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How and when to use [and not use] apostrophes
We should really know when and where to use these… but in case you
need a refresher, here are the issues seen most often in transcripts. You
should know these rules in your sleep! Misuse of apostrophes should
jump off the page and smack you in the face.
1) Don’t use an apostrophe with a non-possessive plural noun, unless it’s an
acronym, letters, numbers or something that’s hard to read otherwise.
INCORRECT: How many kid’s do you have?
The Defendant’s rest, Your Honor.
When was the last time you saw the Brown’s?
I had some errand’s to run.
On Wednesday’s, I play golf with my friend’s [friend’s what? Mom? Dog?].
OKAY:
I get mostly A’s in school.
How many TV’s were stolen?
2) DO use an apostrophe with plural possessives — but make sure the apostrophe
is in the right spot!
INCORRECT:
Did the kids room have water damage?
I went to my parent’s house. (…just one parent?!)
My parents house was broken into, too.
CORRECT:
The kids’ room had water damage.
My parents’ house was untouched.
The therapists’ notes were illegible. 1
3) Don’t use an apostrophe with possessive pronouns.
INCORRECT:
I couldn’t take what was her’s.
Which truck is their’s?
How many of the paintings were your’s?
4) Don’t use an apostrophe at the end of verbs that end in s. (I’m sorry I even had
to include this, but I’ve seen it way too often not to warn you about it!)
INCORRECT:
And then can you tell me what the witness say’s?
I don’t understand what she see’s in him.
5) Don’t use an apostrophe in the possessive form of “it”.
INCORRECT:
It’s original form was much clearer.
On it’s face, you could see a scar.
CORRECT:
Its application is much easier than before.
My husband disliked its new flavor.
NOTE: If you see these sorts of things in transcripts, it may not always be the reporter’s
ignorance of the rules — if you see it over and over and over again, it probably is,
though. OR, they may misunderstand what a proofreader is for and have simply
neglected to edit properly, thinking you’ll “just fix it”. However, if you see a stray error of
this sort, just mark it and move on. Remember, reporters type very quickly and it’s easy
to accidentally type s instead of ’s.
2
CAPITALIZATION OF “CITY” AND “STATE”
Rules by AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
SUGGESTS CAPPING:
AP: "The City gave out several citizens' awards."
BGGP: CAPITALIZATION.53: The State rests.
SUGGESTS NO CAPPING:
GREGG: 335b suggests no caps (though people who work for the state might cap it) (e.g., “He is an
employee of the state.”)
CMOS: 8.51 suggests caps only when used as part of the full name of the body (e.g., “That is a City of
Chicago ordinance.”)
MORSON’S: 222 Note: “…capital is not used for the same reason it would not be used if the burden of
proof were on the Big Car Company, which was later referred to as company.”
AP STYLEBOOK
Governmental bodies: Capitalize references to specific bodies, even without the locality or state name:
the Virginia General Assembly, the General Assembly … Lowercase short forms and generic references:
Republicans control the assembly. The council voted to raise parking fines. No legislature has approved
same-sex marriage.
Government buildings: Capitalize Capitol and City Hall when referring to a specific building: the U.S.
Capitol, the Capitol, the Virginia Capitol, the state Capitol, Richmond City Hall, City Hall … Lowercase
general references: You can’t fight city hall.
capital, capitol
The city where a seat of government is located is the "capital." Do not capitalize. Do capitalize "U.S.
Capitol" and "the Capitol" when referring to the building in Washington, D.C., or in a state capital: "The
Texas Capitol is in the state's capital city, Austin."
cities
Spell out names of cities unless in direct quotes. Do not capitalize the word "city" when it is not used as
a proper noun (city government, the city of Chicago, but "the City gave out several citizens' awards").
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CAPITALIZATION OF “CITY” AND “STATE”
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
CAPITALIZATION.52: Capitalize the names of the state and city legislative bodies when they are part of
the full name; otherwise, leave them lowercase.
She is a long-time member of the Los Angeles City Council.
The city council will vote on the controversial measure.
He is a member of the California Senate
The senate form of the bill did not pass.
He is the senior member of the Orange County Board of Supervisors.
It was a difficult decision for the board of supervisors.
Again, if you are working for one of these entities, you may capitalize differently.
CAPITALIZATION.53: Capitalize the words city, county, and state when they are parties to the lawsuit
*or* when they refer to the specific entity.
Her paycheck comes from the City of Los Angeles.
Did that occur in the city of Los Angles?
The State rests.
He lives in the State of California.
The County will provide it was not negligent.
I live near the county line.
Sometimes the word city is part of the name of the city. Of course, when this occurs, it is capped: e.g.,
Culver City, Salt Lake City.
The words city, county, and state are not capped when they represent the trees and the buildings and
the streets.
It took place in the county of Santa Barbara.
She resides in the city of Sheridan.
Was he transported to the state of Arkansas
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE
8.50 Political divisions—capitalization
Words denoting political divisions—from empire, republic, and state down to ward and precinct—are
capitalized when they follow a name and are used as an accepted part of the name. When preceding the
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CAPITALIZATION OF “CITY” AND “STATE”
name, such terms are usually capitalized in names of countries but lowercased in entities below the
national level (but see 8.51). Used alone, they are usually lowercased.
the Ottoman Empire; the empire
the British Commonwealth; Commonwealth nations; the Commonwealth (but a commonwealth)
the United States; the Republic; the Union
the United Kingdom; Great Britain; Britain (not the kingdom)
the Russian Federation (formerly the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; the Soviet Union); Russia; the federation
the Republic of South Africa (formerly the Union of South Africa); South Africa; the republic
the Fifth Republic (France)
the Republic of Indonesia; the republic
the Republic of Lithuania; the republic
the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia; the republic; the State of the Gambella Peoples; the state
the Commonwealth of Australia; the commonwealth; the state of New South Wales; the Australian Capital Territory
the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico
Washington State; the state of Washington
the New England states
the province of Ontario
Jiangxi Province
Massachusetts Bay Colony; the colony at Massachusetts Bay
the British colonies; the thirteen colonies
the Indiana Territory; the territory of Indiana
the Northwest Territory; the Old Northwest
the Western Reserve
Lake County; the county of Lake; the county; county Kildare (Irish usage)
New York City; the city of New York
the City (the old city of London, now the financial district, always capitalized)
Shields Township; the township
the Eleventh Congressional District; the congressional district
the Fifth Ward; the ward
the Sixth Precinct; the precinct
8.51 Governmental entities
In contexts where a specific governmental body rather than the place is meant, the words state, city,
and the like are usually capitalized when used as part of the full name of the body. See also 8.50.
but
She works for the Village of Forest Park.
That is a City of Chicago ordinance.
Residents of the village of Forest Park enjoy easy access to the city of Chicago
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CAPITALIZATION OF “CITY” AND “STATE”
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL
310
Some short forms (common-noun elements replacing the complete proper name) are capitalized when
they are intended to carry the full significance of the complete proper name. It is in this area, however,
that the danger of overcapitalizing most often occurs. Therefore, do not capitalize a short form unless it
clearly warrants the importance, distinction, or emphasis that capitalization conveys.
The following kinds of short forms are commonly capitalized:
PERSONAL TITLES: Capitalize titles replacing names of high-ranking national, state, and
international officials (but not ordinarily local officials or company officers). (See ¶313.)
ORGANIZATIONAL NAMES: Do not capitalize short forms of company names except in formal or
legal writing. (See 11321.)
GOVERNMENTAL NAMES: Capitalize short forms of names of national and international bodies
(but not ordinarily state or local bodies). (See 326-327, 334-335.)
334 Capitalize the word city and state only when it is part of the corporate name of the city or part of an
imaginative name.
Kansas City
the Windy City
BUT: the city of Dallas
335 a. Capitalize state only when it follows the name of a state or is part of an imaginative name.
New York State is also called the Empire State
The state of Alaska is the largest in the Union.
Washington State entered the Union in 1889, the forty-second state to do so.
Next year we plan to return to the States. (Meaning the United States.)
b. Do not capitalize state when it is used in place of the actual state name.
He is an employee of the state. (People working for the state government, however, might write State.)
c. Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia are actually commonwealths. In ordinary usage,
however, they are referred to as states.
The commonwealth of Kentucky OR: the state of Kentucky
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CAPITALIZATION OF “CITY” AND “STATE”
MORSON’S
RULE 221
Capitalize city and state whenever they follow the name of a city or state.
EXAMPLES
a. I had the accident when we were traveling through Kansas City.
b. New York State proposed that legislation ten years ago.
c. I live in New York State, not New York City.
RULE 222
Capitalize city and state when these words precede the name of a city or state and refer to it in a
corporate sense, that is, when the name suggests a corporation or company with the capacity to hire,
fire, and conduct business.
EXAMPLES
a. The City of Garwood was negligent in its failure to provide a street light at that intersection.
b. The suit alleges that the State of Iowa did not properly advertise for bids on road construction.
c. I worked as an engineer for the State of Ohio for 25 years.
d. The burden of proof is on the State of Utah to prove that my client had access to those files.
NOTE
If the State of Utah is referred to again as just state, the capital is not used for the same reason it would
not be used if the burden of proof were on the Big Car Company, which was later referred to as
company. Some veteran court reporters have a tradition of using the capital on state, and they may
want to continue it.
EXAMPLES
e. The burden is on the plaintiff.
f. The burden is on the state.
g. The burden is on the city.
h. The burden is on the company.
If there is no corporate reference, do not capitalize city or state.
EXAMPLES
i. I was in the city of Concord on June 1.
j. They moved from the state of Ohio in 1980.
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CAPITALIZATION OF “CITY” AND “STATE”
AP Stylebook
(Online subscription: https://www.apstylebook.com/)
Margie Wakeman Wells' Court Reporting: Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation
(Online subscription not available. Paperback can be ordered here:
https://www.margieholdscourt.com/products/court-reporting-bad-grammargood-punctuation/)
Chicago Manual of Style
(Online subscription: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/subscription_opts.html)
Gregg Reference Manual
(Online subscription: http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0073545430/information_center_view0/)
Lillian Morson's English Guide for Court Reporters
(Online subscription not available. Paperback can be found on Amazon.com)
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CAPITALIZATION OF NOUNS BEFORE NUMERALS
(Same document as NUMBERS – WITH NOUNS)
Rules from AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK
numerals
In general, spell out one through nine: The Yankees finished second. He had nine months to go.
Use figures for 10 or above and whenever preceding a unit of measure or referring to ages of people, animals, events or things.
Also in all tabular matter, and in statistical and sequential forms.
Use figures for:
– Academic course numbers: History 6, Philosophy 209.
– Addresses: 210 Main St. Spell out numbered streets nine and under: 5 Sixth Ave.; 3012 50th St.
See addresses.
– Ages: a 6-year-old girl; an 8-year-old law; the 7-year-old house. Use hyphens for ages expressed as adjectives before a noun or
as substitutes for a noun. A 5-year-old boy, but the boy is 5 years old. The boy, 5, has a sister, 10. The race is for 3-year-olds. The
woman is in her 30s. 30-something, but Thirty-something to start a sentence.
See ages.
– Planes, ships and spacecraft designations: B-2 bomber, Queen Elizabeth 2, QE2, Apollo 9, Viking 2. (Do not use hyphens.) An
exception: Air Force One, the president's plane. Use Roman numerals if they are part of the official designation: Titan I, Titan II.
See aircraft names; boats, ships; spacecraft designations.
– Centuries. Use figures for numbers 10 or higher: 21st century. Spell out for numbers nine and lower: fifth century. (Note
lowercase.) For proper names, follow the organization's usage: 20th Century Fox, Twentieth Century Fund.
– Court decisions: The Supreme Court ruled 5-4, a 5-4 decision. The word to is not needed, except in quotations: "The court
ruled 5 to 4."
– Dates, years and decades: Feb. 8, 2007, Class of '66, the 1950s. For the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, 9/11 is acceptable in
all references.
– Decimals, percentages and fractions with numbers larger than 1: 7.2 magnitude quake, 3½ laps, 3.7 percent interest, 4
percentage points. Decimalization should not exceed two places in most text material. An exception: blood alcohol content,
expressed in three decimals, as in 0.056. For amounts less than 1, precede the decimal with a zero: The cost of living rose 0.03
percent. When the decimal is 1 or less, the type of measurement should be singular: 0.35 meter, 0.55 cubic foot, 0.75 kilometer.
Spell out fractions less than 1, using hyphens between the words: two-thirds, four-fifths. In quotations, use figures for fractions:
"He was 2½ laps behind with four to go."
See decimal units; fractions; percent.
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– Dimensions, to indicate depth, height, length and width. Examples: He is 5 feet 6 inches tall, the 5-foot-6 man ("inch" is
understood), the 5-foot man, the basketball team signed a 7-footer. The car is 17 feet long, 6 feet wide and 5 feet high. The rug
is 9 feet by 12 feet, the 9-by-12 rug. A 9-inch snowfall. Exception: two-by-four. Spell out the noun, which refers to any length of
building lumber 2 inches thick by 4 inches wide.
See dimensions.
– Distances: He walked 4 miles. He missed a 3-foot putt.
– Golf clubs: 3-wood, 7-iron, 3-hybrid (note hyphen).
– Highway designations: Interstate 5, U.S. Highway 1, state Route 1A. (Do not abbreviate Route and do not hyphenate.)
See highway designations.
– Mathematical usage: Multiply by 4, divide by 6. He added 2 and 2 but got 5.
– Military ranks, used as titles with names, military terms and weapons: Petty Officer 2nd Class Alan Markow, Spc. Alice
Moreno, 1st Sgt. David Triplett, M16 rifle, 9 mm (note space) pistol, 6th Fleet. In military ranks, spell out the figure when it is
used after the name or without a name: Smith was a second lieutenant. The goal is to make first sergeant.
See military units.
– Millions, billions, trillions: Use a figure-word combination. 1 million people; $2 billion, NOT one million/two billion. (Also note
no hyphen linking numerals and the word million, billion or trillion.)
See millions, billions, trillions; dollars.
– Monetary units: 5 cents, $5 bill, 8 euros, 4 pounds.
See cents.
– Odds, proportions and ratios: 9-1 longshot; 3 parts cement to 1 part water; a 1-4 chance, but one chance in three.
See betting odds; proportions; ratios.
– Rank: He was my No. 1 choice. (Note abbreviation for "Number"). Do not use in names of schools or in street addresses:
Public School 19. Exception: No. 10 Downing St., the residence of Britain's prime minister.
– School grades. Use figures for grades 10 and above: 10th grade. Spell out for first through ninth grades: fourth grade, fifthgrader (note hyphen).
– Sequential designations: Page 1, Page 20A. They were out of sizes 4 and 5; magnitude 6 earthquake; Rooms 3 and 4; Chapter
2; line 1 but first line; Act 3, Scene 4, but third act, fourth scene; Game 1, but best of seven.
See act numbers; chapters; earthquakes; line numbers; page numbers; scene numbers.
– Political districts: Ward 9, 9th Precinct, 3rd Congressional District, 5th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals.
See congressional districts; political divisions.
– Recipes: 2 tablespoons of sugar to 1 cup of milk.
See recipes.
– Speeds: 7 mph, winds of 5 to 10 mph, winds of 7 to 9 knots.
– Sports scores, standings and standards: The Dodgers defeated the Phillies 10-3 (No comma between the team and the score);
in golf, 3 up, but a 3-up lead; led 3-2; a 6-1-2 record (six wins, one loss, two ties); par 3; 5 handicap, 5-under-par 67 but he was 5
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under par (or 5 under, with "par" understood). In narrative, spell out nine and under except for yard lines in football and
individual and team statistical performances: The ball was on the 5-yard line. Seventh hole. Three-point play, but 3-point shot. In
statistical performances, hyphenate as a modifier: He completed 8 of 12 passes. He made 5 of 6 (shots is understood). He was 5for-12 passing. He had a 3-for-5 day. He was 3-for-5. He went 3-for-5 (batting, shooting, etc., is understood).
– Temperatures: Use figures, except zero. It was 8 degrees below zero or minus 8. The temperature dropped from 38 to 8 in two
hours.
See temperatures.
– Times: Use figures for time of day except for noon and midnight: 1 p.m., 10:30 a.m., 5 o'clock, 8 hours, 30 minutes, 20
seconds, a winning time of 2:17.3 (two hours, 17 minutes, 3 seconds). Spell out numbers less than 10 standing alone and in
modifiers: I'll be there in five minutes. He scored with two seconds left. An eight-hour day. The two-minute warning.
See times; time sequences.
– Votes: The bill was defeated by a vote of 6 to 4, but by a two-vote margin.
Spell out:
– At the start of a sentence: Forty years was a long time to wait. Fifteen to 20 cars were involved in the accident. The only
exception is years: 1992 was a very good year.
See years.
– In indefinite and casual uses: Thanks a million. He walked a quarter of a mile. One at a time; a thousand clowns; one day we
will know; an eleventh-hour decision; dollar store.
– In fanciful usage or proper names: Chicago Seven, Fab Four, Big Three automakers, Final Four, the Four Tops.
– In formal language, rhetorical quotations and figures of speech: "Fourscore and seven years ago ..." Twelve Apostles, Ten
Commandments, high-five, Day One.
– In fractions less than one that are not used as modifiers: reduced by one-third, he made three-fourths of his shots.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
20.1: THE NUMBER QUESTION: THE BASICS
A WORD OR FIGURE?
In transcribing a number, the issue is how it is going to look on the page? Should it be a word or a
figure? Should it be “I sold twenty” or “I sold 20”? In court reporting, there are special issues which
must be taken into account in making this decision. Numbers representing the time of day, dollar
amounts, measurements, decimals, dates – all add additional considerations. No matter what decision
is made, there should be a basis in formal English rules for the transcription of numbers and a
consistency in style within a transcript and from one transcript to another.
Formal English style tends toward “over 100/under 100”; that is, if we want to be very formal, we put
numbers under 100 into words and those over 100 into figures. A variation of this is to put numbers
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that can be transcribed in one or two words into words and those transcribed in three or more words
into figures. It is clear that each of these variations is too cumbersome for the reporting transcript.
TECHNICAL VERSUS LITERARY STYLE
In general, a figure stands out on the page (technical styel), and a number expressed as a word tends to
blend in with the other words (literary style). Because of the importance of numbers in a case and the
need to be able to clearly, quickly, and easily pick out a number on the page, court reporting has
adopted the technical style.
NUMBER.29: Use figures for all decimal amounts.
Sequential Reference. A sequential reference is a number that is part of a series of numbers, and it
usually follows the word that descrybes what it is.
It was Check 304 in the amount of $100.
She lives in Apartment 203.
We will mark this as Exhibit 38.
We consider a number to be sequential whenever it follows this word that describes it. The descriptive
word is usually capped with the exception of the words page, line, paragraph, verse, and size.
She can now wear a size 12.
It appears at the bottom of page 5.
I am reading from paragraph 14.
How did he get the chance to appear on Channel 5?
It is stamped Bates 1045 at the bottom.
Please refer to Chapter 12.
NUMBER.30: Use figures for all sequential references.
It is page 15, beginning on line 5.
I think it is discussed in Chapter 8 of the book.
Go down to paragraph 3.
Even without the descriptive word, a sequential number is in figures.
It is 4515 on the top of the page.
I believe it is in 19, the chapter on contracts.
She lived in 105, if I am not mistaken.
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NUMBER .31: If the ordinal precedes the word that states what it is, use “over 10/under 10.”
I did not answer the eighth question.
I did not answer Question 8.
th
The 12 chapter will be the last
Chapter 12 will be the last.
This is the fourth exhibit on the same topic.
This is Exhibit 4 and is on the same topic.
NUMBER.32: Abbreviate the word number when it precedes a figure except at the beginning of a
sentence, where it should be written out.
I did not see No. 4 in the list of documents that I reviewed.
She wrote No. 356 to her landlord.
Number 7 is the one I want to focus on now.
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE
9.27 Page numbers, chapter numbers, and so forth
Numbers referring to pages, chapters, parts, volumes, and other divisions of a book, as well as numbers
referring to illustrations or tables, are set as numerals. Pages of the front matter are usually in lowercase
roman numerals; those for the rest of the book are in arabic numerals (see 1.5–8). For the use of en
dashes with number ranges, see 6.78. For documentation style, see chapters 14 and 15. See also 8.178.
The preface will be found on pages vii–xiv and the introduction on pages 1–35.
See part 3, especially chapters 9 and 10, for further discussion; see also volume 2, table 15 and figures 7–9.
Upon completion of step 3, on page 37, the reader is asked to consult appendix B, table 7.
Biblical references are given in numerals only; chapter and verse are separated by a colon with no space
following it. For abbreviations, see 10.45–51.
Acts 27:1
Exodus 20:3–17
Psalm 121; Psalms 146–50
2 Corinthians 11:29–30
Gen. 47:12
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GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL
359 Capitalize a noun followed by a number or a letter that indicates sequence.
EXCEPTIONS: Do not capitalize the nouns line, note, page, paragraph, size, and verse.
Act I
Appendix A
Article 2
Book III
Bulletin T-119
Car 8171
Chapter V
Chart 3
Check 181
Class 4
Column 1
Diagram 4
Exercise 8
Exhibit A
Figure 9
Flight 626
Illustration 19
Invoice 270487
Lesson 20
line 4
Model B671.4
note 1
page 158
paragraph 2a
Part Three
Plate XV
Platform 3
Policy 394857
Room 501
Section 1
size 10
Table 7
Track 2
Unit 2
verse 3
Volume II
For a more detailed discussion of this argument, see Chapters 5-6.
455 If the term number precedes a figure, express it as an abbreviation (singular: No.; plural: Nos.). At
the beginning of a sentence, however, spell out Number to prevent misreading.
Our check covers the following invoices: Nos. 8592, 8653, and 8654.
Number 82175 has been assigned to your new policy.
a. If an identifying noun precedes the figure (such as Invoice, Check, Room, Box, or the like), the
abbreviation No. is usually unnecessary.
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Our check covers Invoices 8592, 8653, and 8654.
EXCEPTIONS: License No. HLM 744; Social Security No. 169-35-8142; Patent No. 953,461
b. The symbol # may be used on business forms (such as invoices) and in technical matter.
For the capitalization of nouns preceding figures, see ¶359.
619:
To form the plural of most abbreviations, add s.
Vol.→ Vols., No. → Nos., Dr. → Drs.
MORSON’S
RULE 201
Use figures for measurements that have medical significance to the human body.
EXAMPLES
a. My pulse was 48.
b. Her vision is 20/20. (See Rule 277 for use of slant.)
c. Blood pressure was 120 over 80. (or 120/80)
d. Who recorded 40 degrees Fahrenheit on the chart?
NOTE: Capitalize Fahrenheit and Celsius. Do not capitalize centigrade.
RULE 202
Use figures when citing numbered references.
EXAMPLES
a. Please look carefully at Paragraph 8.
b. Please read lines 8 through 12 of your copy.
c. Let’s go back to Question 8.
d. Is Exhibit P-7 your rental agreement?
e. We agreed to rewrite Article IX of our bylaws.
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f. You must use a No. 2 pencil on this survey sheet.
g. These pages have been stamped Bates Nos. C250 through C840.
NOTE: When a reference is made to an item that is not actually numbered, do not capitalize the
reference and spell out the word number.
EXAMPLES
h. She’s my number one fan.
i. I’m son number two.
When number is spoken before the actual figures, abbreviate and capitalize it as No. If it is the first word
of the sentence, spell it out so as not to confuse it with the negative response No. (Also see Rule 256.)
EXAMPLES
j. Let’s go back to Question No. 8.
k. Number 675 is correct.
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CAPITALIZATION OF PLACES
(geographic areas, directions, freeways)
RULES FROM GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL, CMOS, GPO
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL
330
a. Capitalize union only when it refers to a specific government.
Wilkins has lectured on the topic in almost every state in the Union.
b. Capitalize commonwealth only when it is part of an official name. (See also 1335c.)
the Commonwealth of Independent States (formerly the U.S.S.R.)
the Commonwealth OR: the Commonwealth of Nations (formerly the British Commonwealth)
For the capitalization of state, see 335; for the capitalization of city, see 334.
Names of Places
331 Capitalize the names of places, such as streets, buildings, parks, monuments, rivers, oceans, and
mountains. Do not capitalize short forms used in place of the full name. (See 1332 for a few exceptions.)
Montgomery Street
Empire State Building
Stone Mountain Park
Sacramento River
Lake Pontchartrain
Biscayne Bay
Chebeague Island
Colony Surf Hotel
Rittenhouse Row
Onion Square
Riverside Drive
Dupont Circle
Bighorn Mountain
Shoshone Falls
the Washington Monument
Stapleton Airport
the Fogg Art Museum
Golden Gate Bridge
Nicollet Mall
BUT: the street
the building
the park
the river
the lake
the bay
the island
the hotel
the row
the square
the drive
the circle
the mountain
the falls
the monument
the airport (see 308, note)
the museum
the bndge
the mall
For plural expressions like the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, see 309a, note: for the treatment of
prepositions and conjunctions in proper names, see 303, note.
332 A few short forms are capitalized because of clear association with one place.
the Coast (the West Coast]
the Continent (Europe)
the Channel (English Channel)
the Hill (Capitol Hill]
the Street (Wall Street)
the Village (Greenwich Village]
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CAPITALIZATION OF PLACES
a. Capitalize imaginative names that designate specific places or areas.
Down East (coastal Maine]
the lower East Side (n Manhattan)
the Eastern Shore (of Chesapeake Bay)
the South Side (of Chicago)
the Near North (in Chicago)
the South Lawn (of the White House)
inside the Beltway (Washington, D.C.)
the Main Line (the Philadelphia suburbs)
the Big D (Dallas)
the Big Muddy (the Missouri River]
the Big Apple (New York)
TriBeCa (the triangular area below
Canal Street in Manhattan)
NoLita (north of Little Italy in Manhattan)
the Outer Banks (of North Carolina)
the Bay Area (around San Francisco)
La-La Land (Los Angeles)
Tinseltown (Hollywood)
the Magnificent Mile (in Chicago)
the French Quarter (In New Orleans)
Back Bay (in Boston)
DUMBO (part of Brooklyn down under
the Manhattan Bridge overpass)
SoHo (in New York); Soho On London)
Down Under (Australia and New Zealand)
the Pacific Rim
the Far East OR: the Orient
the Middle East (Nom the Near East)
NOTE: The terms Sunbelt, Snowbelt, and Frostbelt are now commonly spelled as one word; the terms
Farm Belt, Corn Belt, and Cotton Belt are still commonly spelled as two words. Within the same context
treat these terms the same way—as two words; for example, in the Farm Belt and the Frost Belt.
b. Some place names are used imaginatively to refer to specific types of businesses or institutions.
Silicon Valley (the cluster of high-tech industries south of San Francisco)
Silicon Alley (the cluster of software development firms in Manhattan)
Sil wood (the collaboration between Silicon Valley and Hollywood)
Bollywood (the film and music industry of India)
the K Street crowd (the lobbying industry in Washington, D.C.)
Gucci Gulch (the halls of Congress where lobbyists ply their trade)
Madison Avenue (the advertising industry)
Wall Street (the financial industry)
Off-Off-Broadway (experimental theater in New York City]
Foggy Bottom (the U.S. State Department)
334 Capitalize the word city only when it is part of the corporate name of the city or part of an
imaginative name.
Kansas City
the Windy City (Chicago)
BUT: the city of Dallas
335 a. Capitalize state only when it follows the name of a state or is part of an imaginative name.
New York State is also called the Empire State.
The state of Alaska is the largest in the Union.
Washington State entered the Union in 1889, the forty-second state to do so.
Next year we plan to return to the States (Meaning the United States.)
b. Do not capitalize state when it is used in place of the actual state name.
He is an employee of the state. (People working for the state government, however, might write State.)
c. Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia are actually commonwealths. In ordinary usage,
however, they are referred to as states.
the commonwealth of Kentucky
OR: the state of Kentucky
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CAPITALIZATION OF PLACES
336 According to the U.S. Government Printing Office Style Manual, the terms used to refer to the
residents of the fifty states are formed according to different patterns.
a. Sixteen states just add n.
