Download GETTING TO GRIPS WITH CROSS

Project nº 519001 – LLP – 2011 – PT – KA2 – KA2MP
Example of course designed for dissemination of the intercultural
ideas in setting other than marine and military
Rosemary Sage
Dean and Professor of Education
The College of Teachers, UK
GETTING TO GRIPS WITH CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
The Course
This course can be taken at TCOT Level 2,3,4 or 5 (Professional Development/Educational studies) and is for anyone
working in cross-cultural contexts or needing this information for other purposes. The academic level is under-graduate
but the tasks reflect requirements for levels 2-5. The aim is to help participants review their own role and the skills
needed for engaging with others across cultures. Ideas, based on research studies are introduced with tasks to
implement for understanding. There are 3 modules requiring 20/40/80/160 hours of study involving reading and 3,4, 5
or 6 required practical tasks to be carried yout in real settings and related to the level being studied. The assignment
involves solving a problem regarding cross-cultural c0mmunication where there are complex issues to consider and at
levels 4 and 5, considering this process within theoretical constructs. Included is a brief personal development plan
which is extended as the levels increase. Course scenarios are the focus of tasks that give participants an opportunity
to evaluate these in terms relevant to them. The final assignment involves reflecting on tasks/ selecting a cross-cultural
activity and carrying this out with description, evaluation and review of one’s own development needs (1000-3,500
words), depending on the criteria for the qualification required. Completion will enable a participant to gain TCOT
Certificates in Professional Development (L2 and 3) or Education Studies (L4 and 5).
Rationale
This course is for anyone wishing to understand the issues of cross-cultural communication. People today live and
work amongst others from many cultural backgrounds. Differences in beliefs, values, attitudes, language and
behaviour give rise to many problems The course aim is to help participants understand and negotiate differences for
more successful outcomes. Research has long realised the importance of communicating effectively for living, learning
and working. Evidence demonstrates that awareness of the issues that affect interaction with others is the key to
successful performance. Many of today’s problems arise from cross-cultural confusions and knowing how to avoid
these results in improved harmony amongst people.
Content
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1. Defining cross-cultural communication
This module defines the many aspects of cross-cultural communication and explains the range of terms used when
discussing this topic. Basic to our understanding is the role of both verbal and non-verbal communicative aspects in an
exchange between people. Western cultures pay lest attention to what remains of communication when words are
removed such as voice patterns, facial expressions, gestures, manner, movements, positioning, appearance and the
context in which events happen. In the Eastern world there is greater suspicion regarding the reliability of words and
the more unconscious use of non-verbal signs, signals and symbols is viewed as giving the true message. Thus, nonverbal communication has been calculated as providing 93 percent of the affective message impact.
2. Communication difficulties
Effective communication involves achieving goals in a way that maintains or enhances the relationship between those
involved. Experience shows that various communication styles can be effective. Some successful people are serious
whereas others are humorous; some are gregarious and others hang back; some are straightforward and upfront
whereas others are cautious and diplomatic. The type of communication that is successful in one situation might be a
mistake in another. The banter you have with a colleague would be insensitive if they were having a bad day Cultures
may be defined as either individualistic or collectivist with very different modes of communicating. The differences in
values and conventions cause serious problems when opposite cultures meet and these are unpacked for better
understanding and acceptance.
3. Culture and Language
There has been much interest in how language determines perception, thought and action and this topic dominates
this module and provides evidence that supports this position. Cultures have been described as having a low or high
context communication style. The former relies more on non-verbal information whilst the latter focuses on the words
spoken and this shapes the perception, thinking and behaviour of users. A scenario, describing a baseball match
between East and West teams, illustrates the differences in perception and behaviour that are communicated on the
pitch. Understanding the rationale for this makes it easier to accept what is contradictory to one’s own frame of
reference. The fact that we operate amongst a large number of cultures and languages where there are often no
translations for the concepts and words used by others will always produce problems with solutions continually
required. Studying the subject of cross-cultural communication is a step in helping us to become more understandable
to each other.
Delivery
The course is on-line with practical tasks and tutor feedback. Web Social forums will be available to contact others and
share experiences.
Outcomes
 An understanding of the verbal and non verbal issues in communicating with others
 Knowledge of individual and collective cultures that influence beliefs, attitudes and behaviour patterns
 Awareness of the many aspects of communication difficulties between those of different backgrounds
 Understanding the differences between different types of analyses of events
 Ability to evaluate objective and subjective evidence
MODULE 1: DEFINING CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Introduction
This course introduces you to the issues that arise when people of different beliefs, attitudes,
values, traditions and languages live and work together. Misunderstandings are very common in
such circumstances and spoil relations, behaviour and the performances of those involved. It is
essential that we get to grips with the situation at a time when plural societies are the norm.
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What do you understand by the term ‘communication’?
The root-word means sharing or distributing between persons. Communication between people
involves words and non-words processed to produce meaning within a specific situation. When
words are not understood, voice tone, facial expressions, gestures, movements, postures, spatial
positioning and appearance, as well as other signs, signals and symbols in the context, produce
the meaning. When communication happens across culture (beliefs, values, behaviour of a
specific community) messages are easily misinterpreted.
Factors in the communicative process are:
source, channel, destination, code, message and context
There are many inputs into this activity which must be understood for a message to be correct.
Speech is accompanied by complex sets of vocal, gestural, spatial and visual signs, signals and
symbols which may vary across culture. Experts take two positions regarding communication. The
first group think of it as a process where a communicator sends a message through a medium
(channel) to a receiver with an effect. The second sees communication as a social activity where
people in a particular culture create and exchange meanings in response to what they are
presently experiencing. The process group recognises that no message can be transmitted
without being converted into an appropriate code for the channel used. Thoughts may be
represented in the use of voice, gestures, pictures, writing and so on, depending on the
availability of aural or visual channels.
At this point, the process school overlaps with the social one. The latter group focuses on the:
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text, which can be words, a picture, painting, photograph, film, dance routine etc.
signs and codes which represent things and actions
persons who decipher what is communicated
social reality in which all the aspects of communication exist.
The study of communication is thus the study of culture, reflecting the views, values and
behaviour of a specific community. We have plenty of evidence in the world of circumstances
where these differences cause conflict.
Everyone agrees that communication is a non-stop human activity. Even in sleep our mind
rearranges memories in dreams. When awake we absorb and give out information consciously
and unconsciously. We may say something such as: ‘That house is lovely’ but signify the opposite
with an uncontrolled face expression of horror! So, we are likely to be more influenced by the nonverbal messages than the verbal ones. Whatever we say and how we say it, together with dress,
adornments, posture, gesture, positioning and manner, create an impression on those around us.
We cannot fail to communicate a message because of the signs, signals and symbols that we
employ and emit.
Task 1: In your everyday life observe some communication where the non-verbal and
verbal messages do not match. What are your reactions to this? Do you take more notice
of the non-verbal information?
