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Reflections on Ragamala Painting
Fall 2000
Honors Thesis
Susan Fuchser
Dianne T a y l o T ^ n u ^ \,<u^<n
Gloria Cox h j L ^ U a ^
CJOY-
Fuchser 2
Table of Contents
Introduction
3
Part I: Religious Context
Hinduism
Islam
Jainism and Buddhism
4
4
11
12
Part II: Historical Context
13
Part II: Ragamala Painting
Music: the raga
Poetry: the dhyana
Painting: the ragamala
19
19
24
25
Part IV: Asavari Ragini
41
Conclusion
45
Works Cited
46
Fuchser 3
Introduction
At various times in history, artists have intertwined the art of painting with other
forms of art. For example, the Chinese paintings of the Song Dynasty combined painting
with the art of poetry, and some Western Baroque paintings worked with the music
played in churches to aid in worship (Yee 122; Gardner 651).
But the first works of art to ever merge the three art forms of music, poetry, and
painting, was the Ragamala paintings of India. Ragamala painting is quite a unique form
of art in that it successfully combines these three art forms.
This paper will describe many facets of Ragamala painting, and describe a
specific example of Ragamala painting, in what one could call an onion of art. This is
because, just as an onion has layer upon layer, art too has many different layers. The
layers around a work of art include the artwork itself, its uses, any symbolism in the
artwork, the role of the artist, and the background or any traditions that the artwork
follows. It also includes cultural and religious contexts as well as social, political,
economical, and historical contexts. In this paper, these layers will be addressed starting
with an overview of the religious context in Part I, and then moving to historical context in
Part II. Part III will address Ragamala painting in general and Part IV will give a specific
example of a Ragamala painting.
Much of the information given in this paper was unknown to the author prior to
research. Consequently, the authors' sources listed after the paper heavily influenced the
information given. This paper is written with the assumption that the reader also does
not have much prior knowledge of the subject.
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Part I: Religious Context
The religious context of the art of India is undeniably important and crucial to
understanding its art. In India, religion and art are inseparable; in fact, religion seems to
have an impact on every aspect of life in India. The most popular religion in India is
Hinduism, and is the one that is most extensively covered in this paper (Anderson 159).
Also among India's religions relevant to Ragamala art are Buddhism, Islam, and Jainism.
As the focus of this paper is not religion exclusively, it is not practical to explore
every aspect of every religion discussed. Information on religion is given here merely for
background. The ideas presented here are widely accepted beliefs. As with any belief
system, there are variations, and not all people who claim to belong to a religion will agree
on all aspects of that religion.
Hinduism
Hinduism is one of the largest and oldest religions in India. It is tolerant and
accepting of other religions, and adjusts to the needs of the people (Ganeri, Hinduism 8).
The basis for Hinduism started around 1500 BC when Aryan people invaded the Indus
valley and the Aryan Vedic religion mixed with the native religions of the Indus valley
(Ganeri, Hinduism 10-11). The main god of Hinduism is Brahma, who is believed to be
the supreme soul, in and around everything (Ganeri, Hinduism 16). Brahma represents
pure consciousness and bliss, which is perfect and unchangeable (Anderson 159). All
other Hindu gods are believed to be manifestations of different aspects of Brahma
(Ganeri, Hinduism 16). This may be a point of confusion for many people. Some say
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that Hinduism has many gods, and others say that Hinduism only has one god. Both are
actually true. It could be seen as all the many gods are small parts of the larger one god.
Brahma is seen as the creator and the god of wisdom, and his wife, Saraswati, is the
goddess of art, music, and literature (Ganeri, Hinduism 16).
Another main god of Hinduism is Vishnu, known as the protector of the universe
(Ganeri, Hinduism 17). His wife, Lakshmi, is the goddess of beauty and good fortune
(Ganeri, Hinduism 17). Vishnu is often symbolized by the lotus flower (Ganeri,
Hinduism 39). One belief is that Brahma was born from a lotus flower in Vishnu's navel
(Wolpert 88). According to Hindu belief, Vishnu has had several avatars (Ganeri,
Hinduism 17). An avatar is an earthly manifestation or visitation of a god. The first
avatar of Vishnu was Matsya, a fish, the second was Kurma the tortoise, the third was
Varaha the boar, followed by was Narasima, a man-lion, then came Parashurama the
warrior, then the famous Lord Rama, the hero in the Hindu epic story, the Ramavana
(Ganeri, Hinduism 18). After that came the favorite Lord Krishna, then Buddha, and last
of all is Kalki, a rider on a white horse who is yet to come (Ganeri, Hinduism 17). The
different avatars supposedly saved the world from destruction. For example, the fish
avatar, Matsya, is believed to have saved the world from a flood (Wolpert 88).
The third main god of Hinduism is Shiva, the destroyer of the world, who also
brings about life and changing of seasons (Ganeri. Hinduism 17). He is usually
represented dancing (Ganeri, Hinduism 17). Shiva may be derived from the pre-Aryan
Dravidian Lord of Dance, and is believed to possess at least a hundred dances of
destruction (Wolpert 78). Shiva is also known as the god of sex, and the generator of life
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(Wolpert 76). Shiva's wife, Sati, is the goddess of devotion and her name means the
"True One" (Wolpert 78).
Because Shiva deals with destroying and the bringing of life, he may be linked to
the belief in reincarnation and transmigration, a circle of life and death that Hindus call
samsara (Ganeri, Hinduism 14). Reincarnation refers to the belief that a soul can be
reborn into a different human body. Transmigration is the birth of a soul into another
form, such as an animal's body. Hinduism teaches that one's reincarnation or
transmigration depends on the life one has lived. If one has lived a good life, there is
progression to a higher life form; if one is bad, then one regresses to a lower life form in
the next reincarnation or transmigration. Because of the belief in transmigration, Hindus
do not normally eat meat. To be a human would be high on the life form scale, but even
then, there was traditionally a caste system to progress through. The highest caste, by
tradition, consisted of priests and is called the Brahman caste (Ganeri, Hinduism 20).
The next lower caste, the Kshatriyas, included warriors and nobles, then came the
merchants caste called the Vaishyas, next was the Shudras, who were ordinary laborers,
and finally, the Untouchables, at the bottom rung (Ganeri, Hinduism 20). It is assumed
that the caste system developed as the division of labor became more distinct in Indian
civilization, and as the Hindu religion developed, creating hierarchy within the division of
labor. It is impossible to advance or regress to a different level of the caste system in a
lifetime. One must wait until the next life in order to move on. The caste system may
determine your occupation in life and whom you are to marry. Although it is no longer
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implemented to its fullest extent, there are still some traces of this tradition left among
Hindus, mainly demonstrated in the choice of a marriage partner.
The Hindus' goal is to live a good life so that they may advance to a better life
when they are reincarnated. Eventually, after adequate good lives, Hindus believe they
will break free of this cycle and reach salvation or moksha (Ganeri, Hinduism 14). It is
believed that there are four paths to reach moksha (Ganeri, Hinduism 15). The Path of
Devotion includes prayer and worship of a personal god, the Path of Knowledge entails
study and learning with the guidance of a teacher or guru, the Path of Right Action
requires that a person must act selflessly, and the Path of Yoga includes yoga and
meditation (Ganeri, Hinduism 15). Yoga has found its niche in the Western world and
many people are familiar with the word mantra, which is a word or phrase that is chanted
during meditation. The Hindu religion also employs yantras, which are visual image
patterns used for meditation (Ganeri, Hinduism 27).