Alaskan
Arizonan
Californian
Georgian
b. Eight states add an.
Delawarean
Hawaiian
Iowan
Minnesotan
Montanan
Nebraskan
Nevadan
North Dakotan
Oklahoman
Pennsylvanian
South Dakotan
Utahn
Virginian
West Virginian
Idahoan
Illinoisan
Massachusettsan Missourian
Mississippian
Ohioan
c. Six states drop the final letter and add n or an.
Arkansan
Coloradan
d. Three states add ian.
Michiganian
Kansan
New Mexican
Tennessean
Texan
Oregonian
Washingtonian
NOTE: A number of authorities refer to residents of Michigan as Michigandea or Michigaraes.
e. Seven states drop the final letter and add ian.
Alabamian
Floridian
f. Only one state adds r.
Mainer
g. Five states add er.
Connecticuter
Marylander
h. Three states add ite.
New Jerseyite
Indianian
Kentuckian
Louisianian
North Carolinian
South Carolinian
OR: Mainiac (the term favored by some residents)
New Yorker
Rhode Islander
Vermonter
Wisconsinite
Wyomingite
i. One state drops the final letter and adds ite.
New Hampshirite
337 a. Capitalize the only when it is part of the official name of a place.
The Dalles
The Hague
BUT: the Bronx
the Netherlands
b. Capitalize the words upper and lower only when they are part of an actual place name or a wellestablished imaginative name.
Upper Peninsula
Upper West Side
Lower East Side
Newton Lower Falls
Lower California (more commonly
known as Baja California)
c. Capitalize the word greater when it precedes a city name, referring to the city plus the outlying
suburbs; for example, Greater Atlanta.
Points of the Compass
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CAPITALIZATION OF PLACES
338 a. Capitalize north, south, east, west, and derivative words when they designate definite regions or
are an integral part of a proper name.
in the North
down South
out West
back East
the Far North
the Deep South
the Far West
the Middle East
the North Pole
the South Side
the West Coast
the Eastern Seaboard
b. Do not capitalize these words when they merely indicate direction or general location.
Many start-up companies have moved from the Northeast to the Midwest (Region,)
BUT: They maintain a villa in the south of France. (General location.)
OR: Go west on Route 517 and then south on 1-95. (Direction.)
John is coming back East after three years on the West Coast. (Region,)
BUT: The west coast of the United States borders on the Pacific. (Referring only to the shoreline, not the region.)
Most of our customers live on the East Side. (Definite locality.)
BUT: Most of our customers live on the east side of town. (General location.)
339 Capitalize such words as Northerner, Southerner, and Midwesterner.
Capitalize such words as northern, southern, eastern, and western when they refer to the people in a
region or to their political, social, or cultural activities. Do not capitalize these words when they merely
indicate general location or refer to the geography or climate of the region.
Eastern bankers
BUT: the eastern half of Pennsylvania
Southern hospitality
southern temperatures
Western civilization
westerly winds
the Northern vote
a northern winter
The Northern states did not vote as they were expected to. (Political activities.)
BUT: The drought is expected to continue in the northern states. (Climate.)
My sales territory takes in most of the southeastern states (General location.)
NOTE: When terms like western region and southern district are used to name units within an
organization, capitalize them.
The Western Region (referring to a part of the national sales staff) reports that sales are 72 percent over budget for the first
six months this year.
341 When words like northern, southern, eastern, and western precede a place name, they are not
ordinarily capitalized because they merely indicate general location within a region. However, when
these words are actually part of the place name, they must be capitalized. (Check an atlas or the
geographic listings in a dictionary when in doubt.)
Preceding a Place Name
northern New Jersey
western Massachusetts
Part of a Place Name
Northern Ireland
Western Australia
NOTE: Within certain regions it is not uncommon for many people who live there to capitalize the
adjective because of the special importance they attach to the regional designation. Thus people who
live in southern California may prefer to write Southern California.
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CAPITALIZATION OF PLACES
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE
8.44 Continents, countries, cities, oceans, and such
Entities that appear on maps are always capitalized, as are adjectives and nouns derived from them. An
initial the as part of a name is lowercased in running text, except in the rare case of an initial the in the
name of a city.
Asia; Asian
Ireland; Irish
California; Californian
Chicago; Chicagoan
Atlantic Ocean; Atlantic
South China Sea
the North Pole
the Netherlands; Dutch
but
The Hague
8.45 Points of the compass
Compass points and terms derived from them are lowercased if they simply indicate direction or
location. But see 8.46.


pointing toward the north; a north wind; a northern climate
to fly east; an eastward move; in the southwest of France; southwesterly
8.46 Regions of the world and national regions
Terms that denote regions of the world or of a particular country are often capitalized, as are a few of
the adjectives and nouns derived from such terms. The following examples illustrate not only the
principles sketched in 8.1 but also variations based on context and usage. For terms not included here or
for which no suitable analogy can be made, consult Webster’s or an encyclopedia: if an otherwise
generic term is not listed there (either capitalized or, for dictionary entries, with the indication
capitalized next to the applicable subentry), opt for lowercase. Note that exceptions based on specific
regional, political, or historical contexts are inevitable and that an author’s strong preference should
usually be respected. See also 8.45.
the Swiss Alps; the Australian Alps; the Alps; an Alpine village (if in the European or Australian Alps); Alpine skiing;
but alpine pastures in the Rockies (see also 8.52)
Antarctica; the Antarctic Circle; the Antarctic Continent
the Arctic; the Arctic Circle; Arctic waters; a mass of Arctic air (but lowercased when used metaphorically, as in “an
arctic stare”; see 8.60)
Central America, Central American countries; central Asia; central Illinois; central France; central Europe (but
Central Europe when referring to the political division of World War I)
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CAPITALIZATION OF PLACES
the continental United States; the continent of Europe; but on the Continent (used to denote mainland Europe);
Continental cuisine; but continental breakfast
the East, eastern, an easterner (referring to the eastern part of the United States or other country); the Eastern
Seaboard (or Atlantic Seaboard), East Coast (referring to the eastern United States); the East, the Far East,
Eastern (referring to the Orient and Asian culture); the Middle East (or, formerly more common, the Near East),
Middle Eastern (referring to Iran, Iraq, etc.); the Eastern Hemisphere; eastern Europe (but Eastern Europe
when referring to the post–World War II division of Europe); east, eastern, eastward, to the east (directions)
the equator; equatorial climate; the Equatorial Current; Equatorial Guinea (formerly Spanish Guinea)
the Great Plains; the northern plains; the plains (but Plains Indians)
the Midwest, midwestern, a midwesterner (as of the United States)
the North, northern, a northerner (of a country); the North, Northern, Northerner (in American Civil War contexts);
Northern California; North Africa, North African countries, in northern Africa; North America, North American,
the North American continent; the North Atlantic, a northern Atlantic route; the Northern Hemisphere; the Far
North; north, northern, northward, to the north (directions)
the Northeast, the Northwest, northwestern, northeastern, a northwesterner, a northeasterner (as of the United
States); the Pacific Northwest; the Northwest Passage
the poles; the North Pole; the North Polar ice cap; the South Pole; polar regions (see also Antarctica; the Arctic)
the South, southern, a southerner (of a country); the South, Southern, a Southerner (in American Civil War
contexts); the Deep South; Southern California; the South of France (region); Southeast Asia; South Africa,
South African (referring to the Republic of South Africa); southern Africa (referring to the southern part of the
continent); south, southern, southward, to the south (directions)
the Southeast, the Southwest, southeastern, southwestern, a southeasterner, a southwesterner (as of the United
States)
the tropics, tropical; the Tropic of Cancer; the Neotropics, Neotropical (of the New World biogeographical region);
the subtropics, subtropical
the Upper Peninsula (of Michigan); the upper reaches of the Thames
the West, western, a westerner (of a country); the West Coast; the West, Western (referring to the culture of the
Occident, or Europe and the Western Hemisphere); west, western, westward, to the west (directions)
8.47 Popular place-names or epithets
Popular names of places, or epithets, are usually capitalized. Quotation marks are not needed. Some of
the following examples may be used of more than one place. None should be used in contexts where
they will not be readily understood. See also 8.33.
Back Bay
the Badger State
the Badlands
the Bay Area
the Beltway
the Bible Belt
the Cape
the Delta
the East End
the Eastern Shore
the Eternal City
the Fertile Crescent
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CAPITALIZATION OF PLACES
the Gaza Strip
the Gulf
the Holy City
the Jewish Quarter
the Lake District
the Left Bank
the Loop (Chicago)
the Old World
the Panhandle
the Promised Land
the Rust Belt
Silicon Valley
Skid Row
the South Seas
the South Side
the Sun Belt
the Twin Cities
the Upper West Side
the Village (Greenwich Village)
the West End
the Wild West
the Windy City
8.48 Urban areas
Generic terms used for parts of urban areas are not capitalized.
 the business district
 the inner city
But when greater is used with the name of a city to denote a whole metropolitan area, it is capitalized.


Greater Chicago (but the greater Chicago metropolitan area)
Greater London
8.53 Generic terms for geographic entities
When a generic term is used descriptively (or in apposition; see 8.20) rather than as part of a name, or
when used alone, it is lowercased.
the Amazon basin
along the Pacific coast (but the West Coast; see 8.46)
the California desert
the river Thames
the Hudson River valley
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CAPITALIZATION OF PLACES
8.55 Thoroughfares and the like
The names of streets, avenues, squares, parks, and so forth are capitalized. The generic term is
lowercased when used alone but—in a return to earlier editions of this manual—capitalized when used
as part of a plural name (see also 8.52).
Broadway
Fifty-Fifth Street; Fifty-Seventh and Fifty-Fifth Streets
Hyde Park Boulevard; the boulevard
Interstate 80; I-80; an interstate highway
the Ishtar Gate; the gate
Jackson Park; the park
London Bridge; the bridge
the Mall (in London)
Park Lane
Pennsylvania Avenue; Carnegie and Euclid Avenues
Piccadilly Circus
the Spanish Steps; the steps
Tiananmen Square; the square
US Route 66; Routes 1 and 2; a state route
8.57 Rooms, offices, and such
Official names of rooms, offices, and the like are capitalized.
the Empire Room (but room 421)
the Amelia Earhart Suite (but suite 219)
the Lincoln Bedroom
the Oval Office
the West Wing of the White House
9.51 Numbered highways
State, federal, and interstate highways are designated by arabic numerals. Names for state routes vary
from state to state. See also 8.55.
US Route 41 (or US 41)
Interstate 90 (or I-90)
Illinois Route 50 (or Illinois 50; IL 50); Route 50
M6 motorway (England
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CAPITALIZATION OF PLACES
GPO (US GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE)
http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-STYLEMANUAL-2008/html/GPO-STYLEMANUAL-2008-5.htm
Names of countries, domains, and administrative divisions
3.19.
The official designations of countries, national domains, and
their principal administrative divisions are capitalized only
if used as part of proper names, as proper names, or as proper
adjectives. (See Chapter 17, Principal Foreign Countries
table.)
United States: the Republic; the Nation; the Union; the
Government; also Federal, Federal Government; but
republic (when not referring specifically to one such
entity); republican (in general sense); a nation devoted
to peace
New York State: the State, a State (a definite political
subdivision of first rank); State of Veracruz; Balkan
States; six States of Australia; State rights; but state
(referring to a federal government, the body politic);
foreign states; church and state; statehood; state's
evidence
Territory (Canada): Yukon, Northwest Territories; the
Territory(ies), Territorial; but territory of American
Samoa, Guam, Virgin Islands
Dominion of Canada: the Dominion; but dominion (in general
sense)
Ontario Province, Province of Ontario: the Province,
Provincial; but province, provincial (in general sense)
3.20.
The similar designations commonwealth, confederation (federal),
government, nation (national), powers, republic, etc., are
capitalized only if used as part of proper names, as proper
names, or as proper adjectives.
British Commonwealth, Commonwealth of Virginia: the
Commonwealth; but a commonwealth government (general
sense)
Swiss Confederation: the Confederation; the Federal Council;
the Federal Government; but confederation, federal (in
general sense)
French Government: the Government; French and Italian
Governments: the Governments; but government (in general
sense); the Churchill government; European governments
Cherokee Nation: the nation; but Greek nation; American
nations
National Government (of any specific nation); but national
customs Allied Powers, Allies (in World Wars I and II);
but our allies, weaker allies; Central Powers (in World
War I); but the powers; European powers
Republic of South Africa: the Republic; but republic (in
general sense)
Names of regions, localities, and geographic features
3.21.
A descriptive term used to denote a definite region, locality,
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CAPITALIZATION OF PLACES
or geographic feature is a proper name and is therefore
capitalized; also for temporary distinction a coined name of a
region is capitalized.
the North Atlantic States
the Gulf States
the Central States
the Pacific Coast States
the Lake States
East North Central States
Eastern North Central States
Far Western States
Eastern United States
the West
the Midwest
the Middle West
the Far West
the Eastern Shore (Chesapeake Bay)
the Badlands (SD and NE)
the Continental Divide
Deep South
Midsouth
the Far East
Far Eastern
the East
3.22.
Middle East
Middle Eastern
Mideast
Mideastern (Asia)
Near East (Balkans, etc.)
the Promised Land
the Continent
(continental Europe)
the Western Hemisphere
the North Pole
the North and South Poles
the Temperate Zone
the Torrid Zone
the East Side
Lower East Side (sections
of a city)
Western Europe, Central
(political entities)
but
lower 48 (States)
the Northeast corridor
A descriptive term used to denote mere direction or position is
not a proper name and is therefore not capitalized.
north; south; east; west
northerly; northern; northward
eastern; oriental; occidental
east Pennsylvania
southern California
northern Virginia
west Florida; but West Florida (1763-1819)
eastern region; western region
north-central region
east coast; eastern seaboard
northern Italy
southern France
but East Germany; West Germany (former political entities)
Common nouns and adjectives in proper names
3.5.
A common noun or adjective forming an essential part of a
proper name is capitalized; the common noun used alone as a substitute
for the name of a place or thing is not capitalized.
Massachusetts Avenue; the avenue
Washington Monument; the monument
Statue of Liberty; the statue
Hoover Dam; the dam
Boston Light; the light
Modoc National Forest; the national forest
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CAPITALIZATION OF PLACES
Panama Canal; the canal
Soldiers' Home in Holyoke; the soldiers' home
Johnson House (hotel); Johnson house (residence)
Crow Reservation; the reservation
Cape of Good Hope; the cape
Jersey City
Washington City
but city of Washington; the city
Cook County; the county
Great Lakes; the lakes
Lake of the Woods; the lake
North Platte River; the river
Lower California
but lower Mississippi
Charles the First; Charles I
Seventeenth Census; the 1960 census
3.6.
If a common noun or adjective forming an essential part of a
name becomes separated from the rest of the name by an
intervening common noun or adjective, the entire expression is
no longer a proper noun and is therefore not capitalized.
Union Station: union passenger station
Eastern States: eastern farming States
United States popularly elected government
3.7.
A common noun used alone as a well-known short form of a
specific proper name is capitalized.
the Capitol building in Washington, DC; but State capitol
building
the Channel (English Channel)
the Chunnel (tunnel
below English Channel)
the District (District of Columbia)
3.8.
The plural form of a common noun capitalized as part of a
proper name is also capitalized.
Seventh and I Streets
Lakes Erie and Ontario
Potomac and James Rivers
State and Treasury Departments
British, French, and United States Governments
Presidents Washington and Adams
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CAPITALIZATION OF TITLES
Rules by AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK RULES
titles
In general, confine capitalization to formal titles used directly before an individual's name.
The basic guidelines:
LOWERCASE: Lowercase and spell out titles when they are not used with an individual's name: The
president issued a statement. The pope gave his blessing.
Lowercase and spell out titles in constructions that set them off from a name by commas: The vice
president, Nelson Rockefeller, declined to run again. Pope John XXIII, the current pope, does not plan to
retire.
COURTESY TITLES: See courtesy titles for guidelines on when to use Miss, Mr., Mrs., Ms. or no titles.
The forms Mr., Mrs., Miss and Ms. apply both in regular text and in quotations.
FORMAL TITLES: Capitalize formal titles when they are used immediately before one or more names:
Pope John XXIII, President Barack Obama, Vice Presidents John Jones and William Smith.
A formal title generally is one that denotes a scope of authority, professional activity or academic activity:
Sen. Dianne Feinstein, Dr. Benjamin Spock, retired Gen. Colin Powell.
Other titles serve primarily as occupational descriptions: astronaut John Glenn, movie star John Wayne,
peanut farmer Jimmy Carter.
A final determination on whether a title is formal or occupational depends on the practice of the
governmental or private organization that confers it. If there is doubt about the status of a title and the
practice of the organization cannot be determined, use a construction that sets the name or the title off with
commas.
ABBREVIATED TITLES: The following formal titles are capitalized and abbreviated as shown when used
before a name both inside and outside quotations: Dr., Gov., Lt. Gov., Rep., Sen. and certain military ranks
listed in military titles.
All other formal titles are spelled out in all uses.
GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS: In stories with U.S. datelines, do not include U.S. before the titles of
Secretary of State or other government officials, except where necessary for clarity. Examples: Secretary of
State Hillary Rodham Clinton, Attorney General Eric Holder.
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In stories with international datelines, include U.S. before the titles: U.S. Secretary of State Hillary
Rodham Clinton, U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder. Exceptions: President Barack Obama, Vice President
Joe Biden.
ROYAL TITLES: Capitalize king, queen, etc., when used directly before a name. See individual entries and
nobility.
TITLES OF NOBILITY: Capitalize a full title when it serves as the alternate name for an individual. See
nobility.
PAST AND FUTURE TITLES: A formal title that an individual formerly held, is about to hold or holds
temporarily is capitalized if used before the person's name. But do not capitalize the qualifying word: former
President George W. Bush, deposed King Constantine, Attorney General-designate Griffin B. Bell, acting
Mayor Peter Barry.
LONG TITLES: Separate a long title from a name by a construction that requires a comma: Charles
Robinson, the undersecretary for economic affairs, spoke. Or: The undersecretary for economic affairs,
Charles Robinson, spoke.
UNIQUE TITLES: If a title applies only to one person in an organization, insert the word the in a
construction that uses commas: John Jones, the deputy vice president, spoke.
ADDITIONAL GUIDANCE: Many commonly used titles and occupational descriptions are listed separately
in this book, together with guidelines on whether and/or when they are capitalized. In these entries, the
phrases before a name or immediately before a name are used to specify that capitalization applies only
when a title is not set off from a name by commas.
See academic titles; composition titles; legislative titles; military titles; and religious titles.
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16TH EDITION)
8.32 Honorific titles and respectful forms of address are capitalized in any context. For the use
of many such terms in formal correspondence, see "Forms of Address," a comprehensive listing
at the back of the print edition of Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. For abbreviations,
see 10.18. See also 8.25.
the Honorable Olympia J. Snowe (US senator, member of Congress, etc.)
the Right Honourable Stephen Harper (Canadian prime minister)
the First Gentleman; the First Lady
the Queen Mother
Pandit Nehru
Mahatma Gandhi
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Her (His, Your) Majesty; His (Her, Your) Royal Highness
the Most Reverend William S. Skylstad (Roman Catholic bishop)
Your (Her, His) Excellency
Mr. President; Mrs. President; Ms. President
Madam Speaker
Your Honor
- but sir, ma'am, my lord, my lady
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (SIXTH EDITION)
315:
Capitalize any title (even if not of high rank) when it is used in direct address (that is, quoted or
unquoted speech made directly to another person).
DIRECT ADDRESS: Please tell me, Doctor, what risks are involved in this treatment.
INDIRECT ADDRESS: I asked the doctor what risks were involved in this treatment.
NOTE: in direct address, do not capitalize a term like madam, miss, or sir if it stands alone
without a proper name following.
Isn’t it true, sir, that the defendant offered you money for trade secrets?
307
A common noun names a class of things (for example, books), or it may refer indefinitely to one
or more things within that class (a book, several books). Nouns used in this way are considered
general terms of classification and are often modified by indefinite words such as a, any, every,
or some. Do not capitalize nouns used as general terms of classification. a company, any
corporation, every board of directors, some senators
308
A common noun may also be used to name a particular person, place, or thing. Nouns used in
this way are often modified by the, this, these, that, or those, or by, possessive words such as
my, your, his, her, our, or their. Do not capitalize a general term of classification, even though it
refers to a particular person, place,
or thing.
COMMON NOUN: our doctor, the hotel, the river
PROPER NOUN: Dr. Tsai, Hotel Algonquin, the Colorado River
309a
Capitalize a common noun when it is part of a proper name but not when it is used alone in
place of the full name. (See 310 for exceptions.)
Professor Perry
the Goodall Corporation
the Easton Municipal Court
Sunset Boulevard
the Clayton Antitrust Act
BUT:
the professor
the corporation
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the court
the boulevard
the act
NOTE: Also capitalize the plural form of a common noun in expressions such as the Republican
and the Democratic Parties, Main and Tenth Streets, the Missouri and Ohio Rivers, and the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
309b
In a number of compound nouns, the first element is a proper noun or adjective and the second
element is a common noun. In such cases capitalize only the first element, since the compound
as a whole is a common noun.
Brownie points
a Ferris wheel
a Rhodes scholar
a Labrador retriever
NOTE: Check an up-to-date dictionary for words of this type. After extensive usage, the proper
noun or adjective may become a common noun and no longer require capitalization. (See ¶306.)
310
Some short forms (common-noun elements replacing the complete proper name) are
capitalized when they are intended to carry the full significance of the complete proper name. It
is in this area, however, that the danger of overcapitalizing most often occurs. Therefore, do not
capitalize a short form unless it clearly warrants the importance, distinction, or emphasis that
capitalization conveys.
The following kinds of short forms are commonly capitalized:
PERSONAL TITLES: Capitalize titles replacing names of high-ranking national, state, and
international officials (but not ordinarily local officials or company officers). (See ¶313.)
ORGANIZATIONAL NAMES: Do not capitalize short forms of company names except in formal or
legal writing. (See 11321.)
GOVERNMENTAL NAMES: Capitalize short forms of names of national and international bodies
(but not ordinarily state or local bodies). (See 326-327, 334-335.)
PLACE NAMES: Capitalize only well-established short forms. (See ¶332, 335.)
NOTE: Do not use a short form to replace a full name unless the full name has been mentioned
earlier or will be clearly understood from the context.
MORSON’S
RULE 208
Capitalize professional titles of respect and esteem when they precede a name.
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EXAMPLES
a. Did Mayor Harris receive a check from you?
b. At noon District Attorney Weiss arrived.
c. We were addressed by Professor Knaub.
d. No one saw Superintendent Harris at the rally.
e. Did Nurse Nelson take a look at your chart?
f. No one expected Dean Fisher to resign.
� NOTE
When an occupational title such as author, clerk, court reporter, printer, scopist, surgeon, or
teacher precedes a name, do not capitalize the title.
EXAMPLES
g. I was the secretary when court reporter Stephens served on the council.
h. We fought with author Perkins over our rights to publish that excerpt.
i. Our plans changed when veterinary assistant Boyd read the test results to us.
RULE 209
Titles that are in apposition (a renaming) to a name and precede it are not capitalized if commas
separate the title from the name.
EXAMPLES
a. Our records to the vice president, Mary Kozalak, were lost.
b. We heard from our executive director, Barron D. Canty, Jr., at the regional meeting.
RULE 210
Capitalize the titles of prominent persons before or after the name. these are usually titles for
nationally or internationally high government or religious positions: governors, congressmen,
senators, cabinet officers, chief justices, the President of the United States, monarchs, the
United Nations Secretary General, the Pope.
EXAMPLES
a. When we elected Bill Clinton as President of the United States, I was too young to vote.
b. Christine Todd Whitman, Governor of New Jersey, attended that convention.
c. The chief speaker was John Major, Prime Minister of England.
d. Bill Bradley, the Senator from New Jersey, won easily.
NOTE
Do not capitalize ex-, -elect, former, or late when added to a title. Do capitalize acting when
used before a prominent title.
EXAMPLES
e. When President-elect Clinton entered the room, the reporters stood.
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f. The meeting was called by former Governor Florio.
g. Did you see ex-President George Bush on television.
h. The Acting President pro tempore presided over the Senate.
i. The program mentioned the late President Nixon.
RULE 211
Capitalize titles of prominent persons when these titles are given in place of the personal name.
EXAMPLES
a. The Prime Minister expressed satisfaction over her country’s thriving economy.
b. The Chief Justice warned of the dire consequences of the drug traffic.
c. The Secretary of State outlined the highlights of the treaty.
d. The Senator from New Mexico made known his disapproval of the bill.
NOTE
If governor, congressman, or senator has a, any every, some, or any other indefinite word
before it, do not capitalize it.
EXAMPLES
e. Some governors stayed away from the conference as a protest.
f. Any senator can speak for an unlimited time on this proposal.
If an adjective is formed from one of these proper nouns, it is usually not capitalized:
gubernatorial politics, congressional matters, a senatorial debate, a presidential candidate. 141
The court reporter should use capital only for high government and international positions. In
that way the court reporter can avoid trying to determine whether to give more status to the
judge than to the superintendent of schools or less status to the
EXAMPLES
g. The mayor was pleading for more aid from the council.
h. The meeting adjourned before the superintendent of schools arrived.
i. We were introduced to the president of the hospital.
RULE 212
Do no capitalize titles after names or by themselves unless they are the prominent ones
mentioned in Rule 210.
EXAMPLES
a. R. L. Winston, executive director of the Winston Foundation, donated $55 million toward
cancer research.
b. Jeanne Lorenzo, director of the Administrative Office of the United States Courts, reports
monthly on the status cases.
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c. I am the president of Boyle Oil, Inc.
d. I am a diplomate of the American Board of Neurosurgery and a felony of the American
Board of Surgeons.
RULE 213
Titles that appear on the front page of a transcript are traditionally capitalized whether or not
they appear before or after the name and whether or not they are prominent.
EXAMPLES
a. Before:
YUL B. SARI, A.J.S.C., AND JURY
b. LANCE NODACHANTZ, ESQ.,
Attorney General,
BY ELLA VADER, ESQ.,
Deputy Attorney General,
Attorney for the Defendant
RULE 214
Capitalize abbreviated titled that follow names.
EXAMPLES
a. Louise Riddick, R.N., signed the health certificate.
b. Mailton Kind, Esq., represents the defendant.
c. Arlene Thompson, C.S.R., signed the release.
RULE 215
Capitalize professional titles of persons when these persons are being addressed by title without
their surnames. Do not abbreviate these titles.
EXAMPLES
a. Can you say, Doctor, that this is the only cause?
b. Now, Sergeant, what precinct are you connected with?
c. Is it true, Monsignor, that you have known him from birth?
OR
Is it true, Rabbi, that you have known him from birth?
d. My objection, your Honor, is to his repeating that question. (OR: Your Honor)
e. Tell us, Professor, if this formula is correct.
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NOTE
Sometimes a speaker uses the word officer because of uncertainty about the exact rank or
because it is easier to use. Technically, officer should not be capitalized.
Words like sir, madam, and miss are not professional titles and should not be capitalized. Other
common nouns of address that are substitutes for names or titles should not be capitalized
either.
EXAMPLES
f. Tell us, officer, did you take a statement from Mr. Cutler that night?
g. Now, sir, what is your address?
h. Can you, miss, show us the scar?
i. All I said was, “Move it, mister.”
j. Move it, fella.
k. Move it, girl.
l. Move it, honey.
m. Move it, bud.
n. Move it, babe.
o. Move it, sweetheart.
p. Move it, wiseguy.
In the courtroom counselor and counsel taken on the quantity of a professional title, although
they are not conferred in the same way that doctor is. Capitalize counselor and counsel only
when it is a noun of direct address within the transcript.