Non verbal aspects of communicating (NVC)
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Prosodic sounds (pitch & stress patterns, pauses & timing) affect meaning of what is said and
paralinguistic input/output (emotions through voice tone, accent conveying group membership,
personality, manner, appearance, props, context clues etc.) convey other information.
NVC manages a social situation, to sustain, support and replace words. Both verbal and nonverbal communication reflects traditions and the norms of one’s cultural group. Experts can tell
what language is being spoken when the sound is turned off on a film by the changes in nonverbal behaviour. The meaning of gestures varies across culture and needs care. The thumb
joined to the forefinger means OK, to Americans, you’re worth zero in France and Belgium and in
a vulgar sexual invitation in Greece and Turkey. Given this ambiguity an innocent tourist might
end up in serious trouble.
Even within a culture, various subcultures can have different non-verbal rules. For example,
teachers tend to use quasi questions and encourage a response by making an incorrect
statement: ‘So 10 divided by 2 is 4, right? Most white children recognise this as testing
understanding but in traditional black cultures they are unlikely to respond unless asked a direct
question. This sort of technique is also a problem for students with communication difficulties who
do not understand the changes of adult behaviour between home and school (Sage, 2000).
Rubin (1986) found that communicators became more tolerant when made aware of cultural
differences in non-verbal communication which justifies some education and training in this area.
Fortunately there are many similarities, such as smiles and laughter as universal signals of
positive emotion and sour expressions which convey displeasure. Charles Darwin believed that
these expressions result from evolution allowing humans to convey emotional states before the
development of language. Although universal, nonverbal expressions vary across the world
according to whether the rule is to express or repress feelings and emotions. Since non-verbal
communication has been basic to humanity it probably explains its importance in making meaning
today. Mehrabian (1971) calculated that, on average, the total impact of a message owes 7
percent to words, 38 percent to voice and 55 percent to gestures. Since then other researchers
have found a similar balance to these elements in their studies.
Task 2:
1. Identify 3 differences between nonverbal practices in 2 cultures or co-cultures
(ethnic, age or socio-economic groups) within your society.
2. Describe potential difficulties that might arise out of varying nonverbal practices,
when people interact, and ways on how these might be avoided.
3. Describe advantages that might come from differing cultural, nonverbal practices
and how people might profit by encountering other customs and norms
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Some definitions to learn
Communication: Dance & Larson (1976) collected 126 definitions of 2 kinds:
A process: sender directs a message through a channel (medium) to a receiver with effect.
A social activity: create and exchange meanings in response to reality experienced.
Messages cannot transmit without conversion into an appropriate code for a channel used.
Thoughts are encoded in gestures, voice, facial expressions, speech, writing, pictures etc.
Culture refers to traditions within a community.
Signals are physical forms for messages: utterances, writing, gestures, telephone /radio transmissions
Signs are physical forms referring to something apart from them selves. E.g. arrow → (direction)
Icons look like what they stand for as in a passport photo.
Symbols have no visible connection with their signifier. Example: € and £ for euro & pound
Indices are unintentional signs like footprints, smoke curls, wall cracks etc.
Encoder is a physiological (brain) or technical (electricity media) device transforming a message from
source into a form (code) for transmitting to a receiver for decoding
Decoder is a sense organ/receptor/technical device converting a signal into a form to understand
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There is close involvement of verbal and non-verbal aspects in interaction. Those conveying
meaning as ‘symbols’ are considered para-linguistic (alongside words) and refer to gestures, etc.
which support conversation but are not part of its grammatical structure. It is commonly referred to
as what is left after subtracting the verbal content of speech.
As with verbal communication, much discourse is not concerned with issues within an immediate
context but refers to ideas outside this reflecting the continuity and reality of life. These include
interactions which symbolise dominance and submission, affection or possession as well as rituals
such as a Catholic’s hand movement when they cross themselves.
We have to communicate to satisfy our daily requirements: the need for food and shelter,
cooperation with others for friendship, social and work success as well as practical and economic
reasons. Also, we require continually to give and to receive information, to entertain and be
entertained and to be artistic and creative.
So, communication links us with a widening and changing network of people, starting with family,
friends, society and the world at large through face-to-face exchanges, the mass media and
technology. Communication is not just exchange of facts but the sharing of thoughts, feeling,
opinions and experiences. Through this whole process we are enabled to become contributing
members of society, communicate amongst our fellows and ensure survival and development.
Communication is the means by which society can operate and grow and in plural cultures needs
more attention to make it successful because differences amongst us can cause confusion.
The seven skills of communicating with others
Communication requires an ability to encode or decode information successfully and effectively.
With regard to encoding, this means relating to the audience, taking their needs into account and
using body language and speech to good effect. It also uses other codes such as writing, drawing,
painting, dance and mime. The main decoding skills are listening and reading.
In everyday face-to-face communication the vital skills are those which enable us to explain needs
to do with work or our private and social lives. We evolve strategies to cope with situations that
must be met. Greeting is an essential element to start communication on the right footing. This is
known as phatics and is designed to open or keep open channels for communicating rather than
conveying specific information. A strategy of verbal conventions, smiles and gestures is a ritual that
varies amongst cultures to establish the phatic input. If this part of the process is not observed the
communication is likely to be ineffective and ignored. A decline in phatics has been observed in
classrooms since the introduction of a National Curriculum with pressure to teach the requirements
of a lesson. The lack of a proper greeting contributes to poor behaviour of students as they feel
cheated of this welcome which engenders value, well-being and engagement. (Sage, 2000).
The first skill of communication is to use strategies for opening and entering conversations, making
suggestions, objections and excuses. Also, we learn ways to start conversations, interrupt others,
change the direction of discussion and end an exchange of views. These skills are learnt by
observing, looking and listening and then imitating the proper convention for a particular occasion.
Specific training helps us to use these abilities more effectively (Sage, 2003).
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The second skill is being able to present oneself effectively which often means acting out a part. So
if you are late for work or forget an assignment for a study course you will probably exaggerate
dismay and denounce your behaviour in order to disarm your boss or teacher.
The third skill is the perception of others through observation, objective judgement and awareness
of our selves as communicators (meta-communication). Perception is the way we become aware of
the world outside ourselves and others. By selecting, organising and interpreting the stimuli
received by our senses we create a mental picture which is called ‘reality’. Ideas of ‘reality’ vary
from person to person because of the differences that exist between beliefs, values, feelings,
abilities and experiences that arise from the varying cultures in which we are reared. The mind
does not soak up information passively but actively searches for an interpretation of the available
data. So each of us constructs our own reality and those from a similar background will have
enough overlap to make social cooperation possible because of shared experiences. However,
those from very different cultures will struggle to see things in the same light. This will be explored
in Module 2.
The fourth skill is putting ourselves in another person’s shoes and seeing things from their
standpoint, known as empathy. This is learnt from formal communication situations where you have
to give information, instructions, etc. which require an understanding and appreciation of audience
needs. Today, we have less opportunity to talk to others formally now that technology has taken
over face-to-face talk making this skill of communicating difficult to achieve effectively (Sage, 2010).
