one-party state in the Congo Why was the Congo not able to end the secession? 1. The government of the Congo was split between Kasavubu and Lumumba, who were opposed to each other. As well as this, the Congolese army was controlled by Mobutu. 2. The country was split into four different power groups, so the government had many problems to deal with. l The central government in Léopoldville l Tshombe’s government in Katanga l Supporters of Lumumba in Stanleyville l The Province of Kasai 3. The country also was very large – the distance from Léopoldville to Elizabethville was about 1,500 kilometres. 4. Katanga was able to buy military equipment and it had the support of Belgium and other countries. Assassination: What happened to Lumumba? 1. President Kasavubu dismissed Lumumba, who had the backing of the parliament. 2. Mobutu intervened and led an army takeover. He ordered Soviet personnel out of the Congo. 3. Lumumba left Léopoldville for Stanleyville, which was the centre of his support. He was captured by Mobutu’s troops and handed over to Tshombe’s forces in Katanga. 4. After being beaten and tortured, Lumumba and two colleagues were shot in the countryside. The firing squads were led by a Belgian officer. The decision to execute him was taken by Tshombe, who was present, with the support of Belgium ( January 1961). 5. The news of Lumumba’s death was kept quiet for three weeks. 20 LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS HISTORY FOR LEAVING CERT What was the impact of Lumumba’s death on the secession of Katanga? 1. When news of Lumumba’s death was announced, many people around the world were shocked, and Katanga lost support. 2. His death got rid of a strong opponent of Katangan independence and supporter of unitary government. 3. He was a supporter of the USSR – so Soviet influence was lessened. 4. The US role was strengthened. The US was opposed to Katangan secession and it wanted a unitary state. 5. The US wanted to extend its influence in Africa and many African states supported Congo over Katanga. 6. The US influenced the United Nations to become more aggressive towards Katanga; resolutions were passed in the UN authorising the use of force against Katanga. What efforts did the United Nations make to end the secession of Katanga? 1. Change in UN policy? UN policy changed from one of peacekeeping to peace enforcing. It now became more active in attempting to end the secession of Katanga. 2. Why was there a change in UN policy? l The death of Lumumba shocked many people. Katanga was blamed for his death. l US policy changed. A new president, Kennedy, took a definite line on the Congo – he wanted one state, with Katanga back under the Congo’s control. He would use the UN operations to achieve this goal and he How and why was knew that once Lumumba was gone, the chief-ofthe succession of staff of the Congolese army, Mobutu, would Katanga ended? favour the West. The US was interested Katanga’s uranium for nuclear power and cobalt for its space programme, as well as the other mineral wealth. 3. In Resolution 161 (February 1961), the UN authorised the use of force if necessary to prevent civil war in the Congo 4. As a result, Conor Cruise O’Brien, Hammarskjöld’s representative in Katanga, organised Operation Rumpunch in August 1961. This was a UN action to round up mercenary soldiers in Katanga, but it failed. 5. The second UN operation to round up mercenary soldiers in Katanga was Operation Morthor (September 1961). During the operation, the UN representative, O’Brien, claimed that Katanga’s secession was at an end. In addition, the central government of the Congo issued arrest warrants for Moise Tshombe, which the UN troops were authorised to execute. But the UN operation failed and Tshombe fled to Rhodesia. EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH 21 6. Hammarskjöld arranged to meet with Tshombe in Rhodesia, but he died on his way there in a plane crash. 7. By November 1961, in a further resolution (Resolution 169), the UN deplored the secessionist activities of Katanga and rejected its claim of being an independent state. It agreed to use force if necessary to end the secession of Katanga. In December 1961 Operation Unokat was undertaken – a further UN action against Katanga, which resulted in unity talks with Tshombe that lasted for a year without reaching an agreement. 8. Finally, in December 1962, UN forces launched Operation Grand Slam. Within a month, they had captured Elizabethville and Tshombe’s position had collapsed. In January 1963, he agreed to end the secession. 9. According to the UN, ‘The United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC), which took place in the Republic of the Congo from July 1960 until June 1964, marked a milestone in the history of United Nations peacekeeping in terms of the responsibilities it had to assume, the size of its area of operation and the manpower involved. It included, in addition to a peacekeeping force which comprised at its peak strength nearly 20,000 officers and men, an important Civilian Operations component.’ About 30 countries, including Ireland, contributed soldiers for operations in the Congo. 10. 250 UN personnel were killed on duty in the Congo between 1960 and 1964. What was the impact of the secession of Katanga? 1. The secession of Katanga, and rebellions in l Why did Katanga secede other parts of the Congo, threatened to from the Congo and what break up the country. were the results of that secession, 1960–63? 