EXAMPLES
q. Let me, Counselor, discuss this with the witness.
r. Can you reach that witness at work now, Counsel?
BUT
s. We spoke to counsel about the terms, but she objected. We are hoping counsel will
reconsider.
RULE 216
Capitalize title for relatives when they are used in place of names and no possessive pronoun
(my, your, his, her, our, their, whose) precedes the title.
EXAMPLES
a. I knew Mother was not taking the medicine every day.
b. I noticed that Grandfather was using his cane more and more.
c. We invited Great-Aunt Rose to the wedding, but she was in Europe.
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NOTE
If a possessive pronoun does precede the title, do not use capitals.
EXAMPLES
d. I gave my mother her medicine every four hours.
e. Our grandfather was able to dance at the wedding.
If the word aunt, uncle, or cousin forms a unit with a proper noun, keep the capitals.
f. My Great-Aunt Rose sent her regrets.
g. Whenever our Uncle Marcus attends, the evening ends early.
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CAPITALIZATION - TRADEMARKS AND COPYRIGHTS
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE
CMOS Q&A
Registered Trademarks
Q. When using “Google” as a verb—Googled, Googling, etc.—should it be capitalized? Even if one is not
referring necessarily to the use of the official Google website, but merely using “google” loosely as a
synonym for checking something out?
A. Google is a brand name; at least in formal writing, you should always capitalize it—unless, for
example, you are writing about a certain type of tricky bowling in a cricket match. See paragraph 8.152
in CMOS 16 for more details.
8.152 Trademarks
Brand names that are trademarks—often so indicated in dictionaries—should be capitalized if they must
be used. A better choice is to substitute a generic term when available. Although the symbols and (for
registered and unregistered trademarks, respectively) often accompany trademark names on product
packaging and in promotional material, there is no legal requirement to use these symbols, and they
should be omitted wherever possible. (If one of these symbols must be used at the end of a product
name, it should appear before any period, comma, or other mark of punctuation.) Note also that some
companies encourage the use of both the proper and the generic term in reference to their products
(“Kleenex facial tissue,” not just “Kleenex”) and discourage turning product names into verbs, but these
restrictions, while they may be followed in corporate documentation, are not legally binding. (In fact,
Webster’s includes entries for lowercase verbs google and xerox.) For computer-related names and
terms, see 7.76.
Bufferin; buffered aspirin
Coca-Cola; cola
Google; search engine; search
Jacuzzi; whirlpool bath
Kleenex; (facial) tissue
Levi’s; jeans
Ping-Pong; table tennis
Pyrex; heat-resistant glassware
Scrabble
Vaseline; petroleum jelly
Xerox; photocopier; copy
More information about registered trademarks can be found on the websites of the US Patent and
Trademark Office and the International Trademark Association.
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CAPITALIZATION - TRADEMARKS AND COPYRIGHTS
7.76 Terms like “web” and “Internet”
In keeping with Chicago’s recommendations elsewhere (see 8.67), generic terms that are capitalized as
part of the official name of a system or an organization may be lowercased when used alone or in
combination. (In a departure, Chicago now considers web to be generic when used alone or in
combination with other generic terms.) Abbreviations for file formats are normally presented in full
capitals (see also 10.52). For treatment of the names of keys and menu items, see 7.73. For terms such
as e-mail, see 7.85.
Macintosh; PC; personal computer
hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP); a transfer protocol; hypertext
Internet protocol (IP); the Internet; the net; an intranet
the Open Source Initiative (the corporation); open-source platforms
the World Wide Web Consortium; the World Wide Web; the web; a website; a web page
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COLONS WITH INTRODUCTIONS
Rules by AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK
AP STYLEBOOK
INTRODUCING DIRECT QUOTES: Use a comma to introduce a complete one-sentence quotation within a
paragraph: Wallace said, "She spent six months in Argentina and came back speaking English with a
Spanish accent." But use a colon to introduce quotations of more than one sentence. See colon.
colon (:) The most frequent use of a colon is at the end of a sentence to introduce lists, tabulations,
texts, etc.
Capitalize the first word after a colon only if it is a proper noun or the start of a complete sentence: He
promised this: The company will make good all the losses. But: There were three considerations: expense,
time and feasibility.
EMPHASIS: The colon often can be effective in giving emphasis: He had only one hobby: eating.
LISTINGS: Use the colon in such listings as time elapsed (1:31:07.2), time of day (8:31 p.m.), biblical and
legal citations (2 Kings 2:14; Missouri Code 3:245-260).
DIALOGUE: Use a colon for dialogue. In coverage of a trial, for example:
Bailey: What were you doing the night of the 19th?
Mason: I refuse to answer that.
Q AND A: The colon is used for question-and-answer interviews:
Q: Did you strike him?
A: Indeed I did.
INTRODUCING QUOTATIONS: Use a comma to introduce a direct quotation of one sentence that
remains within a paragraph. Use a colon to introduce long quotations within a paragraph and to end all
paragraphs that introduce a paragraph of quoted material.
PLACEMENT WITH QUOTATION MARKS: Colons go outside quotation marks unless they are part of the
quotation itself.
MISCELLANEOUS: Do not combine a dash and a colon.
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COLONS WITH INTRODUCTIONS
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
(coming soon)
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16TH EDITION)
6.38 Commas with direct address
A comma is used to set off names or words used in direct address and informal correspondence (in
formal correspondence, a colon usually follows the name).
Ms. Jones, please come in.
James, your order is ready.
I am not here, my friends, to discuss personalities.
Hello, Ms. Philips.
Dear Judy, . . .
6.59 Use of the colon
A colon introduces an element or a series of elements illustrating or amplifying what has preceded the
colon. Between independent clauses it functions much like a semicolon, and in some cases either mark
may work as well as the other; use a colon sparingly, however, and only to emphasize that the second
clause illustrates or amplifies the first. (The colon should generally convey the sense of “as follows.”) The
colon may sometimes be used instead of a period to introduce a series of related sentences (as in the
third example below).
The watch came with a choice of three bands: stainless steel, plastic, or leather.
They even relied on a chronological analogy: just as the Year II had overshadowed 1789, so the October
Revolution had eclipsed that of February.
Yolanda faced a conundrum: She could finish the soup, pretending not to care that what she had thought
until a moment ago was a vegetable broth was in fact made from chicken. She could feign satiety and thank
the host for a good meal. Or she could use this opportunity to assert her preference for a vegan diet.
For use of the em dash instead of a colon, see 6.82. For the use of colons with subtitles, see 14.97. For
the use of colons in indexes, see 16.95. For other uses of the colon—in source citations, URLs,
mathematical expressions, and other settings—consult the index or search the online edition of this
manual.
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COLONS WITH INTRODUCTIONS
6.60 Space after colon
In typeset matter, no more than one space should follow a colon. Further, in some settings—as in a
source citation between a volume and page number with no intervening date or issue number (see
14.186), a biblical citation, or a ratio—no space should follow a colon. See also 6.7.
(**NOTE FROM MARLA: Reporters will probably never follow this new trend, nor do I think they
should.)
6.61 Lowercase or capital letter after a colon
When a colon is used within a sentence, as in the first two examples in 6.59, the first word following the
colon is lowercased unless it is a proper name. When a colon introduces two or more sentences (as in
the third example in 6.59), when it introduces a speech in dialogue or an extract (as in the examples in
6.63), or when it introduces a direct question, the first word following it is capitalized.
6.62 Colons with “as follows” and other introductory phrases
A colon is normally used after as follows, the following, and similar expressions. (For lists, see 6.121–26.)
The steps are as follows: first, make grooves for the seeds; second, sprinkle the seeds; third, push the earth
back over the grooves; fourth, water generously.
Kenzie’s results yield the following hypotheses: First, . . . Second, . . . Third, . . .
6.63 Colons to introduce speech or quotations
A colon is often used to introduce speech in dialogue.
Michael: The incident has already been reported.
Timothy: Then, sir, all is lost!
A colon may also be used instead of a comma to introduce a quotation, either where the syntax of the
introduction requires it or to more formally introduce the quotation. For the use of the comma with
quotations, see 6.50. See also 13.17.
Julian Duguid, author of Green Hell (1931), starts his book boldly: “When a man yields to the urge of Ishmael .
. .”
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COLONS WITH INTRODUCTIONS
6.64 Colons with formal direct address
At the beginning of a speech or a formal communication, a colon usually follows the identification of
those addressed. For use of a comma, see 6.38.
Ladies and Gentlemen:
To Whom It May Concern:
Dear Credit and Collections Manager:
6.65 Some common misuses of colons
Many writers assume—wrongly—that a colon is always needed before a series or a list. In fact, if a colon
intervenes in what would otherwise constitute a grammatical sentence—even if the introduction
appears on a separate line, as in a list (see 6.121–26)—it is probably being used inappropriately. A colon,
for example, should not be used before a series that serves as the object of a verb. When in doubt, apply
this test: to merit a colon, the words that introduce a series or list must themselves constitute a
grammatically complete sentence.
The menagerie included cats, pigeons, newts, and deer ticks.
not
The menagerie included: cats, pigeons, newts, and deer ticks.
Nor should a colon normally be used after namely, for example, and similar expressions (see 6.43).
13.17 Colon preceding a quotation
A formal introductory phrase, such as thus or as follows, is usually followed by a colon.
The role of the author has been variously described. Henry Fielding, at the beginning of his History of
Tom Jones, defines it thus: “An author ought to consider himself, not as a gentleman who gives a private
or eleemosynary treat, but rather as one who keeps a public ordinary, at which all persons are welcome
for their money.”
13.18 Comma preceding a quotation
When it is simply a matter of identifying a speaker, a comma is used after said, replied, asked, and
similar verbs; a colon, though never wrong in such instances, should be used sparingly (e.g., to introduce
quotations that consist of more than one sentence).
Garrett replied, “I hope you are not referring to me.”
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COLONS WITH INTRODUCTIONS
Fish writes, “What [the students] did was move the words out of a context (the faculty club door) in
which they had a literal and obvious meaning into another context (my classroom) in which the meaning
was no less obvious and literal and yet was different.”
13.19 Period rather than colon preceding a quotation
Unless introduced by thus, as follows, or other wording that requires a colon, a block quotation may be
preceded by a period rather than a colon. Such usage should be applied consistently.
He then took a clearly hostile position toward Poland, having characterized it as a Fascist state that
oppressed the Ukrainians, the Belorussians, and others.
Under present conditions, suppression of that state will mean that there will be one less Fascist state. It
will not be a bad thing if Poland suffers a defeat and thus enables us to include new territories and new
populations in the socialist system.
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (SIXTH EDITION)
BETWEEN INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
187 Use a colon between two independent clauses when the second clause explains or illustrates the
first clause and there is no coordinating conjunction or transitional expression linking the two clauses.
I have a special fondness for the Maine coast: it reminds me of the many happy summers we spent
there when our children were still in school.
NOTE: The second clause that explains or illustrates the first clause may itself consist of more than one
independent clause.
The job you have described sounds very attractive: the salary is good, and the opportunities for
advancement seem excellent.
BUT: The job you have described sounds very attractive; for example, the salary is good, and the
opportunities for advancement seem excellent. (Use a semicolon when a transitional expression
links the clauses.)
The job you have described sounds very attractive; it is the kind of job I have been looking for. (Use
a semicolon when the second clause does not explain the first clause.)
BEFORE LISTS AND ENUMERATIONS
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COLONS WITH INTRODUCTIONS
188 Place a colon before such expressions as for example, namely, and that is when they introduce
words, phrase, or a series of clauses anticipated earlier in the sentence.
The company provides a number of benefits not commonly offered in this area; for example, free dental
insurance, low-cost term insurance, and personal financial counseling services.
For additional examples, see 182b.
189 When a clause contains an anticipatory expression (such as the following, as follows, thus, and
these) and directs attention to a series of explanatory words, phrases, or clauses, use a colon between
the clause and the series.
These are some of the new features in this year’s models: a fuel economy indicator, a new rear
suspension, and a three-year limited warranty.
The following staff members have been selected to attend the national sales conference in Honolulu:
Frances Berkowitz
Thomas Gomez
Thomas Miscina
Kelly Prendergast
190 Use a colon even if the anticipatory expression is only implied and not stated.
The house has attractive features: cross ventilation in every room, a two-story living room, and two
terraces.
191 Do not use a colon in the following cases:
a. If the anticipatory expression occurs near the beginning of a long sentence.
We have set the following restrictions on the return of merchandise, because many customers
have abused the privilege. Goods cannot be returned after five days, and price tags must not be
removed.
BUT: We have set the following restrictions on the return of merchandise: goods cannot be
returned…
b. If the sentence containing the anticipatory expression is followed by another sentence.
Campers will find that the following small items will add much to their enjoyment of the
summer. These articles may be purchased from a store near the camp.
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COLONS WITH INTRODUCTIONS
MORSON’S
Rule 13
CAUTION C
If the speaker uses a series of questions that are separate sentences, each sentence ends with a
question mark and each sentence begins with a capital letter.
i. Is Carol working? Is Carol unemployed? Is Carol retired?
j. Were you in the service? Were you in a combat zone? Were you in a military hospital?
k. My questions are: What is it? Where is it? Whose is it?
l. My question is: Who will benefit most?
m. The bottom line is: Whose taxes will be increased?
Note the colon that is used to formally introduce the questions in Examples 13k, 13l, and 13m and the
capital letter after the colon and at the beginning of each separate question. (See also Rule 31 for
comma use.)
RULE 29
Use a colon before introducing a list, a formal quotation, or an enumeration that is preceded by
expressions like as follows, thus, the following.
EXAMPLES
a. The parties in the lawsuit are the following: Mrs. Lavinia Lopez, Mrs. Beatrice Ship, And Mrs.
Sylvester Brookins.
b. We recorded our findings thus: heart, normal; lungs, normal; pulse, normal.
c. Our objections are as follows: (1) The dates were falsified; (2) the signatures were not witnessed;
(3) the last paragraph is ambiguous.
NOTE
Capitalize the first word after the colon when it is followed by a sentence, a proper noun, or the
pronoun I.
Type two spaces after the colon except when the colon occurs within a numerical expression. (See Rule
33.)
RULE 30
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COLONS WITH INTRODUCTIONS
Use a colon before an explanation or list when namely can be mentally added before that explanation or
list and it makes sense. The word before the colon and the word(s) after the colon are nouns or
pronouns in apposition (a renaming) to each other.
EXAMPLES
a. The Court intends to very carefully define for you three examples of negative performance: nonfeasance,
misfeasance, malfeasance.
b. My problem is this: Who pays me for my losses?
c. The Court ruled on two counts: first, negligence; second, cruelty.
d. Objection: no proper predicate, facts not in evidence.
e. She had everything: a beautiful family, excellent health, professional success, and a wonderful reputation.
f. I am only asking for one thing: justice.
g. And that makes her what: your sister-in-law?
h. You injured which finger: the index?
i. She gave you how many: a dozen?
NOTE
Because namely does not appear in the above sentences, the colon is used. With the exception of
Examples 30f, 30g, 30h, and 30i, if namely were in the above sentences, a semicolon would be used
before it and a comma after it. (See Rules 20 and 21.)
EXAMPLES
j. The Court took several days to define three examples of negative performance; namely, nonfeasance,
misfeasance, malfeasance.
k. My problem is serious; namely, who will pay me for my losses?
Sometimes a speaker uses an incomplete expression like “Just so I’m clear,” “So I have a complete
picture,” or “Just to be sure” as a preface to a summary or a series of questions and statements. The
reporter hears the words inflected as a complete idea followed by a pause. The introductory clause is
spoken and inflected like “Tell me something just so I’m clear.” “Tell me this so I have a complete
picture.” “I’ll ask you this just to be sure.” Under these circumstances, use a colon to introduce the
summary.
EXAMPLES
l. Just so I’m clear: Did she make any phone calls?
m. Just so the record is clear: You went home; you saw the sprinkler was on. Is that your recollection?
n. So I have a complete picture of this: Charles was sitting in the chair. Joyce was standing in the doorway. Is
that correct?
o. So I keep all of this straight: When this happened, you never reported it. Is that right?
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COLONS WITH INTRODUCTIONS
If the expressions above are used as true introductory clauses, use commas as outlined in Rule 63.
EXAMPLES
p. Just so I’m clear, I’d like to ask you two more questions. (clauses relate to each other and have the same “I”
perspective)
q. So I understand the sequence of events , I’ll ask you some more about the time just before you got on the
bus.
RULE 31
Questions that follow the verb to be (am, are, is, was, were, been, being) may be introduced with a
colon or a comma or nothing depending upon the length of the question, the formality of the question,
and whether the question is direct or indirect.
If the question is short, it may be treated as an indirect question and run smoothly into the rest of the
sentence without any punctuation to introduce it and end with a question mark.
EXAMPLES
a. My question is why?
b. My question is why not?
c. The bottom line is who?
If the question is short but requires special emphasis, it may be treated as a direct question and the
colon may introduce the question. The sentence ends with a question mark . The colon has the effect of
making the question more formal.
EXAMPLES
d. My question is: Why?
e. My question is: Why not?
f. The bottom line is: SI she reliable?
g. What I mean is: How come she did that?
If the question is to be quoted because it appears elsewhere in the transcript and is being restated, a
colon may introduce the question and the sentence ends with a question mark.
EXAMPLES
h. My question is: “Why?”
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COLONS WITH INTRODUCTIONS
i. My question is: “Who did it?”
j. The question was: “Did you see the accident?”
Commas could also be used in the above examples, and the effect is to make the questions less formal.
(See also Rule 49.)
EXAMPLES
k. My question is, Who did it?
l. The question was, Did you see the accident?
m. The question is, Will you bring in the documents?
n. The next step is, Where do we go hide the money belt?
o. What I mean is, Who gave you permission to open the lock?
CAUTION
If the question is introduced by the verb to be but has a word that completes the verb placed before the
actual question, only the colon is correct to separate the two elements. (See Example 30b.)
EXAMPLES
p. My question is this: Who chose the date?
q. My question is as follows: “Who chose the date?”
r. What I mean is this: Why did she tell only you?
RULE 32
Use a colon to introduce formal quotations from legal documents, speeches, historic documents, or
other well-known writings.
EXAMPLES
a. My client makes the same plea as the well-known Revolutionary orator: “Give me liberty or give me
death.”
b. Your client should have remembered the Bible says: “Thou shall love thy neighbor as thyself.”
c. The statute says: “A reporter appointed as provided in this article shall be assigned by the administrative
director of the courts.”
RULE 33
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COLONS WITH INTRODUCTIONS
In citations legal, biblical, and literary works, use a colon to separate volume number from page number,
chapter from verse, and title from subtitle. Do not type any spaces before or after the colon.
EXAMPLES
a. Title 2A:11-13 says: “A reporter appointed as provided in this article shall be assigned by the administrative
director of the courts.”
b. Your client should read St. Mark 12:31.
c. We relied on Danch’s Guide to Barn-Restoring: The Plumsted Project for erecting those two structures.
RULE 34
In running text, simple lists or examples after the verb to be (am, is, was, were, been, being) should not
be introduced with colons.
EXAMPLES
a. The witnesses are Mr. Dennis, Mr. Holiday, and Mr. Walsh.
b. The items that were taken were a TV, a CD, and a coin collection.
c. He resorted to being a pest, a nuisance, and a liar.
NOTE
When a long list follows the verb to be, court reporters must decide whether to tabulate or not. Some
prefer tabulating because the items are easily seen. Others prefer not to because it seems incomplete,
disconnected, or costly. In any event, if the list after the verb to be or any other verb is long and,
therefore, tabulated, the colon should be used. Capitals are not used, nor are end marks of punctuation
needed for any of the lines.
EXAMPLES
d. Q What was missing when you came back to your farm?
A The items taken were:
a 1981 Kawasaki KE100 bike
a 24-inch color TV
a 1965 John Deere 3020 tractor
a 1973 Ford 2000 tractor
a John Deere 327 baler
a Massey Ferguson MF275
a John Deere 4420 combine
a Jon Deere 310A backhoe
e. Q You said you sold some things on June 2?
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COLONS WITH INTRODUCTIONS
A Yes. The items I put up for auction included:
a piano
a china closet
a Maytag washer and dryer
a stove
an antique rocker
a cannonball bed
a dry sink
a pie safe
four Windsor chairs
a drop-leaf table
a butter churn
an oil lamp
If the reporter chooses not to tabulate, the colloquy would like this:
f. Q What was missing when you came back to your farm
A The items taken were a 1981 Kawasaki KE100 bike, a 24-inch color TV, a 1965 John Deere 3020 tractor, a
1973 Ford 2000 tractor, a John Deere 327 baler, a Masset Ferguson MF275, a John Deere 4420 combine, a
John Deere 310A backhoe.
RULE 35
Do not use a colon after a preposition (of, in, at, on) or after the word that. Let the sentence flow
smoothly without any punctuation interrupting immediately after these words.
EXAMPLES
a. They released to the press copies of my birth certificate, my marriage license, my divorce papers, and my
arrest record.
b. I have no proof that she was in my house, took the pictures, or smashed up the furniture.
RULE 36
Use a colon after the name or title of a speaker for transcript identification.
EXAMPLES
a. THE COURT: Proceed with our remarks.
MRS. DUNLOP: May I approach the bench, Your Honor?
b. MR. MC CANN: How many more witnesses do you have?
MR. FLOYD: Four.
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COLONS WITH INTRODUCTIONS
RULE 37
Use a colon after QUESTION or ANSWER when testimony from a transcript is read back. Use the capitals
for these two words.
EXAMPLE
a. Let me read from page 36, beginning with line 8, of your testimony on this.
“QUESTION: Did you get a box of candy in the mail from Martha?
“ANSWER: Yes, I did.
“QUESTION: Did you think this was unusual?
“ANSWER: Yes.”
NOTE
See rule 104 for using quotation marks with paragraphed material.
RULE 38
When using quotation marks with the colon, always place the colon outside the final quotation mark.
EXAMPLES
a. Here is my definition of the word “friend”: always there. (See Rule 269 for the use of italics.)
b. After I got home, I realized I had been “burned”: no money in the bag.
RULE 39
Use a colon after note or caution or warning when the word introduces a guideline.
EXAMPLES
a. Q Was the public aware that no mail could be picked up at that time?
A We posted a sign in January. It said, “Note: This office closes at 3 p.m. on Thursdays.”
b. I remember clearly that a sign was posted that said, “Warning: Private Property.”
c. The sign said: “Caution: 10 m.p.h.”
RULE 40
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COLONS WITH INTRODUCTIONS
Do not use a colon when a list is introduced and another sentence or idea intervenes before the list. Use
a period at the end of the introduction. Sometimes if the construction is awkward, because verbatim
English is not always orderly and spoken to comply with existing rules, this rule can be set aside. The
court reporter must try whatever seems to offer the best solution without adding or subtracting words
or recasting the sentence. (See Example 40c below.)
EXAMPLES
a. Consider the following proposals before you make up your mind. First, you can sell now and take the loss;
second, you can reinvest and hope for an improved market; third, you can wait out the next three months.
b. I told him I would do the following chores and that he would not have to pay me extra. I would open and
close the shop on the weekend; I would set out the garbage at the end of each day; I would make sure the
vehicles were in running order and inspected.
c. Q What was his sales record during that period?
A He made the following sales without any help from his manager , and we were all astounded that he did
it in just several weeks: the Miller farm, a 3-acre lot, a townhouse, a 14-acre tract, and a 15-unit commercial
building. (See also Rule 93e.)
RULE 41
Do not use a colon after a noun of direct address. All of these salutations and greetings should be set off
with commas. (See Rule 48.)
EXAMPLES
a. THE COURT: Members of the jury, let me tell you that I know you will do what is right when you deliberate.
b. MS. MORGAN: Ladies and gentlemen of the jury, there is only one verdict that you can return.
c. THE COURT: Counselors, before we hear closing arguments, please approach the bench.
d. THE COURT: Good morning, members of the jury. This has been a long, protracted trial, and I know you are
looking forward to being with our families soon.
NOTE
In conference reporting, using the colon after a salutation is acceptable in the saw that the colon is used
after a salutation in a business letter. The salutation is one of several parts of a letter and is made
distinct from the other parts by position and punctuation. In the courtroom, however, these nouns of
direct address should be set off in the same way as all other nouns of direct address.
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COLONS WITH INTRODUCTIONS
_____________________________________________________________________________________
AP Stylebook
(Online subscription: https://www.apstylebook.com/)
Margie Wakeman Wells' Court Reporting: Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation
(Online subscription not available. Paperback can be ordered here:
https://www.margieholdscourt.com/products/court-reporting-bad-grammargood-punctuation/)
Chicago Manual of Style
(Online subscription: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/subscription_opts.html)
Gregg Reference Manual
(Online subscription: http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0073545430/information_center_view0/)
Lillian Morson's English Guide for Court Reporters
(Online subscription not available. Paperback can be found on Amazon.com)
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COMMAS WITH COORDINATE ADJECTIVES
Rules by AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK
WITH EQUAL ADJECTIVES: Use commas to separate a series of adjectives equal in rank. If the commas
could be replaced by the word and without changing the sense, the adjectives are equal: a thoughtful,
precise manner; a dark, dangerous street.
Use no comma when the last adjective before a noun outranks its predecessors because it is an integral
element of a noun phrase, which is the equivalent of a single noun: a cheap fur coat (the noun phrase is
fur coat); the old oaken bucket; a new, blue spring bonnet.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
From Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation:
Coordinate adjectives: Coordinate adjectives are two more direct adjectives that modify a noun with
equal emphasis or equal value.
* He was a genuine, down-to-earth kind of guy.
* She used effectives, valuable contributions.
* It was a firm, hard lump that she felt.
Separating Comma.12: Use a separating comma between coordinate adjectives.
* She was a competent, efficient worker.
* It was a conspicuous, obvious move on his part.
* I believe it is a clean, safe water supply.
To be considered "coordinate," the adjectives must modify more or less the same quality of the noun; in
other words, the adjectives are usually synonyms or are very close in meaning.
One test to check whether the comma is correct is to reverse the order of the adjectives. If the order is
absolutely arbitrary -- that is, it does not matter which one comes first -- the comma is needed.
* It had been a difficult, taxing day.
* It had been a taxing, difficult day.
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* I would say he is a handsome, attractive man.
* I would say he is an attractive, handsome man.
* He was an active, energetic administrator.
* He was an energetic, active administrator.
Another way to check is to insert the word "and" in between the two adjectives. If the words make
sense with "and" between them and again the order doesn't matter, there should be a comma between
the two adjectives.
* She had an elegant, polished air about her.
* She had an elegant and polished air about her.
* She had a polished and elegant air about her.
* It was a moderate, sensible plan.
* It was a moderate and sensible plan.
* It was a sensible and moderate plan.
If the order is not arbitrary and if the words cannot be reversed or have the word "and" inserted
between them, they are not considered coordinate adjectives and do not take a comma.
When more than one adjective comes in front of a noun, there are other possibilities for punctuation. If
two or more words form a unit in front of a noun, they are hyphenated.
* My long-awaited promoted finally materialized.
* It was an impressive-looking office.
* He objected to the installation of wall-to-wall carpeting in the room.
Hyphen.27: If two or more words do not form a unit but modify the noun separately, do not use a
hyphen between them.
* It was a large black cabinet. "(Large" and "black" modify "cabinet" separately.)
* She was a small older woman. ("Small" and "older" modify "woman" separately.)
* They had their last meeting in November. ("Their" and "last" modify "meeting" separately.)
If each word modifies the noun on its own and makes sense without the other, then the words do not
form a unit. Look at this sentence:
* What I saw was a big green bug.
It is a "big bug," and it is a "green bug." Therefore, no hyphen is required between "big" and "green."
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Another way to look at it is that, if you are going to hyphenate, then the hyphenated combination
should make sense as a unit. In the prior sentence, "big green" is not a unit. It doesn't mean anything.
Look at this sentence:
* She wanted a sunny breakfast room at the back of the house.