A fifth skill is responding positively to feedback. It is important to know how others react to what you
say and do which is seen by their behaviour. In this way, you can revise your message, steer away
talk that embarrasses others or explore an issue that a listener wishes to air.
A sixth skill is being able to attend to what is communicated, giving signs of encouragement and
approval to keep the information flowing. This links with listening which is the vital decoding ability
that works on the sounds you hear. Listening is deliberate and so distinguished from hearing which
automatically turns sound waves into sensations which are then interpreted as meaningful symbols.
A seventh skill is that of visualisation whereby we picture the words, actions and experience in our
minds in order to form a mental concept of the situation. Those who have to present ideas to
audiences, such as teachers and trainers, are more effective if they can express information in
diagrams, cartoons or symbols and help others to see and so understand using both the left, verbal
brain and the right, visual one.
Elements of symbolic coding are:
Body parts, dress and adornments (tattoos etc.); differences in body posture (standing, etc)
position between people; limb movements; pace (fast/slow); face expressions; voice tone;
nutrients (individual food/drink consumed); body excretions (tears etc.)
Task 3: Choose a topic from the above code list. Note the similarities and differences in this
element between 2 speakers that you are able to observe.
Task 4: Look at the accompanying power point presentation. Some signs, symbols and
signals will be familiar but others unfamiliar. Compare group responses to these.
(Note: The stick alphabet word in the power point = SEE)
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What to think about!
When you meet someone, how close would you stand by them? For some people this is about
11/2 metres. However, others prefer to be closer than this. So, what is a comfortable distance
for one may feel threatening to another, showing relative positioning between people. Those
who work with different cultures need to be aware of ‘proxemic’(positional) differences so that
they do not cause offence or make others feel uneasy.
Movements and gestures used by people have different meanings specific to their culture.
Comparing responses amongst friends and colleagues in the power point, you will find a
spread across choices a, b and c for the hand position in picture 3.Differences in
interpretation are found with other gestures. Some people point to their noses to mean ‘me’
which confuses those who point to their chest for this.
A temple-screw movement is a common gesture, except that it means ‘He’s crazy’ for some
but ‘He’s intelligent’ for others. These opposite interpretations could easily give offence!
A hitch-hiker’s erect thumb might catch a lift in some places but would result in a stream of
abuse in others where it is regarded as an obscene gesture.
It is wise to observe what is appropriate behaviour in a particular context.
Task 5: Consider common gestures that you use when you communicate with other
people. Note differences in interpretation amongst colleagues. Present findings.
Understanding problems that occur from gesture language is important. A student, on world
travels, gave ‘thumbs-up’ to local lads and was thumped up as a result. This means OK for some
but abuse for others.
Subtle problems
There are problems when speaking the common language of others you are with but use a
different accent, stress and intonation pattern than them, called ‘mother tongue interference’,
giving wrong signals and impressions. So, differences between Asian-English and English-English
can lead to difficulties. Indian languages, like Punjabi and Urdu, have little stress which carries
over into the English spoken by Asians where they fail to make the difference clear between ‘last
week’ and ‘this week’. It has implications regarding appointments misunderstood and missed. The
issue has been noted in hospitals where staff use both stress-time and syllable-time languages.
Frequently, how something is said determines the precise meaning of what is said. If we
decide to place more vocal stress on certain words we can alter the meaning of that statement.
Task 6: Consider the stress given to words in capital in the following statement and how
this determines the meaning. (E.g. LUKE likes football – meaning Luke rather than
others in a group likes football). Insert the meaning on the line beneath.
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1. HELEN is lending me her hat.
2. Helen is LENDING me her hat.
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Helen is lending ME her hat.
__________________________________________________________________________
4. Helen is lending me HER hat.
__________________________________________________________________________
5. Helen is lending me her HAT.
Some people find the high pitch and stress used by the English when explaining something or
emphasising a point as too emotional. It is impolite, in some cultures, to reveal feelings in the
way you speak. When reprimanded for wrongs it is important to look in the eye of the person
doing this in some communities. However, in others, those reprimanded look down at their feet,
which may be considered as rude and offensive. These cause problems between persons as
speech and actions may be interpreted differently.
Comparing a western culture (England) with an eastern one (Japan)
Cultural feature
Greeting
England
Shake firmly with right hand
Japan
Bow from the waistdegree depends on
relationship & context
Entering a house Wipe shoes on the door mat
Remove shoes and use
slippers provided
Taking a bath
Fill a body-length bath with hot water and
Bath is a waist-high tub
Wash yourself in the bath
Soap & rinse beside the
bath & soak in the clean
water in the tub
Diet
Bread, potatoes, vegetables, meat, cheese, Rice, noodles, raw fish,
Cooked fish, cereals, milk, cakes, biscuits
cooked meat, bean curd
Religion
Christianity (likely)
Buddhism or Shintoism
(likely)
Writing
Roman alphabet: 26 letters
Ideograms (Chinese)
plus extra syllabic
characters
Gardens
Flower beds, lawns, shrubs, trees.
Trees, shrubs, rocks, stones
Many in formal geometric patterns with bedding
pools, natural landscapes
plants common
few flowers
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Task 7: Use the model to compare your cultural features with another colleague
from a different background. Add more features if you can. Discuss issues arising
from differences & similarities that you find.
Cultural feature
Greeting
Your culture
Another culture
Entering a house
Taking a bath
Diet
Religion
Writing
Gardens
Task 8: Complete the following quiz and comment on your profile
Taboo or not Taboo!
Answer Yes or No to the following conventions
ACTION
YES NO
Give a soft hand shake
Embrace and kiss on meeting people
Make immediate eye contact whatever a person’s status
Are assertive without arrogance
Ask the age of someone you meet & declare your age
Give a more expensive gift than you are given
Ask about the family in a conversational exchange
Answer your mobile when with others
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Bring other people to a meeting to support you
Sit down at a meal before being told your place
Leave something on your plate at mealtimes
Arrange early morning meetings
Do deals outside rather than inside a meeting
Talk about money in social situations
Dress appropriately for informal/formal occasions
Sit down at a drinks party
Stand/sit close to others
Invite unknown people to a meal
Laugh/giggle when in conversation
Blow you nose in company
Spit/blurb in front of others
Remember that all the above actions are taboo for some people so if you
have answered ‘YES’, check that you can do this in your present
situation.
Summary
It is probably surprising to many that communication involves so much more than words.
In fact if we are considering affective understanding, only around 7 per cent is attributed
to the word form itself with voice (38 percent) and gestures (55 percent) being more
important for comprehension. Words are often ambiguous and have many meanings.
Take the word ‘fly’, which in a dictionary will have over 60 different meanings according
to context. Therefore, the context of communication is vital in interpreting a message
and signs, signals and symbols that are available within this play a vital role in clarifying
what is meant by the information available. The problem is that different cultures have
many styles of communicating which are confusing to others who cannot ‘read’ the
specific signs, signals and symbols that are necessary to process the meaning. In
Module 2, we focus on the difficulties of cross cultural communication in more detail and
in Module 3, we examine aspects of language.