2. The defeat of Katanga and the coming to l What impact did the secession of power of Mobutu created a unified state. Katanga have on the Congo? 3. The death of Lumumba ended a danger to United States and Belgian influence in the area. It also ended Soviet influence there. l l l Summary: To what extent did Mobutu owe his rise to power to the secession of Katanga? Background: Mobutu – soldier, journalist; personal aide to Patrice Lumumba; member of National Congolese Movement led by Lumumba; present at Round table Conference in Brussels on negotiation of Congo’s independence; appointed chief-of-staff of Congolese army by Lumumba after army mutiny. Secession of Katanga caused huge problems for Lumumba; called on UN help but criticised UN later; then got Soviet help; caused Cold War tensions. Mobutu ended Congolese army mutiny; imposed his control over the army; supported by the USA who saw him as defence against the spread of communism in the Congo and Central Africa. 22 LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS HISTORY FOR LEAVING CERT l l l l Instability in the government of the Congo – President Kasavubu opposed to Lumumba; Mobutu encouraged by the USA to take action; dismissed both and installed a commission; later brought back Kasavubu. Lumumba captured and handed over to Tshombe in Katanga – here he was assassinated; the main threat to power of Mobutu was eliminated. Secession of Katanga ended but there still was unrest in the Congo. In 1965 Mobutu decided to take over again, this time as President; he used Cold War tensions to ensure he got US backing and economic support; he maintained a united Congo. Mobutu also owed his rise to power to his own personality – he was pragmatic, hardworking, courageous, able speaker, personal charisma; he was in power for the next 32 years. What role did Mobutu play during the secession of Katanga? 1. After the independence of the Congo was declared in June 1960, Mobutu became the head of the army. 2. When Kasavubu dismissed Lumumba in September 1960, Mobutu intervened and took over the government in a coup. 3. Mobutu had links with the CIA, which encouraged him to take over in order to limit Lumumba’s influence and to prevent the spread of communism. 4. He set up an interim government, which replaced parliament for six months. After that, Mobutu supported a series of weak civilian governments over the next four years up to 1965. 5. Mobutu’s troops captured Lumumba and handed him over to Katanga. This resulted in Lumumba’s death. 6. The United States rewarded Mobutu for his loyalty when he visited America in 1963 and met President Kennedy. What role did Mobutu play after the secession of Katanga? 1. Mobutu was head of the Congolese army, which favoured the establishment of a single state. l Mobutu defeated other uprisings in the east of the country in 1964. 2. In 1965 he organised another military takeover (or coup) of the Congo. He established a military dictatorship, with himself as president, which held power until 1996. 3. He was supported by the United States and Belgium, as well as by most local leaders, who wanted an end to the conflict which had destroyed the country over the previous five years. 4. Mobutu set up his own political party, the Popular Movement for the Revolution (MPR), which ran a one-party state. EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH He encouraged the growth of a personality cult (worship of the leader) with large posters of himself and titles such as the Father of the Nation. 5. He began a programme of economic development. l Foreign-owned businesses were transferred to local ownership. l Mobutu nationalised Union Minière, which controlled most of the mining. He benefited from higher prices for copper until the mid-1970s. l The process of industrialisation and nationalisation resulted in huge levels of corruption. Mobutu installed family and tribal supporters in key positions without any regard to their ability. 6. He also began an ‘Africanisation’ process in the early 1970s. l He renamed the country ‘Zaire’, and changed the names of cities and towns to African names (e.g. Léopoldville became Kinshasa and Elizabethville became Lubumbashi). l He changed his own name to Sese Seko. 7. Mobutu rebuilt relations with Belgium, going on a visit there in 1969. This resulted in financial and technical agreements, and a return visit by the king of Belgium to the Congo. 8. Very soon economic crises hit Zaire: l First, Mobutu’s takeover of local business frightened off foreign investors. l Then copper prices fell and oil and grain prices increased. Inflation increased, there were fuel shortages and debts grew quickly. l By the end of the 1980s, the Congo was ‘a rotting carcass’, its economy virtually in ruins. 9. Mobutu retained the support of the United States while the Cold War was in progress until 1990. When the Cold War ended, the US did not need Mobutu as much as before. Pressure from the US, bad economic conditions in Zaire and protests against him forced Mobutu to allow other political parties to be active. He was overthrown in a revolt in 1997 and lived the rest of his life in exile. 10. Mobutu’s main legacy was a poor and unstable country; he was an example of corruption and greed which destroyed the hope of independence. l Key personality Mobutu Sese Seko – Summary l He was a soldier in the Belgian Congolese Army, and later a journalist. l He served as assistant to Patrice Lumumba, leader of the National Congolese Movement. l Lumumba appointed Mobutu chief-of-staff of the Congolese army after Congo got its independence from Belgium. 