"Sunny" and "breakfast" do not take a hyphen because they are not a unit. There is no such thing as a
"sunny breakfast."
This is the pattern here: First, it is a "room"; then it is a "breakfast room." Then it is a "breakfast room"
that is "sunny." The closest adjective modifies the noun; the second adjective modifies the concept of
the first adjective and the noun together. This is a pattern that repeats often in English.
* They offered immediate roadside assistance.
It is not an "immediate roadside." It is "roadside assistance" that is "immediate."
* It is a set dollar amount.
It is not a "set dollar." It is a "dollar amount" that is "set."
* It is a good family photo.
Though it might be a good family, that is not the point in this sentence. It is a "family photo" that is
"good."
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16TH EDITION)
5.90 Coordinate adjectives
A coordinate adjective is one that appears in a sequence with one or more related adjectives to modify
the same noun. Coordinate adjectives should be separated by commas or by and {skilled, experienced
chess player} {nurturing and loving parent}. But if one adjective modifies the noun and another adjective
modifies the idea expressed by the combination of the first adjective and the noun, the adjectives are
not considered coordinate and should not be separated by a comma. For example, a lethargic soccer
player describes a soccer player who is lethargic. Likewise, phrases such as red brick house and wrinkled
canvas jacket are unpunctuated because the adjectives are not coordinate: they have no logical
connection in sense (a red house could be made of many different materials; so could a wrinkled jacket).
The most useful test is this: if and would fit between the two adjectives, a comma is necessary.
6.33 Commas with coordinate adjectives
As a general rule, when a noun is preceded by two or more adjectives that could, without affecting the
meaning, be joined by and, the adjectives are normally separated by commas. Such adjectives, which
are called coordinate adjectives, can also usually be reversed in order and still make sense. If, on the
other hand, the adjectives are not coordinate—that is, if one or more of the adjectives is essential to
(i.e., forms a unit with) the noun being modified—no commas are used.
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Shelly had proved a faithful, sincere friend. (Shelly’s friendship has proved faithful and sincere.)
It is going to be a long, hot, exhausting summer. (The summer is going to be long and hot and exhausting.)
She has a young, good-looking friend. (Her friend is young and good-looking.)
but
She has many young friends.
He has rejected traditional religious affiliations.
She opted for an inexpensive quartz watch.
6.34 Commas with repeated adjectives
When an adjective is repeated before a noun, a comma normally appears between the pair.
Many, many people have enjoyed the book.
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (NINTH EDITION)
123c. Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives that modify the same noun.
Gillian is a thoughtful, considerate person.
But: I would like to thank you for your thoughtful editorial comments.
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (TENTH EDITION)
827 a. Do not hyphenate independent adjectives preceding a noun.
A long and tiring trip (long and tiring each modify trip)
A warm, enthusiastic reception (warm and enthusiastic each modify reception; a comma marks the
omission of and)
A distinguished public orator (public modifies orator; distinguished modifies public orator)
MORSON’S
RULE 46
Use a comma to separate a series of adjectives when the adjectives are of equal rank in relation to the noun they
describe.
EXAMPLES
a. They traveled a rough, rocky road before they could settle this matter.
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b. He was a troubled, vicious youth.
NOTE
If and can be placed between the two adjectives without changing the meaning and if reversing the order of the
adjectives does not affect the naturalness of the sentence, use the comma. If this test does not work, do not use the
comma.
EXAMPLES
c. A small, sickly man appeared at the door.
d. A small gold key was on the chain.
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COMMAS WITH JR., SR., II, III
Rules by AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK
junior, senior
Abbreviate as Jr. and Sr. only with full names of persons or animals. Do not precede
by a comma: Martin Luther King Jr.
The notation II or 2nd may be used if it is the individual's preference. Note, however, that II and 2nd are
not necessarily the equivalent of junior – they often are used by a grandson or nephew.
If necessary to distinguish between father and son in second reference, use the elder Smith or the
younger Smith.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
SETTING-OFF COMMA: TITLES AFTER NAMES
SETTING-OFF COMMA.6: Use a pair of commas around titles that follow names – e.g., Jr., R.N., M.D.,
Esq. – with the exception of roman numerals.
Jeffrey Mills, Sr., accompanied us to the bank.
Charlotte Adams, Ed.D., addressed the concerns of us all.
We sent it to Matthew Solomon III for his approval.
[NOTE BY MARLA: Using a comma before or around “Jr.” and “Sr.” contradicts AP, CMOS, and Gregg, which are
now recommending only using a comma if the person uses one.]
Though we say the word the when we use a Roman numeral as a title after a name – e.g., “…Henry the
eighth…” (as said) – we do not transcribe the word the – e.g., “…Henry VIII…” (as transcribed).
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE
10.19 “Jr.,” “Sr.,” and the like
The abbreviations Jr. and Sr., as well as roman or arabic numerals such as III or 3rd, after a person’s
name are part of the name and so are retained in connection with any titles or honorifics. Note that
these abbreviations are used only with the full name, never with the surname only. See also 6.47, 9.43.
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•
•
Jordan Balfence Jr. spoke first. After Mr. Balfence relinquished the podium, . . .
Zayd Zephyr III, MBA, spoke last. In closing, Mr. Zephyr reiterated . . .
6.47 “Jr.,” “Sr.,” and the like
Commas are not required around Jr. and Sr., and they are never used to set off II, III, and the like when
these are used as part of a name. In an inverted name, however (as in an index; see 16.41), a comma is
required before such an element, which comes last.
•
•
John Doe Sr. continues to cast a shadow over his son.
Jason Deer III has turned over stewardship of the family business to his cousin.
•
•
Doe, John, Sr.
Stag, Jason, III
But
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (11th EDITION)
123 f. Names. Use commas to set off abbreviations that follow a person’s name (Julie Merkin, Ph.D.,
announces the opening…) and to set off names of states or countries following city names (Rye, New
York, will host…). In personal names and company names, the trend is not to set off elements like Jr.,
Sr., III, Inc., or Ltd. (for example, Guy Tracy Jr. and Redd Inc.); however, individual preferences should be
respected when known. (See also 156-159.)
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (SIXTH EDITION)
156 Do not use commas to set off Jr., Sr., or roman or Arabic numerals following a person’s name unless
you know that the person in question prefers to do so.
Kelsey R. Patterson Jr.
Christopher M. Gorman Sr.
Benjamin Hart 2d
Anthony Jung III
John Bond Jr.’s resignation will be announced tomorrow.
NOTE: When a person prefers to use commas in his name, observe the following style:
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Peter Passaro, Jr. (Use one comma when the name is displayed on a line by itself.)
Peter Passaro, Jr., director of… (Use two commas when other copy follows.)
Peter Passaro, Jr.’s promotion… (Drop the second comma when a possessive ending is attached.)
MORSON’S
RULE 209
Titles that are in apposition (a renaming) to a name and precede it are not capitalized if commas
separate the title from the name.
EXAMPLES
a. Our records to the vice president, Mary Kozalak, were lost.
b. We heard from our executive director, Barron D. Canty, Jr., at the regional meeting.
[NOTE BY MARLA: Using a comma before or around “Jr.” and “Sr.” contradicts AP, CMOS, and Gregg, which are
now recommending only using a comma if the person uses one. BGGP and Morson’s are the only two (out of the
five commonly used style manuals) recommending this.]
RULE 251 Abbreviate Jr., Sr., and Esq. when used after names. The word esquire has gained acceptability
for use by both men and women attorneys. (See Rule 51 for using commas to set off these titles.)
EXAMPLES
a. Warren B. Bruce, Esq., received our fraternity’s highest honor.
b. Walter J. Sloan, Jr. became the new president. (OR: Walter J. Sloane Jr.)
c. The speaker was Anthony Scalone, Sr. (OR: Anthony Scalone Sr.)
d. Mr. A.R. Cauldwell, R.N., was on call that evening.
NOTE: Also included as abbreviations are the following professional and religious titles: C.P.A., C.S.R.,
D.D., D.D.S., D.O., Ed.D., J.D., LL.D., M.D., and Ph.D. (See Rule 129 for writing the plural form of these
abbreviations.)
RULE 137
Use an apostrophe and s to show possession at the end of a name or title that is made if several words.
EXAMPLES
a. We searched for J.J. Stafford, III’s credit card for two months. (OR: Stafford III’s)
b. If you valued Baker, Inc.’s business so highly, why did you withhold the news from them?
c. Who hasn’t heard of Reno, Nevada’s claim to fame?
NOTE
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Commas are omitted after the title or explanation in the possessive form. (See Rule 51 Note.)
[NOTE BY MARLA: Using a comma before or around “II” and “III” contradicts AP, BGGP, CMOS, and Gregg.
Morson’s is the only two (out of the five commonly used style manuals) recommending this.]
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COMMAS WITH DATES
Rules by AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK
WITH FULL DATES: When a phrase refers to a month, day and year, set off the year with a comma: Feb. 14, 1987, is
the target date.
months
Capitalize the names of months in all uses. When a month is used with a specific date, abbreviate only
Jan., Feb., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov. and Dec. Spell out when using alone, or with a year alone.
When a phrase lists only a month and a year, do not separate the year with commas. When a phrase refers to a
month, day and year, set off the year with commas.
EXAMPLES: January 1972 was a cold month. Jan. 2 was the coldest day of the month. His birthday is May 8. Feb. 14,
1987, was the target date. She testified that it was Friday, Dec. 3, when the accident occurred.
years
Use figures, without commas: 1975. When a phrase refers to a month, day and year, set off the year with a
comma: Feb. 14, 1987, is the target date. Use an s without an apostrophe to indicate spans of decades or centuries:
the 1890s, the 1800s.
Years are the lone exception to the general rule in numerals that a figure is not used to start a sentence: 1976 was a
very good year.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION RULES
CHAPTER 15 - THE COMMA THAT SETS OFF
Commas that set off always come in pairs. Though one or both of the commas that surround the element may have
to change to other punctuation because of what is going on in the sentence, it is still the case that the element is
surrounded by some type of punctuation.
There is an implication, when an element is surrounded by a pair of commas, that it can be lifted out of the sentence
and that there is a grammatically complete sentence remaining.
RULE 15.2: SETTING-OFF COMMA: THE MONTH, DATE, AND YEAR
RULE
SETTING-OFF COMMA.4: Use a pair of commas around the year when it follows the month and the date.
• It was July 20, 1969, that man landed on the moon.
• September 11, 2001, will live forever in our memories.
• The election on November 4, 2008, was historic.
SETTING-OFF COMMA.5: When the year follows the month alone, use a pair of commas around the year, OR omit the
commas.
• It was July, 1969, that man landed on the moon.
• It was July 1969 that man landed on the moon.
• September, 2001, will live forever in our memories.
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•
•
•
September 2001 will live forever in our memories.
The election in November, 2008, was historic.
The election in November 2008 was historic.
(Marla’s note: CMOS Rule 6.45 and Gregg Rule 122 recommend no commas around the year when only the month
is present.)
DISCUSSION
This is another place where there is a choice. Historically, these commas were used; however, over time, their use
has been dropped. This is an instance where punctuation does nothing special to enhance for the readability. Pick
one style, and stick with it throughout your work.
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16TH EDITION)
CMOS (16th Edition) Rule 6.45 Commas with dates
In the month-day-year style of dates, commas must be used to set off the year. In the day-month-year system—
useful in material that requires many full dates (and standard in British English)—no commas are needed. Where
month and year only are given, or a specific day (such as a holiday) with a year, neither system uses a comma. For
dates used adjectivally, see 5.82. See also 9.30–37. For the year-month-day (ISO) date style, see 9.37.
• The performance took place on February 2, 2006, at the State Theatre in Ithaca.
• Bradford gradually came to accept the verdict. (See his journal entries of 6 October 1999 and 4 January
2000.)
• In March 2008 she turned seventy-five.
• On Thanksgiving Day 1998 they celebrated their seventy-fifth anniversary.
5.82 Dates as adjectives
Dates are often used as descriptive adjectives, more often today than in years past. If a month-year or month-day
date is used as an adjective, no hyphen or comma is needed {October 31 festivities} {December 2003 financial
statement}. If a full month-day-year date is used, then a comma is considered necessary both before and after the
year {the May 18, 2002, commencement ceremonies}. But this construction is awkward because the adjective (which
is forward looking) contains two commas (which are backward looking); the construction is therefore best avoided
{commencement ceremonies on May 18, 2002}.
9.32 Month and day
When specific dates are expressed, cardinal numbers are used, although these may be pronounced as ordinals. For
the month-day-year date form versus the day-month-year form, see 6.45.
May 26, 2008, was a sad day for film buffs.
The Watchmaker’s Digest (11 November 2011) praised the new model’s precision.
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL RULES
RULE 122 e-f.
Use commas to set off descriptive expressions and similar elements that are not essential to the meaning or the
structure of a sentence.
Dates: The meeting planned for November 5, 2003, will have to be rescheduled for February 2004.
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Names: Ann Garcia, M.D., is moving to Logan, Utah.
RULE 401b, 410
In expressions of dates, where numbers have technical significance or need to stand out for quick comprehension,
use all figures—even for the numbers 1 through 10.
• On April 8, 2003, we will . . . (Not: April 8th)
• In April 2003 we will . . .
• the May 2003 issue But: the May 2, 2003, issue
MORSON’S RULES
RULE 43
Use a comma to separate words or phrases.
Sometimes a series has small divisions, and semicolons must be used along with the commas, as noted in Rule 22. If
the series is the subject if the sentence, using the punctuation as set forth in Rule 22 would be awkward. An
alternative is to use commas for the items after the conjunction.
EXAMPLES
Q Do you have the dates for those checks?
A March 10, 1993; December 15, 1994; and January 5, 1995, are the only ones I have.
RULE 50
In writing dates, use a comma to separate every item after the day. In writing addresses, use a comma to separate
every item after the street name. 38
EXAMPLES
a. I saw the doctor on June 17, 1993, and on January 5, 1994.
b. I used the 877 Inman Avenue, New Jersey, address at that time.
NOTE
If the date is expressed in military style, no commas are used.
EXAMPLES
c. I saw the doctor on 12 September 1998.
d. I saw the doctor on 12 September.
If the day of the month is omitted, the court reporter may omit the commas or use two commas.
EXAMPLES
e. I saw the doctor in June 1996 and January 1997.
f. I saw the doctor in June, 1996, and January, 1997.
(Marla’s note: CMOS Rule 6.45 and Gregg Rule 122 recommend no commas around the year when only the month is present.)
If the ZIP code is used, do not use a comma between the state and ZIP Code. Do place a comma after the ZIP
Code. (Note: correction made to typo in sentence)
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EXAMPLES
g. I used the 877 Inman Avenue, Edison, New Jersey 08820, address.
h. That’s Colonia, New Jersey 07067, for my wife’s business address.
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The 4 Most Violated Comma Rules in Transcripts
Avoid overuse of commas by using them only when one of these rules
dictates. Note that only the most vital rules are included in this list;
many other rules are either not very relevant or not common in the
majority of transcripts.
Rule 1: Use a comma to separate a list of three or more things,
including the last two. Many reporters leave out this comma… don’t
fight them on it, unless you read the transcript and the sentence means
something else without the comma.
Examples of correct usage:
- I have trouble with walking, cleaning, and cooking.
- My mom has pain in her arms, legs, and neck.
Rule 2: Use a comma before the conjunctions—and, but, for, nor, yet, or,
so—when they separate two independent clauses (pieces of a sentence
that could stand alone as a complete thought). Violations of this rule are
rampant in transcripts, especially with the conjunctions “but”, “so”, and
“and”.
Examples of correct usage:
- I went to the doctor, but I did not receive a diagnosis.
- She had me on her insurance, so I didn’t pay out of pocket.
- We got home from the airport, and there was water everywhere.
Rule 3: Use a comma to set off introductory elements. This is
especially important with QUESTIONS in depositions or examinations
under oath. Many reporters leave this comma out. (And “if, then”!!)
Examples of correct usage:
- When you got to the appointment, did you check in at the front desk?
- Understanding I am not an expert, can you explain what you mean?
- Once I received the insurance payment, I paid the contractor.
- If you don’t respond to our request, then we’ll go to the judge.
Rule 4: Use a comma to set off parenthetical elements. This rule gets
broken quite a bit, as well.
Examples of correct usage:
- So the second doctor you went to, which I understand was a
neurologist, sent you for an MRI?
- And your two children, who were on a break from school, were both
home at the time of the incident?
- My husband, who was my boyfriend at the time, came to the scene of
the crash.
- Dr. Brown, whom I saw twice after the accident, prescribed me
something for the pain.
BONUS: The above four rules are indeed the most violated comma rules
in transcripts, but here are a few other incidences to watch out for:
- Use a comma before “please” when it appears at the end of a
sentence.
- Can I see your driver’s license, please?
- Use a comma after “Yes” and “No” when it’s used as an introductory
element (see Rule 3).
- Yes, but we moved when I was seven.
- No, and it hurts more in the evening.
- Use a comma before “not” when indicating contrast.
- The fire happened during the day, not at night.
- The assistant provided the therapy, not the chiropractor.
COMMONLY BUTCHERED IDIOMS
Below is a list of 15 common idioms (and their commonly butchered counterparts). Are you an
"offender" when not court reporting? This list may surprise you:
Incorrect: bad wrap
CORRECT: bad rap
("He's a good guy. I don't know why he has such a bad rap.")
Incorrect: beckon call
CORRECT: beck and call
("Starting today, I will no longer be at your beck and call.")
Incorrect: butt naked
CORRECT: buck naked
("The old man was parading down the street buck naked!")
Incorrect: day in age
CORRECT: day and age
("Children have no manners in this day and age.")
Incorrect: deep-seeded
CORRECT: deep-seated
("It is my deep-seated belief that the Kennedy assassination was a conspiracy.")
Incorrect: doggy-dog
CORRECT: dog-eat-dog
("In the big city, court reporting is a dog-eat-dog profession.")
Incorrect: far be it for me
CORRECT: far be it from me
("Far be it from me to say that one religion is better than another.")
Incorrect: for all intensive purposes
CORRECT: for all intents and purposes
("He stood there looking like, for all intents and purposes, he could strangle her.")
Incorrect: hare's breath
CORRECT: hair's breadth
("He lost the Boston Marathon by just a hair's breadth.")
Incorrect: must of
CORRECT: must have (must've)
("She must have/must've known better than to not look both ways before crossing the busy
street.")
Incorrect: neck in neck
CORRECT: neck and neck
("The two candidates remained neck and neck for the duration of the election.")
Incorrect: on tenderhooks
CORRECT: on tenterhooks
("She was on tenterhooks for hours while waiting for her father to come out of surgery.")
Incorrect: one in the same
CORRECT: one and the same
("Justin Bieber and 'the Biebs' are one and the same person.")
Incorrect: road to hoe
CORRECT: row to hoe
("Paying one's own way through college is a tough row to hoe.")
Incorrect: safety-deposit box
CORRECT: safe-deposit box
("I rented a safe-deposit box for my mother's priceless heirlooms.")
ELLIPSIS RULES
FROM AP STYLEBOOK, BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION,
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE, GREGG, MORSON’S & MERRIAM-WEBSTER
AP STYLEBOOK
ellipsis ( ... ) In general, treat an ellipsis as a three-letter word, constructed with three periods and two
spaces, as shown here.
Use an ellipsis to indicate the deletion of one or more words in condensing quotes, texts and documents. Be
especially careful to avoid deletions that would distort the meaning.
An ellipsis also may be used to indicate a thought that the speaker or writer does not complete. Substitute a
dash for this purpose, however, if the context uses ellipses to indicate that words actually spoken or written have
been deleted.
Brief examples of how to use ellipses are provided after guidelines are given. More extensive examples, drawn
from the speech in which President Richard Nixon announced his resignation, are in the sections below marked
CONDENSATION EXAMPLE and QUOTATIONS.
SPACING REQUIREMENTS: In some computer editing systems the thin space must be used between the periods
of the ellipsis to prevent them from being placed on two different lines when they are sent through a computer
that handles hyphenation and justification.
Leave one regular space — never a thin — on both sides of an ellipsis: I ... tried to do what was best.
PUNCTUATION GUIDELINES: If the words that precede an ellipsis constitute a grammatically complete sentence,
either in the original or in the condensation, place a period at the end of the last word before the ellipsis. Follow it
with a regular space and an ellipsis: I no longer have a strong enough political base. ...
When the grammatical sense calls for a question mark, exclamation point, comma or colon, the sequence is
word, punctuation mark, regular space, ellipsis: Will you come? ...
When material is deleted at the end of one paragraph and at the beginning of the one that follows, place an
ellipsis in both locations.
CONDENSATION EXAMPLE: Here is an example of how the spacing and punctuation guidelines would be applied
in condensing President Richard Nixon's resignation announcement:
Good evening. ...
In all the decisions I have made in my public life, I have always tried to do what was best for the nation. ...
... However, it has become evident to me that I no longer have a strong enough political base in ... Congress.
... As long as there was ... a base, I felt strongly that it was necessary to see the constitutional process through
to its conclusion, that to do otherwise would be ... a dangerously destabilizing precedent for the future.
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QUOTATIONS: In writing a story, do not use ellipses at the beginning and end of direct quotes:
"It has become evident to me that I no longer have a strong enough political base," Nixon said.
Not "... it has become evident to me that I no longer have a strong enough political base ... ," Nixon said.
SPECIAL EFFECTS: Ellipses also may be used to separate individual items within a paragraph of show business
gossip or similar material. Use periods after items that are complete sentences.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
ELLIPSIS: The ellipsis is three periods in a row, generally used to indicate an omission.
"The company hereby agrees . . . to these terms."
"This agreement is fully . . . effective through December 31."
". . . until the parties are no longer with the company."
Authorities differ on whether there should be spaces within or around the periods of the ellipsis,
and the form would seem to be a matter of style preference. The only important thing is to be
consistent within the transcript.
"The penalty shall be enforced . . . for a period of six months."
"The penalty shall be enforced . . . for a period of six months."
"The penalty shall be enforced . . . for a period of six months."
"The penalty shall be enforced . . . for a period of six months."
ELLIPSIS.1: Use the ellipsis to show that words in the original quote have been omitted.
"The responsibility for this rests with . . . the moving party."
". . . in effect for 30 days...from the date of enactment."
"The contract will be in effect . . . for four years."
REPORTING
When material is being quoted into the transcript, it is often not quoted in its entirety. To avoid any
possible misinterpretation of what is read into the record, the ellipsis should be used to indicate
words that have been omitted. Obviously, to do this, you must have a copy of the material being
quoted for purposes of comparison.
ELLIPSIS.2: When the ellipsis shows an omission that occurs at the end of a sentence, use a fourth
period to indicate the end of sentence.
"It will be in force for the duration . . . ."
"The home will remain in the possession of the wife . . . ."
"Ask not what your country can do . . . ."
ELLIPSIS.3: When the witness is not interrupted but trails off, use the ellipsis if you want to show a
difference between using the dash for being interrupted and the ellipsis for trailing off.
A I was on the edge of it and . . .
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A They all did it at the same time; so . . .
A We were just . . .
See Chapter 1.1 for further discussion of the ellipsis used for trailing off.
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE
13.48 Ellipses defined
An ellipsis is the omission of a word, phrase, line, paragraph, or more from a quoted passage. Such
omissions are made of material that is considered irrelevant to the discussion at hand (or, occasionally,
to adjust for the grammar of the surrounding text). Chicago style is to indicate such omissions by the use
of three spaced periods (but see 13.51) rather than by another device such as asterisks. These points (or
dots) are called ellipsis points when they indicate an ellipsis and suspension points when they indicate
suspended or interrupted thought (see 13.39). They must always appear together on the same line
(through the use of nonbreaking spaces, available in most software applications), along with any
following punctuation; if an ellipsis appears at the beginning of a line, any preceding punctuation
(including a period) will appear at the end of the line above. If they prefer, authors may prepare their
manuscripts using the single-glyph three-dot ellipsis character on their word processors (Unicode 2026),
usually with a space on either side; editors following Chicago style will replace these with spaced
periods.
13.49 Danger of skewing meaning
Since quotations from another source have been separated from their original context, particular care
needs to be exercised when eliding text to ensure that the sense of the original is not lost or
misrepresented. A deletion must not result in a statement alien to the original material. And in general,
ellipses should not be used to join two statements that are far apart in the original. Accuracy of sense
and emphasis must accompany accuracy of transcription.
13.50 When not to use ellipsis points
Ellipsis points are normally not used (1) before the first word of a quotation, even if the beginning of the
original sentence has been omitted; or (2) after the last word of a quotation, even if the end of the
original sentence has been omitted, unless the sentence as quoted is deliberately incomplete (see
13.53).
13.51 Ellipses with periods
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A period is added before an ellipsis to indicate the omission of the end of a sentence, unless the
sentence is deliberately incomplete (see 13.53). Similarly, a period at the end of a sentence in the
original is retained before an ellipsis indicating the omission of material immediately following the
period. What precedes and, normally, what follows the four dots should be grammatically complete
sentences as quoted, even if part of either sentence has been omitted. A complete passage from
Emerson’s essay “Politics” reads:
•
The spirit of our American radicalism is destructive and aimless: it is not loving; it has no ulterior
and divine ends; but is destructive only out of hatred and selfishness. On the other side, the
conservative party, composed of the most moderate, able, and cultivated part of the
population, is timid, and merely defensive of property. It vindicates no right, it aspires to no real
good, it brands no crime, it proposes no generous policy, it does not build, nor write, nor cherish
the arts, nor foster religion, nor establish schools, nor encourage science, nor emancipate the
slave, nor befriend the poor, or the Indian, or the immigrant. From neither party, when in
power, has the world any benefit to expect in science, art, or humanity, at all commensurate
with the resources of the nation.
The passage might be shortened as follows:
•
The spirit of our American radicalism is destructive and aimless. . . . On the other side, the
conservative party . . . is timid, and merely defensive of property. . . . It does not build, nor
write, nor cherish the arts, nor foster religion, nor establish schools.
Note that the first word after an ellipsis is capitalized if it begins a new grammatical sentence. Some
types of works require that such changes to capitalization be bracketed; see 13.16. See also 13.56.
13.52 Ellipses with other punctuation
Other punctuation appearing in the original text—a comma, a colon, a semicolon, a question mark, or an
exclamation point—may precede or follow three (but never four) ellipsis points. Whether to include the
additional mark of punctuation depends on whether keeping it aids comprehension or is required for
the grammar of the sentence. Placement of the other punctuation depends on whether the omission
precedes or follows the mark; when the omission precedes it, a nonbreaking space should be used
between the ellipsis and the mark of punctuation to prevent the mark from carrying over to the
beginning of a new line (see 13.48). Note that this before-or-after distinction is usually not made with
periods, where—without the aid of brackets (see 13.56)—it is likely to go unnoticed (see 13.51).
•
It does not build, . . . nor cherish the arts, nor foster religion.
As to Endymion, was it a poem . . . to be treated contemptuously by those who had celebrated, with
various degrees of complacency and panegyric, Paris, and Woman, and A Syrian Tale . . . ? Are these the
men who . . . presumed to draw a parallel between the Rev. Mr. Milman and Lord Byron?
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•
When a species . . . increases inordinately in numbers in a small tract, epidemics . . . often
ensue: and here we have a limiting check independent of the struggle for life. But even some of
these so-called epidemics appear to be due to parasitic worms . . . : and here comes in a sort of
struggle between the parasite and its prey.
13.53 Deliberately incomplete sentence
Three dots are used at the end of a quoted sentence that is deliberately left grammatically incomplete.
•
•
Everyone knows that the Declaration of Independence begins with the sentence “When, in the
course of human events . . .” But how many people can recite more than the first few lines of
the document?
Have you had a chance to look at the example beginning “The spirit of our American radicalism
. . .”?
Note that no space intervenes between a final ellipsis point and a closing quotation mark.