Main points
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The many language and communication systems of the world can be confusing
for the uninitiated to their particular signs, signals and symbols
Greater awareness of across cultural confusions assists in the effective
negotiation of meaning
Comparing your culture with another on various dimensions of lifestyle is useful
in grasping the similarities and differences between people
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The communicative process can be examined within a linear model: source,
channel, destination, code, message and context
Two perspectives on the communicative process target the process of the event
and the social context in which it occurs
Communication has both verbal and non verbal elements which demand an
holistic approach to its examination
MODULE 2: COMMUNICATION DIFFICULTIES
Meeting across culture
In a world where people working and living with those form other cultures is more
common, communicators who fail to understand and adapt to cultural differences will
face problems that can disrupt their relationship. In this scenario two teachers from
different backgrounds fail to recognise and appreciate each other’s cultural norms.
Rosie is from Britain and is used to a task oriented approach. Micky is from Italy where
personal understanding and trust must develop before anything can take place. If Rosie
and Micky had been able to understand each other’s cultural communication styles, they
would have been more able to adapt to them and less upset by what seemed to each to
be inappropriate behaviour.
Rosie .........................................
Riccarda..........................................
(to herself) Why aren’t we getting on with it?
It’s 11 o’clock and I’ve been with Riccarda
half an hour and we’ve not begun to talk
about the business of a school exchange. I
know that I am new to Riccarda and also
the idea we have agreed to talk about but
all she does is ask me questions about
myself, background, interests, family and
philosophy. Why is she so nosy? I don’t talk
about personal stuff to those I don’t know
well. She’s asked me to lunch but I’ve an
appointment at 1.30 that is 20 miles away
and I can’t be late. All I want is a quick run
through the proposal to see if it might be a
goer. However, she wants to talk about
anything but that! Oh well, I’ve not had
much luck with Italians in the past. Why
should this one be different?
‘Thanks for your lunch invite, Riccarda but I
need to press on to my next appointment.
Here’s my card so perhaps you can call me
if you want to pursue the idea of a school
exchange?’
(to herself) Why aren’t we getting on with it? It’s 11 o’clock
and I’ve been with Rosie half an hour and we’ve not begun to
talk about the business of a school exchange. How can I
know if I want to go along with the idea unless I find out about
her and the kind of person she is? It’s like getting blood out of
a stone. She’s not keen to know anything about me. Where I
come from we don’t cooperate with strangers until we’ve
sussed them out. We must know something about the other
person and feel we can trust them before we can start making
plans. It’s too bad that she’s turned me down for lunch. We
needed that time to get to know one another and see if we
could work together on an exchange. Sometimes, I think all
Brits want to talk about is work! Oh, well, I’ve not had luck
with them before. Why should it be different this time?
‘That’s OK, Rosie. Perhaps we can lunch another time. Get in
touch as I’d like to know you better so we can explore the
school exchange idea’.
Based on a real experience of an English-Italian school exchange
scheme
(names are not the real ones)
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Is there an ideal way to communicate?
Most people would agree that effective communication involves achieving goals in a way
that maintains or enhances the relationship between those involved. Experience shows
that various communication styles can be effective. Some successful people are serious
whereas others are humorous; some are gregarious and others hang back; some are
straightforward and upfront whereas others are cautious and diplomatic.
The type of communication that is successful in one situation might be a mistake in
another. The banter you have with a colleague would be insensitive if they were having a
bad day. The language used with peers could be offensive to family and flirting in the
pub on a Friday night would be out of place at work on Monday morning. Being a
competent communicator requires flexibility and an understanding of what is likely to
work best in a given situation.
In the example above, cultural differences show there is no single model of competence.
What is competent behaviour in one culture might be inept or offensive in another.
Customs like belching after a meal or appearing scantily dressed or even nude would be
acceptable in some places but considered very bad form in others. There are, however,
more subtle differences in regard to competent communication. Self-disclosing and
speaking clearly are valued in some societies but considered aggressive and insensitive
in others where subtlety and indirectness are important. Even within one society,
members of co-cultures (different traditions alongside one another) may have different
notions of appropriate behaviour. Collier’s (1996) study revealed that ideas of how
friends should communicate varied across ethnic groups. Latinos valued relational
support most whereas African Americans targeted respect and acceptance. Asian
Americans emphasised a caring, positive exchange of ideas and Anglo Americans liked
friends who recognised their individual needs. Such findings suggest there are no rules
or tips that will guarantee your success as a communicator. Competent communicators
adapt their style to suit the individual and cultural preferences of others.
In the book, Lake Wobegon Days, Garrison Keillor explains Minnesota etiquette and
shows how unwritten rules vary across cultures/co-cultures.
 It’s polite to call out ‘Hello’ to a passer by you know. It’s up to them to stop or not.
It’s up to you to invite them in or not. The porch is a room of your house, not part
of the yard. Only peddlers or certain ministers would barge right in.
 If you say: ‘Why don’t you come up and sit for a bit?’, it is custom for them to
decline politely. If the invite is legitimate it should be repeated.
 This is not an invite to the house. Terms are limited to a brief visit on the porch
with no refreshments provided unless the occupants have these on hand.
 When the host stands up and says ’Well’, a visitor should need no further signal
that the exchange has ended. If the host says, ‘You don’t have to run, do you?’
this is not a question but a pleasantry.
Because competent behaviour varies from one situation and person to another we
cannot regard communication competence as a trait that someone does or does not
possess. Degrees or areas of competence are more realistic. We might be skilful with
peers but clumsy with younger, older, wealthier or poorer others. Also, competence with
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one person may vary across situations, It is more accurate to say: ‘I didn’t handle that
well’ rather than: ‘I’m a terrible communicator’.
Communication is transactional and something we do with rather than to others, so
behaviour that is competent in one relationship is not necessarily so in others. Burleson
and Sampter (1994) hypothesized that competent communicators would be better at
maintaining relationships than those with less skills. Results of studies did not support
this. Relational satisfaction arises when style matches those of the people with whom we
interact. This demonstrates that competence arises from developing ways of interacting
that work for those involved.
Fortunately, biology is only one factor that shapes our communication as it it is a set of
competences that anyone can learn. Training produces dramatic results (Sage, 2000).
We also learn from our successes and failures so that our communication is likely to
improve over time. It is a skill that should be valued and high achieving countries such
as Finland and Japan put high priority on communication and relationships within their
educational systems and understand that good oral ability to cope with large chunks of
information (formal talk) is the prerequisite to successful personal and academic
performances.
Perception and culture
Perceptual differences amongst us make communication challenging enough for those from the
same cultural background. When people come from differing cultures, the possibility of
misunderstanding is much greater. Our particular culture provides us with a perceptual filter that
influences our interpretation of everything. So, similar events will cause people to interpret these
differently. Blinking may be unnoticeable to some of us when another talks but is considered
impolite in some eastern cultures. A ‘V’ sign, made with two fingers and the palm outwards, means
‘victory’ for most of us in the west but for others the sign with the palm inwards means ‘get lost’ and
is used as a form of abuse. The beckoning gesture that indicates that others should come to us is
insulting in most Middle and Far Eastern countries.