The Hindu scriptures are called Sanatana Dharma, meaning "eternal law" (Ganeri,
Hinduism 8-9). The scriptures include Vedas and Upanishads. The Vedas, the oldest of
which is the Rig-Veda, are collections of songs, hymns, prayers, and magic spells (Ganeri,
Hinduism 28). Upanishads are sacred teachings dealing with the relationship between
Brahma and the individual (Ganeri. Hinduism 28). These holy writings were written in
Sanskrit, which means "perfected" (Ganeri, Hinduism. 29). Sanskrit is an ancient language
that is no longer commonly spoken except for during Hindu rituals (Ganeri, Hinduism
29).
Fuchser 8
Hinduism heavily influences much of Indian art. For example, in Hindu belief, the
material world is not real, and the Hindu individual wants transcendence or release from
this world, to allow the soul to merge with Brahma through meditation, ritual, and selfcontrol (Anderson 160).
The concept that the material world is not real is also seen in the concept of maya:
the belief that the world and self are neither real nor unreal, but that reality lies in
experience, or what is empirically true (Anderson 163).
Art is comparable to the
concept of maya in that it does not have the same realness as its subject matter but invites
the viewer to have an aesthetic experience of emotion (Anderson 163). Because of this,
art could be even more real than the physical world. This idea would shock Plato, the
Greek philosopher, who thought that artists should be banned because they could only
make deceptive imitations of the real, or material, world. With this in mind, many Hindus
believe that the purpose of the artist is to clarify man's relationship with Brahma (Craven
224). In India, art is considered superior to other forms of teaching because it provides an
experience for the viewer, rather than just increasing one's knowledge (Anderson 164).
Instruction is one of the major purposes of art, according to Indian thinking. The
Vedas state that humans exist in states of varying perfection, and that humans often
misuse their passions (Anderson 161). Hindu art, like religious teachings, is intended to
redirect passions towards better uses that lead to the moral betterment of the individual
(Anderson 161). However, art is to be distinct from religious teachings in that it should
be subtler than a sermon, it should instead increase wisdom through experience (Anderson
163).
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Many of the Indian art philosophies developed between the third and thirteenth
centuries (Anderson 159). Priests of the Brahman caste thought about and wrote down
questions about the nature of the reality of art, and if it were part of the real or illusionary
world (Anderson 161). In the third century AD, Bharata, a collection of writers,
established that rasa was what gave art its life (Anderson 161). Rasa is described as the
emotional satisfaction one receives from art (Anderson 165). In the tenth century,
Abhinavagupta wrote a Sanskrit commentary, and although what remains is fragmented
and is highly debated by scholars, it demonstrates the complexity of Indian art
philosophy (Anderson 161).
Some of India's philosophy of art runs contrary to Western values and ideas of
art. Sculpture and painting, although highly valued in the Western world as high art
forms, are viewed as second rate frozen images of the live drama (Anderson 159).
According to Indian philosophy, drama, dramatic poetry, and music are considered the
highest forms of art because they involve the dimension of time (Anderson 159).
Another thing that may seem contradictory to Western thinking is the use of the
erotic in Indian religious art (Anderson 159). Temples are showered with statues that
have erotic imagery. This is not a contradiction in Hinduism. In Hindu beliefs, the pursuit
of pleasure, whether spiritual or worldly, is one of the purusarthas, or the four main goals
of life (Anderson 163). An example of this is classified as Tantricism, where an individual
identifies with a deity through rituals like the eating otherwise forbidden meat, the
drinking of wine, and partaking in ritualized sex (Anderson 164). This is not unusual
because goodness and happiness are not separate qualities, according to Hindu belief
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(Anderson 167). Delight is considered good for the soul because it brings one closer to
Brahma (Anderson 167). Because of this, there is an emphasis in art on emotional
pleasure, transcendental excitement, and bliss (Anderson 165).
The rasa theory is this: art exists in the emotions and pleasure of the viewer, not
in the senses (Anderson 166). It also refers to the approach the viewer has towards art:
one must be in the proper state of mind in order to get the right response (Anderson 166).
When the viewers are experiencing art, they lose consciousness of themselves and join in
the experience in such a way that there is no distinction between the viewer and what is
being viewed (Anderson 166). Therefore, in the case of Indian art, what is being viewed is
religious in nature, and is believed to elevate the viewer morally (Anderson 166). For
example, Indian drama usually has a supernatural hero, and in this drama, the viewer
would identify with the actions of the deity (Anderson 167). It is also thought that as the
viewer forgets about him/herself, the soul of the viewer merges with Brahma (Anderson
168). In rasa theory, there are nine recognized emotional states: happiness, laughter,
sorrow, anger, pride, fear, disgust, wonder, and tranquility (Anderson 166; 168). Some
say that art reflects four main tastes: erotic, heroic, odious, and violent; with nine tastemoods: love, courage, joy, hatred, fury, pity, terror, surprise, and spiritual peace
(Wolpert 161). Whichever system one subscribes to, it is evident that emotions are
categorized into a limited number of descriptions. Some emotions are considered more
desirable than others if they are less connected to the material world (Anderson 169).
Hindu art is presented in distinct styles. This also lends itself to the viewer to use
art as a way to elevate the spirit to Brahma. Most of the Indian art forms are stylized,
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using general depictions of subjects as opposed to individualized depictions, to convey
that there are universal themes with which the viewer can identify (Anderson 168). For
example, when looking at a painting of a woman, the woman depicted is supposed to
represent womankind in general.
Islam
Another important religion to consider in the background of Ragamala painting is
Islam. Islam holds the belief that there is only one god, not many gods or many
manifestations of one god. Muslims call this god Allah and they also believe in the
teachings of the prophet, Muhammad (Husain 8). Muhammad set a path for his
followers called Sunna (Husain 18). In their practices, Muslims must follow the five
pillars: Shahadah, the declaration of faith stating the belief in Allah and the teachings of
Muhammad; Salaat, in which they must pray to god five times a day; Zakaat, which is
giving to charity; Sawm, where, during the month of Ramadan, they must fast; and finally
Haj, where they take a pilgrimage to Mecca (Husain 14). The holy book of the Muslims
is called the Quran, and is believed to be the exact words of Allah (Husain 16). Other
holy books such as the Torah and the Bible, which it is claimed they also believe, are not
as exact as the Quran (Husain 16).
From AD 998 to 1030, India was attacked and captured by the Muslim forces of
Mahmud of Ghazna (Husain 10-11). Much of Islam was spread through warfare
although there were some more peaceful Sufi saints that went about proselytizing (Husain
34).
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The way Muslims originally handled art is unique and interesting. The early
Muslims would not allow the painting of human or animal figures (Husain 38). This is
probably related to the second of the Ten Commandments in the Jewish Torah and the
Christian Old Testament which forbids the making or worship of idols in any form
(Exodus 20:4). Instead, the painters followed four basic designs consisting of calligraphy,
flowers, arabesques, which are based on the natural curves of plants, and geometric
shapes (Husain 38).