13.54 Whole or partial paragraphs omitted
The omission of one or more paragraphs within a quotation is indicated by four ellipsis points at the end
of the paragraph preceding the omitted part. (If that paragraph ends with an incomplete sentence, only
three points are used; see 13.53.) If the first part of a paragraph is omitted within a quotation, a
paragraph indention and three ellipsis points appear before the first quoted word. It is thus possible to
use ellipsis points both at the end of one paragraph and at the beginning of the next, as illustrated in the
following excerpt from Alexander Pope’s “Letter to a Noble Lord”:
•
•
•
I should be obliged indeed to lessen this respect, if all the nobility . . . are but so many hereditary
fools, if the privilege of lords be to want brains, if noblemen can hardly write or read. . . .
Were it the mere excess of your Lordship’s wit, that carried you thus triumphantly over all the
bounds of decency, I might consider your Lordship on your Pegasus, as a sprightly hunter on a
mettled horse. . . .
. . . Unrivalled as you are, in making a figure, and in making a speech, methinks, my Lord, you
may well give up the poor talent of making a distich.
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GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL
OMISSIONS IN QUOTED MATTER
274
If one or more words are omitted within a quoted sentence, use ellipsis marks
(three spaced periods, with one typewriter space before and after each period) to
indicate the omission.
"During the past twenty-five years . . . we have been witnessing a change in buying
habits, particularly with respect to food."
NOTE: Omit any marks of internal punctuation (a comma, a semicolon, a colon,
or a dash) on either side of the ellipsis marks unless they are required for the sake
of clarity.
ORIGINAL VERSION: "The objectives of the proposed bill are admirable, I will cheerfully
concede; the tactics being used to gain support for the bill are not."
CONDENSED VERSION: "The objectives of the proposed bill are admirable . . .; the tactics
being used to gain support for the bill are not." (The comma preceding the omitted phrase is not
needed; however, the semicolon following the omitted phrase must be
retained for clarity.)
275
If one or more words are omitted at the end of a quoted sentence, use three
spaced periods followed by the necessary terminal punctuation for the sentence
as a whole.
"Can anyone explain why . . . ?" (The original question read, "Can anyone explain why
this was so?")
"During the past twenty-five years, starting in the late 1950s, we have been witnessing a
change in buying habits . . . . Consumers have become more concerned with what's in
the package rather than with the package itself." (The first three periods represent the
omitted words "particularly with respect to food"; the fourth period marks the end of
the sentence. Two typewriter spaces follow before the next sentence.)
NOTE: If the quotation is intended to trail off, use only three spaced periods at
the end of the sentence. (See also 11291b.)
His reaction was, "If I had only known . . ."
276
If one or more sentences are omitted between other sentences within a long quotation,
use three spaced periods after the terminal punctuation of the preceding sentence.
"During the past twenty-five years, starting in the late 1950s, we have been witnessing a change
in buying habits, particularly with respect to food. . . . How far this pattern of change will extend
cannot be estimated."
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NOTE: There is no space between food and the first period because that period marks the end of a
sentence. The remaining three periods signify the omission of one or more complete sentences. Two
spaces follow before the next sentence.
277
If only a fragment of a sentence is quoted within another sentence, it is not necessary to signify the
omission of words before or after the fragment.
According to Robertson's report, there has been "a change in buying habits" during the
past twenty-five years.
Moreover, if the fragment as given can be read as a complete sentence, capitalize the first word
in the quoted fragment, even though this word was not capitalized in the original. (Compare We in the
following example with we in the example in 276.)
According to Robertson's report, "We have been witnessing a change in buying habits,
particularly with respect to food."
278
If a displayed quotation starts in the middle of a sentence, use three spaced periods at the beginning of
the quotation.
According to Robertson's report, there has been
. . . a change in buying habits, particularly with respect to food. . . . How
far this pattern of change will extend cannot be estimated.
If the fragment, however, can be read as a complete sentence, capitalize the first word of the fragment
and omit the ellipsis marks. (Compare Starting in the following example with starting in the example
in11276.)
According to Robertson's report:
Starting in the late 1950s, we have been witnessing a change in buying
Habits, particularly with respect to food.
279
When a long quotation starts with a complete sentence and ends with a complete sentence, do not use
three spaced periods at the beginning or the end of the quotation unless you need to emphasize that
the quotation has been extracted from a larger body of material.
280
If one or more paragraphs are omitted within a long quotation, indicate the omission by adding three
spaced periods after the terminal punctuation that concludes the preceding paragraph.
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MORSON’S ENGLISH GUIDE FOR COURT REPORTERS
ELLIPSIS POINTS
When a speaker deliberately omits words and phrases from quoted material that is
being placed on the record but keeps the idea intact, ellipsis points, along with
quotation marks, are useful in showing this. These omissions are most likely to occur
when statutes, correspondence, contracts, etc., are read for their pertinent parts
only.
RULE 270
The ellipsis points are three spaced periods used to show an omission of words,
phrases, or sentences in quoted matter. Do not include any internal punctuation on
either side unless it is needed for clarity. Most reference manuals recommend a
space before and after the ellipsis points. This may be troublesome on a computer,
and if it is, close up the periods.
ORIGINAL STATUTE
This section shall not apply to any person who has in his possession or
custody any ticket, slip, paper, document, or memorandum of a lottery which
is authorized, sponsored, and operated by any state of the United States,
provided that the ticket, slip, paper, document, or memorandum was
purchased by the holder there of in the state wherein such lottery was
authorized, sponsored, and operated.
EXAMPLE
STATUTE AS READ INTO THE RECORD
a. Q Let me read a relevant part of the statute, and then I'll ask you my
question.
"This section shall not apply to any person who has in his possession . . . any
ticket . . . of a lottery which is authorized . . . by any state . . . provided that
the ticket . . . was purchased by the holder thereof in the state wherein such
lottery was authorized, sponsored, and operated."
RULE 271
If words in quoted material are omitted at the end of the
sentence, use the three spaced periods and include
the final mark of punctuation for the sentence.
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ORIGINAL STATUTE
The term "number game" as used in this section means any betting on any
number or sets or arrangements of numbers on or according to any plan or
method whatsoever.
EXAMPLE
STATUTE AS READ INTO THE RECORD
a. Q Let me read the following:
"The term 'number game' as used in this section means any betting on any
number or sets or
Arrangements . . . ."
My question is, What is meant when the law says
"arrangement"?
NOTE
If words in quoted material are omitted between sentences, use the terminal mark
for the first sentence, then use the three spaced periods to reflect the missing
words.
ORIGINAL STATUTE
A motion to strike out the enacting clause of a bill or joint resolution, if
carried, shall be considered equivalent to its rejection. When a blank is to be
filled, the question shall first be taken on the largest sum, or greatest
number, or remotest day. A majority of those members voting on all motions,
unless otherwise specified in these rules, shall be sufficient to adopt or reject
such motions.
EXAMPLE
STATUTE AS READ INTO THE RECORD
b. Q Let me read the following:
“A motion to strike out the enacting clause of a bill or joint resolution, if
carried, shall be considered equivalent to its rejection . . . . A majority of
those members voting on all motions, unless otherwise specified in these
rules, shall be sufficient to adopt or reject such motions."
RULE 272
If a fragment of a sentence is quoted within another sentence, no ellipsis marks are
needed before or after the fragment, although some writers do use them.
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EXAMPLE
a. Q I am now referring to "who has in his possession or custody any ticket,
slip, paper."
RULE 273
If a remark is intended to trail off without a conclusion, use three spaced periods, as
recommended by most manuals as a specific use of the ellipsis points. Often the
speaker uses body language to complete the idea: A shrug of the shoulders,
extended upturned palms.
EXAMPLES OF A TRAILED-OFF, BUT NOT INTERRUPTED, REMARK
a. Q Did you help her?
A If she would have come to me . . .
Q Do you know if anyone else knew she was so sick?
b. Q You never promised to pay?
A Well, when you say it like that . . .
Q What was the amount in question?
MERRIAM-WEBSTER’S UNABRIDGED ONLINE DICTIONARY
http://unabridged.merriam-webster.com/unabridged/ellipsis
suspension periods
plural noun
or suspension points
: usually three spaced periods used to mark an omission of a word or group of words from a
written context —compare ELLIPSIS 3
el·lip·sis noun \i-ˈlip-səs, e-\
: the act of leaving out one or more words that are not necessary for a phrase to be understood
: a sign (such as …) used in printed text to show that words have been left out
plural el·lip·ses
1a : the omission of one or more words that are obviously understood but that must be
supplied to make a construction grammatically complete
b : a sudden leap from one topic to another
2: marks or a mark (as …) indicating an omission (as of words) or a pause
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_____________________________________________________________________
I highly recommend these getting these style manuals in either book form or
online subscriptions (where available):
Chicago Manual of Style
(online subscription: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/subscription_opts.html)
AP Stylebook
(online subscription: https://www.apstylebook.com/)
Gregg Reference Manual
(online subscription: http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0073545430/information_center_view0/)
Lillian Morson's English Guide for Court Reporters
(can be found on Amazon)
Margie Wakeman Wells' Court Reporting: Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation
(order here: https://www.margieholdscourt.com/products/court-reporting-bad-grammargoodpunctuation/)
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HYPHENS WITH “AND A HALF”
Rules by Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK
Q. If I'm quoting someone who said "12 and a half million" is it: 12-and-a-half million twelveand-a-half million Or one of those two choices without the hyphens? Thank you. – from
Washington on Mon, Nov 21, 2011
A. The first would be correct without hyphens. However, we recommend using a decimal to
express such a figure in a quote: 12.5 million.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
(coming soon)
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE
FROM CMOS Q&A:
Q. Would you hyphenate the phrase “day and a half”?
A. No, unless you are using it to modify a noun (not always the best idea):
It took a day and a half to throw all his stuff onto the lawn.
The day-and-a-half class required hip waders, a claw hammer, and a signed
liability release.
From CMOS's hyphenation table:
number + noun
a hundred-meter race
a 250-page book
a fifty-year project
a three-inch-high statuette
it’s three inches high
a one-and-a-half-inch hem
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HYPHENS WITH “AND A HALF”
one and a half inches
a five-foot-ten quarterback
five feet ten [inches tall]
five- to ten-minute interval
Hyphenated before a noun, otherwise open. Note the space after the first number in the last
example. See also number + abbreviation.
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL
(coming soon)
MORSON’S
RULE 174
Mixed numbers (a whole number and a fraction) are spelled out at the beginning of a sentence.
(See Rule 148a for mixed numbers with hyphens.
EXAMPLES
a. Seven and a half feet of rope was needed to reach the tank’s bottom.
b. Five and one-fourth inches away from the left hand lay the gun.
RULE 148:
Generally, when two or more words are combined to form a compound adjective that expresses
a single idea, these words are hyphened when they precede the noun they modify. The
compound adjective that is formed may include several different parts of speech. When in
doubt, consult a dictionary.
EXAMPLES
a. Let me define a first-degree murder. (number + noun before a noun but not after)
a four-year college a college of four years
a 15-year-old student a student of fifteen years
a 5-foot-6 inch-tall woman a woman 5 feet 6 inches tall
a foot-and-a-half-wide opening an opening a foot and a half wide
an 8 ½-by-11-inch journal a journal 8 ½ by 11 inches
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HYPHENS IN COMPOUNDS WITH COMPARATIVES & SUPERLATIVES
Rules by AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK
equal An adjective without comparative forms.
When people speak of a more equal distribution of wealth, what is meant is more equitable.
Q. Is a hyphen used with a superlative or a comparative? Previous entries in the Q&A archive show a
range of responses while the Stylebook entry on hyphens includes a hyphen for "better-qualified." Can
you offer a definitive ruling? – from Gainesville, Fla. on Tue, Sep 28, 2010
A. Comparatives and superlatives are usually hyphenated as compound modifiers before a noun, and
often after the noun if preceded by a form of the verb "to be." When in doubt check dictionary spellings
or the stylebook.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
(coming soon)
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16TH EDITION)
5.83 Three adjectival degrees
An adjective has three degrees: the positive or absolute {hard}, the comparative {harder}, and the superlative
{hardest}. A positive adjective simply expresses an object’s quality without reference to any other thing {a big
balloon} {bad news}.
5.84 Comparative adjectives
A comparative adjective expresses the relationship between a specified quality shared by two things, often
specifying which has more of that quality {a cheaper ticket} {a happier ending}. The suffix -er usually signals the
comparative form of a common adjective having one or two syllables {light–lighter} {merry–merrier}. An adjective
with three or more syllables takes more instead of a suffix to form the comparative {intelligent–more intelligent}
{purposeful–more purposeful}. Some adjectives with two syllables take the -er suffix {lazy–lazier} {narrow–
narrower}, but most two-syllable adjectives take more {more hostile} {more careless}. Two-syllable adjectives
ending in -er, -le, -ow, -ure, or -y can typically use either the -er suffix or more.
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5.85 Superlative adjectives
A superlative adjective expresses the relationship between at least three things and denotes an extreme of
intensity or amount in a particular shared quality {the biggest house on the block} {the bitterest pill of all}. The
suffix -est usually signals the superlative form of a common adjective having one or two syllables {lighter–lightest}.
An adjective with three or more syllables takes most instead of a suffix to form the superlative {quarrelsome–most
quarrelsome} {humorous–most humorous}. Some adjectives with two syllables take the -est suffix {holy–holiest}
{noble–noblest}, but most two-syllable adjectives take most {most fruitful} {most reckless}.
5.86 Forming comparatives and superlatives
There are a few rules for forming a short regular adjective’s comparative and superlative forms.
(1) If the adjective is a monosyllable ending in a single vowel followed by a single consonant, the final consonant is
doubled before the suffix is attached {red–redder–reddest}.
(2) If the adjective ends in a silent -e, the -e is dropped before the suffix is added {polite–politer–politest}.
(3) Participles used as adjectives require more or most before the participle; no suffix is added to form the
comparative or the superlative {this teleplay is more boring than the first one} {I am most tired on Fridays}.
(4) A few one-syllable adjectives—such as real, right, and wrong—can take only more and most. Even then, these
combinations occur only in informal speech.
(5) Eager, proper, and somber, unlike many two-syllable adjectives, also take only more and most; none can take a
suffix.
(6) Two-syllable adjectives to which the negative prefix un- has been added can usually either take a suffix or take
more or most, even if the total number of syllables is three {unhappiest} {most unhappy}.
(7) Many adjectives are irregular—there is no rule that guides their comparative and superlative forms {good–
better–best} {less–lesser–least}. A good dictionary will show the forms of an irregular adjective.
5.87 Equal and unequal comparisons
A higher degree of comparison is signaled by a suffix (-er or -est), or by more or most. (See 5.84, 5.85.) A lower
degree is shown by less (comparative) or least (superlative) {cold–less cold} {less cold–least cold}. Equivalence is
shown by the use of the as . . . as construction {this is as old as that} and sometimes by so {that test was not so
hard as the last one}.
5.88 Uncomparable adjectives
An adjective that, by definition, describes an absolute state or condition—such as entire, impossible, pregnant,
unique—is called uncomparable. It cannot take a comparative suffix and cannot be coupled with the comparative
terms more, most, less, or least. Nor can it be intensified by words like very, largely, or quite. But on the rare
occasion when a particular emphasis is needed, a good writer may depart from this rule and use a phrase like more
perfect, as the framers of the United States Constitution did in composing its preamble {We the People of the
United States, in order to form a more perfect Union . . .}.
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GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (SIXTH EDITION)
816 a. Hyphenate this combination of elements before a noun. Do not hyphenate these elements when
they play a normal function elsewhere in the sentence (for example, as the object of a preposition or of a
verb). However, if the expression continues to function as a compound adjective, retain the hyphen.
Before the Noun
Elsewhere in Sentence
high-speed printers
random-access memory
These printers run at high speed. (Object of preposition.)
This computer has random access to the stored data. (Object of
verb.)
red-carpet treatment
They plan to roll out the red carpet. (Object of infinitive.)
a closed-door discussion
The discussion was held behind closed doors. (Object of
preposition.)
a long-term investment in bonds
This Investment in bonds runs for a long term. (Object of
preposition.)
BUT This investment in bonds is long-term. (Compound
adjective.)
a part-time job
This job is part-time. (Compound adjective.)
I work part-time. (Compound adverb.)
I travel part of the time. (Normal adverbial phrase.)
NOTE: Combinations involving comparative or superlative adjectives plus nouns follow the same
pattern.
Before the Noun
Elsewhere In Sentence
a larger-size shirt
He wears a larger size. (Object of verb.)
the finest-quality goods
These goods are of the finest quality. (Object of preposition.)
b. A few compound adjectives in this category are now written solid—for example, a commonsense
solution, a freshwater pond, a surefire success.
MORSON’S
RULE 148
Generally, when two or more words are combined to form a compound adjective that expresses a single
idea, these words are hyphened when they precede the noun they modify. The compound adjective that
is formed may include several different parts of speech. When in doubt, consult a dictionary.
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k. That’s the lesser-included offense of which she stands convicted. (adv. In the comparative degree +
participle before a noun) Authorities does not agree on using the hyphen after the noun, but it is easier
to be consistent and include the hyphen.
better-qualified driver
faster-paced activities
higher-priced houses
slower-paced business
driver who is better-qualified
activities that are faster-paced
houses that are higher priced
business that is slower-paced
RULE 162
Do not use hyphen between the adverbs more, most, and less and an adjective.
EXAMPLES
a. The witnesses have offered most compelling evidence.
b. The more important question still remains unanswered.
NOTE
Do hyphen other superlative or comparative forms of adverbs to participles, or adjectives that precede
nouns, but check the dictionaries and style books to see if any of the words have grown together and
dropped the hyphen. Dictionaries do not agree on the spelling of some superlatives as compound
adjectives. Note the following acceptable variations: best selling, best-selling, bestselling.
EXAMPLES
c. A faster-moving vehicle would have killed her.
d. Even our best-loved employees were not invited.
e. I showed her our largest-sized Jacuzzi. (also largest-size)
f. He chose the least-desirable lighting, in my opinion.
g. In the worst-case scenario, our loss would be in the millions.
h. The least-famous brother owned all the real estate.
i. A less-determined woman would have quit.
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HYPHENS IN COMPOUND WORDS
From AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation, Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS), Gregg, and Morsons’
NOUN + PARTICIPLE
[NOTE FROM MARLA]: Gregg and Morson's advocate a hyphen with noun+participle compounds
whether before or after a noun. Chicago Manual of Style and Margie Wakeman Wells don't.
From CMOS hyphenation table:
noun + participle: a Wagner-burdened repertoire, flower-filled garden, a clothes-buying
grandmother, I am software challenged. (Hyphenated before a noun, otherwise open.)
From Gregg Rule 821. Noun + Participle.
Hyphenate before and after.
• market-tested products
• This has been market-tested.
• mind-boggling details
• The report was mind-boggling.
From Morson's:
d. I participated in a price-cutting scheme. (noun + participle before or after a noun)
a Bates-stamped exhibit an exhibit that is Bates-stamped
a board-certified physician a physician that is board-certified
a cold-pressed laminate a laminate that is cold-pressed
a crystal-gazing psychotic a psychotic who is crystal-gazing
a foot-stomping musical a musical that is foot-stomping
a habit-forming substance a substance that is habit-forming
a heat-sealed package a package that is heat-sealed
a life-altering event an event that is life-altering
a mind-boggling excuse an excuse that is mind-boggling
a pot-bellied stove a stove that is fat-bellied
a price-fixing practice a practice of price-fixing
a soul-searching moment a moment of soul-searching
a tax-sheltering scheme a scheme of tax-sheltering
a whistle-blowing worker a worker accused of whistle-blowing
AP STYLEBOOK
hyphen (-) Hyphens are joiners. Use them to avoid ambiguity or to form a single idea from two or more words.
Use of the hyphen is far from standardized. It is optional in most cases, a matter of taste, judgment and style
sense. But the fewer hyphens the better; use them only when not using them causes confusion. (Small-business
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owner, but health care center.) See individual entries in this book. If not listed here, use the first listed entry in
Webster's New World College Dictionary. (amended example from small-businessman, in line with entry below.)
Some guidelines:
AVOID AMBIGUITY: Use a hyphen whenever ambiguity would result if it were omitted: The president will speak to
small-business men. (Businessmen normally is one word. But the president will speak to small businessmen is
unclear.)
Others: He recovered his health. He re-covered the leaky roof.
COMPOUND MODIFIERS: When a compound modifier – two or more words that express a single concept –
precedes a noun, use hyphens to link all the words in the compound except the adverb very and all adverbs that
end in -ly: a first-quarter touchdown, a bluish-green dress, a full-time job, a well-known man, a better-qualified
woman, a know-it-all attitude, a very good time, an easily remembered rule.
Many combinations that are hyphenated before a noun are not hyphenated when they occur after a noun: The
team scored in the first quarter. The dress, a bluish green, was attractive on her. She works full time. His attitude
suggested that he knew it all.
But when a modifier that would be hyphenated before a noun occurs instead after a form of the verb to be, the
hyphen usually must be retained to avoid confusion: The man is well-known. The woman is quick-witted. The
children are soft-spoken. The play is second-rate.
The principle of using a hyphen to avoid confusion explains why no hyphen is required with very and -ly words.
Readers can expect them to modify the word that follows. But if a combination such as little-known man were not
hyphenated, the reader could logically be expecting little to be followed by a noun, as in little man. Instead, the
reader encountering little known would have to back up mentally and make the compound connection on his own.
TWO-THOUGHT COMPOUNDS: serio-comic, socio-economic.
COMPOUND PROPER NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES: Use a hyphen to designate dual heritage: Italian-American,
Mexican-American.
No hyphen, however, for French Canadian or Latin American.
PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES: See prefixes and suffixes, and separate entries for the most frequently used prefixes and
suffixes.
AVOID DUPLICATED VOWELS, TRIPLED CONSONANTS: Examples: anti-intellectual, pre-empt, shell-like.
WITH NUMERALS: Use a hyphen to separate figures in odds, ratios, scores, some fractions and some vote
tabulations. See examples in entries under these headings.
When large numbers must be spelled out, use a hyphen to connect a word ending in -y to another word: twentyone, fifty-five, etc.
SUSPENSIVE HYPHENATION: The form: He received a 10- to 20-year sentence in prison
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BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
Hyphen.28: If two or more words already represent a unit, do not hyphenate them.
income tax
income tax payment
social security
social security check
high school
high school graduation
senior citizen
senior citizen event
real estate
real estate transaction
credit card
credit card debt
due diligence
due diligence process
genital herpes
genital herpes outbreak
general admission
general admission ticket
This occurs most often with compound nouns that are listed as distinct words in the dictionary. Since
these words are listed in the dictionary as compound nouns and are distinct words, they are already
thought of as a unit. Hyphenating them would be redundant. They remain separate words wherever
they appear, including when they are adjectives in front of a noun.
He was with a road show group that came through town.
They supposedly had a fairy tale marriage.
They were selling master bedroom furniture.
Hyphen.29: When the adjective that is a unit comes after the noun it modifies, do not use a hyphen.
I have long-range plans to go to graduate school.
My plans for graduate school are long range.
It is a one-way street.
The street is one way.
His far-reaching goals are admirable.
It is admirable that his goals are far reaching.
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This rule applies mainly to predicate adjectives and appositive adjectives. Simply put, when the
adjective is in front of the noun it modifies, it is hyphenated; when it is not in front of the noun it
modifies, it is not hyphenated.
Special note should be made of words like "full-time" and "part-time." The dictionary shows each word
with a hyphen as both an adjective and an adverb. When it is in front of a noun, it is an adjective and
thus needs the hyphen. When it is after a condition verb -- e.g., is, are, am was, were -- it is an adjective
but does not take the hyphen because it is not in front of the word it modifies. However, if it follows a
word like "work" as in "I work full-time," it is an adverb and needs the hyphen.
He has a full-time job.
The job is full time.
He works full-time.
In other words, it is important to know the part of speech of the word you are dealing with. This is just
another advertisement for knowing and understanding the grammar issues in a sentence.
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16TH EDITION)
CMOS Rule 5.91 Phrasal adjectives
A phrasal adjective (also called a compound modifier) is a phrase that functions as a unit to modify a
noun. A phrasal adjective follows these basic rules:
(1) Generally, if it is placed before a noun, you should hyphenate the phrase to avoid misdirecting the
reader {dog-eat-dog competition}. There may be a considerable difference between the hyphenated and
the unhyphenated forms. For example, compare small animal hospital with small-animal hospital.
(2) If a compound noun is an element of a phrasal adjective, the entire compound noun must be
hyphenated to clarify the relationship among the words {time-clock-punching employees}.
(3) If more than one phrasal adjective modifies a single noun, hyphenation becomes especially
important {nineteenth-century song-and-dance numbers} {state-inspected assisted-living facility}.
(4) If two phrasal adjectives end in a common element, the ending element should appear only with the
second phrase, and a suspension hyphen should follow the unattached words to show that they are
related to the ending element {middle- and upper-class operagoers}. But if two phrasal adjectives begin
with a common element, a hyphen is usually inappropriate, and the element should be repeated {lefthanded and left-brained executives}.
(5) If the phrasal adjective denotes an amount or a duration, plurals should be dropped. For instance,
pregnancy lasts nine months but is a nine-month pregnancy, and a shop open twenty-four hours a day
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requires a twenty-four-hour-a-day schedule. The plural is retained only for fractions {a two-thirds
majority}.
(6) If a phrasal adjective becomes awkward, the sentence should probably be recast. For example, The
news about the lower-than-expected third-quarter earnings disappointed investors could become The
news about the third-quarter earnings, which were lower than expected, disappointed investors. Or
perhaps this: Investors were disappointed by the third-quarter earnings, which were lower than
expected.
There are exceptions for hyphenating phrasal adjectives:
(1) If the phrasal adjective follows a verb, it is usually unhyphenated—for example, compare a welltrained athlete with an athlete who is well trained.
(2) When a proper name begins a phrasal adjective, the name is not hyphenated {the Monty Python
school of comedy}.
(3) A two-word phrasal adjective that begins with an adverb ending in -ly is not hyphenated {a sharply
worded reprimand} (but a not-so-sharply-worded reprimand).
For a full discussion of hyphenation—including treatment of compound noun forms and other parts of
speech—see 7.77–85.
CMOS Rule 7.77 To hyphenate or not to hyphenate
Far and away the most common spelling questions for writers and editors concern compound terms—
whether to spell as two words, hyphenate, or close up as a single word. Prefixes (and occasionally
suffixes) can be troublesome also. The first place to look for answers is the dictionary. This section,
including the hyphenation guide in 7.85, offers guidelines for spelling compounds not necessarily found
in the dictionary (though some of the examples are drawn from Webster’s) and for treatment of
compounds according to their grammatical function (as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs) and their position
in a sentence. See also 5.91.
CMOS Rule 7.78 Some definitions
An open compound is spelled as two or more words (high school, lowest common denominator). A
hyphenated compound is spelled with one or more hyphens (mass-produced, kilowatt-hour, nonEnglish-speaking). A closed (or solid) compound is spelled as a single word (birthrate, notebook). A
permanent compound is one that has been accepted into the general vocabulary and can be found in
the dictionary (like all but one of the examples in this paragraph thus far). A temporary compound is a
new combination created for some specific, often one-time purpose (dictionary-wielding, impeachment
hound); such compounds, though some eventually become permanent, are not normally found in the
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dictionary. Not strictly compounds but often discussed with them are words formed with prefixes
(antigrammarian, postmodern); these are dealt with in section 4 of 7.85. (For examples of combining
forms—a type of prefix in which a word like electric is modified to form a combination like
electromagnetic—see section 2 of 7.85, under combining forms.)
CMOS Rule 7.79 The trend toward closed compounds
With frequent use, open or hyphenated compounds tend to become closed (on line to on-line to online).
Chicago’s general adherence to Webster’s does not preclude occasional exceptions when the closed
spellings have become widely preferred by writers (e.g., website) and pronunciation and readability are
not at stake.