Also, the value of talk varies across culture. We use it in the west to perform tasks and achieve
social purposes. Silence is viewed as lack of interest, anxiety, hostility, shyness or incompatibility
and makes us feel uncomfortable. We admire talk that is straightforward and honest. Indirectness
or vagueness is regarded as ‘beating around the bush’ and considered undesirable.
In contrast, most Asian cultures discourage the expression of thoughts and feelings. Silence is
valued with a saying: ‘one who speaks does not know; one who knows does not speak’. Remaining
silent is regarded as the proper state when there is nothing that needs saying. A talkative person is
considered a show-off or insincere and to be avoided.
These different views of speech, silence and actions often lead to communication problems when
people from different cultures meet. The talkative Westerner and silent Easterner are behaving
according to their cultural conventions but can view each other with disapproval. Only when
different standards of behaviour are recognised can they adapt to each other or at the very least
understand and respect their differences.
Perceptual differences are just as important when members of co-cultures interact at home. For
example, an unaware white teacher or police officer might interpret the downcast eyes of a
foreigner as a sign of avoidance or dishonesty when this is the proper behaviour for them when
addressed by someone in authority. Eye contact differs in traditional black and white cultures. White
14
people tend to look away from a conversational partner when speaking but black persons do the
opposite (Rubin and Kelly, 1988)
Task 9: Ask at least three people what have been communication difficulties for them when
talking to others from a different culture. Comment on some of the similarities and
differences in their responses.
Culture and self-concept
The challenges and opportunities that arise from cultural diversity underlie the rationale for this
study. However, the power of culture is more influential that might appear. Although we probably
never give it a thought our whole notion of self is developed and shaped by the culture in which we
are born and reared. The most obvious cultural feature is the language used by members. When
everyone speaks the same language then it will not have much impact or problem. However, if your
primary language is not the majority one, or is not considered prestigious by the population, the
sense of being in the ‘out-group’ is strong. A speaker of a non-dominant language may react in one
of two ways, either to feel pressured to speak the better language or to maintain loyalty to their
ethnic one and refuse to assimilate. Whatever the response, the impact on the self concept is
immense. The reaction may be that they are not as good as native speakers or that their own
language is worth preserving. There are dilemmas in the latter position as advancement in a career
may be disadvantaged by a decision not to acquire a colloquial, native style of speaking.
Cultures also affect the self concept in more subtle ways. Most Western cultures are considered to
be highly individualistic whereas those in the East are traditionally more collective (Servaes, 1989).
When asked to identify themselves most Western cultures give their name, place of residence and
country. If you asked Hindus for their identity they will give you their caste, place of residence and
name. The Sanskrit convention for identifying begins with lineage and then family and house,
ending with one’s own name (Bharti,1985).
Conventions for naming reflect a different way of viewing one’s self. In collective cultures a person
gains identity by belonging to a group. This results in a higher degree of interdependence amongst
the members of the group and subgroups. Feelings of pride and self-worth are not only shaped by
an individual’s contribution but the behaviour of other members in the community. This link to
others explains the Asian denial of self-importance which is in strong contrast to the self-promotion
that is common in individualistic Western cultures. In the Chinese language the pronoun ‘I’ looks
like the word for ‘selfish’. The table below summarises some of the differences between in
individualistic Western culture compared to an Eastern collective one
Individualistic
culture
Self is a unique, separate individual that is independent,
self-sufficient and used to making their own decisions
alistic Collective
culture
culture
Individuals take care of the self and immediate family
members
Group memberships and friends based on shared interests
and activities
Reward for individual achievement and initiative – individual
Credit and blame assigned
People belong to extended families or to groups
which make decisions together and have a ‘we’
perspective on everything
People expect to take care of the extended
family and support them in all aspects of life
Belong to a few permanent groups which have
a strong influence on all aspects of life
Reward for contribution and cooperation to
group goals. Credit and blame shared
Value for autonomy, individual security, equality, youth and
change
Value for tradition, duty, order, age, group
security, status, hierarchy
15
The cultural differences show up in the level of ease or anxiety that people feel when
communicating. In societies that stress conformity there is a high level of communication
apprehension. Research suggests that the Chinese, Japanese and Koreans demonstrate
significantly more anxiety about speaking than those from individualistic cultures such as North
Americans and Australians (Klopf, 1984).
Different levels of communication apprehension do not mean that shyness is a problem in some
cultures as the opposite is true. Reticence is valued in these cultures and when the goal is to avoid
standing out it is unsurprising that one feels nervous when drawing attention to one’s self. A selfconcept that includes assertion makes a Westerner proud but is shameful for Eastern cultures.
The difference between individualism and collectivism shows up in everyday interaction. In Western
cultures where a strong ‘I’ orientation exists the norm of speaking directly is approved, whereas
collective ones supporting indirect approaches that maintain harmony are desirable. This also
influences levels of self-disclosure which in individualistic societies is deemed more appropriate
than in collective ones.
Sharing personal information can be regarded as exhibitionism to more collective groups. When
communicating with others it is important to consider their standards for appropriate disclosure and
not to judge them by your own standards. In this sense, choosing the appropriate level of selfdisclosure is not much different from selecting the right way to dress or eat when meeting people
from a different background tradition.
Group communication: A case study: Baseball in Japan and North America
The Scenario:
The idea and implementation of group harmony (wa) was demonstrated in a baseball game
observed by an English research group working at a university in Nara, Japan (Sage et al, 2006).
The Japanese students were playing a visiting American team. The Americans had frequent temper
outbursts, along with bickering, bantering and complaining behaviour when things went wrong. The
Japanese viewed this as unwelcome invasions of their collective peace of mind. Untoward
behaviour is seen as a weakness and a ‘small heart’. In Japan, a ‘real man’ keeps emotions to
himself and thinks of other’s feelings and reactions. Whilst the Americans believe in ‘Do your own
thing’, the Japanese credo is: ’The nail that sticks up shall be hammered down’.
Members of individualistic cultures view their primary responsibility as themselves whereas
collectivistic ones put loyalties and obligations to the group first. This might be the family,
community or organisation for which they work. They are less competitive than individualists and
have different approaches to communication. For example, individualistic cultures are more tolerant
of conflicts and use a direct, solution-oriented approach in contrast to collective ones who are less
direct. The latter are more likely to produce good team players and the former to reward the stars
in their communities. Individualists often need to control their desires to dominate group discussions
and win problem-solving situations. Consensus does not come easily. In contrast the collective
cultures consider before speaking out (even when it means disagreeing) which is always in the best
16
interests of the whole group. They are likely to take a long-term focus rather than a short-term one
which is common in individualistic cultures.