23 24 l l l l l l l l l LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS HISTORY FOR LEAVING CERT Mobutu took power after Lumumba as Prime Minister and Kasavubu as President disagreed. Mobutu was backed by the CIA; his soldiers captured Lumumba and sent him to the breakaway province of Katanga; here Lumumba was killed. After the secession (break away) of Katanga ended, the Congo was still divided; Mobutu took over power in 1965 and set up a military dictatorship. He crushed opposition and was elected President on a number of occasions. He promoted the Africanisation of the Congo by changing its name to Zaire and promoting African culture. He nationalised foreign-owned companies. He appointed relations to key positions and there was a great deal of corruption. He was supported by the US as a barrier to the spread of communism (Soviet power) in Africa. He eventually fell from power after the Cold War ended and economic conditions worsened in his country. Contextualising the secession of Katanga, 1960–63 The secession of Katanga, 1960–63 Mobutu’s rule Key personality Society and Economy Mobutu Sese Seko Economic consequences of decolonisation Africa – winds of change Key concepts Colonial rule Decolonisation in Africa Decolonisation Transnational economy The Belgian Congo Tribalism Post-independence relations with the colonial power EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH 25 Key concepts Colonial rule: Rule by one country over another country. Decolonisation: The process by which countries (colonies) become independent of a colonial power. Transnational economy: An economy which joins several countries together. Tribalism: A strong feeling of loyalty to a tribe; actions shaped or influenced by tribal culture. Past exam questions on The Secession of Katanga, 1960–63 Higher level 2013 – (DBQ Case study) Why did Katanga secede from the Congo, and why did the secession bring about international involvement? 2012 – 2011 – Why did Katanga break away from the Congo and how did the crisis that followed develop an international dimension? 2010 – 2009 – 2008 – What problems and opportunities did independence present to former colonies in Africa? 2007 – Why did Katanga break away from the Congo, and how did it affect relations between the two states? 2006 – Why did Katanga secede from the Congo and what were the results of that secession, 1960–63? Ordinary level 2013 – Why did Katanga break away from the Congo and how did outsiders become involved in the crisis that followed? 2012 – 2011 – Why did Katanga seek to break from the Congo, 1960–1965, and how did outside interests become involved? 2010 – What impact did the secession of Katanga have on the Congo? 2009 – Why did Katanga seek to break away from the Congo during the early 1960s? 2008 – Why did Katanga break away from the Congo during the period, 1960–65, and how did this secession affect the Congo? 2007 – What impact did the secession of Katanga have on the Congo? 2006 – Why did the province of Katanga break away from the Congo and what economic effects had this on the region? 26 LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS HISTORY FOR LEAVING CERT 3. Case study: Race relations in France in the 1980s After studying this section, you should understand: l Why race relations worsened in France in the 1980s l What government policy was in relation to integration, assimilation and immigration l How political parties reacted to the issue of race relations l The impact of the Headscarf Affair l What happened in the city of Dreux l How anti-racist organisations tried to combat racism Why did immigrants come to France? 1. After the Second World War, France experienced migration flows. CULTURAL DIVERSITY: l The French population fell due to two world wars A number of different and a falling birth rate. cultures (ways of life) l Workers were needed for post-war reconstruction in one country. and the economic boom which The Glorious Thirty (Les trente followed it (the Glorious Thirty) glorieuses) refers to the years up to the early 1970s. 1945 to 1975, when the French 2. Most migrants came for economic economy prospered. reasons – for jobs and a better standard of living. Some came for political reasons, such as the Portuguese who lived under a dictator and could be conscripted to fight in colonial wars in Africa. What immigrants came to France? 1. Most of the early post-war immigration came from Italy, Spain and Portugal to fill vacant jobs. 2. Later, French migrants came largely from Africa, especially the Maghreb. Why immigrants came to France Push factors Pull factors Poverty Jobs Population growth Higher standard of living Disturbances City living Educational opportunities The Maghreb refers to the five north African countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Mauritania. French Maghrebi immigrants came from Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH Cultural diversity in multi-racial France 27 Foreigners as a percentage (%) of total population of France, 1936–90 1936 5.3 } 1. Immigration added to cultural diversity in 1946 4.4 France. Below average 1954 4.1 l Immigration from North and West Africa and Asia introduced people with 1962 4.7 a different skin colour and most often a 1968 5.3 different religion, Islam. 