CMOS Rule 7.80 Hyphens and readability
A hyphen can make for easier reading by showing structure and, often, pronunciation. Words that might
otherwise be misread, such as re-creation or co-op, should be hyphenated. Hyphens can also eliminate
ambiguity. For example, the hyphen in much-needed clothing shows that the clothing is greatly needed
rather than abundant and needed. Where no ambiguity could result, as in public welfare administration
or graduate student housing, hyphenation is unnecessary
CMOS Rule 7.81 Compound modifiers before or after a noun
When compound modifiers (also called phrasal adjectives) such as open-mouthed or full-length precede
a noun, hyphenation usually lends clarity. With the exception of proper nouns (such as United States)
and compounds formed by an adverb ending in ly plus an adjective (see 7.82), it is never incorrect to
hyphenate adjectival compounds before a noun. When such compounds follow the noun they modify,
hyphenation is usually unnecessary, even for adjectival compounds that are hyphenated in Webster’s
(such as well-read or ill-humored).
CMOS Rule 7.82 Adverbs ending in “ly”
Compounds formed by an adverb ending in ly plus an adjective or participle (such as largely irrelevant or
smartly dressed) are not hyphenated either before or after a noun, since ambiguity is virtually
impossible. (The ly ending with adverbs signals to the reader that the next word will be another
modifier, not a noun.)
CMOS Rule 7.83 Multiple hyphens
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Multiple hyphens are usually appropriate for such phrases as an over-the-counter drug or a winner-takeall contest. If, however, the compound modifier consists of an adjective that itself modifies a compound,
additional hyphens may not be necessary. The expressions late nineteenth-century literature and early
twentieth-century growth are clear without a second hyphen. (Similar expressions formed with mid—
which Chicago classifies as a prefix—do not follow this pattern; see 7.85, section 4, under mid.) See also
7.85, section 3, under century.
CMOS Rule 7.84 Omission of part of a hyphenated expression
When the second part of a hyphenated expression is omitted, the hyphen is retained, followed by a
space.
fifteen- and twenty-year mortgages
Chicago- or Milwaukee-bound passengers
but
a five-by-eight-foot rug (a single entity)
Omission of the second part of a solid compound follows the same pattern.
both over- and underfed cats
but
overfed and overworked mules (not overfed and -worked mules)
CMOS Rule 7.85 Hyphenation guide for compounds and words formed with prefixes
When using this guide (a return to the tabular format of earlier editions of this manual), consult the
preceding paragraphs in this section (7.77–84)—especially if a relevant example cannot be found. In
general, Chicago prefers a spare hyphenation style: if no suitable example or analogy can be found
either in this section or in the dictionary, hyphenate only if doing so will aid readability. Each of the four
sections of the following table is arranged alphabetically (by first column). The first section deals with
compounds according to category; the second section, with compounds according to parts of speech.
The third section lists examples for words commonly used as elements in compounds. The fourth
section lists common prefixes, most of which join to another word to form one unhyphenated word;
note especially the hyphenated exceptions, not all of which agree with Webster’s. (Compounds formed
with suffixes—e.g., nationhood, penniless—are almost always closed.)
HYPHENATION
GUIDE FOR
COMPOUNDS,
COMBINING FORMS,
AND PREFIXES
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Overview. Before using this guide, please refer to 7.82–89 above. The guide illustrates not
hard-and-fast rules but general patterns. Writers and editors are bound to make their own
exceptions according to context or personal taste. For reasons of space, the comments
following each item do not attempt to provide rationales. Although much of the suggested
hyphenation is logical and aids readability, some is traditional rather than logical. Each of
the three sections is arranged alphabetically. The first deals with compounds according to
type, the second with words commonly used as elements in compounds, and the third with
prefixes. Compounds formed with suffixes (e.g., nationhood, penniless) are almost always
closed.
1. Compounds
Compounds
according to
Type
adjective + noun: small-state senators, a high-quality alkylate, a middle-class
neighborhood, the neighborhood is middle class. (Hyphenated before but not after a
noun.)
adjective + participle: tight-lipped person, high-jumping grasshoppers, open-ended
question, the question was open ended. (Hyphenated before but not after a noun.)
adverb ending in ly + participle or adjective: highly paid, utterly useless. (Open
whether before or after a noun.)
adverb not ending in ly + participle or adjective: a much-loved woman, she was
much loved, a very well-read child, little-understood rules, a too-easy answer, the
best-known author, the highest-ranking officer, the worst-paid job, a lesser-paid
colleague, the least skilled workers, the most efficient method. (Hyphenated before
but not after a noun; compounds with most and least usually open.)
age terms: a three-year-old, a five-year-old child, a fifty-five-year-old woman, eight- to
ten-year-olds. (Hyphenated in both noun and adjective forms; for space after first
hyphen, see 7.89.)
chemical terms: sodium chloride solution. (Open in both noun and adjective forms.)
colors: emerald green, bluish green, coal black, a green and red dress, a black-andwhite print, the truth isn’t black and white. (Open whether before or after a noun
except for such established expressions as black-and-white, which are usually
hyphenated before a noun.)
combining forms: electrocardiogram, socioeconomic, politico-scientific studies, the
practico-inert. (Usually closed if permanent, hyphenated if temporary.)
compass points and directions: northeast, southwest, east-northeast, a north–south
street, the street runs north–south. (Closed in noun, adjective, and adverb forms
unless three directions are combined, in which case a hyphen is used after the first.
When from . . . to is implied, an en dash is used.)
ethnic terms. See proper nouns and adjectives.
fractions, simple: one-half, three-quarters, I’m three-quarters done, a two-thirds
majority, one and three-quarters, three fifty-thirds. (Traditionally hyphenated in
noun, adjective, and adverb forms, except when second element is already
hyphenated. See also 9.15)
fractions, compounds formed with: a half hour, a half-hour session, a quarter mile, a
quarter-mile run, an eighth note. (Noun form open, adjective form hyphenated. See
also numbers in this section and half in section 2.)
gerund + noun: running shoes, cooking class, running-shoe department. (Noun form
open, adjective form hyphenated. See also noun + gerund.)
noun + adjective: computer-literate, a debt-free year, the stadium is fan friendly, she is
HIV-positive. (Hyphenated before a noun, usually open after a noun.)
noun + gerund: decision making, a decision-making body, mountain climbing, timeclock-punching employees, a Nobel Prize–winning chemist (for use of the en dash,
see 6.85), bookkeeping, caregiving, policymaking. (Noun form usually open;
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adjective form hyphenated before a noun. Some permanent compounds closed.)
noun + noun, single function: student nurse, master builder, directory path, tenure
track, tenure-track position, home-rule governance. (Noun form open, adjective
form hyphenated before a noun.)
noun + noun, two functions: nurse-practitioner, city-state, city-state governance.
(Both noun and adjective forms always hyphenated.)
noun + numeral or enumerator: the round II meetings, a type A executive. (Both
noun and adjective forms always open.)
noun + participle: a Wagner-burdened repertoire, flower-filled garden, a clothesbuying grandmother, I am software challenged. (Hyphenated before a noun,
otherwise open.)
number + abbreviation: the 33 m distance, a 2 kg weight, a 3 ft. high wall. (Always
open.)
number + percentage: 50 percent, a 10 percent raise. (Both noun and adjective forms
always open.)
number, ordinal, + noun: third-floor apartment, 103rd-floor view, fifth-place
contestant, twenty-first-row seats. (Adjective form hyphenated before a noun. See
also century in section 2.)
number, ordinal, + superlative: a second-best decision; third-largest town; fourth-tolast contestant; he arrived fourth to last. (Hyphenated before a noun, otherwise
open.)
number, spelled out, + noun: a hundred-meter race, a 250-page book, a fifty-year
project, a three-inch-high statuette, it’s three inches high, five- to ten-minute
intervals. (Hyphenated before a noun, otherwise open. Note the space after the first
number in the last example.)
numbers, spelled out: twenty-eight, three hundred, nineteen forty-five, five hundred
and fifty. (Twenty-one through ninety-nine hyphenated; others open. See also
fractions, simple.)
participle + noun: chopped-liver pâté, cutting-edge methods, their approach was on the
cutting edge. (Adjective form hyphenated before a noun, seldom used after a noun.)
participle + preposition: a frequently referred-to paragraph, this book is often referred
to. (Hyphenated before but not after a noun.)
participle + up, out, and the like: dressed-up children, spelled-out numbers, fractions
that are spelled out. (Adjective form hyphenated before but not after a noun.)
phrases, adjectival: an over-the-counter drug, her approach was matter-of-fact, a
quicker-than-usual reply, her reply was quicker than usual. (Familiar phrases
hyphenated whether before or after a noun; other phrases hyphenated only before a
noun. See also phrases, familiar; phrases, foreign.)
phrases, familiar: stick-in-the-mud, jack-of-all-trades, a flash in the pan. (Hyphenated,
with rare exceptions.)
phrases, foreign, used adjectivally: an a priori argument, a Sturm und Drang drama,
in vitro fertilization, a tête-à-tête approach. (Open unless hyphens appear in the
original language.)
proper nouns and adjectives, hyphenated: the Franco-Prussian War, AngloAmerican cooperation, the Scotch-Irish. (Hyphenated in both noun and adjective
forms.)
proper nouns and adjectives, open: African Americans, an African American, a
Chinese American child, French Canadians, the North Central region, Middle
Eastern countries, State Department employees, World War II history. (Open in both
noun and adjective forms. See also 8.42.)
relationships: See foster, grand, in-law, and step in section 2.
time: at three thirty, the three-thirty train, a four o’clock train, the 5:00 p.m. news.
(Usually open; hyphenated only for easier reading.)
2. Compounds
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Formed with
Specific Terms
ache: toothache, stomachache. (Always closed.)
all: all out, all along, all in, all over, an all-out effort, an all-American player, the book
is all-encompassing. (Adverbial phrases open; adjectival phrases hyphenated both
before and after a noun.)
book: reference book, coupon book, checkbook, cookbook (Open if not in the
dictionary.)
borne: waterborne, foodborne, cab-borne, mosquito-borne. (Normally closed, but
hyphenated after words ending in b and after words of three or more syllables. See
also like and wide.)
century: twentieth-century literature, twenty-first-century history, fourteenth-century
monastery, a mid-eighteenth-century poet, late nineteenth-century politicians; her
style was nineteenth century. (Adjectival compounds hyphenated before but not after
a noun. See old below, and mid in section 3; see also 7.88.)
cross: a cross-reference, cross-referenced, cross-grained, cross-country, crossbow,
crossover. (Noun, adjective, and adverb forms hyphenated, except for some
permanent compounds.)
e: e-mail, e-article, e-commerce, e-marketing, e-zine, e–graduate school. (Hyphenated;
use en dash if e- precedes an open compound. See also 7.85, 8.163.)
elect: president-elect, mayor-elect, county assessor elect. (Hyphenated unless the name
of the office consists of two or more words.)
ever: ever-ready help, ever-recurring problem, everlasting. (Usually hyphenated before
a noun; some permanent compounds closed.)
ex: ex-boyfriend, ex-marine, ex–corporate executive. (Hyphenated, but use en dash if exprecedes an open compound; see 7.83.)
fold: fourfold, hundredfold, twenty-five-fold, 150-fold. (Closed unless formed with a
hyphenated number or a numeral.)
foster: foster mother, foster parents, a foster-family background. (Noun forms open,
adjective forms hyphenated.)
free: toll-free number, accident-free driver; the number is toll free; the driver is accident
free. (Compounds formed with free as second element are hyphenated before a noun,
open after a noun.)
full: full-length mirror, three bags full, a suitcase full. (Hyphenated when full precedes a
noun, open after a noun. Use ful only in such permanent compounds as a cupful, a
handful.)
general: attorney general, postmaster general, lieutenants general. (Always open; in
plural forms, general remains singular.)
grand, great-grand: grandfather, granddaughter, great-grandmother, great-greatgrandson. (Grand compounds closed, great compounds hyphenated.)
half: half-asleep, half-finished, a half sister, a half hour, a half-hour session, halfway,
halfhearted. (Adjective forms hyphenated, noun forms open. Some permanent
compounds closed, whether nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Check the dictionary. See
also fractions in section 1.)
house: schoolhouse, courthouse (court house in some jurisdictions), rest house.
(Permanent compounds often closed. If not in the dictionary, open.)
in-law: sister-in-law, parents-in-law. (All compounds hyphenated; only the first element
takes a plural form.)
like: catlike, childlike, mattresslike, bell-like, Whitman-like poetry, a penitentiary-like
institution. (Normally closed, but hyphenated after words ending in l, after most
proper nouns (but Christlike), after most words of three or more syllables, or simply
to avoid a cumbersome appearance. Hyphenated compounds retain the hyphen both
before and after a noun. See also borne and wide.)
mid. See section 3.
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near: a near accident, a near-dead language. (Open before a noun, hyphenated before
an adjective.)
odd: a hundred-odd manuscripts; 350-odd books. (Always hyphenated.)
old: decade-old, a three-year-old, a 105-year-old woman, a centuries-old debate, the
debate is centuries old. (Hyphenated, especially before a noun. See also age terms in
section 1.)
on: online, onstage, ongoing, on-screen, on-site. (Sometimes closed, sometimes
hyphenated. Check dictionary, and hyphenate if term is not listed. See also 7.84.)
percent: 5 percent, a 10 percent increase. (Both noun and adjective forms always open.)
pseudo. See section 3.
quasi: a quasi corporation, a quasi-public corporation. (Open before a noun, hyphenated
before an adjective.)
self: self-restraint, self-realization, self-sustaining, self-conscious, the behavior is selfdestructive, selfless, unselfconscious. (Both noun and adjective forms hyphenated,
except where self- is followed by a suffix or preceded by un. Note that
unselfconscious, Chicago’s preference, is contrary to Webster.)
step: stepmother, stepgranddaughter. (Always closed.)
style: kindergarten-style, Chicago-style hyphenation, dancing 1920s-style. (Always
hyphenated.)
vice: vice-consul, vice-chancellor, vice president, vice-presidential duties, vice admiral,
viceroy. (Sometimes hyphenated, sometimes open, occasionally closed. Check
dictionary and hyphenate if term is not listed.)
Web: Web site, Web-related matters, he is Web-happy. (Noun form open, adjective form
hyphenated.)
wide: worldwide, citywide, Chicago-wide, the canvass was university-wide. (Normally
closed, but hyphenated after proper nouns, after most words of three or more
syllables, or simply to avoid a cumbersome appearance. Hyphenated compounds
retain the hyphen both before and after a noun. See also borne and like.)
3. Words Formed with Prefixes
Compounds formed with prefixes are normally closed, whether they are nouns, verbs,
adjectives, or adverbs.
A hyphen should appear, however, (1) before a capitalized word or a numeral, such as subSaharan, pre-1950; (2) before a compound term, such as non-self-sustaining, pre–Vietnam
War (before an open compound, an en dash is used; see 7.83); (3) to separate two i’s, two
a’s, and other combinations of letters or syllables that might cause misreading, such as antiintellectual, extra-alkaline, pro-life; (4) to separate the repeated terms in a double prefix,
such as sub-subentry; (5) when a prefix or combining form stands alone, such as over- and
underused, macro- and microeconomics.
The spellings shown below conform largely to Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary.
Compounds formed with combining forms not listed here, such as auto, tri, and para,
follow the same pattern.
ante: antebellum, antenatal, antediluvian
anti: antihypertensive, antihero, but anti-inflammatory, anti-Hitlerian
bi: binomial, bivalent, bisexual
bio: bioecology, biophysical, biosociology
co: coequal, coauthor, coeditor, coordinate, cooperation, but co-opt, co-worker
counter: counterclockwise, counterrevolution
cyber: cyberspace, cyberstore
extra: extramural, extrafine, but extra-administrative
hyper: hypertension, hyperactive, hypertext
infra: infrasonic, infrastructure
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inter: interorganizational, interfaith
intra: intrazonal, intramural, but intra-arterial
macro: macroeconomics, macromolecular
mega: megavitamin, megamall, mega-annoyance (hyphenate before words beginning
with a)
meta: metalanguage, metaethical, but meta-analysis (not the same as metanalysis)
micro: microeconomics, micromethodical
mid: midthirties, a midcareer event, midcentury, but mid-July, the mid-1990s, the midtwentieth century, mid-twentieth-century history
mini: minivan, minimarket
multi: multiauthor, multiconductor, but multi-institutional
neo: neonate, neoorthodox, Neoplatonism
non: nonviolent, nonevent, nonnegotiable, but non-beer-drinking
over: overmagnified, overshoes, overconscientious
post: postdoctoral, postmodernism, posttraumatic, but post-Vietnam
pre: premodern, preregistration, prewar, preempt, but Pre-Raphaelite
pro: proindustrial, promarket, but pro-life, pro-Canadian
proto: protolanguage, protogalaxy, protomartyr
pseudo: pseudotechnocrat, pseudomodern, but pseudo-Tudor
re: reedit, reunify, reproposition, but re-cover, re-creation (as distinct from recover,
recreation)
semi: semiopaque, semiconductor, but semi-invalid
socio: socioeconomic, sociocultural, sociolinguistics
sub: subbasement, subzero, subcutaneous
super: superannuated, supervirtuoso, superpowerful
supra: supranational, suprarenal, supraorbital, but supra-American
trans: transsocietal, transmembrane, transcontinental, transatlantic, but trans-American
ultra: ultrasophisticated, ultraorganized, ultraevangelical
un: unfunded, unneutered, but un-English, un-unionized
under: underemployed, underrate, undercount
GREGG RULES
Gregg Rule 821. Noun + Participle. Hyphenate before and after.
• market-tested products
• This has been market-tested.
• mind-boggling details
• The report was mind-boggling.
Gregg Rule 822. Adjective + Participle. Hyphenate before and after.
•
•
•
•
half-baked ideas
All his ideas are half-baked.
a friendly-looking dog
That dog is friendly-looking.
Gregg Rule 826. Participle + Adverb. Hyphenate before but not after.
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•
•
•
•
filled-in forms
forms to be filled in
a cooling-off period
a time for cooling off
MORSON’S RULES
RULE 136
Use an apostrophe and s on the last word of a compound word to show possession.
EXAMPLES
a. She is my mother-in-law’s friend.
b. She is my sisters-in-law’s friend.
c. We did not mean to omit the editor in chief’s column.
d. The chief of police’s car arrived first.
RULE 148. Generally, when two or more words are combined to form a compound adjective that
expresses a single idea, these words are hyphened when they precede the noun they modify. The
compound adjective that is formed may include several different parts of speech. When in doubt,
consult a dictionary.
d. I participated in a price-cutting scheme. (noun + participle before or after a noun)
a Bates-stamped exhibit an exhibit that is Bates-stamped
a board-certified physician a physician that is board-certified
a cold-pressed laminate a laminate that is cold-pressed
a crystal-gazing psychotic a psychotic who is crystal-gazing
a foot-stomping musical a musical that is foot-stomping
a habit-forming substance a substance that is habit-forming
a heat-sealed package a package that is heat-sealed
a life-altering event an event that is life-altering
a mind-boggling excuse an excuse that is mind-boggling
a pot-bellied stove a stove that is fat-bellied
a price-fixing practice a practice of price-fixing
a soul-searching moment a moment of soul-searching
a tax-sheltering scheme a scheme of tax-sheltering
a whistle-blowing worker a worker accused of whistle-blowing
RULE 148
Generally, when two or more words are combined to form a compound adjective that expresses a single
idea, these words are hyphened when they precede the noun they modify. The compound adjective that
is formed may include several different parts of speech. When in doubt, consult a dictionary.
EXAMPLES
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a. Let me define a first-degree murder. (number + noun before a noun but not after)
a four-year college
a 15-year-old student
a 5-foot-6 inch-tall woman
a foot-and-a-half-wide opening
an 8 ½-by-11-inch journal
an 18-story building
an eleventh-hour reprieve
a mid-six-figure range
a 90-mile-an-hour chase
a one-and-a-half-foot opening
a second-degree burn
a seventh-inning stretch
a 6-foot-3-inch man
a 60-foot right-of-way
a 10-foot-long fence
a 700-foot drop
a 3-by-6-by-10-foot cabinet
a 3-by-6 rug
a three-inch-thick sandwich
a three-year contract
a 3-year-old child
a 25-count indictment
a 200-yard skid mark
a college of four years
a student of fifteen years
a woman 5 feet 6 inches tall
an opening a foot and a half wide
a journal 8 ½ by 11 inches
a building 18 stories
a reprieve in the eleventh hour
a range in the mid six figures (See Rule 153o.)
a chase at 90 miles an hour
an opening of 1 ½ feet
a burn in the second degree
a stretch in the seventh inning
a man of 6 feet 3 inches
a right-of-way of 60 feet
a fence 10 feet long
a drop of 700 feet
a cabinet 3 by 5 by 10 feet
a rug 3 by 6
a sandwich three inches thick
a contract of three years
a child 3 years old
an indictment of 25 counts
a skid mark of 200 yards
EXCEPTION: a 10 percent reduction, a 30 percent increase
Percents are ratios, not measurements. Always write these expressions without the hyphen.
(See Rule 199 Note.)
b. They were well-known politicians. (well + participle before a noun)
When well and a participle come after the noun, the hyphen is dropped because the participle becomes
part of the verb phrase.
They are politicians who are well known.
The first scene was well acted.
She was well dressed.
The legal implications were well explored.
The diet was not well balanced.
The officer was well thought of.
The Scranton case is well documented.
My staff was well prepared that night.
Is the specimen, in your opinion, well preserved?
That secret has been well kept until now.
According to Roy H. Copperud, author of A Dictionary of Usage and Style, there is an occasion when
some writers say to include the hyphen based on well not being part of the verb phrase. This “usage is
somewhat inconsistent and arbitrary… Often the matter of whether to hyphen well predicatively
becomes a matter of hairsplitting, not worth the time of anyone who has better things to do.” Case
closed.
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b. I have an up-to-date report with me today in which the defendant says, in a tongue-in-cheek
manner, that he takes coast-to-coast flights so he can travel by taxi in bumper-to-bumper traffic
to get to a neighborhood where he can conduct door-to-door sales.
(prepositional phrases + nouns or nouns + prepositions + nouns that precede a noun)
an around-the-clock vigil
a below-the-belt
in bumper-to-bumper traffic
a by-the-book approach
a cheek-by-jowl lifestyle
a coast-to-coast flight
a down-and-dirty fight
a down-and-out stockbroker
a for-your-information session
an in-your-face attitude
an off-the-cuff remark
an over-the-counter prescription
an over-the-top performance
an up-to-date report
an up-and-coming reporter
a word-for-word record
a vigil around the clock
hit hit below the belt
traffic that is bumper to bumper
an approach by the book
living cheek by jowl
a flight coast to coast
a fight that was down and dirty
a stockbroker who is down and out
a session for your information
an attitude that is in your face
a remark off the cuff
a prescription that is over the counter
a performance over the top
a report that is up to date
reporter who is up and coming
a record that is written word for wor
d. I participated in a price-cutting scheme. (noun + participle before or after a noun)
a Bates-stamped exhibit
a board-certified physician
a cold-pressed laminate
a crystal-gazing psychotic
a foot-stomping musical
a habit-forming substance
a heat-sealed package
a life-altering event
a mind-boggling excuse
a pot-bellied stove
a price-fixing practice
a soul-searching moment
a tax-sheltering scheme
a whistle-blowing worker
an exhibit that is Bates-stamped
a physician that is board-certified
a laminate that is cold-pressed
a psychotic who is crystal-gazing
a musical that is foot-stomping
a substance that is habit-forming
a package that is heat-sealed
an event that is life-altering
an excuse that is mind-boggling
a stove that is fat-bellied
a practice of price-fixing
a moment of soul-searching
a scheme of tax-sheltering
a worker accused of whistle-blowing
EXCEPTIONS: backstabbing, homeschooling
e. She seemed to be a middle-aged woman. (adj. + noun ending in ed before or after a noun)
These combinations are subject to change. When in doubt, consult a dictionary.
big-hearted slob
broad-based study
close-captioned debate
deep-rooted fear
even-handed justice
hard-hearted Hannah
light-hearted banter
long-winded lecturer
loose-slipped Louie
narrow-minded person
strait-laced society
thick-headed witness
turbo-charged Shelby Charger
f. The driver signaled for a left-hand turn. (adj. + noun before a noun)
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black-tie affair
high-speed chase
low-back pain
low-cost housing
low-cut dress
low-grade headache
low-income rentals earning
low-life bum
wearing a black tie
going at high speed
pain in my low back
purchased for a low cost
a dress that is low cut
a headache that is low grade
a low income
a lowlife
g. They advertised for a full-time position, but they told me I could work part-time only, not full-time.
(adj. + noun before the noun or as an adverb)
a full-automatic (a firearm)
full-dress banquet
full-length coat
h. Does this violate the doctor-patient previledge? (noun + noun of similar rank before a noun)
attorney-client previledge
labor-management issues
seller-buyer arrangements
i. Theirs was a notorious love-hate relationship. (noun + noun of alternate meanings)
a fight-flight decision
an open-shut case
a true-false test
j. Everyone benefits from a live-and-let-live creed in prison. (verb + verb phrase before the
noun)
give-and-take style
a look-see approach
a must-have security clearance
k. That’s the lesser-included offense of which she stands convicted. (adv. In the
comparative degree + participle before a noun) Authorities does not agree on using the
hyphen after the noun, but it is easier to be consistent and include the hyphen.
better-qualified driver
faster-paced activities
higher-priced houses
slower-paced business
driver who is better-qualified
activities that are faster-paced
houses that are higher priced
business that is slower-paced
l. My pressure was sky-high. The proposed diet was fat-free, salt-free, and sugar-free.
(noun + adjective before or after a noun) Some of these combinations are subject to change. When in
doubt consult a dictionary.
age-appropriate activities
a patient who is brain-dead
duty-free gift
germ-free instruments
house-poor relatives
a process that is labor-intensive
pain-free joints
risk-free demonstration
world-weary traveler
living scot-free
stone-cold sober
kids who are street-smart
tax-exempt bonds
toll-free calls
user-friendly manual
a picture that is word-famous and
hand-painted
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EXCEPTION: carefree
NOTE
Speakers often create awkward construction in which the adjective phrase preceding the noun is
stretched beyond reasonable bounds but must, nonetheless, be written verbatim. For clarity,
consistency, and ease of reading, if the phrase exceeds five or six words or may be misread (Example n
below), use quotes around it instead of hyphens. If the phrase is shorter than six words, use the
hyphens. Using both quotes and hyphens for a long expression is no longer recommended. (See Rule
164m to Rule 164s also regarding the suffix type.)
EXAMPLES
m. He wore an I-told-you-so smile.
n. He had that “if you were the last person on the earth” look
o. We would sit around talking about, you know, “How was your day?” type stuff.
p. I saw a child who always expressed a “I don’t want to” type fear. (If the hyphens are
used, the reader may think the child has a fear of typing.)
q. What a pain in the you-know-what he was.
EXAMPLES
r. We operated on a first-come-first-served basis. (first-come and first-served basis)
s. We laughed about the vote-early, vote-often rule that the club passed. (vote-early and
vote-often rule)
t. It was a damned-if-I-do, damned-if-I-don’t situation. (damned-if-I-do and damned-if-Idon’t situation)
u. We operated within a risk-based, managed-care system. (risk-based and manage-care
system)
If the compound modifier has two or more hyphened elements and the word or can be
inserted between them, do not use a comma to separate the hyphened elements. Use the
slant instead. (See also Rule 280.)
EXAMPLES
v. When you include a haves/have-nots scenario, you gain credibility. (haves or havenots scenario)
w. Who was at fault for his win/no-win predicament? (win or no-win predicament)
x. I worked a three-days-on/three-day-off cycle. (three-days-on or three-day-off cycle)
If words are repeated to form a one-thought idea or modifier, hyphen those words
wherever the expression occurs in the sentence. 104
EXAMPLES
y. It was a win-win proposal.
z. Even with the medicine, I still felt only so-so; but I knew increasing the dose was a
no-no.