Ethocentrism
Ethocentrism is the belief in the inherent superiority of one’s own ethnic group or culture and is
exemplified by what is taught in schools according to Samovar and Porter (1995). Schools in all
cultures teach ethnocentrism whether this is intentional or not. An example of this is a world map.
According to what country you are in, this will be prominently located in the centre. The teaching of
history is common to all cultures but what history is taught? It is that of the surrounding culture and
by teaching this to students a society reinforces all of its beliefs, values and prejudices. Each
culture glorifies in its historical, scientific and artistic achievements. The native language has main
emphasis with less attention to teaching a second or third language. This sends a subtle message
about the position of their culture within the world.
The most subtle forms of ethnocentrism are seen in the selection of subjects and materials in the
curriculum. In Britain, this selection has traditionally reflected ideas generated by a male-dominated
Western viewpoint. Most of the books studied will be by Western authors who are white and male.
This gives an impression that the rest of the world produces nothing worthwhile for study and the
dominant culture is the ‘greatest’ amongst all. Obviously, such exclusive attitudes will influence
relations with other cultures adversely as they inculcate a superiority which may hamper equal
exchanges of views.
Summary
This module has focussed on the communication difficulties that arise when people of different
cultures encounter each other. Basic to this is the notion of individualistic and collectivist cultures
which produce quite opposite behaviour in members. Research indicates that understanding this
factor makes a significant difference in how we are prepared to deal with differences. Awareness
helps understanding and acceptance whilst providing a rationale for their existence. A major
problem is that education promotes the superiority of the culture in which it operates and this
influences our attitudes to other societies as we are encouraged to view them as of lesser
importance. One of the advantages of more opportunities to visit and mix with people from many
different backgrounds is that we broaden our horizons and see difference as stimulating and
challenging.
Main points





Communication differences result in difficulties that must be solved for positive
relationships to develop
Individualistic and collectivist cultures produce very different behaviours amongst their
members which need careful negotiation
Greater awareness of cultural differences allows us to understand the basis of human
differences and work to solve the problems that are likely to occur
Although education promotes the culture in which it operates, opportunities to visit other
countries have allowed us to broaden our experiences and understand the reasons for
human differences
Examining oneself and understanding personal prejudices leads to more positive attitudes
17
MODULE 3: CULTURE AND LANGUAGE
Introduction
Those charged with translating the ideas of one language into another face a huge
challenge. Adler and Rodman (2003) cited an example of an amusing translation. The
American producers of a condensed milk called Pet introduced this product into Frenchspeaking countries without knowing that the word, for them, meant ‘to break wind’.
Choosing the right words for translation does not guarantee that non-native speakers will
use an unfamiliar language correctly. Insurance companies in Japan warn their policy
holders visiting North America to avoid saying ‘excuse me’, or ‘I’m sorry’, if involved in a
traffic accident. In Japan, apologising is the way to express goodwill and maintain social
harmony even if not your fault. In North America an apology is taken as an admission of
guilt and may result in Japanese tourists being apprehended for something when they
are innocent. Translation is only part of the communication challenges facing those of
different cultures. Differences in the way language is used and the various views on this
make communicating across culture a risky business.
Communication styles
Using a language is much more than selecting words to convey an idea. Every language
has its own style that marks it out from others. Aspects such as formality/informality,
precision/vagueness, accuracy/inaccuracy and brevity/detail are important factors in
communicating effectively. When a speaker tries to use the verbal style from one culture
in a different one, problems are likely to arise.
Low and high context
A common way in which verbal styles differ is in their directness. The anthropologist,
Edward Hall (1959) analyses two major ones. Low context cultures use language
primarily to express thoughts, feelings and ideas as clearly and logically as they can.
The meaning of a message is in the words spoken. An example of this style is seen in
the countries of the United Kingdom. In contrast, high context cultures value language
as the way to maintain social harmony. Rather than upsetting others by speaking
directly, those communicating in these cultures learn to discover meanings from the nonverbal cues and context in which the message occurs. The non-verbal behaviour,
relationships and social rules that that govern interaction are thus of prime importance.
The table below clarifies these:
Low context........................................
High context..................................................
Most information is carried in explicit word
messages with less focus on the context.
Important information is carried in context clues
(place, time, situation, relationship) and less on the
explicit verbal message.
Self-expression has high value. Speakers
give opinions and state needs directly and
aim to persuade others to their viewpoint.
Harmony between people is paramount and
maintained by indirect expression of views and
opinions. Speakers avoid from saying ‘no’ directly.
Eloquent, clear speech is prized. Word
fluency is cultivated and admired.
Speakers talk around a topic/point, enabling others
to contribute to gaps in the process. Silence and
18
ambiguity are valued.
Focus in learning is on vocabulary, syntax
and grammar.
Words distrusted as ambiguous with focus on the
other signs, signals and symbols in an exchange.
Most Western cultures are towards the low-context end of the scale with people liking
straight-talking and impatient with ‘beating around the bush’. Those coming from Asian
and Middle Eastern cultures fit the high-context model as maintaining harmony is valued
and speakers will refrain from speaking their minds if it threatens another person’s face.
They are less likely to respond with a ‘no’ to a request and use expressions such as ‘I
agree with the principle but...’ or ‘I sympathize with your views but..’.
The low-context communicators may miss the subtleties of high-context messages but
those reared or trained to recognise indirect responses are able to decode easily.
Research (Sage et al, 2006) shows that Japanese mothers rarely deny their youngsters’
requests by saying ‘no’. They use other ways such as ignoring the request, using
distractions, suggesting that the request is considered later, or explaining why they
cannot agree. Their view is that children have not yet learnt society’s norms and that
giving into all requests does not assist their development. In Britain,it is expected that
parents frequently deny requests because this asserts authority over a child.
The existence of directness and indirectness has aggravated problems between straighttalking Arabs and smooth-talking Israelis and led to constant conflicts over the years.
Israelis view the Arabs as evasive whereas the Palestinians perceive them as blunt and
lacking sensitivity. Even within one culture these differences exist as Asian Americans
are more offended by indirectly racist statements than are African Americans
(Hamachek, 2003). High context communicators are more adept at interpreting hints and
non verbal cues and so are more sensitive to messages over looked by cultures that rely
on more ambiguous verbal low-context messages.
Task 8: Make some free observations of people you know from different cultures
and decide whether they are at the low or high context end of the scale. Record
the evidence that led to your conclusions.
Cultural differences and listening
The way members of different cultures communicate affect listening behaviour.(Lennon
and Eisenberg, 1987). Studies showed marked differences between young adults in
various countries regarding listening preferences. Germans preferred an action-oriented
approach, engaging speakers directly in a highly inquisitive way. This style contrasts
with the indirect approach of Japanese listeners. Israelis were much less vocal than
Germans and focused on a careful analysis of each other’s statements and opinions.
Americans emphasised the social aspects of conversation and how much time this took.