As one can imagine, with such different core beliefs, there was great tension
between Muslims and Hindus. So great was this tension that it oftentimes broke out into
warfare. More of this will be addressed later in the historical context part of this paper.
Buddhism and Jainism
Jainism is considered a Hindu sect and was founded by Mahavira in the sixth
century BC (Wolpert 32-33). In Jainism, there is a belief that all things, even inanimate
objects, are alive (Wolpert 82). As a result of this, Mahavira starved himself because by
eating something, he believed he was murdering that thing (Wolpert 82). Those who
practice Jainism often wear a mask so that they will not breath in bugs, and they carry a
broom to sweep the path before them so that they would not step on and kill anything
(Wolpert 82). It is not uncommon for them to fast to death (Wolpert 82).
Buddhism is a non-violent religion, and its founder, Siddhartha, is considered one
of the avatars of Vishnu by Hindus (Wolpert 32-33). Buddhism began around the sixth
century BC when Siddhartha rejected the Bramanic teachings of the Hindu priests and set
out to find the meaning of life on his own (Wolpert 32-33).
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Part II: Historical Context
The historical context can have a profound impact on art. It is also said that art
has a profound impact on history. Either way, they are closely connected. The time in
history has an effect on how the art is made, which stylistic developments are employed,
what the art is used for, and the status of the artist.
There are many different ways that one can present history. One can present it
according to topics, themes, cultures, or simply in chronological order. Chronological
order may be one of the best ways to see the interplay of different events, be they
religious or political in nature, as they happen often at the same time and impact each
other. Most of the history that follows is focused primarily about India although other
countries are brought in at times.
The story of India begins in the setting of the Indus Valley. It is estimated that
the Indus Valley Civilization reached its height, or peak of civilization, around 2500 BC
(Ganeri, Hinduism 10-11). The Indus Valley Civilization thrived until around 1700 BC,
when it began to decline (Masselos 8). The next period, the Vedic Period, dates from 1500
BC to 500 BC (Masselos 8). In 1500 BC the Aryan people invaded the Indus valley,
brought their Vedic religion with them, and mixed their beliefs with the Indus valley
religions to form the basis of Hinduism (Ganeri, Hinduism 10-11). These conquering
Aryans were fair skinned people and when they conquered, they enslaved the darker
skinned natives, whom the Aryans called dasas (Wolpert 29). In 1000 BC, the Aryans
used iron weapons to expand their territory, and they incorporated the villages that they
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overtook into territorial kingdoms (Wolpert 29). Some of the contributions that the
Aryans made other than their religious beliefs, include the introduction the horse and the
cow to India (Wolpert 29). During this time, between 1500-1000 BC, the Rig-Veda and
other Vedas, which were some of the Hindu sacred texts, were utilized by the Aryan
priest, and the caste system was developed (Ganeri, Hinduism 10-11). In 800 BC,
Upanishads, Hindu scriptures and the last of the Vedas, were composed and passed on
orally by the Brahman caste (Wolpert 28, 32). Many Aryans adopted pre-Aryan ideas
such as reincarnation, karma, and nature worship (Wolpert 28,32).
In the sixth century BC, mini-wars broke out all over India (Wolpert 34). Most of
the wars were about land possession of different ruling princes. The princes would release
one of their horses to roam the land, and then claim the area where the horse wandered
(Wolpert 34). During this time, North India alone was divided into a dozen princely
states (Wolpert 34). In 500 BC, Jainism was founded by Mahavira (Ganeri, Buddhism
10-11). Around the fifth or sixth century BC Siddhartha Gautama, the historic Buddha,
started his search for the meaning of life, and he believed he found it when he gained
enlightenment under a bohdi tree fGaneri. Buddhism 10-11). It is proposed that all these
new religions developed in part as a result of discontentment with how India was doing
politically with so many wars.
The great Hindu epics called the Mahabharata and the Ramavana were composed
from 400 B.C to AD 400 (Ganeri, Hinduism 10-11). Buddha died in 400 BC and his
teachings continued to spread throughout India (Ganeri, Buddhism 10-11). Between 400
Fuchser 15
and 314 BC, councils gathered to collect the different teachings of Buddha, and the
Ravada School was founded after the second council meeting (Ganeri, Buddhism 10-11).
In 326 BC, Alexander the Great crossed over the Indus River into India (Wolpert
34). Alexander's ideas of world unification inspired the people of India to unite together,
and in 324 BC, Chandragupta Maury a was established as the leader of the first Indian
dynasty that lasted 120 years (Wolpert 34). From 286 to 239 BC, Ashoka Mauraya,
ruled as India's greatest ruler (Ganeri. Buddhism 10-11). He converted to Buddhism, and
in 250 BC, he sent his children as missionaries to Sri Lanka (Ganeri, Buddhism 10-11).
After Ashoka's death, India's unity started to crumble, due to rebellion in the south and
invasions from the north (Wolpert 36-37). The dynasty officially came to an end when
defeated by a Brahman general in 184 BC (Wolpert 37). The period following this was
characterized by political fragmentation that lasted for nearly five hundred years, with
invasions coming from the Greco-Bactrians, the Persians, and the Scythians (Wolpert 37).
In 80 BC, the Pali Canon, also known as the scripture of Theravada, was
recorded, whereas before it was passed down orally (Ganeri, Buddhism 10-11). From
100 BC to AD 100, Mahayana Buddhism developed and Buddhism was spread to China
(Ganeri, Buddhism 10-11). Images of Buddha began to appear around the second century
AD, whereas previous to this, Buddha was only represented symbolically (Ganeri,
Hinduism 10-11).
India experienced the Golden age of Hinduism in AD 350-500 (Ganeri, Hinduism
10-11). The Hindu Guptan Dynasty was established from 320 to 550, and was made
successful by holding to the ideal of living a simple life (Wolpert 38). This simple life had
Fuchser 16
to do with a non-intrusive political approach towards the people, which greatly reduced
the desire for rebellion (Wolpert 39). Also during this time, Hindu temples were built
everywhere, mountains and rivers were deemed sacred, and art was considered to be
religiously inspired (Wolpert 39). This time was a time of stability economically as well,
due to good trade relations with the Mediterranean (Widdess 22).
Buddhism spread to Korea in 372 and to Japan in 538 (Ganeri, Buddhism 10-11).
In AD 571 the Muslim prophet Muhammad was bom (Husain 10-11). In 612, Buddhism
spread to Tibet (Ganeri, Buddhism 10-11).
In 711, Islam reached India and much conflict and hatred arose not only because of
different beliefs, but also because the Muslims were eager for India's gold (Wolpert 40).
In AD 1001 Muslims invaded India (Ganeri, Buddhism 10-11) and from 998 to 1030
Mahmud of Ghazna captured the Northwest region of India (Husain 10-11). Eventually
the Muslims took on an attitude that gave non-Muslims three choices: either convert to
Islam, pay money, or die (Wolpert 41-42).
In the twelfth century AD, Buddhism disappeared from India and Hinduism and
Islam became the two major religions (Ganeri. Buddhism 10-11). This is not surprising
given the aggressive nature of Muslims and the peaceful nature of Buddhists. In 1191,
Zen Buddhism traveled from China to Japan (Ganeri, Buddhism 10-11). Toward the end
of this century, the Muslims destroyed a Buddhist university (Ganeri, Buddhism 10-11).