Words that express a range, that show alternate views, or that rhyme are hyphened
wherever they occur in the sentence.
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EXAMPLES
aa. The highway ran north-south in Burlington and then east-west in Florence.
bb. Is this a pattern that’s obsessive-compulsive?
cc. Did their relationship become boyfriend-girlfriend at some point?
dd. No. He was a fuddy-duddy, and she was hoity-toity.
ee. I had to pay the deductible for that fender-bender.
ff. The work was done willy-nilly on that shift.
gg. If he quit talking all that fiddle-faddle, I could have helped him.
hh. Before taking the medicine, he was hyper and kept yo-yoing from one thing to
another.
ii. After taking the medicine, he did everything in slo-mo.
EXCEPTION: mumbo jumbo
The nonwords uh-huh and uh-uh that stand for yes and no are hyphened wherever they occur in the
sentence. (See also Time Out For Nonwords, page 74.)
EXAMPLES
jj. Q Are you sure the light was green when you crossed the street?
A Uh-huh.
Q Is that a “yes”?
A That’s a “yes.”
kk. Q Were you jaywalking?
A Uh-huh.
Q Is that a “no”?
A That’s a “no.”
ll. Q Is that correct?
A Uh-huh.
Q Remember you have to answer “yes” or “no.”
A Yes.
Q We don’t mean to be rude, but it comes out on the record “u-h-h-u-h.” We can’t really
tell whether it’s “uh-huh” or “uh-uh.”
RULE 149
When a compound adjective follows the noun, the hyphen is often dropped, but not always.
EXAMPLES
a. Let me define murder in the first degree.
b. They were politicians well known to everyone.
c. The report I have today is not up to date.
EXCEPTIONS
d. The scheme for price-cutting soon involved me.
e. He promised that the bonds were tax-free.
NOTE
If the compound adjective combines an adjective and a noun and ed, the hyphen is used in any position.
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EXAMPLES
f. She was middle-aged.
g. She was a woman, middle-aged and able-bodied.
h. They were constructing a pool that was heart-shaped.
i. You would have to be left-handed to understand.
RULE 150
Some pairs of words have become so closely associated with each other that hyphens
are not used when they act as adjectives before a noun.
blood vessel disease
life insurance policy
chicken pox rash
rural route address
civil service requirements scar tissue infection
credit card fraud
social security check
direct mail order
EXAMPLES
a. We prepared our income tax returns in February.
b. All applicants must mail in their high school records.
c. All our real estate enterprises were profitable in 1988.
d. They told me they had no more safe deposit boxes.
e. I was told that a long distance call could not be put through at that time.
f. Her court reporting pursuits began after she was sued.
g. His idea of reward is a chocolate chip cookie.
RULE 151
Use hyphens between two or more words that form a single idea and function as a
noun.
apple-polisher
face-lifts
back-pats
no-brainer
blast-offs
people-praiser
boat-rocker
switch-hitter
double-crosser
EXAMPLES
a. The argument ended in a free-for-all.
b. We needed his know-how for the planning stage.
c. Before we made the calls, we planned what to ask if so-and-so answered.
d. This not merely a slip-and-fall.
e. His tactic of using one-upmanship alienated his associates.
f. Some triple-dippers earned more in retirement than in all their years of employment.
g. Were you distracted by any of those goings-on?
RULE 152
Hyphen two or more verbs that form a single verb.
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cross-examine
double-dare
recross-examine
EXAMPLES
a. When I cross-examined the witness yesterday, he changed his facts considerably.
b. Did he double-cross you?
c. I did double-check all those orders.
d. I X-rayed his chest at the request of Dr. George Quarles.
NOTE
Use a hyphen for X-ray when it is a verb or an adjective. The hyphen is optional for the
noun. (See Rule 155 Caution B. Also note that the word plain before the noun form
distinguishes ordinary X rays from MRI and CT scans.)
EXAMPLES
e. We will X-ray the leg twice.
f. The X-rayed leg was broken.
g. I lost the plain X rays.
OR
h. I lost the plain X-rays.
CAUTION A
Do not hyphen a preposition to a verb and the preposition are independent of each
other and do not convey a single idea.
EXAMPLES
i. I crossed off his name because his membership lapsed.
j. Did you plan to follow up with a new directive?
k. I tried to sign up several times.
CAUTION B
Do hyphen a preposition to a verb when the words are used to form compound
nouns, but consult a dictionary often because it is not unusual for these forms to be
written solid. Hyphen in to verbs that are used as compound nouns.
EXAMPLES
l. We planned several pray-ins to dramatize our position.
m. What time was the check-in for the motel?
n. He thought he would be elected with a write-in.
o. I was happy to be asked to be her stand-in.
Most compound nouns that combine a verb and out are written as one word.
EXAMPLES
p. The argument began while we were at the cookout.
q. I never asked him for a handout.
r. The payout was to be done over six months.
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s. He was a dropout at fifteen.
EXCEPTIONS: cop-out, sick-out
Compound nouns that combine a verb and off are written as one word or hyphened.
Consult a dictionary often when using such compounds.
EXAMPLES
t. We don’t know when the cutoff will be.
u. It was a standoff. She said Thursday and I said Friday.
v. My accountant assured me it would be a write-off.
w. It was quite a send-off for the little guy.
Compound words that combine a verb and up may be written as one word or
hyphened. Consult a dictionary often when using such compounds.
a frame-up
a heads-up
a runner-up
a toss-up
a write-up
EXAMPLES
x. The shakeup and breakup led to bankruptcy.
y. She hurt her leg in the cleanup after the fire.
z. My checkup saved my life, and the follow-up has prolonged it.
RULE 153
Use the hyphen between prefixes and words that are capitalized, unusual, a number,
or capable of being, misread.
recharge re-charge
recollect re-collect
recreate re-create
reform
re-form
remarked re-marked
repose
re-posed
repress
re-press
research re-search
resent
re-sent
resort
re-sort
retreat
re-treat
EXAMPLES
a. He said she was anti-Communist.
b. We thought of him as ultra-altruistic.
c. That figure represents our post-1987 projection.
d. We met in mid-November.
e. First, we argued about recovering the chair from the dealer.
Complied by Marla Sharp, Oct ‘13
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f. Then, we argued about re-covering the chair ourselves.
g. I asked her to re-sign the paper because water had smeared her signature.
h. She was a co-worker, and we lived in the same co-op for two years.
i. They contracted 25 local sew-ers to do all the hems and embroidery.
NOTE
Common prefixes such as anti, bi, co, counter, de, macro, micro, mid, mini, multi,
non, post, pre, semi, re, and others like them are generally printed solid, whether or
not a vowel or consonant is doubled.
EXAMPLES
j. We want to deemphasize the negative.
k. They wanted to coordinate all efforts on this.
l. The antiwar protesters numbered two hundred.
m. The officers refused to reelect him after the scandal.
n. I wanted to preempt his scheduled speaker and he fired me.l
o. We observed a bruise on her left midthigh and midback. (The word mid, meaning “middle,”
would stand alone in a sentence like “The pain was in my upper back.”)
p. The preflow rate was up, and the postflow rate was down.
q. All posttrial motions must be reexamined.
r. My fee was nonnegotiable and nonrefundable.
s. I believe it was a semiautomatic.
Do not double a or i. Use the hyphen.
t. The negotiator seemed ultra-antagonistic.
u. They gave me anti-inflammatories.
v. I’d say it was a semi-indirect command, and I ignored it.
Dictionaries and stylebooks show that the prefixes pre and post are attached to words
without the hyphen: preeminent, preexist, premalignant, pretrial, posttrial motions,
postdoctoral, posttibia, posttraumatic epilepsy, posttympanic part, posttest, and
postwar.
Although Black’s Law Dictionary uses the hyphens in expressions like post-trial
discovery, post-trial motions, post-trial remedies, and post-mortem, model the
spellings in dictionaries like Webster’s Third New International and stylebooks like
Mary Louise Gilman’s One Word, Two Words, Hyphenated? that write these words
solid.
If nonce words or coined words appear that require clarity, using the hyphen is
acceptable.
EXAMPLES
w. Were these photos taken pre-theft or post-theft?
x. Can you tell us if this is a pre-zither or post-zither instrument?
y. Linda and Jack’s den is huge, so I guess I was about mid-den when I smelled the smoke.
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RULE 154
Use a hyphen with the prefixes self and quasi. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex and then when they
mean “former.”
EXAMPLES
a. We suggest that Rule 8 is self-explanatory.
b. Are you suggesting that he is using quasi-legal techniques?
c. I had not seen my ex-wife for three years.
d. I spoke to his then-wife about the insurance.
e. My exercise routine is self-directed.
NOTE
Selfhood, selfsame, and unselfconscious are not hyphened.
RULE 155
Use more than one hyphen when an idea has one ending but two or more adjective
choices preceding it. Type one space after any items in the phrase before the conjunctions
and, or.
EXAMPLES
a. I’m not sure if she said an 8-, or 80-foot boat.
b. We wanted a three- or four-month waiting period to be instituted.
c. She was a 12- or 13-year-old child.
d. We sell 6-, 12-, and 18-month notes.
NOTE
Because of the unpredictable choices speakers make, there can be a slight variation on
the above principle.
EXAMPLES
e. I think it was thirty-two or –three days after the payment was due.
f. He is my ex-everything: ex-husband, -friend, -partner.
g. Let’s mark this document with Bates Nos. N000573 through -600.
CAUTION A
If two different prefixes apply to one word, use a suspending hyphen for the unattached
prefix and write the other form of the word as solid.
EXAMPLES
h. The pre- and postflow rates were unaaceptable.
i. As I have told you, reports about the micro- and macrocephaly research never came to my office.
j. The same clerks prepared the pre- and posttrial motions.
CAUTION B
If a prefix is added to a hyphened or spaced compound noun, add a hyphen after the
prefix and keep the compound adjective as it originally appeared before adding the
prefix.
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EXAMPLES
k. She brought her post-high school records with her.
l. He spoke often of those pre-tax exempt days.
m. I list money because it’s a non-income-producing property.
n. Since it’s non-civil rights issue, we did not engage a lawyer.
o. Those were my mini-money market contributions.
p. He asked me to re-X-ray her leg
RULE 156
Use a hyphen when letters and numbers are used to label exhibits.
EXAMPLES
a. Please mark this Exhibit P-4.
b. I would like the reporter to mark these P-1, P-2, and P-3 for identification.
c. I would like the reporter to mark these P-1, -2, -3 for identification.
Use a hyphen when numbers and letters are used to are used to label aircraft.
EXAMPLES
d. I never worked on an F-16.
e. I worked on B-52s, DC-7s, and DC-10s.
Use a hyphen when letters and numbers are used to designate military rank.
EXAMPLES
f. My naval rank at the time was E-5.
g. Her title rated an E-7 rank in the Air Force.
Use a hyphen when letters are used for musical keys that are followed by the words
flat, natural, or sharp. If only the word major or minor is used, do not hyphen.
EXAMPLES
h. My composition was in A-sharp.
i. His was in E-flat.
j. This should be F minor, not F-sharp minor.
k. What about G-sharp 7?
Use hyphen when letters and numbers are used in some specialized medical
terminology. Consult medical dictionaries when in doubt.
EXAMPLES
l. I see no reference to DSM-III-R in any of these reports. (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders, III, Revised)
m. Are you reading from the POMS-V chart? (Profile of Mood States, Vigor)
n. She told that the scan showed no damage at C5-C6, but the results for ganglia T2-T4 were
inconclusive.
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RULE 157
Use hyphens between letters of words that are spelled out.
EXAMPLES
a. My name is Barbara-Jean Fordham, F-o-r-d-h-a-m.
b. That’s McDougall, M-c, capital D-o-u-g-a, double l.
c. The tiles were imbricated, i-m-b-r-i-c-a-t-e-d. They were patterned and overlapping.
NOTE
Some numerical expressions traditionally contain hyphens when spelled out. (See
Rule 125 Note.)
EXAMPLES
d. Nora called 9-1-1. (OR: 911)
e. They gave me a 1-800 number.
f. I used star-69 to trace the call. (Also in the telephone directory as “press *69 if you have a TouchTone service.”)
RULE 158
Use a hyphen when a letter is used as an adjective, a prefix, or part of a verb.
EXAMPLES
a. I made a U-turn onto Route 130. (sometimes spoken as a “U-ey” or “U-ie”)
b. She was wearing an A-line dress.
c. It was a T-intersection.
d. I was sitting in an L-shaped room.
e. It was a gold S-chain necklace.
f. My car was T-boned when the van ran the light.
EXCEPTIONS: T cells, T square, V neck
NOTE
Sometimes a lowercased letter represents a shortened version of a word and is
hyphened to the noun that follows.
EXAMPLES
g. We were outside playing b-ball when the fire started.
h. She had three c-sections in that same hospital.
i. None of the e-mail was retrieved.
RULE 159
Figures from twenty-one to ninety-nine are hyphened if they are spelled out at the
beginning of a sentence. Fractions that are spelled out are also hyphened.
EXAMPLES
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a. Twenty-five witnesses have appeared to date.
b. We need the approval of five-sixths of this jury.
c. One-half of the estate is hers, and one-half is mine.
NOTE
If a number is vague and the expression odd or some-odd appears within the
expression, use a hyphen for clarity. Words or figures may be used for the numbers.
(See Rule 190g, 190h, 190i.)
EXAMPLES
d. Would you say that the contract runs about 20-odd pages?
e. I didn’t recognize him. I hadn’t seen him in 30 some-odd years.
If a number is vague and includes the word some, a hyphen may or may not be used,
depending on the position of the word.
EXAMPLES
f. We were missing some eighty dollars at the end of the day. (no hyphen when some comes before
the numerical expression)
g. We were missing eighty-some dollars at the end of the day. (hyphen when some comes between
or after the numerical expression)
h. The property cost a hundred-some thousand dollars.
i. If you’re talking about houses alone, I’ve built well over five hundred-some.
If the fraction is expressed with the word a in front of it, do not use the hyphen
unless the phrase is a compound modifier before a noun.
EXAMPLES
j. I saw him a half hour later, and he liked sick and disturbed.
k. My contribution was a sixth of everything I owned.
l. Our estimates were off by a quarter of a point.
m. Who can account for the loss of a half-million widgets? (compound modifier before the noun
widgets)
n. I asked her to take a half-dozen boxes, and I took a half dozen. (compound modifier before the
noun boxes)
RULE 160
Do not use hyphens in civil or military titles that suggest one office.
EXAMPLES
a. Our vice president was the only one from the company who had acces to that file.
b. The new editor in chief changed personnel without consultation or advice from anyone.
c. When you became the chief of police, did your salary change?
NOTE
If a prefix or suffix is added to these titles, the titles are hyphened.
Complied by Marla Sharp, Oct ‘13
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EXAMPLES
d. The ex-vice-president became a member of the board.
e. The vice-president-elect was a member of that committee from the outset.
RULE 161
Do not use a hyphen between an adverb that ends in ly and a participle. (See Rule 63
Note for the definition of an adverb. See Rule 61 Note for the definition of a
participle.)
EXAMPLES
a. The newly completed house burned before the insurance was purchased.
b. His viciously planned deed backfired.
c. We are conducting a professionally oriented survey.
d. We are a wholly owned subsidiary.
e. Is Fletcher a publicly traded company?
Test the sentence for the hyphen by removing the participle completed or planned
from the sentence. If what remains does not make sense, do not use the hyphen.
(Hint: No sense, no hyphen.)
NOTE
If the sentence does make sense with the participle removed, the ly word is an
adjective, not an adverb. The hyphen is used between ly adjectives and participles.
(See Time Out for Hyphen Anxiety, page 87.)
EXAMPLES
f. He is a worldly-minded man.
g. She told me I had a homely-faced child.
h. We were at a family-oriented amusement park.
RULE 162
Do not use hyphen between the adverbs more, most, and less and an adjective.
EXAMPLES
a. The witnesses have offered most compelling evidence.
b. The more important question still remains unanswered.
NOTE
Do hyphen other superlative or comparative forms of adverbs to participles, or
adjectives that precede nouns, but check the dictionaries and style books to see if 114
any of the words have grown together and dropped the hyphen. Dictionaries do
not agree on the spelling of some superlatives as compound adjectives. Note the
following acceptable variations: best selling, best-selling, bestselling.
EXAMPLES
c. A faster-moving vehicle would have killed her.
d. Even our best-loved employees were not invited.
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e. I showed her our largest-sized Jacuzzi. (also largest-size)
f. He chose the least-desirable lighting, in my opinion.
g. In the worst-case scenario, our loss would be in the millions.
h. The least-famous brother owned all the real estate.
i. A less-determined woman would have quit.
RULE 163
Use a hyphen for the suffix like when it is added to a proper adjective or to a
word that ends in l. For all other words, do not the hyphen.
EXAMPLES
a. We were in a Wright-like building, a mansion.
b. The June-like weather is why so many people were outside when the accident happened.
c. The voice I heard had a bell-like quality.
d. Her childlike answers are a deception, your Honor.
e. He would never conduct himself in a businesslike way.
RULE 164
Generally, the suffixes ish, wise, and type are added without using a hyphen.
EXAMPLES
a. I met her around sevenish at night.
b. He was tall and largeish, and had a New Yorkish accent.
c. I think it was nine-thirtyish or tenish.
d. Her girlish charm, stylish manner, and sheepish grin swayed everyone to her opinion.
e. She can be so selfish and standoffish.
Sometimes the final e is retained and sometimes it is not retained. Consult the
dictionary often to confirm optional spelling.
blueish devilish hellish oneish mulish
darkish fiveish oldish smallish youngish
In those instances where clarity is lost because a speaker coins an expression, the
hyphen may be used.
EXAMPLE
f. Q Did you tell her yes or no?
A Well, I gave her a no-ish answer.
The suffix wise is sometimes added to words by nervous, tentative, and poor
speakers. If adding a suffix to a one-syllable or two-syllable construction
causes no difficulty, writing the word without a hyphen is correct. Generally,
use hyphens to eliminate all chance of misreading or misunderstanding. Also
use the hyphen for proper nouns.
EXAMPLES
g. Sorrow-wise, she never shed a tear when he died.
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h. Debtwise, he owed me lots.
i. Taxwise and dollarwise, I stood to gain from the deal.
j. I’m busy November-wise, but I have no plans Christmas-wise.
k. She was orphaned at ten and streetwise by eleven.
l. We rotated counterclockwise every hour to prevent boredom.
EXCEPTION: penny-wise
When type is added to a word or phrase and that expression becomes an
adjective, use a hyphen or hyphens.
EXAMPLES
m. We mailed a computer-type document.
n. It was a magnetic-type player, and it was ordered by our take-charge-type manager.
o. No one ever gave me any end-of-the-year-type receipts.
p. The divider-file-type thing had other numbers written on it.
q. I was there for a certificate for, like, an on-the-job-learning-type thing.
r. We found it in a family-area-type room.
s. He told me I had a repetitive-motion-type injury.
If no noun immediately follows the word type, do not use a hyphen to connect
type to the phrase.
EXAMPLES
t. He is the heroic type; she is the cool-as-a-cucumber type.
u. Fred is a meat-and-potatoes type of guy. (of follows type)
v. Is this a get-rich-quick type of scheme?
w. I was in a duck-and-run type of situation.
The suffixes long, proof, sick, and wide are generally added to words without
a hyphen.
EXAMPLES
x. What we did was create a childproof room for Sammy’s yearlong stay in the cottage.
y. I was trying to help a heartsick, homesick student.
z. A statewide and nationwide search yielded no clues.
RULE 165
Generally, write as one word any word ending in ache, book, fold, house, 116
room, shop, skin, or work. Consult a dictionary often because there are
exceptions to this general rule.
headache notebook recovery room paperwork
stomachache blindfold courtroom sheepskin
toothache trifold workshop pigskin
handbook roominghouse machineshop
stylebook boardinghouse artwork
textbook homeroom busywork
Complied by Marla Sharp, Oct ‘13
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EXAMPLES
a. I started out with a backache.
b. They were contracted to repair the bedroom and the living room.
c. We had a twofold increase with the new ad.
d. The workshop was upstairs but the leather shop was downstairs.
RULE 166
Do not hyphen foreign expressions or proper nouns when they modify nouns.
EXAMPLES
a. The ad hoc committee made four proposals.
b. In this matter consider the prima facie evidence carefully.
c. We planned to dine at a Bay Area restaurant.
d. She never paid me for the Kentucky Derby ticket.
RULE 167
Hyphen family terms that use the prefix great or the phrase in-law. Do not
hyphen the family terms grand or step. For capitalization rules with family
titles, see Rule 216 and Rule 216 Note.
EXAMPLES
a. My great-grandmother owned the property first and then gave it to my grandmother.
b. Rose is my great-aunt.
c. Her stepson had his name put on the deed.
EXCEPTION: The dialectal expression young-uns when attached to grand may
be misread: grandyoung-uns. Using a hyphen eliminates the misreading:
grand-young-uns. Also great-grand-young-uns.
RULE 168
Using a hyphen between two nouns that show that one person has more than
one function or that one thing has more than one purpose or that two people
share a common assumption. (See also Rule 279.)
actor-director
student-learner
work-study
attorney-client
stuffer-roaster
writer-actor
doctor-patient
owner-occupant
founder-owner
politician-statesman
EXAMPLES
a. I was a clerk-typist for three years.
b. We had just returned home from the dinner-dance.
c. No one received a tax statement from the auditor-treasurer.
d. I maintained and repaired the picker-sorter machines
e. Everyone in the D’Angelo-Long household drove the Jaguar.
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NOTE
Use a hyphen between two proper nouns that act as a one-thought modifier.
EXAMPLES
f. Here is a copy of the Taft-Hartley Act.
g. I met them in the Cream Ridge-Allentown area.
h. We are at a Chinese-American restaurant.
i. They left on a Dallas-Chicago flight.
CAUTION
A dash may be used between the two proper nouns if a hyphen already
exists within the name of either proper noun.
EXAMPLES
j. I’m talking about the Mason-Dixon – Pennsylvania area.
k. My family lives in the Wilkes-Barre – Scranton section of Pennsylvania.
RULE 169
Always consult an unabridged dictionary to check words when in doubt as
to whether they arte written as two words, hyphened, or as a single word.
] Remember that two words go through periods of transition and evolution if
they are used together often. First, the words appear separately: eye witness.
Next, the words grow closer together: eye-witness. Finally, the words join:
eyewitness. The process of growing together, like a romance, may take many
years or just a few. Unlike a romance, however, when the words become
joined, they stay joined.
EXAMPLES
a. Backyard is one word; front yard is two words.
b. Catercornered and cater-cornered are both acceptable.
c. Crosswise is one word; cross-examine is hyphened.
d. Ice-skate is hyphened as a verb and written ice skate as a noun.
e. Trademark has become one word.
f. You-all is forever engaged with a hyphen, never to be married, in my opinion, as are ither
dialectal words like young-un, meaning “young one.” (See Time Out for You-All, page 86.)
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FRACTIONS
Rules by AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK RULES
fractions
Spell out amounts less than 1 in stories, using hyphens between the words: two-thirds,
four-fifths, seven-sixteenths, etc.
Use figures for precise amounts larger than 1, converting to decimals whenever practical.
When using fractional characters, remember that most newspaper type fonts can set only 1/8, 1/4, 3/8,
1/2, 5/8, 3/4 and 7/8 as one unit; for mixed numbers, use 1 1/2, 2 5/8, etc. with a full space between the
whole number and the fraction.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
HYPHEN.37: Do not hyphenate fractions when they are used as nouns.
Two thirds of the men in the lineup are repeat offenders.
I think it was estimated at three fourths.
The estimate is one fifth of those involved.
Write out fractions when they stand alone without a whole number and when they are not part of a list
of numbers that are in figures.
We will increase that by two thirds.
Three fourths of the population is afflicted with this.
It will add one third to the package.
HYPHEN.38: Hyphenate fractions used as direct adjectives, those that are right in front of the noun they
modify.
It passed by a two-thirds vote.
We need a three-fourths majority.
This is a one-third increase.
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Page 1
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16TH EDITION)
9.14 Simple fractions
Simple fractions are spelled out. For the sake of readability and to lend an appearance of consistency,
they are hyphenated in noun, adjective, and adverb forms. In the rare event that individual parts of a
quantity are emphasized, however, as in the last example, the fraction is spelled open. See also 7.85,
section 1, under fractions, simple. For decimal fractions, see 9.19.
She has read three-fourths of the book.
Four-fifths of the students are boycotting the class.
I do not want all of your material; two-thirds is quite enough.
A two-thirds majority is required.
but
We divided the cake into four quarters; I took three quarters, and my brother one.
9.15 Whole numbers plus fractions
Quantities consisting of whole numbers and simple fractions may be spelled out if short but are often
better expressed in numerals (especially if a symbol for the fraction is available, as in the examples
here). For decimal fractions, see 9.19. For fractions in mathematical text, see 12.45. See also 9.17, 10.69.
We walked for three and one-quarter miles.
I need 6⅞ yards of the silk fabric.
Lester is exactly 3 feet 5¼ inches tall.
Letters are usually printed on 8½″ × 11″ paper.
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (TENTH EDITION)
427(b)
When a fraction is spelled out, hyphenate the numerator and the denominator unless either element
already contains a hyphen. NOTE: Some authorities hyphenate simple fractions (those that require only
a single word for the numerator and denominator) when they are used as adjectives but not as nouns.
(a two-thirds majority but two thirds of the votes).
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Page 2
MORSON’S
RULE 173
Generally, spell out fractions when they are not part of a mixed number.
EXAMPLES
a. The approval of two-thirds of the organization in required by law.
b. Out feet contain one-fourth of all the 205 bones that are in our bodies.
c. The accident occurred three-quarters of a mile before Exhibit 146.
For technical or long fractions and for musical time references, you may use digits.
EXAMPLES
d. I erred when I measured it at 5/32 of an inch. (spoken as five thirty-seconds of an inch)
e. The first, second, and third entries should be 7/32, 9/32, and 13/32 of an inch. I regret my mistake.
f. We argued about the 3/4 time versus the 4/4 time that I wanted him to write the song in. (spoken as
three-quarter time, four-four time
NOTE
When fractions are part of a mixed number (a whole number and a fraction), use figures. Case fractions
are preferred if the keyboard has them. If not, separate the whole number from the fraction with one
space, and use a slant, or virgule, to separate the elements of the fraction.
EXAMPLES
i. She ordered a board 14 ¾ inches long and 20 ½ inches wide.
j. The infant was 6 ½ months old.
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HYPHEN WITH “LIKE” & “WISE” ENDINGS
Rules from AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK
-wise No hyphen when it means in the direction of or with regard to. Some examples:
clockwise
otherwise
lengthwise slantwise
Avoid contrived combinations such as moneywise, religionwise.
The word penny-wise is spelled with a hyphen because it is a compound adjective in which wise means
smart, not an application of the suffix -wise. The same for street-wise in the street-wise youth (an
exception to Webster's New World College Dictionary).
AVOID DUPLICATED VOWELS, TRIPLED CONSONANTS: Examples: anti-intellectual, pre-empt, shell-like.
-wide No hyphen. Some examples:
citywide
nationwide
continentwide
statewide
countrywide
worldwide
industrywide
-like
Do not precede this suffix by a hyphen unless the letter l would be tripled or the main element is a proper
noun:
bill-like
Norwalk-like
businesslike
shell-like
An exception is flu-like.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION RULE
HYPHEN.9: Add the suffix -like to form a solid word for regular words unless the word ends in two l’s,
where the suffix is hyphenated.
It is a lifelike replica of him.
It is a churchlike structure.
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Page 1
He seemed childlike in his speech.
It had a bell-like shape.
The ball-like object landed at my feet.
There was a shell-like design in the wallpaper.
HYPHEN.10: Add the suffix -wise to make a solid word for regular words. In some of the more
"unusual" combinations, hyphenate the suffix -wise.
It was shoved into the space lengthwise.
I could not get a word in edgewise.
