Download Nicholas II (1894

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Nicholas II (1894-1917)
Policies: backwardness and attempts at modernization
Nature of Tsardom
Growth of opposition movements
Significance of the Russo-Japanese War
1905 Revolution
Stolypin and the Duma
Impact of the First World War on Russia
1917 Revolutions: February/March Revolution
Provisional Government and Dual Power (Soviets)
October/November Bolshevik Revolution
Lenin and Trotsky
* Witte’s Reforms (1892-1903)
Aims
- appointment of Witte by Alexander III marked a distinct break from the past
- previous minister’s attempts at industrialization were modest → by 1893, Russia’s economy still
centred around agricultural production
- ∴ Witte = first to show total commitment to industrialization
- aims: compete with other industrialized nations + improve Russian military capability
- done at the expense of agriculture → ‘substitution effect’: more investment in industry > agriculture
- aroused some suspicion amongst the Russia élite
Witte’s Plan
- encouragement of foreign experts to come to Russia → investment from France = encouraged
- taking out foreign loans, ↑ taxes (indirect taxes) + interest rates to ↑ capital for investment in industry
- placement of the Rouble on the Gold Standard; ↑ potential investor confidence in the Russian currency
- high imports duties = protect home industries from foreign trade
- focus on heavy industry + railways formed by foreign capital; Moskva to Vladivostok
- moved away from private enterprise → state-run
Impact—‘Great Spurt’
- existing industry expands: ↑ average annual growth rate: coal production 2x, iron + steel 7x
- developed more specialist and ‘new’ technologies in the oil and chemical industries
- foreign capital increased ∴ ↑ railways = ↑ exports + foreign trade!
- finally Russia started to catch up to other industrialized nations
- TREBILCOCK: average rate of increase in industrial production of 7.5% far exceeded Russian
achievement for any comparable period before 1914, establishing one of the most impressive
performances of late 19th century Europe
- HOWEVER; focus on industrialization = no focus on the people! **
Criticisms of Witte’s Policies
- focus on heavy industry neglected other parts of the industrial sector (e.g. engineering, textiles)
- short-sighted → to an extent, demand from metals (and hence coal) = other industries
- reliance on foreign capital = dangerous
- loans can be recalled at short notice
- reliance on foreign expertise stunted emergence of home-grown talent
- ↑ foreign investment = ↑ foreign debt = ↓ Russian control of their economy
- railway = extremely costly & not as impressive compared to other parts of Europe
- lack of attention paid to agriculture = rural discontent + distrust from other members of the government
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* The Duma
First Duma (April-July, 1906)
- parties in power: an extreme government (80% left-wing) that Nicholas II doesn’t really want
- extensive reforms planned: income-based taxation, health insurance for workers, election of factory
workers, land reforms (= most important discussion)
- government hostile to the idea of compulsory land redistribution
- angered the Duma → put forward its own, more radical solution to the rural crisis
- proposals gained press coverage + prospect of inciting public rage
- ∴ Nicholas II quickly dissolved the Duma
Stolypin’s Neckties
- in response to the Vybourg Manifesto → series of demands from Duma MPs (Kadets + Labourists) telling
the Finns to not pay their taxes or serve in the armed forces until the Duma was restored
- speeded up trial system by introducing field court-martials
- ∴ quick trials + executions = ‘Stolypin’s Neckties’
Second Duma (February-June, 1907)
- slightly greater right-wing representation (30%), but irrelevant → Tsar + Stolypin still distrusted the Duma
- land reform issue is key, again; Stolypin wanted to get agrarian reforms passed
- staged mutiny by the police → framed an Social Democrat MP to make it appear he was arranging a
mutiny of soldiers
- ∴ Duma was dissolved, again
- this time, provided an excuse to overhaul the election system, which the Tsar blamed for giving rise
to a representative body that was undermining the government
Third Duma (November 1907-June 1912)
- overhaul of the Duma = majority of people are loyal to the Tsar → wealthy property owners from the
countryside and cities + significant reduction of nationalist MPs from non-Russian parts of the Empire
- J.N. Westwood: unrepresentative Duma ≠ ineffective Duma
- major reforms strengthening army + navy
- improved judicial system: reinstatement of the Justices of the Peace
- state-run insurance for workers
- abolition of Land Captains
- HOWEVER, after 1910, opposition from landowner re: Stolypin’s land reforms
- Nicholas II invokes Article 87 to combat chaos in the Duma → even greater bias in the Duma
towards autocracy!
- despite all, Third Duma served a full term
Fourth Duma (November 1912-February 1917)
- dominated again by politicians from the far right
- coincided with heightened and brutal repression of civil disorder
- limited social reforms
- infamous for eventually putting pressure on Nicholas II to abdicate
- despite its criticisms of government, it was still an institution dominated by the ‘Old Guard’