From the fifteenth century on, India traded directly by sea with the French, Spanish,
Portuguese, and British, and they competed for the control of that trade (Wolpert 44-45).
Fuchser 17
The Rajput Dynasty was established around 1500 and survived until 1947
(Masselos 12-13). From 1526 to 1530, the Muslim Mughal Empire defeated the Hindu
Rajput army (Wolpert 41-42). They remained in control until 1858, when the British
took control of India (Wolpert 41-42). In 1570, the Mughal emperor, Akbar the Great,
formed his own religion by mixing Muslim, Hindu and Christian beliefs (Ganeri,
Hinduism 10-11). The Christian influence could have come from the European traders,
although missionaries did not introduce Christianity till sometime later. Some people
rebelled under Akbar, calling him a traitor to his religion, but he would rid himself of these
rebels, who disturbed the peace (Wolpert 42).
During the seventeenth century, India experienced a golden age of art, and Persian
painting was celebrated (Wolpert 42). But this was also a time of turmoil for some
Hindus as Aurangzeb, a Muslim ruler, in an effort to return the country to Islam,
persecuted Hindus by taxing them and beheading their gurus in the years 1658-1707
(Wolpert 43). Different groups rebelled against him. One group, known as Sikhs,
believed in a blend of Hindu and Muslim beliefs (Wolpert 43). Another group followed a
Hindu leader by the name of Shivaji, who led a rebellion from 1627 to 1680 by using
guerrilla warfare (Wolpert 43). At the same time, from 1600-1700, Europeans brought
Christianity to India (Ganeri, Hinduism 10-11) and the British established control over
the trade with India in 1600 (Wolpert 45).
In 1707, the Mughal Empire started to decline and broke down into different
kingdoms (Wolpert 44). This was seen as a golden opportunity for the French who took
over in 1746 (Wolpert 46-47). However, that did not last long and the British regained
Fuchser 18
control in 1757, plundering the land, and killing many people (Wolpert 46-47). Ironically,
the infrastructure that was developed in India by the British aided in the unifying of
Indian revolt (Wolpert 52). In order to have a unified revolt, Indians had to put aside
their differences in order to work together (Wolpert 57).
In 1784, the British again regained political control over India (Ganeri, Hinduism
10-11). In 1869 Gandhi was born (Ganeri, Hinduism 10-11). Gandhi was an important
figure who played a major role it trying to liberate India from British rule. In 1881,
Buddhist texts were translated into European languages (Ganeri, Buddhism 10-11). In
1947, India gained political freedom from Britain and was split into Muslim Pakistan and
Hindu India (Ganeri, Hinduism 10-11). The day of independence is celebrated on the
fifteenth of August (Masselos 12-13).
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Part III: Ragamala Painting
The interplay between music and painting is fascinating in the example of
Ragamala painting. The nature and development of Ragamala painting will be described,
starting with the musical ragas, which were developed first, then the poetry, and finally
the painting. Different art forms in India, such as dance, poetry, music, painting, and
drama, are so connected together in purpose and theme that they tend to be one
composite art form that manifests itself in different ways (Sumahendra).
An element that is common to both music and painting is the idea that they
express a specific emotion or rasa. As discussed before, there are only nine established
rasas. In addition to rasa t there are states of mind called bhava (Wolpert 161). There
are thirty-three to forty-nine different bhavas and these have to do with the time of day,
health, and weather (Wolpert 161).
Music: the raga
There is a lot of spirituality imbedded in the music of India. Music is believed to
have been initially created by Saraswati, the wife of Brahma (White 7). Each note on the
musical scale is thought to be under the control of various nymphs described in the Hindu
epic, Ramayana (White 8). Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu, is credited with the invention
of raga music (Wolpert 166). It is said that he invented sixteen thousand ragas, but only
a few hundred survived and only six are named: Bhairava, whose main rasas are awe and
fear, Kaushika, Diaka, Hindola, whose main rasa is love, Sri raga, and Megha, whose
main rasa is peace or meditation (Wolpert 166). Most of the ragas, which are considered
Fuchser 20
male, are accompanied by at least two female versions, each known as a ragini (Wolpert
166). Ragas were used to employ supernatural powers such as charming snakes, causing
fire, and bringing rain (White 24).
The music of India can be identified based on open or closed systems. An open
system consists of a beginning set, which variations of the music are added onto the set
indefinitely (Widdess 31). A closed system would start with perhaps a simple formula
and have a limited number of variations (Widdess 31). Ragas are considered to be of the
open system because they lack a structure that completely restrains the amount of
variations that they can have (Widdess 31). Ragas do, however, generally have a certain
melodic structure (Widdess 29).
The development of the raga began between the fifth century BC and the first in
AD (White 7). According to one source, a writer named Bharata Rishi set the principles
of Indian music and dancing (White 7). Another source says that, in the same time
period, a document called the Natva Shastra. was written by several people
(Sumahendra). It is thought to be the oldest known document that addresses music and
drama (Sumahendra). Between the fourth and seventh centuries, Matanga compiled the
thoughts of earlier writers and was the first to term the word "raga " in the document
called Brahaddeshi (Sumahendra).
Two major schools developed in the producing of ragas. The one in the north
was called Hindustani, and the one in the south was called Canatic (White 22). These
schools developed distinct styles so that there was no one standard for ragas in India
(White 22). The system that placed ragas together in groups did not develop until after
Fuchser 21
the Gupa period in 550 AD (Widdess 23). Between the fifth and twelfth centuries, a
musical composer named Hanuman came up with a system of ragas that consisted of six
male ragas, with five corresponding female raginis, for a total of thirty-six musical modes
in a set (Ebeling 28). Another famous musician by the name of Narada, sometimes
depicted in Ragamala paintings, also came up with a classification for a Ragamala
musical system (Sumahendra). Between the seventh and the eleventh centuries, a
document by name of Pancham Sar Samhita. written by Narad, was the first to use the
term "ragini" (Sumahendra). In the sixteenth century, a Brahman known as Mesakaraa
compiled a similar system but added musical modes called ragaputras that imitated the
noises made by humans or animals and were meant to portray characteristics of divinity
or aristocracy (Ebeling 28). Another source says that a man named Samgdev, not
Mesakarna, came up with the additional musical modes and animal voices for notes
(Sumahendra). It is possible that the different names are referring to the same person. In
any case, the animal voices used for the notes are: the peacock, chatak, goat, deer, cock,
frog, horse, and elephant, and some of the animal voices may have been incorporated into
the imagery of the Ragamala painting (Sumahendra).
Before this, there was a system of music called jati, which focused on classifying
different musical patterns (Widdess 33). The shift from jati to raga meant a shift from
classification to improvisation in the music (Widdess 33). This can be seen in the nature
of ragas. Each time one is played, even if it is the same raga, it will never be played the
same again. Ragas were devised by theorists, however, and they have an element of
inconsistency, which leads to a conclusion that the theorist simply developed a structure
Fuchser 22
around what live performers would play (Widdess 32). The earliest ragas were used in
dramatic performances and had an expressive function (Widdess 43). Before the Muslim
invasion, ragas were no longer associated with drama, but took on a religious function and
related to deity, time of day, and astrology (Widdess 44).