1975 6.5 l Many of the new immigrants lived in Above average 1982 6.8 cities. 1990 6.4 2. The French republican policy of assimilating and integrating the different Average percentage of foreigners in cultures aimed to lessen cultural diversity France between 1936 and 1990 = 5.4% in France. Main nationalities in 3. The French government used education to initiate France’s foreign people into the common culture. population in 1990 4. The road and rail network, and the influence of Portuguese 649,714 television and radio, created a more unified country Algerian 614,207 and served to lessen cultural differences. Moroccan 572,652 5. Some argued that it was the refusal of France to recognise cultural differences which led to the Italian 252,759 Headscarf Affair in 1989. } What factors influenced race relations in France in the 1980s? Spanish 216,047 Tunisian 206,336 During the 1980s, race relations became an important and controversial topic in France. This was due to a number of factors: l Changes in the pattern of immigration in the previous decade l Worsening economic conditions l Housing and social conditions in working-class areas in French cities l The rise of the National Front l Government policies How did the pattern of immigration change in France? The main changes in the pattern of immigration were: l The increasing proportion of immigrants from North and West Africa – these were culturally and racially different – they were ‘visible racial minorities’, as one historian wrote; they were ‘Arab’ and Muslim. How did race relations become a major issue in France in the period, 1945–90? To what extent did race become a major issue in France? How did France become a multi-racial society and what problems in race relations developed in the 1980s? l l l 28 LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS HISTORY FOR LEAVING CERT l l The resettlement of families rather than individual working men. The movement of those families into wider society, attending schools and living in mixed housing projects. What other factors influenced race relations in France in the 1980s? 1. The French economy worsened after the two oil crises of the 1970s. l Unemployment rose to 10 per cent. l There was more serious unemployment amongst unskilled, largely immigrant, workers. 2. Housing and social conditions – immigrants lived in poor housing conditions. l These were usually large blocks of apartments with inadequate social facilities – les bainlieues. Immigrants in those apartment blocks had higher illiteracy rates, less prospect of employment and higher school drop-out rates. How did race relations worsen in the 1980s? 1. During the 1980s examples of racial conflict became more common: l There were increased attacks on immigrants: – attacks on Jews (anti-Semitism) – North Africans (Maghrebis) were attacked and killed – there was job and housing discrimination RACISM: – there was burning of immigrant hostels and mosques The belief that – more police identity checks people’s – more racial graffiti characteristics are – there was also burning of cars by immigrant youths. influenced by their race and that some l The leader of the National Front, Le Pen, made antiraces are superior Semitic comments on television in 1990. to other races. 2. French public opinion turned against immigrants. l In 1973–74, most French people felt immigrants were doing useful jobs. l In the 1980s they said sending immigrants home would solve the unemployment problem in France. Race relations and politics: How did the French National Front benefit from worsening race relations in the 1980s? 1. The National Front increased its vote during the 1980s largely due to its exploitation of the immigration issue. l The National Front benefited from and contributed to worsening race relations in France. 2. The National Front was formed in 1972 by Jean-Marie Le Pen, but in the 1981 elections, its candidates only got 0.2 per cent of the vote. ETHNIC POLITICS: Political behaviour influenced by ethnic (racial) differences. EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH 29 Its success began in 1983 in Dreux, a small city in France, west of Paris. Here it achieved 17 per cent in the first round of elections. In the second round, the other main parties of the Right joined with the National Front to defeat the Socialists. l In 1984 the National Front won 12 per cent in the European elections. l In 1986 it elected 35 deputies to the National Assembly. l In 1989 it won 61 per cent of the vote in the second round voting in a by-election in Dreux. 3. The National Front said that: l immigrants should go back to their own countries Jean-Ma rie Le Pe l immigrants were a threat to French national identity – n their slogan was ‘France for the French’ l social welfare benefits should be given only to genuine French people – this was called ‘National Preference’, ‘French first’ l all France’s problems – crime, unemployment, the housing crisis – were caused by immigration. 