Elaborate or succinct styles
You will have noticed that some people have much to say and are considered verbose
whilst others are taciturn in comparison. Speakers of Arabic, for example, use language
that is much richer and more expressive than we commonly use in Britain.Exaggerations
and strong assertions are expected of Arabic speakers but sound ridiculous and ‘over
the top’ to the British. For example, a simple ‘no’ to a host’s request to eat and drink
19
more is not sufficient. The guest must keep repeating ‘no’ accompanied by oaths such
as: ‘By God’ or ‘I swear by God’. Arabs often fail to realise that others say exactly what
they mean in a simple, understated manner and ‘no’, by a women may be interpreted as
indirectly expressed consent. This can be dangerous! (Almaney and Alwan, 1982).
Succinctness is most extreme in cultures that place value on silence. The Apache and
Navajo Indians remain quiet in ambiguous social situations. This is in contrast to the
talkativeness of mainstream Americans and leads to embarrassment when they meet.
Formality and informality
Formality is less about correct use of grammar and more about defining social position.
In Korea, the language reflects the Confucian social positions. (Yum, 1987). It has
special vocabularies for different sexes, social status, degrees of intimacy and social
occasions. So, there are different degrees of formality for speaking with old friends,
acquaintances and strangers. A learned person in Korea is someone who recognises
such relational distinctions. When you contrast these rigid distinctions with the breezy
informality of North Americans, even with strangers, it is easy to see how they might be
thought boorish and ignorant by Koreans who will be viewed as stiff, distant and
unfriendly by less formal speakers.
Accuracy/inaccuracy
In this multi-media generation facts are available in abundance. However, many of these
are gleaned in superficial ways and are open to criticism. This has led to a distrust
between media and other cultures. Scientists expect accuracy and precision whereas
others are happy with a general estimate that is indicative of a situation. Today, there is
considerable suspicion about how we interpret facts. The expenses scandal, in which
Members of Parliament in Britain interpreted guidelines to include all their personal
expenses, demonstrates the problem of communicating information effectively.
Underlying all communication is a sense of ethics which suggests that we say or do
nothing that could result in hurt to others. Disregard of this causes a breakdown of
communication between people.
Gender differences
A powerful influence on the way men and women speak is their sex role (social
orientation affecting behaviour) rather than their biological gender. Researchers have
defined these as masculine, feminine and androgynous (male & female characteristics).
Linguistic differences are often a function of these sex roles more than the speaker’s
biological sex. Masculine sex-role communicators (male/female) use more dominant
language than either feminine or androgynous speakers. Feminine speakers have the
most submissive speaking style with androgynous ones between the two extremes.
When two masculine communicators engage in conversation they often engage in a
one-up battle for dominance, Feminine sex-role equivalents are less predictable, using
dominance, submission and equivalent behaviour at random. Androgynous persons are
more predictable, meeting another’s bid for dominance with a symmetrical attempt at
control but moving toward an equivalent relationship. As opportunities for men and
women become more equal, we can expect that the differences between male and
female use of language will become smaller.
20
Task 9: Note differences in the language use of 3 men and 3 women you know.
Consider the following categories: conversational content and style; reasons for
communicating and use of power/powerless speech.
Task 10: Using your observations answer the following questions\:
1. How much does gender influence speech?
2. What role is played by other variables such as social or occupational
status, cultural background, social philosophy, competition-cooperative
orientation and any other factors that you consider relevant.
Linguistic determinism
Although different linguistic styles are important in relationships between people there
are more fundamental influences that separate speakers. The notion of linguistic
determinism has been promoted by theorists over the last two centuries. This suggests
that the worldview of a culture is shaped and reflected by the language spoken by
members.
The example commonly used to illustrate this is the idea that Eskimos have a large
number of words (with estimates varying from 17-100) for what we know as ‘snow’.
Different words describe light snow, a blizzard, crusty ice etc. and illustrate how linguistic
determinism operates. The survival strategies needed to cope with the harsh Arctic
conditions demand distinctions that would be irrelevant to those residing in warmer
climates. Once language makes these distinctions, speakers are likely to see the world
in ways that match the vocabulary concepts.
Other examples support the idea of linguistic determinism (Giles and Franklyn-Stokes
(1989). For example, bilingual speakers appear to think differently when they change
languages. In one study, French Americans were asked to interpret a series of pictures.
When speaking French their descriptions were more romantic and emotional than when
they used English to describe the same sort of pictures. Similarly, when students in
Hong Kong were asked to complete a values test they expressed more Chinese ones
when speaking Cantonese than when they answered in English. In Israel, both Arab
and Jewish students saw bigger distinctions between their group and those from outside
it when using their native language compared to English. These examples seem to
demonstrate the power of language to shape thought and cultural identity which may be
for better or for worse.
Early influences
Linguistic influences start very early in life. English-speaking parents often label the
pranks of their offspring as ‘bad’ which implies there is something immoral about acting
wildly! They frequently admonish children to ‘be good’. On the other hand, French
parents are more likely to say ‘Sois sage’ (be wise) indicating misbehaving is foolish
rather than bad. Swedes correct the same action with the words: ‘Var small’ (friendly
and kind). This is also the response of Japanese parents. By contrast Germans use the
command ‘Sei artig’ (be of your own kind) which means get back in step and conform in
your role as a child (Sinclair, 1954).
21
The best known explanation of linguistic determinism is the Whorf-Sapir hypothesis,
formulated by Whorf (a linguist) and Sapir (an anthropologist). They used the language
of the Hopi as an example of them representing a view of reality that is very different
from familiar languages. For example, the Hopi language makes no distinction between
nouns and verbs, so that speakers describe the world as a continual process. We use
nouns to represent people or objects as fixed or constant whilst the Hopi view them as
verbs that are continually changing. Experts suggest that the Hopi see the world as a
motion picture in contrast to most people’s snapshot camera representation.
The Whorf-Sapir hypothesis originally focussed on foreign languages whereas Postman
(1976) illustrates the principle with an everyday example. He describes a hypothetical
culture where physicians identify patients they treat as ‘doing’ arthritis and other
diseases instead of ‘having’ them and where criminals are diagnosed as ‘having’ cases
of criminality rather than ‘being’ criminals.
The implication of this linguistic difference is profound. We believe that a person’s
characteristics are what they ‘have’ or ‘are’ and beyond their control. If they are deemed
responsible for what they ‘do’ our attitudes would be likely to change. In relation to
schools, tests determine how clever someone is and so cleverness is what they have.
So, if a student scores at 100 and another at 120, the latter is deemed more intelligent.
In reality we all do intelligent and stupid things depending on circumstances and this is
not a measurable quality that has real meaning. The notion that intelligence is
something we have has led to labels such as over and under achievers. All language is
metaphorical in generally subtle ways and we construct reality along certain lines and
make the world according to our images.
Although there is limited support for the extreme linguistic deterministic view that it is
impossible for speakers of different languages to see the world identically, the moderate
notion of linguistic relativism – that language exerts a strong influence on perceptions
is regarded as valid. It must be remembered that some languages have words with no
English equivalents (Rheingold, 1988).