Ragas usually consist of five to seven notes (Ganeri, Hinduism 40). The word for
note is savara, which translates as "the shining forth of oneself' (Masselos 280). With
these notes, the musician would improvise, basing the improvisation on the emotional
mood (Craven 224). The emotions are similar to the ones stated before for art in general.
They are: joy, sorrow, anger, laughter, pity, love, fear, tenderness and tranquility (White
24). The Sanskrit root of the word raga is ranj, which means "to be dyed or colored,
especially a red color, to be moved or excited, and be charmed or delighted" (Widdess 40).
This is related to the highly emotional purpose of the raga as when one is emotional,
there is sometimes a reddening of the face or eyes, either in anger or in tears, or extreme
fits of laughter (Widdess 40). In order to convey the emotion as accurately as possible,
the musician will sometimes look at the corresponding Ragamala painting for inspiration
(Craven 224). Even though the paintings were done after the music was established, this
shows how even a product of an art form will come back and influence the original art
form, and how art forms can intertwine influences.
The notes of the scale follow the jati system, and have seven primary pitches and
corresponding emotions, with the dominant note of the raga determining the mood
(Widdess 39):
Sa
heroic, angry, amazing
Fuchser 23
Ri
heroic, angry, amazing
Ga
pitiful
Ma
erotic, mirthful
Pa
erotic, mirthful
Dha
disgusting, terrifying
Ni
pitiful (Widdess 39)
The notes on the Indian scale are not the same distance apart from each other as
one finds in the Western scale (White 17). The Western scale has eight notes to a scale.
The Indian scale contains twenty-two notes, including the primary tones and microtones,
which are so close together that they may be indistinguishable to the untrained ear (White
17). Ragas often employ glissando, also known as the slurring of one note into another
that is nearby in pitch (White 25).
The scale did not always have as many notes. During the early Vedic period, only
three notes were used for singing (Sumahendra). In the later Vedic period, one more note
was added, and later, more notes were added to make the seven primary tones we see
today (Sumahendra).
In playing the ragas, the emphasis is not on the quality of the tone, but rather the
accuracy of the musician in matching the right pitch (White 15). The music consists of a
drone chord, played continuously throughout the piece, which is usually made of three
notes in the key of the raga (White 16).
Ragas involve time in more than one way. There is the rhythm of the raga as
well as the time theory, which dictates at what time of day or what season the raga
Fuchser 24
should be played. The rhythm of the raga, having very intricate patterns, has three
speeds: slow, medium, which is twice as fast as the slow speed, and fast, which is twice
as fast as the medium speed (White 16). Though the time theory is strongly suggested in
some cases, it is not always followed or considered mandatory (White 23).
A specific raga can be identified by certain characteristics that are specific to that
raga. Some of these include the combination of musical phrases, ascending and
descending notes, and the name given to the raga (White 22). The names of the ragas are
usually derived from the region or people from which the raga originally came (Widdess
23). Other characteristics of ragas are the combination of scale and melodic dynamics
such as strong and weak notes and starting and finishing notes (Widdess 30).
Classical Indian instruments include the tablas, a kind of drum; the sitar, which is
played similarly to a guitar; and the sarangi, which is played with a bow, like the cello
(Ganeri, Hinduism 40). The drone chord is usually played by a four or five stringed,
upright, and gourded instrument called a tanpura (Wolpert 167).
Poetry: the dhyana
The poetry or dhyanas were easily developed from music. Any time that music
was theorized about or compiled, divine qualities were mentioned in addition to technical
information (Ebeling 30). When poetry was written, the poets would use the
descriptions of the music to give them a basis for their imagery, although they themselves
were not likely to be trained in music (Ebeling 30). Themes that were commonly used in
poetry include the Krishalila, the theme of divine love in terms of human love, and the
Nayikabheda, themes of heroes and heroines being in love union or love longing (Ebeling
Fuchser 25
30). These themes are also found in Indian drama and dance (Ebeling 30). These themes
are not limited to Hindu art, but the Muslims would often modify or intensify these
subjects according to their tastes (Ebeling 30).
The word dhyana means "meditation," and is a poem that describes a raga, a
character, be it a god or person, and their actions (Widdess 400). The poetry was very
similar to prayer and started showing up around AD 1000 (Ebeling cover). The dhyanas
were passed down from teacher to student (Ebeling 28). These prayer poems were often
used as the text inscribed on the Ragamala paintings. The text often describes the virtue
of devotion, also known as bhakti (Beach 157).
The poems often used symbols and metaphors so that the deity or person, who
was the subject of the poem, could be identified with any man or woman (Beach 174).
The way this was done was by universalizing the subject and comparing it to other things
(Beach 175). For example, teeth could be compared to pearls, and one's gait to the
graceful movements of a swan (Beach 175).
The " Vasana Viasa," in particular is an important poem because its imagery
matches Ragamala iconography (Ebeling 50). The name of this fourteenth century poem
means "The Sport of Spring," and it deals with the joys and frustrations of lovers in the
springtime (Ebeling 50).
The texts used for the Ragamalas, taken from the dhyanas, are ambiguous in their
translations, sometimes adding adaptations from earlier texts (Ebeling 112). The texts are
often written in two line sets, or couplets (Ebeling 112).
Painting: the ragamala
Fuchser 26
Centuries after the musical modes and poetry were written, there appeared
another art form (Ebeling 14). The Ragamala painting brings all three art forms of music,
poetry, and painting together as the paintings are illustrations of the imagery used in the
poems relating to the raga (Craven 224). The word ragamala means "a garland of
melodies or ragas" (Craven 224). The word raga means "something that colors the mind
with emotion" (Craven 224). One can see by the meanings of these words how the
painting and the music are so closely related.
The way the Ragamalas came about may be related to aksiptika. The aksiptika is
a stage song with words performed during a drama (Widdess 398). This song would relate
the characteristics of a deity, or person, and could have been used to teach ragas to
student musicians (Widdess 178). With this, an association between the ragas and the
music text that praised the deity was formed so that the raga itself was seen as praising
the deity (Widdess 178). This association eventually led to the common imagery used for
Ragamala paintings (Widdess 178).
The Ragamala is one kind of miniature painting done from the fifteenth to
nineteenth centuries (Rowland 343-344). The first Ragamalas showed up between 1450
and 1550 and continued to develop for the next three hundred years (Ebeling 14). Before
that, in the fourteenth century, followers of Jainism would commission manuscript
paintings on palm leaves, called Kalpasutra painting, in order to honor saints (Ebeling 30).
The oldest Ragamala type painting known appeared with illustrations of thirty-six
female figures, each with a male deity figure (Ebeling 32). A distinction can be made
between the earlier Ragamalas and ones that came later: later ones took their iconography
Fuchser 27
from earlier Gujarati painting, had no musical terms associated with them, and took from
love poetry and its illustrations, whereas earlier Ragamalas may have been more
connected with the musical raga (Ebeling 32). These paintings often merged folk art with
classical tradition (Rowland 343-344). The Ragamalas ceased to be painted in the
nineteenth century due to the coming of Western influence (Ebeling 17).