4. The National Front’s propaganda was effective – they made immigration a key issue in French elections during the 1980s and afterwards. l Race relations in France in the 1980s 1970s l Oil Crisis l Zero Immigration policy 1980 l Bombing of synagogue in Paris l Communist mayor orders demolition of African workers’ hostel 1981 l Mitterand elected President 1982 1983 l Increased vote for French National Front in Dreux l March against Racism 1984 l SOS-Racisme founded 1985 1986 l Chirac’s victory in general election – promises tougher immigration laws 1987 1988 1989 l Headscarf Affair l National Front victory in Dreux by-election 1990 l Le Pen anti-Semitic remarks on TV 30 LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS HISTORY FOR What were government policies on integration and assimilation? What problems and opportunities did cultural diversity present to French society between 1960 and 1990? 1. The French looked on themselves as a unified nation. French nationality was used to unite the people of France so cultural differences were avoided. The French republican ideal held that all citizens were free, equal and bound by the laws of the state. l They expected immigrants to integrate into French society (adopt the ways and lifestyles of the French). 2. They believed that the job of the state school system was to ensure that the republican ideal was taught. IDENTITY: 3. The French were opposed to multiculturalism, What makes a person or which would recognise all cultures. They saw it as people who they are, divisive to French society. e.g. national identity; 4. By the 1980s some French people felt that it was less the feeling of being part likely that immigrants could be integrated into of a group or nation. French society. l This mostly centred on Islam, which many saw as differing so much from the French way of life that it would INTEGRATION: not be possible to integrate it. People fitting into ASSIMILATION: another society by 5. These attitudes differed from what When people from changing their immigrants felt themselves. Threeone culture take in way of life. quarters of second-generation Muslims or become part of said they identified more closely with the lifestyle and culture another culture. of the French than with that of their own parents. 6. These different viewpoints showed the wide gap in opinion in France. What were government policies on immigration? 1. The success of the National Front forced the main political parties to change their views. 2. President François Mitterrand had to drop his idea of giving voting rights to immigrants in local elections because of rising tensions about immigrants. 3. Mitterrand and the Socialists imposed stricter laws on immigrants: l more illegal immigrants were expelled l it was more difficult for families to be reunited. 4. Immigration became a key issue in the 1986 general election. A right-wing government led by the Prime Minister, Jacques Chirac, brought in tougher immigration laws. l They also made political alliances with the National Front to win local elections. l They proposed a new nationality law, which said children born in France to foreign parents could no longer automatically become French citizens at 18. This law was eventually passed in 1993. EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH 31 What happened in the city of Dreux? 1. Dreux is a small city in France, about 60 miles west of Paris. It grew from being a large town in 1954 (17,000 people) to a small industrial city by 1975 (33,000 people). 2. Dreux experienced changes similar to other cities in France. 3. Industrial change: Older traditional industries, such as shoe manufacturing, declined and new industries came to Dreux. These new industries depended on unskilled immigrant labour from Italy, Spain, Portugal, Morocco What happened in the city of Dreux can be used as an example of how and Algeria. race relations and immigration 4. Poorly laid-out public housing schemes were became issues in France. built on the edge of the city. ‘Dreux’s chaotic Immigrants as a per cent of growth created a city segregated by age, social Dreux’s population class, and regional and national origin.’ (Françoise Gaspard, A Small City in France) 1954 1.4% 5. Immigrant population: The immigrant 1975 15.0% population grew. 1982 21.0% 6. The makeup of the immigrants changed. l In 1971, the Portuguese were the largest number, The French followed by Spaniards, Moroccans and Algerians. population declined; the l By 1990, the largest group were Moroccans, immigrant followed by Turks, Portuguese and Algerians. population grew. National Front victories in Dreux 1. In the 1980s, the National Front won two elections in the city. l The 1983 election campaign was characterised by the ‘Dear Mustapha’ letter, and rumours that 800 new Turkish workers would soon arrive in the city and that the mayor was having a factory built to employ them. l The National Front vote increased from 2 per cent in 1979 to 17 per cent in 1983. 2. They made an electoral alliance with the moderate right-wing parties to win the second round of voting. 3. In 1989 Dreux elected Marie-France Stirbois to the National Assembly with 61 per cent of the vote. The National Front used the issue of the ‘headscarf affair’ of 1989 (see below) to increase their vote. 4. The National Front used slogans to frighten people. 32 LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS HISTORY FOR LEAVING CERT National Front slogans National Front poster in elections in Dreux in 1979: ‘One million unemployed, one million immigrants too many. French first!’ National Front slogan in Dreux in 1983: ‘Two million unemployed, two million immigrants too many. French first!’ What was the ‘headscarf affair’ of 1989 and what was its impact? 1. The ‘headscarf affair’ highlighted issues in relation to the integration of immigrants. 