Dharma (Sanskrit) a person’s unique, ideal life-path & knowledge of how to find it

Koyaanisquatsi (Hopi) Nature off balance- a crazy way of life demanding change

Lagniappe (French) Gift in a transaction not expected in terms of the contract

Lao (Mandarin) Respectful term for older people, indicating importance in family/society

Nemawashi (Japanese) Sussing other out before making a decision
Knowing the existence of such words helps the ideas they represent to be better
recognised. Even without such words, it is possible it is possible to image the concepts
behind them. So, speakers of a language including the notion of lao would probably treat
older members with due respect.. Those who are familiar with lagniappe would be likely
to be more generous. However, words are not essential to follow these principles.
Although language shapes thoughts and behaviour, it does not dominate entirely.
Language and perception
English speakers attribute shades of distinction to words that are unfamiliar to other
speakers. For example, the French find it difficult to distinguish between house and
home, mind and brain, man and gentleman, ‘I wrote’ and ‘I have written’. The Spanish
find it problematic to differentiate between president and chairman. In Russian there are
no native words for efficiency, engagement ring, challenge, have fun or take care
22
(Bryson, 2003). However, other languages have features that we lack. French
(connaitre) and German (kennen) distinguish between knowledge resulting from
recognition and that from understanding (savoir and wissen). This is an important
distinction as we assume knowledge is understanding, but it may not be so as we can
know something but not have the grasp to apply it effectively.
Portuguese has words to differentiate between interior and exterior angles. All the
Romance languages distinguish between something that leaks into and something that
leaks out. Italians have a word for the mark left on a table by a wet glass (calacino) and
Gaelic speakers in Scotland have one for the itchy upper lip just before a sip of Whisky
(sgirob). We have nothing in English to match the Danish hygge, meaning instantly
satisfying and cosy, the French sang-froid, the Russian glasnost or the Spanish macho
and we borrow these terms to use in our own language.
Language and culture
The importance of language representing a world view is extended to reflect and shape
the way we view ourselves and others. So, workplaces give their employees highsounding titles to demonstrate importance. A woman’s choice of Ms or Mrs is a
statement of identity. It has been traditional to take a husband’s name or hyphenate
their birth one with it. A study has shown that a woman’s choice is indicative of their
relationship with their husband (Foss and Edson, 1989). Surveys showed that women
who take their husbands’ names place most importance on relationships, with social
expectations of how they should behave second and issues of self last. By contrast,
women who keep birth names put personal concerns ahead of relationships and social
expectations. Those with hyphenated names fall between the other groups, valuing self
and relationships equally.
Similarly, labels that ethnic group members choose to define themselves make a
statement about their sense of identity. Over time, racial identification labels have gone
through cycles of popularity. In America, the first freed slaves preferred to be called
Africans. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries the term coloured was used with black
popular from the 1960s, used initially by militants and then adopted by everyone.
Research has shown that those who prefer the label black choose it because it is
acceptable to the larger culture. Those who prefer the label Afro + their place of
residence, such as Afro-English or Afro-American, derive their identity from their
ethnicity and do not wish to assimilate into the larger culture but only to succeed in it
(Niven and Zilber, 2000).
Culture and persuasion
Language frequently has a persuasive goal and different individuals will view this
according to their cultural background. Even the ability to recognise logical argument is,
to an extent, culturally determined. The influence of the dominant culture is seen in the
way we talk about argument. When we speak about defending ideas and attacking an
opposite position we are using male-oriented militaristic, aggressive terms. Logic is
rooted in information that is checked out by our senses. Western culture displays a
materialist reality, limited to comprehension via the five senses, seeing, hearing,
smelling, tasting and touching. African culture adds a spiritual, emotional dimension to
this process. Those in the West discover truth by active searching and application of
reasoning whilst those from the East wait patiently for truth to become apparent if it is to
23
be known. Speech experts have always recommended a blend of logical and emotional
evidence to encompass cultural differences.
Summary
Language is humanity’s greatest assets but also the cause of its many problems. This
module has highlighted the different characteristics of language and raised awareness of
the issues that present problems across cultures.
Any language is a collection of symbols, governed by conventions, so that messages
can be sent and received amongst people. The symbolic nature of language means that
it is not a precise mode of communication. Meaning resides in people rather than the
words themselves. In order to conduct effective communication it is essential to
negotiate meanings for ambiguous information.
Not only does language describe people/things, places, actions and events but it also
shapes our perception of them in aspects such as credibility, status and attitudes about
gender, age and ethnicity. Together with influencing our attitudes, language reflects
them. The words we use and our speech and behaviour reflect affiliation, attraction,
interest, power and status.
Styles of language have the potential to create huge misunderstandings. Some types
can result in unnecessary conflicts and both spoken and written forms can evade by
avoiding unwelcome messages.
In today’s world the relationship between gender and language is confusing. Males and
females speak differently. The content of their conversations varies because of their
different inherent interests and roles in life. Also, reasons for communicating and styles
of doing this are found to vary. However, not all the differences can be attributed to
gender, as occupation and hierarchical roles, social philosophy, and manner of problem
solving play an important part. Psychological sex role can be a greater influence than
biological sex.
Language takes place in a general way to shape the thinking, perception and
communication of a society. Low context cultures, as seen in the West, use language
primarily to express feelings and ideas directly and as clearly as possible. High context
cultures avoid being direct and specific to promote social harmony. Some cultures value
brevity and the concise use of language whilst others promote elaborate, expressive
speech. You find that formality is important for some societies whilst others prefer
informal approaches and styles of talk. Apart from these differences there is evidence
supporting linguistic relativism – the idea that language has a strong influence on the
worldview of those who speak it. Therefore, it is important to study language and
communication as fundamental to our personal and academic success.
Main points




Language is thought to determine our thinking and the way we view the world
Cultures can be considered as having low or high context with the former relying
on words and the latter on non-words to establish the meaning of messages
Language is the dominant feature of society and the way we can make it work for
ourselves and others
The way language is used by parents in child rearing determines are beliefs,
values and attitudes
24




There is a range of styles of communicating and particular ones are favoured by
specific cultures and reflected in their language and behaviour
The words and actions we use reflect our status, power and influence
Differences exist in male and female language which is attributed to sex role
rather than biology
Language relativism acknowledges the importance of communication in our lives
and supports our study of this as a priority for engaging with others successfully
Assignment:
Level 2: Record 3 tasks in diary form and reflect on what you have learnt from
these. (1,000 words)
Level 3: Evaluate which of the tasks you have found most useful and write a plan
for the development of your own cross-cultural competencies. (2000)
Level 4: Compare two approaches you have used to observe a learner’s
communicative behaviour and evaluate these for their effectiveness (2,500 words).
Reflect on your own development needs with regard to your observation
competence.
Level 5: Select an activity to observe an aspect of cross-cultural communication
and view it against the ideas explained in the modules. Write a plan for developing
your own cross-cultural communication abilities and explain how you will
implement this. (3,500 words)
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