The two greatest centers for producing miniature paintings were the Pahari School
in the foothills, and the Rajput school in the state of Rajasthan (Craven 222).
The most common subjects depicted in miniature painting are the love story
between Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu, and Radha, a cow or milk maid; characters from
Hindu legends; and musical modes or ragas (Munsterberg 12-14). The paintings done in
and for the courts of Rajputana are called Rajput paintings, named after a Hindu warrior
caste (Beach 2). Rajput paintings were mainly from Rajasthan but also were from areas
including Malwa, Bundelkhand, as well as the Pahari because these areas were all ruled by
the Rajputs (Ebeling 32). Even though some were ilot done in Rajputana, they are
classified together because of the similar characteristics (Munsterberg 154). These
characteristics included brilliant colors, flat shapes, and decorative designs (Munsterberg
155).
Aristocratic people and gods were often depicted in the Ragamala paintings.
Krishna and Shiva are the gods that are portrayed the most often, though Brahma is seen
in the Khambhavati Ragamala paintings (Ebeling 50). Krishna is usually depicted with a
dark blue complexion, wears a three pronged peacock crown, a saffron colored garment,
and is usually seen as the divine lover pursuing a woman (Ebeling 50). Radha, Krishna's
Fuchser 28
lover, has her life depicted in the Ragamala paintings of Sankarabharan, Patmanjari, and
Ramkali (Ebeling 50). Shiva is often seen with a bull, a crescent moon in his hair from
which the Ganges river flows, a skull necklace, snake bracelets, and as an ascetic, one who
abstains from food, drink, etc., sitting in a yoga position (Ebeling 50). Unlike Krishna,
Vishnu is rarely seen except when he is merged with the imagery of Shiva (Ebeling 50).
Kama, the god of love, is known as the god who lends the lotus flower arrow, seen in the
Vibhasa Ragamala paintings (Ebeling 50). The lotus flower arrow was used to shoot the
cock that would disturb lovemaking, or it was used similarly to Cupid's arrow when shot
at a woman, to make her fall in love (Sumahendra).
Though gods are depicted often, it is the aristocratic characters that are most often
seen (Ebeling 50). The paintings of the aristocracy are idealized, flattering them with
mixtures of divine and human characteristics (Ebeling 50,52). The settings of the
paintings often show lifestyles of wealthy females of a ruling family who were served,
and sheltered, and who struggled with unsatisfied sexual desires (Ebeling 52).
'
Ragamalas were often put together in book form. The earliest books were
manuscript illustrations of narratives (Beach I). There was a split between Hindu and
Muslim manuscripts. Hindus had their pages made of taliput palm leaves, the
compositions of the illustrations were small and square, and the books were horizontal
with wooden covers (Beach I). In the fifteenth century, Jain traders introduced paper
from Persia to India, with its advantages of being larger and more durable (Ebeling 32).
Though the paper was an advantage over palm leaves, the Hindus did not break the
tradition with the introduction of the new material, so the Muslims were the first to take
Fuchser 29
advantage of paper for their manuscripts. Muslim manuscripts were vertical, like
European books, and had a leather cover with paper pages (Beach I). During persecution
from the Muslim imperial court, the Hindu books were easy to hide (Beach I).
Ragamalas were the most popular paintings made for Hindu patrons during the
fifteenth through nineteenth centuries (Beach 41). Muslim patrons, particularly of the
late eleventh century, favored Persian text (Beach 5). Hindu and Jain painters under
Muslim rule had to abandon their traditional paintings to meet the demands of the
wealthy Muslim conquerors, who esteemed illustrated books as a sign of wealth (Beach
5). It was often a case of taking any job available, even if the employer was of a different
faith (Beach 174). Because of the Ragamala's romantic subject matter, and frequent
depictions of household activities, it is likely that the primary consumers were
aristocratic women (Ebeling 14). This is interesting because it has an impact on the
development of the Ragamalas. The poetry used for the Ragamalas was originally used
as "gentlemen's literature" and needed to be toned down, with more subtle language, in
order for it to be appropriate for women and their moral standards (Ebeling 32).
Because of their love of these books, the Muslims developed libraries and
workshops for the books (Beach 5). Akbar the Great, a Muslim Emperor, assembled
workshops filled with the best painters and developed what is known as the Mughal
style (Ebeling 30). Sometimes Muslim and Hindu painters would borrow subject matter
and techniques from each other when times were less tense and more artistically
sympathetic (Beach 2). Hindus would imitate the Mughal style, but with their own
traditional subject matter (Ebeling 32). Characteristics that distinguished Muslim
Fuchser 30
paintings from others included realism, volume of the figures painted, separated figures,
and more realistic use of space (Beach 162-163,174). In contrast, the Rajput style
consisted of flat shapes, inter-connectedness, idealization of figures, lack of empty space,
a background as expressive as the figures, and saturated color (Beach 162-163,174).
Obviously, at this point in time, the Muslims were less concerned about the restriction on
painting the figures of humans and animals. Muslim rulers started to enjoy what is called
the Bhagavata series, which tells the story of Krishna and other avatars of Vishnu
(Beach 6). Of course Ragamala paintings and paintings of Krishna were the favorites of
the Hindu Rajput rulers as well (Beach 157). Ragamalas were valued because they were
often used in dowries and as official formal gifts for the wealthy, aristocratic class (Beach
176). The association between ruling power and Muslims became so strong that Hindu
Rajput rulers would often commission their Ragamalas to follow the compositional
models of the Mughal court to show their link to power (Beach 41). This can be seen in
the 1700's when Rajput palaces mimicked the Mughal standards (Beach 174). Their
painters began to use finer pigments and softer colors for their paintings (Beach 174).
Even though the artists borrowed techniques and subject matter, tradition
preserved some of the differences. The progression one would see in Mughal painting is
not evident in Hindu Ragamala painting (Beach 175). The tradition of Hindu painting
calls for a specific way to represent the subject, allowing no inventive freedom on the part
of the artist (Beach 175). Though it may have started to lean more towards the natural
renderings of the Mughal style in the late eighteenth century, the Ragamala paintings still
kept with the tradition of their symbolic elements (Beach 193-194).
Fuchser 31
Perhaps for this reason, some sources claim that Ragamala painting was immune
to influences (Sumahendra). Painters would keep their own lists of certain systems and
would receive instructions from a local musician (Sumahendra). Though the painting may
not have had much outside influence, it is stated that India's music was influenced by
Iranian and Mughal concepts (Sumahendra).