2. In 1989, three Muslim girls were suspended from a state school in Creil (north of Paris) for wearing headscarves (hijab). 3. The girls wore the scarves believing they were following the Islamic teaching that they should cover their heads in public. 4. The principal said that they were breaking French laws on laïcité (secularism), under which church and state are separated, and which excluded wearing religious symbols or garments. l Anti-racist organisations appealed their suspension to the Minister of Education, and he overturned the suspensions. 5. This led to a huge controversy in France. The controversy helped the National Front to win a by-election in Dreux in 1989 with the slogan, ‘No to the headscarf, no to mosques.’ 6. This forced the Socialist government to introduce measures which they said would integrate immigrants into French society. 7. Controversy continued during the 1990s, when there were clashes between school authorities and girls wearing headscarves. Two sides of the ‘headscarf affair’ debate For the headscarves l Some said the girls were being discriminated against because of their religion l They said Catholics were allowed to wear crucifixes l 350,000 girls from Muslim families attended school without causing any problem l Excluding these girls from school would make them more Islamic Against the headscarves l Religious symbols should not be worn in state schools l Some said Muslims should follow the French way of life l Wearing the scarves was an expression of Muslim fundamentalism and it should not be encouraged l Wearing scarves was a sign that women were under the control of their husbands and it should not be allowed EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH 33 What role did anti-racist organisations play in France in the 1980s? 1. Several anti-racist organisations tried to combat racist views in France. They believed they were in the republican tradition of defending human rights. l They viewed the National Front as fascists in the tradition of Hitler. 2. Religious leaders declared their churches’ opposition to all racist views. 3. SOS-Racisme was founded in 1984 in direct response to the rise of the National Front. It attracted support from young French people and it used well-known entertainers to publicise its cause. l It promoted racial harmony and protected minority groups against the spread of racism. l It was closely linked to the Socialist Party. 4. SOS-Racisme appealed the decision by the principal in the ‘headscarf affair’ to the Minister of Education and brought the attention of the media to it. 5. France-Plus was also linked to the Socialist Party. It drew its support from young Maghrebis. It tried to increase their involvement in politics and encouraged political parties to offer Maghrebis places on their election lists. 6. Marches, such as the March against Racism from Marseille to Paris in 1983, were also used to highlight issues which affected immigrants. 7. After the desecration of a Jewish cemetery in 1990, over fifty demonstrations against racism were held around France, including a march by 200,000 people in Paris. 8. These organisations failed to counter the spread of the National Front and racial tensions continued to cause problems in France. Contextualising race relations in France in the 1980s Race relations in France in the 1980s Immigration patterns and policies in France (and Britain) Key personality None Key concepts French in Algeria Assimilation Racism Cultural diversity in multi-racial France (and Britain) Islamic faith in Europe Cultural diversity Identity Culture and religion 34 LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS HISTORY FOR LEAVING CERT Key concepts Assimilation: When people from one culture take in or become part of another culture. Cultural diversity: A number of different cultures (ways of life) in one country. Ethnic politics: Political behaviour influenced by ethnic (racial) differences. Identity: What makes a person or people who they are, e.g. national identity; the feeling of being part of a group or nation. Integration: People fitting into another society by changing their way of life. Racism: The belief that people’s characteristics are influenced by their race and that some races are superior to other races. Past exam questions on Race Relations in France in the 1980s Higher level 2013 – 2012 – 2011 – How did France become a multi-racial country and how did race relations develop there in the 1980s? 2010 – Which country managed race relations better, Britain or France? Argue your case, referring to both. 2009 – To what extent did race become a major issue in Britain and/or France? 2008 – 2007 – What problems and opportunities did cultural diversity present to (French) society between 1960 and 1990? 2006 – How did race relations become a major issue in Britain and/or France in the period 1945–1990? Ordinary level 2013 – 2012 – 2011 – How did Britain and/or France become multi-racial during the period 1945–1990? 2010 – What problems in race relations developed in France in the 1980s and what attempts were made to solve them? 2009 – How did France become a multi-racial society and what problems in race relations developed in the 1980s? 2008 – REVISING FOR LEAVING CERT 2011 2007 – How and why did France experience problems in race relations during the 1980s? 2006 – How and why did France experience problems in race relations during the 1980s? 35