There are many symbols represented in the miniature paintings. Romance was
emphasized with the color red symbolizing passion and the peacock standing for love
(Munsterberg 156). A stormy night sky represented the turbulence in the hearts of lovers
that were separated (Munsterberg 156). Two earthenware pots seen in a painting
symbolized the breasts of a young woman, and the epitome of beauty was symbolized by
a lotus flower (Ebeling 52). Peacocks were a display of male beauty and bees represented
lovers' passions (Ebeling 52). White birds were associated with rain, and rain was
believed to be a precursor to lovemaking (Ebeling 52). Brahman priests, who may be
depicted in some paintings, were considered asexual, and were the only men who had
contact with secluded aristocratic women (Ebeling 52). The priests would often serve as
messengers between lovers (Ebeling 52). A dark blue band at the top of a painting with a
wavering white line meant the coming of dawn (Rowland 348). This is one way that the
Ragamala paintings made reference to the time of day corresponding to the raga. A
rooster would represent the end of lovers union (Rowland 346). The jungle background
symbolized the physical union between man and woman (Beach 157). This idea of
romance was also seen in the representations of Krishna and Rhada; they were thought to
be the embodiment of romantic love and a symbol of the longing of the soul to unite with
Fuchser 32
Brahma (Munsterberg 156,163). The story of Krishna and Rhada begins with Krishna as
a herdsman and Rhada being married, and she then rejects her husband because she loves
Krishna (Craven 222). Along with representing the idea of Krishna and Rhada
symbolizing the souls longing for Brahma, many Ragamalas portrayed this idea in the
characters illustrated as reaction against the Hindu priests' control of interacting with the
gods (Beach 157).
Other common things seen in Ragamala paintings include rosaries used for prayer,
garlands of flowers used for festivities of welcome and farewell, and fans or shades which
indicated that the person depicted was of noble status (Ebeling 52). Pan or betel, which
was a sort of refreshment made of tobacco, nuts, spices and lime, that often stained lips
and teeth a reddish brown color was also commonly seen in paintings (Ebeling 52).
Romance was not the only thing represented. The colors in the paintings are said
to correspond to the notes of the raga and convey the same emotions as the raga
(Craven 224). For example, red would often stand for anger and rage, yellow for the
awesome and marvelous, and brown for the erotic (Craven 224).
Another way symbols were present in Ragamala paintings is the way the figures
were represented. The artists regarded figures in their paintings that were idealized so
that they could represent any man or woman (Beach 174). Each of the moods in the
raginis of the Ragamala paintings was believed to depict moods of women universally
(Ebeling 50). None of the features showed the characteristics of an individual, like one
would see in portraiture. The figures were derived from certain standardized formulas
(Rowland 343-344).
Fuchser 33
Other characteristics of the Ragamala painting are seen in their use of space. The
spatial perspective is different than that of Western use (Ebeling 46). First of all, the size
of an object in the painting does not diminish if it is further away (Ebeling 46). Instead
the scale is based on the importance of the object with the most important objects being
the largest (Ebeling 46). If architecture is depicted, then it is stylized and shows patterns,
and the floors are shown as if seeing them from a birds eye view (Ebeling 46). Doors,
beds, animals, and instruments are shown in proportion to the human figures while the
architecture is often reduced in size (Ebeling 46). The paintings exhibit horizontal layers
with the objects furthest from the viewer placed at the top of the painting and the objects
closest to the viewer near the bottom of the painting (Ebeling 46). Natural backgrounds
are shown in patterns, and will appear flat if it is left untextured, appearing in flat bands,
like a blue band for the sky (Ebeling 46). A yellow band was often left at the top of the
painting for the poetic inscription (Ebeling 46).
The Ragamalas came in differing sets. The most common one used was the
Painters system (Ebeling, forward). This consisted of thirty-six total ragas: six male
ragas each having five wives, and all relating to time of day, season, and emotion (Craven
224). Each of the thirty-six paintings depicted the relationship between a man and a
woman, with the natural background used to intensify the human situation (Beach 157).
Other systems, or specific sets of ragas, used for Ragamalas include the
Hanuman system and the Mesakama system. The Painters system, though followed by
more than half of the known Ragamalas in existence today, cannot be traced directly to a
musical or literary authority, as the other systems can (Ebeling 18-19). This means that
Fuchser 34
no one knows exactly where the Painters system came from. As for the others, an ancient
musical author named Hanuman composed the Hanuman system and the Mesakarna
system, by Mesakarna, was used exclusively by the Pahari School (Ebeling 18-19).
Below is a list of the names of the ragas in the Painters system with the male
Raga first and his five wives following. The arrangement of the paintings is similar to the
classification of the musical raga (Ebeling 14).
Painters system:
Bhairava:
Bhairavi, Nat, Malasri, Patman, Jari, Lalit
Malkos:
Gauri, Khambhavati, Malavi, Ramakali, Gunakali
Hindol:
Bilabal, Todi, Desakh, Devgandhar, Madhumadhavi
Dipak:
Dhanasri, Vasant, Kanada, Bairadi, Desvarati or Purvi
Megha:
Gujari, Gormalar, Kakubha, Vibhasa, Bangal
Sri:
Pancham, Kamod or Kamodani, Setmalar, Asavari, Kedar (Ebeling
18).
Most of the six families represent a season of the year. Of the Ragas, the Bhairav
family represents the hot season, the Megha family is the rainy season, and the Sri is the
cold season (Ebeling 114-116). Raginis that are part of other families complete the rest of
the seasons. Nata, part of the Bhairav family, represents winter, Vasant, part of the
Dipak family, is spring, and finally Pancham, part of the Sri family, represents autumn
(Ebeling 114-116).
The names of the Ragas themselves suggest imagery that was used in the
Ragamala: Vasant means "spring;" Hindol means "swing;" Sri means "lord;" Bhairav
Fuchser 35
means that it has something to do with an aspect of Shiva; Dipak means "lamp;" and
Megha means "cloud" (Ebeling 48). Sometimes one can find these images in that
particular Ragamala painting. Other times the musical raga is only reflected in the name
assigned to the painting and is not reflected in the painting itself (Ebeling 48).
Ragamalas often follow a specific iconography, or pictorial formula (Ebeling 10).
This means that a raga of one Ragamala set will match or look very similar to a raga of a
different Ragamala set, provided that they follow the same system. To follow the
tradition of iconography, paintings, especially latter ones, often copied earlier paintings
instead of referring back to the original source (Ebeling 54). One can see an example of
iconography by looking at the Sri Ragas and the similarities seen between them, though
they are from different Ragamala sets.
The word Sri means "lord" or "master," and the painting shows the lord listening
to the aged musician, the legendary Narada (Ebeling 108). Narada's music is believed to
be so powerful that its notes "strike the depths of the soul" (Masselos 284). Narada is
accompanied by the horse-headed musician, Kinnara, who is a heavenly being (Ebeling
108). Kinnara is quite an exclusive element to the Sri Raga. Without it, the raga could be
mistaken for other ragas (Ebeling 108).
The poem of the Sri Raga is as follows:
"Splendidly enthroned, of peerless beauty and lovely as the
autumn moon, he sits hearing stories form Narada and Tumvara (Tumbaru,
Tumburu?). By the great sages he is called Srigraga King" (Ebeling 124).
Fuchser 36
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Fuchser 38
There are three groups of iconographies, or symbolic traditions, dealing with the
subject matter depicted. The categories are: love fulfilled in union, love longing in
separations, and activities of the court and households of the patrons (Ebeling 15). These
categories of subject matter groupings are related to what is known as Nayika. The
Nayikas are generally descriptions of the subject matter and describe the contents of more
than one Ragamala painting. The Utka Nayika, described as "she who expects and yearns
for her lover," is seen in the Todi, Gauri, Gunkali, and Kakubha Ragamala paintings
(Ebeling 48). The Khandita Nayika is described as "she whose lord has spent the night
away and she bitterly reproaches him in the morning," and is seen in Ramkali Ragamala
paintings (Ebeling 48). Abhisarrika Nayika, known as "she who expects her lord and
waits on her lord prepared," is seen in Gormalar, Gujari, Kamod, Tanka, and Patmanjari
Ragamala paintings (Ebeling 48).
There are three different iconographic traditions, meaning there are different
symbolic styles of painting. The first and longest lasting tradition was called the
Rajasthani tradition, another shorter lived tradition was the Amber tradition, and the
Pahari tradition was based on a different system of ragas than the others (Ebeling 15).
As stated before, the artist often worked for an employer who was a different
faith because of the need for a job (Beach 174). This would indicate that the artist may
have been poor and had low status in the society. A clue to the status of the artist may
be contained in the colophons. Colophons, inscriptions found at the end of manuscripts,
though they are rare for Ragamalas, contained information such as the origin, date, place,
painter, poet, and patron (Ebeling 10). Colophons often included the name of the artist
Fuchser 39
who painted them, even if the artist was a slave (Beach 233). This reinforces the idea that
the artist had a low position. Yet at the same time, by including the name of the painter
in the colophon, it shows that the artist was proud of his work. The painters were often
craftsmen who were very gifted in the area of painting but had little expertise in music or
the poems they were illustrating (Ebeling 14). This resulted in the mistakes of
mismatching the inscription with the painting and variations in the development of the
iconography (Ebeling 14).
There were other problems with matching the Ragamala paintings with the
musical raga. As stated before, the painters were not always very knowledgeable about
music due to the time constraints (Ebeling 16). Music was often learned by rote and
practice, making it hard to remain true to specific ways of representing the musical mode
in pictorial form (Ebeling 16). Also, there were no records of performances, no set
notation for writing music down, and with ragas varying every time they are played, it
was hard to have a set musical standard that could be easily transferred to painting
(Ebeling 15-16). Some sources say that not even the colors used in the paintings
correspond to the notes or emotions of the musical ragas (Ebeling 16).
Whatever the case, there are some structural similarities. Both the painting and
music follow certain rules: the painting follows an iconography and the music follows a
set scale (Ebeling 16). Both have embellishments on the rules: the painting has its local
style, and varies from painter to painter, and the music has its improvisation (Ebeling 16).
Ragamalas were made by first drawing out the composition in pencil, then
outlining it in red with a brush, then covering the entire surface with white priming made
Fuchser 40
of starch paste, and then redrawing the main lines in black (Rowland 343-344). The
background was then painted and finally the figures were painted (Rowland 343-344). In
order to follow the tradition of the iconographic or picture formula, the painters would
sometimes copy older paintings by tracing over them (Ebeling 15).
Fuchser 41
Part IV: Asavari Ragirti
The earliest Ragamalas known were found in Chawand, a city that was seized in
1568 by Muslim powers (Beach 118). Chawand is located in Mewar, the oldest and
southernmost state of Rajasthan, and was ruled by a warrior race known as the Sisodiyas,
or "sons of kings" (Ebeling 38). The story of this place and time is interesting and
surrounds the Asavari Ragini with a sense of drama.
This Ragamala painting was created in 1605 by a Muslim painter known as
Nasiruddin, less than forty years after the city had been taken by the Muslims (Beach
118). During the three attacks on the old capital of Rajasthan, Chitor, all of the Hindu
men died, and the Hindu women died by sacrificing themselves by fire (Ebeling 38).
When all of the Rajputs fell to Mughal rule, only the state of Mewar stood up against the
Muslim oppression and kept on fighting (Ebeling 38).
It was during this time of turmoil that Ragamala paintings were born (Ebeling 38).
After Chitor was destroyed, Chawand became the new capital and was established under
the Hindu leadership of Pratrap in 1577 (Ebeling 38). Chawand was chosen as the new
capital because it was located in the mountains, making it a good hiding place (Ebeling 38).
Mewar finally fell to Muslim power in 1613, and a new era of peace and prosperity was
ushered in (Ebeling 38).
The Ragamala text below, used for this particular painting, was originally written
by a poet by the name of Kasyapa, (sometimes called Kilakasyapa) (Ebeling 118). His
Fuchser 42
poetry was the literary basis for many of the Rajasthani traditions and their iconography
(Ebeling 118). There is not much known about this poet (Ebeling 118).
The exact text on this painting is translated as follows:
"On the summit of the sandal wood mount, robed in the plumes of
a peacock, with a splendid necklace strung with peals and ivory, the
variegated one drawing to herself from the sandal wood tree the serpent the proud one wears it as a bracelet, (her body) ablaze with dark splendor"
(Ebeling 126).
Nasiruddin was slightly influenced by Mughal style, which would make sense,
since he was a Muslim, but otherwise, this painting is a pure example of Ragamala
painting (Ebeling 38). It is interesting, given the historical background of Chawand, that
this artist produced this painting in this city. Being a Muslim, he was painting in the
hideout capital of his former enemy. In a forty-five year gap between the capture of the
city and the downfall of the state, it seems that Chawand was not severely destroyed, for
painters were commissioned by wealthy patrons of that city. One could infer that they
did not have to spend large amounts of money on rebuilding the city; therefore they had
enough money to spend on painting.
This Asavari Ragini is part of a set that accommodates forty-two paintings
instead of the usual thirty-six, with six ragas each having six raginis instead of five
raginis (Ebeling 159). This ragini belongs to the Sri family as described previously
(Ebeling 18). This Ragamala set is the most widely known because of its beauty and
Fuchser 43
flawlessness (Ebeling 159). Though this was a large set, there are only twenty-six
paintings from the original set known in existence today (Ebeling 159).
The Asavari Ragini is linked to a jungle tribe near Chawand, Mewar, known for
their snake charming practices (Ebeling 116). The subject matter of the Asavari Ragini
identifies it as being free from Mughal influences (Masselos 298). It is said that this
painting, even though it is done by a Muslim, is distinctly of a Hindu style (Masselos
289).
The snake charming references come from a cult that still exists today and
worships the snake god with offerings of rice, milk, and turmeric powder (Masselos 300).
These charmers are called Savaras, and live in the jungle (Masselos 300). The woman in
the Asavari Ragini symbolizes the awe and fascination for snakes (Masselos 300). Her
skin is blue, like many of the depictions of Krishna, either because of ashes that she has
smeared on her skin, or because the color is an indication of the tribe which she belongs
(Masselos 300).
Fuchser 44
mmmm
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Fjg. 3: Asavari Ragini. (Ebeling 117).
Fuchser 45
Conclusion:
It is apparent that Ragamala painting is unique. However, it would not seem so
unique if one were unaware of the religious, social, political, and historical context
surrounding it. The context gives the painting added depth. The religious ties are so
strong that the painting would lose much of its purpose and function if it were not for
Hinduism's belief that art aids in elevating one's soul. Without the social context, one
would not know whom the figures depicted, for whom the paintings were made, and by
whom they were painted. The political context places the paintings in a world of
alternating peace and turmoil. Perhaps the most interesting context is the historical,
watching the transition of one art form to another, and the final compilation of art forms
resulting in the Ragamala painting.
Fuchser 46
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