He turned it in a clockwise direction.
What do I do with this sentence punctuation-wise?
Statistics-wise, this is a wash.
He is very conscientious environmental-wise.
The suffix -wise should be added to a word to make it an adverb: e.g, lengthwise, edgewise. It is being
used on the ends of many words today where it was never intended to be used. These words become
almost "coined" words, and the suffix is usually best hyphenated rather than combined into a solid
word.
HYPHEN.11: When a compound noun is multiple words, whether hyphenated or separate words,
hyphenate the suffix to the end of the last word.
It was an assembly line-like job.
Social security-wise, the figures were of no value to me.
Runs-batted-in-wise, he is below his usual production.
831 d. When a compound modifier consists of two or more hyphenated phrases, separate the phrases
with a comma.
A penny-wise, pound-foolish approach to handling money.
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16TH EDITION)
5.154 Adverbs with suffixes
Many adjectives have corresponding adverbs distinguished by the suffix -ly or, after most words ending
in -ic, -ally {slow–slowly} {careful–carefully} {public–publicly} {pedantic–pedantically}. Most adjectives
ending in -y preceded by a consonant change the -y to -i when the suffix is added, but some do not
{happy–happily} {shy–shyly}. A few adjectives ending in -e drop the vowel {true–truly} {whole–wholly}. If
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an adjective ends in -le and it is sounded as part of a syllable, it is replaced with -ly {terrible–terribly}
{simple–simply}. An adjective that ends in a double -l takes only a -y suffix {dull–dully}. Many adjectives
ending in -le or -ly do not make appealing adverbs {juvenile–juvenilely} {silly–sillily}. If an -ly adverb looks
clumsy (e.g., ghastlily or uglily), either rephrase the sentence or use a phrase (e.g., in a ghastly manner
or in an ugly way). Adverbial suffixes are sometimes added to phrases {replied matter-of-factly}. Some
terms are compounded with nouns to form adverbs {he rides cowboy-style}; a few nouns form adverbs
by taking the ending -ways {side–sideways}, -ward {sky–skyward}, or -wise {clock–clockwise}.
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL RULE (SIXTH EDITION)
Avoid the temptation to coin new words by attaching the suffix wise to various nouns. (Stylewise, it’s
considered bad form.)
NOT: Costwise, we’re already 20 percent over budget.
BUT: We’re already 20 percent over budget on costs.
NOT: Sizewise, what comes after extra large? Gross? (Even when used in a conscious attempt at humor, the approach
leaves much to be desired. Once again, avoid the temptation.)
BUT: In terms of size, what comes after extra large? Gross?
NOTE: A number of words ending in wise are quite acceptable:
clockwise
crosswise
lengthwise
otherwise
counterclockwise
edgewise
likewise
sidewise.
In these examples above, wise is a suffix meaning "with regard to" or "in the manner of." Wise (in the
sense of "knowledgeable about") is also used in compound adjectives like these:
penny-wise
weather-wise
worldly-wise
streetwise
Such words are also quite acceptable.
MORSON’S
RULE 164
Generally, the suffixes ish, wise, and type are added without using a hyphen.
EXAMPLES
a. I met her around sevenish at night.
b. He was tall and largeish, and had a New Yorkish accent.
c. I think it was nine-thirtyish or tenish.
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d. Her girlish charm, stylish manner, and sheepish grin swayed everyone to her opinion.
e. She can be so selfish and standoffish.
Sometimes the final e is retained and sometimes it is not retained. Consult the dictionary often to
confirm optional spelling.
blueish
devilish
darkish
fiveish
hellish
oldish
oneish
smallish
mulish
youngish
In those instances where clarity is lost because a speaker coins an expression, the hyphen may be used.
EXAMPLE
f.
Q Did you tell her yes or no?
A Well, I gave her a no-ish answer.
The suffix wise is sometimes added to words by nervous, tentative, and poor speakers. If adding a suffix
to a one-syllable or two-syllable construction causes no difficulty, writing the word without a hyphen is
correct. Generally, use hyphens to eliminate all chance of misreading or misunderstanding. Also use the
hyphen for proper nouns.
EXAMPLES
g. Sorrow-wise, she never shed a tear when he died.
h. Debtwise, he owed me lots.
i. Taxwise and dollarwise, I stood to gain from the deal.
j. I’m busy November-wise, but I have no plans Christmas-wise.
k. She was orphaned at ten and streetwise by eleven.
l. We rotated counterclockwise every hour to prevent boredom.
EXCEPTION: penny-wise
When type is added to a word or phrase and that expression becomes an adjective, use a hyphen or
hyphens.
EXAMPLES
m. We mailed a computer-type document.
n. It was a magnetic-type player, and it was ordered by our take-charge-type manager.
o. No one ever gave me any end-of-the-year-type receipts.
p. The divider-file-type thing had other numbers written on it.
q. I was there for a certificate for, like, an on-the-job-learning-type thing.
r. We found it in a family-area-type room.
s. He told me I had a repetitive-motion-type injury.
If no noun immediately follows the word type, do not use a hyphen to connect type to the phrase.
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EXAMPLES
t. He is the heroic type; she is the cool-as-a-cucumber type.
u. Fred is a meat-and-potatoes type of guy. (of follows type)
v. Is this a get-rich-quick type of scheme?
w. I was in a duck-and-run type of situation.
The suffixes long, proof, sick, and wide are generally added to words without a hyphen.
EXAMPLES
x. What we did was create a childproof room for Sammy’s yearlong stay in the cottage.
y. I was trying to help a heartsick, homesick student.
z. A statewide and nationwide search yielded no clues.
MERRIAM-WEBSTER
-wise
adverb combining form
: in the position or direction of
: in the manner of
: with regard to
1a : in the manner of <crabwise> <fanwise>
b : in the position or direction of <slantwise> <clockwise>
2: with regard to : in respect of <dollarwise>
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/-wise
STYLE SHEET: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
From:
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=hyphenate%20wise%20endings%20chicago&source=web&cd=6&cad=rja&ved=0CFUQFjAF&url=htt
p%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fus%2Fnotesforauthors%2Fcambridge_style.doc&ei=nAOEUbqTJq3qiQLKv4CQDQ&usg=AFQjCNHj8XvOZJE
IISHaoSfCcM0mhdZ25Q&bvm=bv.45960087,d.cGE
3. Short or simple words with the suffixes "like," "wise," "wide," will be closed up
•
citywide but commonsense-like
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HYPHENS WITH “PART-TIME” & “FULL-TIME”
Rules by Merriam-Webster, AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
SHORT ANSWER (from BGGP):
ADJECTIVE: Hyphenate in front of a noun.
part-time job
ADJECTIVE: After a condition verb (e.g., is, are, am, was, were) no hyphen because it is not in front of the word it
modifies.
I was part time.
I am part time.
We were full time.
The job is full time.
ADVERB: After a word like "work," it is an adverb and needs the hyphen.
I work full-time.
MERRIAM-WEBSTER
part–time adjective \ˈpärt-ˈtīm\
: working or involving fewer hours than is considered normal or standard
: involving or working less than customary or standard hours <a part–time job> <part–time students>
— part–time adverb
— part–tim·er noun
full–time adjective
1: employed for or involving full time <full–time employees> <full–time work>
2: devoting one's full attention and energies to something <a full–time gambler>
— full–time adverb
full time noun
: the amount of time considered the normal or standard amount for working during a given period
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AP STYLEBOOK RULES
part time, part-time Hyphenate when used as a compound modifier: She works part time. She has
a part-time job.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
Hyphen.29: When the adjective that is a unit comes after the noun it modifies, do not use a hyphen.
I have long-range plans to go to graduate school.
My plans for graduate school are long range.
It is a one-way street.
The street is one way.
His far-reaching goals are admirable.
It is admirable that his goals are far reaching.
This rule applies mainly to predicate adjectives and appositive adjectives. Simply put, when the adjective
is in front of the noun it modifies, it is hyphenated; when it is not in front of the noun it modifies, it is
not hyphenated.
Special note should be made of words like "full-time" and "part-time." The dictionary shows each word
with a hyphen as both an adjective and an adverb. When it is in front of a noun, it is an adjective and
thus needs the hyphen. When it is after a condition verb -- e.g., is, are, am, was, were -- it is an adjective
but does not take the hyphen because it is not in front of the word it modifies. However, if it follows a
word like "work" as in "I work full-time," it is an adverb and needs the hyphen.
He has a full-time job.
The job is full time.
He works full-time.
In other words, it is important to know the part of speech of the word you are dealing with. This is just
another advertisement for knowing and understanding the grammar issues in a sentence.
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16TH EDITION)
adjective + noun
small- state senators
a high-quality alkylate
a middle-class neighborhood
the neighborhood is middle class
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Hyphenated before but not after a noun.
MORSON’S
RULE 148
Generally, when two or more words are combined to form a compound adjective that expresses a single
idea, these words are hyphened when they precede the noun they modify. The compound adjective that
is formed may include several different parts of speech. When in doubt, consult a dictionary.
f. The driver signaled for a left-hand turn. (adj. + noun before a noun)
black-tie affair
wearing a black tie
high-speed chase
going at high speed
low-back pain
pain in my low back
low-cost housing
purchased for a low cost
low-cut dress
a dress that is low cut
low-grade headache
a headache that is low grade
low-income rentals earning
a low income
low-life bum
a lowlife
g. They advertised for a full-time position, but they told me I could work part-time only, not full-time.
(adj. + noun before the noun or as an adverb)
a full-automatic (a firearm)
full-dress banquet
full-length coat
INTERNET SITES
From http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/grammarlogs3/grammarlogs456.htm:
When part-time or full-time precede a word, they are always hyphenated, as in part-time faculty
members and full-time students. When these words appear elsewhere in a sentence, they will
continue to contain hyphens as long as they are used as adjectives or adverbs, as in "I work parttime" and "His new appointment is full-time."
Authority: The Gregg Reference Manual by William A. Sabin. 9th Edition. McGraw-Hill: New York. 2001.
Used with the consent of Glencoe/McGraw-Hill. p. 208.
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HYPHENS WITH PREFIXES
Rules by AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
(incomplete)
NOTE FROM MARLA:
General rule of thumb: Most words do not need a hyphen with a prefix. Always check a wellrespected dictionary first (Merriam-Webster, American Heritage), especially when it comes to words
with prefixes like "semi" or "pre," etc.
Trick: If it's not listed, look up the definition of the actual prefix, because dictionaries like MerriamWebster will often list a bunch of words within the definition of the prefix.
Rules: But you do need a hyphen in these scenarios:
1) if the prefix is before a capitalized noun (pre-Reagan) or a number (pre-1999)
2) before a compound term (non-self-sustaining)
3) to separate two of the same syllables, but always check the dictionary first (e.g., preeminent,
reemerge, but anti-inflammatory)
4) to prevent ambiguity (consider recreate, meaning to take leisure, vs. re-create, meaning to create
again)
5) when a prefix or combining form stands alone, such as over- and underused, macro- and
microeconomics (suspended hyphen)
6) always hyphenate the prefix “self-“ (self-sufficient, self-sustaining, self-medicated) unless it’s in the
dictionary as one word (selfsame, selfless, selfish)
AP STYLEBOOK
prefixes See separate listings for commonly used prefixes.
Generally do not hyphenate when using a prefix with a word starting with a consonant.
Three rules are constant, although they yield some exceptions to first-listed spellings in Webster's New World
College Dictionary:
–Except for cooperate and coordinate, use a hyphen if the prefix ends in a vowel and the word that follows begins
with the same vowel.
–Use a hyphen if the word that follows is capitalized.
–Use a hyphen to join doubled prefixes: sub-subparagraph.
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extra- Do not use a hyphen when extra means outside of unless the prefix is followed by a word beginning with
a or a capitalized word:
extralegal
extraterrestrial
extramarital
extraterritorial
Follow extra- with a hyphen when it is part of a compound modifier describing a condition beyond the usual size,
extent or degree:
extra-base hit
extra-large book
extra-dry drink
extra-mild taste
pre- The rules in prefixes apply. The following examples of exceptions to first-listed spellings in Webster's New
World College Dictionary are based on the general rule that a hyphen is used if a prefix ends in a vowel and the
word that follows begins with the same vowel:
pre-election
pre-establish
pre-eminent
pre-exist
pre-empt
Otherwise, follow Webster's New World College Dictionary, hyphenating if not listed there. Some examples:
prearrange
prehistoric
precondition
preignition
precook
prejudge
predate
premarital
predecease
prenatal
predispose
prenuptial
preflight
pretax
pregame
pretest
preheat
prewar
Some hyphenated coinage, not listed in the dictionary:
pre-convention
pre-noon
re- The rules in prefixes apply. The following examples of exceptions to first-listed spellings in
Webster's New World College Dictionary are based on the general rule that a hyphen is used if a prefix
ends in a vowel and the word that follows begins with the same vowel:
re-elect
re-enlist
re-election
re-enter
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re-emerge
re-entry
re-employ
re-equip
re-enact
re-establish
re-engage
re-examine
For many other words, the sense is the governing factor:
recover (regain)
re-cover (cover again)
reform (improve)
re-form (form again)
resign (quit)
re-sign (sign again)
Otherwise, follow Webster's New World College Dictionary. Use a hyphen for words not listed there
unless the hyphen would distort the sense.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
18.1: THE HYPHEN: PREFIXES
Nothing replaces using an up-to-date dictionary for hyphenation issues. However, it is important to
recognize a couple of things in regard to prefixes:
•
•
•
There is wide variation in listings even among the most reputable dictionaries. What is found as
one word in one dictionary may be hyphenated in another.
Some words are in transition; that is, they are in the process of going from hyphenated to one
word. It is a matter of becoming accustomed to the "look" of the new form sometimes.
Additionally, there is not room to list every word to which a prefix might be added; so some
words will not be found in the dictionary.
With the weird combinations we get in reporting, it is always best to aim for clarity and readability when
considering whether to add the prefix and make a solid word or to hyphenate the combination.
HYPHEN.1: Add common prefixes directly to the front of a word to form a solid word.
postmortem
nonentity
ultraviolet
prenuptial
superpowers
subnormal
redo
subtext
hypoglycemia
DISCUSSION
Though historically some of these words might have been hyphenated, there is simply no reason to
continue to use a hyphen. The words are perfectly readable and a little less bulky as solid words.
Note that in some words this combination will result in a double letter in the spelling.
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dissatisfied
coordinate
unnecessary
interrelated
reenter
posttraumatic
Here are the exceptions to this general rule, the occasions when the prefix should he hyphenated to the
word rather than forming a solid word.
HYPHEN.2: Hyphenate the prefix to the word when the word being created already exists in the
language with a different meaning.
He wanted to multiply the holdings of the company by three. This project calls for multi-ply boards.
The chicken coops in her backyard were a problem for the neighbors. He belongs to a farming co-op in the
city.
He works in a unionized shop. It is an un-ionized compound.
DISCUSSION
Many, though not all, of these words involve the prefix re- when it means "again."
We enjoyed the recreation site near the resort. This is a re-creation of the events of the evening.
His decision to resign seemed sudden.
He had to return to the bank and re-sign all the loan papers.
He received redress for the injuries sustained.
She was told to completely re-dress to be appropriate for the occasion.
HYPHEN.3: Hyphenate the prefix to the word when the word is a proper noun, that is, when it is a
capitalized word.
I am anticipating a mid-June release. It is a pro-Republican point of view.
His behavior was thought of as un-American.
DISCUSSION
It is worth noting that, except in proper names like LeeAnn and McGrath, we do not have a capital letter
in the middle of a word in English.
HYPHEN.4: Hyphenate certain vowel combinations that do not normally exist in the language or that
form combinations that are difficult to read.
He complained of intra-abdominal pain. It is an anti-inflammatory drug.
It was an intra-accounting department problem.
DISCUSSION
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There are some vowel combinations that, with very few exceptions, do not exist in the language, e.g., aa
and ii. When adding the prefix, then, these combinations should be hyphenated.
Some vowel combinations are hard to read and may thus cause some confusion. If hyphenating the
combination is clearer than creating a solid word, then it should be done. Note that this is often a
matter of personal preference, in which case transcripts may differ on these words.
You are going to need to re-ask that question.
Reask perhaps looks like a one-syllable word.
The vowel combinations that are common in regular words in the language -- for example, ee and ea
and ei -- are no problem. These prefixes can usually be added and made into a solid word without
readability issues. Again, checking a reliable dictionary is helpful.
reemphasize
cooperate
reapply
reorganize
preexisting
preinaugural
HYPHEN.5: Hyphenate certain prefixes when ease of reading is the issue.
He is a co-director of the company.
His co-workers did not have good things to say about him.
The ex-editor of the magazine was brought in.
DISCUSSION
There are prefixes for which the ease-of-reading issue is different depending upon what word it is being
added to. You might like exwife as one word but ex-auditor hyphenated.
In addition, two of us may differ on what we individually think is difficult to read. Is it exhusband or exhusband? The dictionary may or may not help with these decisions, and it too becomes at times a
matter of individual preference.
HYPHEN.6: Always hyphenate the prefix self-. If it is the root word, make it a solid word.
Her self-confidence is waning after the ordeal.
It is a self-serving conclusion.
The doctor stressed the importance of self-examination.
He had the selfsame idea.
It was clear she was a very selfish person.
His selfless efforts made the difference.
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HYPHEN.7: When a compound noun is more than one word, whether it is hyphenated or separate
words, hyphenate the prefix to the front of the first word.
That was in her pre-real estate days.
It happened to him in his post-free agent stage.
She had multi-in-law problems.
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16TH EDITION)
Words formed with prefixes
Compounds formed with prefixes are normally closed, whether they are nouns, verbs, adjectives, or
adverbs. A hyphen should appear, however, (1) before a capitalized word or a numeral, such a subSaharan, pre-1950; (2) before a compound term, such as non-self-sustaining, pre–Vietnam War (before
an open compound, an en dash is used; see 6.80 ); (3) to separate two i’s, two a’s, and other
combinations of letters or syllables that might cause misreading, such as anti-intellectual, extra-alkaline,
pro-life; (4) to separate the repeated terms in a double prefix, such as sub-subentry; (5) when a prefix or
combining form stands alone, such as over- and underused, macro- and microeconomics. The spellings
shown below conform largely to Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. Compounds formed with
combining forms not listed here, such as auto, tri, and para, follow the same pattern.
ante
antebellum, antenatal, antediluvian
anti
antihypertensive, antihero, but anti-inflammatory, anti-Hitlerian
bi
binomial, bivalent, bisexual
bio
bioecology, biophysical, biosociology
co
coequal, coauthor, coeditor, coordinate, cooperation, coworker, but co-op, co-opt
counter
counterclockwise, counterrevolution
cyber
cyberspace, cyberstore
extra
extramural, extrafine, but extra-administrative
fold
fourfold, hundredfold, but twenty-five-fold, 150-fold
hyper
hypertension, hyperactive, hypertext
infra
infrasonic, infrastructure
inter
interorganizational, interfaith
intra
intrazonal, intramural, but intra-arterial
macro
macroeconomics, macromolecular
mega
megavitamin, megamall, but mega-annoyance
meta
metalanguage, metaethical, but meta-analysis (not the same as metanalysis)
micro
microeconomics, micromethodical
midmidthirties, a midcareer event, midcentury, but mid-July, the mid-1990s, the mid-twentieth century, mid-twentiethcentury history
mini
minivan, minimarket
multi
multiauthor, multiconductor, but multi-institutional
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neoneonate, neoorthodox, Neoplatonism, neo-Nazi (neo lowercase or capital and hyphenated as in dictionary; lowercase
and hyphenate if not in dictionary)
non
nonviolent, nonevent, nonnegotiable, but non-beer-drinking
over
overmagnified, overshoes, overconscientious
post
postdoctoral, postmodernism, posttraumatic, but post-Vietnam, post–World War II (see 6.80 )
pre
premodern, preregistration, prewar, preempt, but pre-Columbian, Pre-Raphaelite (pre lowercase or capital
as in dictionary; lowercase if term is not in dictionary)
pro
proindustrial, promarket, but pro-life, pro-Canadian
proto
protolanguage, protogalaxy, protomartyr
pseudo
pseudotechnocrat, pseudomodern, but pseudo-Tudor
re
reedit, reunify, reproposition, but re-cover, re-creation (as distinct from recover, recreation)
semi
semiopaque, semiconductor, but semi-invalid
sub subbasement, subzero, subcutaneous
super
superannuated, supervirtuoso, superpowerful
supra
supranational, suprarenal, supraorbital, but supra-American
trans
transsocietal, transmembrane, transcontinental, transatlantic, but trans-American
ultra
ultrasophisticated, ultraorganized, ultraevangelical
un
unfunded, unneutered, but un-English, un-unionized
under
underemployed, underrate, undercount
6.80 En dashes with compound adjectives
The en dash can be used in place of a hyphen in a compound adjective when one of its elements consists
of an open compound or when both elements consist of hyphenated compounds (see 7.78). This
editorial nicety may go unnoticed by the majority of readers; nonetheless, it is intended to signal a more
comprehensive link than a hyphen would. It should be used sparingly, and only when a more elegant
solution is unavailable. As the first two examples illustrate, the distinction is most helpful with proper
compounds, whose limits are established within the larger context by capitalization. The relationship in
the third example, though clear enough, depends to some small degree on an en dash that many
readers will perceive as a hyphen connecting music and influenced. The relationships in the fourth
example, though also clear enough, are less awkwardly conveyed with a comma.
the post–World War II years
Chuck Berry–style lyrics
country music–influenced lyrics (or lyrics influenced by country music)
a quasi-public–quasi-judicial body (or, better, a quasi-public, quasi-judicial body)
A single word or prefix should be joined to a hyphenated compound by another hyphen rather than an
en dash; if the result is awkward, reword.
non-English-speaking peoples
a two-thirds-full cup (or, better, a cup that is two-thirds full)
An abbreviated compound is treated as a single word, so a hyphen, not an en dash, is used in such
phrases as “US-Canadian relations” (Chicago’s sense of the en dash does not extend to between).
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7.78 Some definitions
An open compound is spelled as two or more words (high school, lowest common denominator). A
hyphenated compound is spelled with one or more hyphens (mass-produced, kilowatt-hour, nonEnglish-speaking). A closed (or solid) compound is spelled as a single word (birthrate, notebook). A
permanent compound is one that has been accepted into the general vocabulary and can be found in
the dictionary (like all but one of the examples in this paragraph thus far). A temporary compound is a
new combination created for some specific, often one-time purpose (dictionary-wielding, impeachment
hound); such compounds, though some eventually become permanent, are not normally found in the
dictionary. Not strictly compounds but often discussed with them are words formed with prefixes
(antigrammarian, postmodern); these are dealt with in section 4 of 7.85. (For examples of combining
forms—a type of prefix in which a word like electric is modified to form a combination like
electromagnetic—see section 2 of 7.85, under combining forms.)
7.79 The trend toward closed compounds
With frequent use, open or hyphenated compounds tend to become closed (on line to on-line to online).
Chicago’s general adherence to Webster’s does not preclude occasional exceptions when the closed
spellings have become widely preferred by writers (e.g., website) and pronunciation and readability are
not at stake.
7.80 Hyphens and readability
A hyphen can make for easier reading by showing structure and, often, pronunciation. Words that might
otherwise be misread, such as re-creation or co-op, should be hyphenated. Hyphens can also eliminate
ambiguity. For example, the hyphen in much-needed clothing shows that the clothing is greatly needed
rather than abundant and needed. Where no ambiguity could result, as in public welfare administration
or graduate student housing, hyphenation is unnecessary.
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (SIXTH EDITION)
Prefixes and Suffixes
833 a. In general, do not use a hyphen to set off a prefix at the beginning of a word or a suffix at the end
of a word. (See ¶808b for two exceptions: ex- and -elect.)
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NOTE: Be wary of spell checkers that may urge you to insert hyphens after these prefixes.
b. Whenever necessary, use a hyphen to prevent one word from being mistaken for another. (See
¶837.)
lock the coop
multiply by 12
a unionized factory
buy a co-op
a multi-ply fabric
an un-ionized substance
c. As a rule, when adding a prefix to a hyphenated or spaced compound word, use a hyphen after the
prefix.
pre-Revolutionary War times
non-interest-bearing notes
post-World War I events
non-computer-literate adults
ex-attorney general
non-civil service position
EXCEPTIONS: coeditor in chief, unair-conditioned, unself-conscious
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d. When two or more prefixes have a common element and this element is shown only with the final
prefix, insert a suspending hyphen after each of the unattached prefixes to indicate a relationship with
the common element. (See ¶832.)
pre- and postnatal care
macro- and microeconomics
pro- and antiunion forces
maxi-, midi-, and miniskirts
inter- and intraoffice networks
over- and underqualified job applicants
e. When two or more suffixes have a common element, it is possible to leave one of the suffixes
unattached and insert a suspending hyphen to indicate the relationship with the common element; for
example, servicemen and -women. However, to avoid confusion or awkwardness, it is usually better to
repeat the common element with each suffix. (See ¶832.)
MORSON’S
RULE 153
Use the hyphen between prefixes and words that are capitalized, unusual, a number, or capable of
being, misread.
recharge
re-charge
recollect
re-collect
recreate
re-create
reform
re-form
remarked
re-marked
repose
re-posed
repress
re-press
research
re-search
resent
re-sent
resort
re-sort
retreat
re-treat
EXAMPLES
a. He said she was anti-Communist.
b. We thought of him as ultra-altruistic.
c. That figure represents our post-1987 projection.
d. We met in mid-November.
e. First, we argued about recovering the chair from the dealer.
f. Then, we argued about re-covering the chair ourselves.
g. I asked her to re-sign the paper because water had smeared her signature.
h. She was a co-worker, and we lived in the same co-op for two years.
i. They contracted 25 local sew-ers to do all the hems and embroidery.
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NOTE
Common prefixes such as anti, bi, co, counter, de, macro, micro, mid, mini, multi, non, post, pre, semi,
re, and others like them are generally printed solid, whether or not a vowel or consonant is doubled.
EXAMPLES
j. We want to deemphasize the negative.
k. They wanted to coordinate all efforts on this.
l. The antiwar protesters numbered two hundred.
m. The officers refused to reelect him after the scandal.
n. I wanted to preempt his scheduled speaker and he fired me.l
o. We observed a bruise on her left midthigh and midback. (The word mid, meaning “middle,” would stand
alone in a sentence like “The pain was in my upper back.”)
p. The preflow rate was up, and the postflow rate was down.
q. All posttrial motions must be reexamined.
r. My fee was nonnegotiable and nonrefundable.
s. I believe it was a semiautomatic.
Do not double a or i. Use the hyphen.
t. The negotiator seemed ultra-antagonistic.
u. They gave me anti-inflammatories.
v. I’d say it was a semi-indirect command, and I ignored it.
Dictionaries and stylebooks show that the prefixes pre and post are attached to words without the
hyphen: preeminent, preexist, premalignant, pretrial, posttrial motions, postdoctoral, posttibia,
posttraumatic epilepsy, posttympanic part, posttest, and postwar. Although Black’s Law Dictionary uses
the hyphens in expressions like post-trial discovery, post-trial motions, post-trial remedies, and postmortem, model the spellings in dictionaries like Webster’s Third New International and stylebooks like
Mary Louise Gilman’s One Word, Two Words, Hyphenated? that write these words solid. If nonwords or
coined words appear that require clarity, using the hyphen is acceptable.
EXAMPLES
w. Were these photos taken pre-theft or post-theft?
x. Can you tell us if this is a pre-zither or post-zither instrument?
y. Linda and Jack’s den is huge, so I guess I was about mid-den when I smelled the smoke.
RULE 154
Use a hyphen with the prefixes self and quasi. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex and then when they
mean “former.”
Compiled by Marla Sharp, RPR, CLR, CCRR, CSR, March ‘14
Page 11
EXAMPLES
a. We suggest that Rule 8 is self-explanatory.
b. Are you suggesting that he is using quasi-legal techniques?
c. I had not seen my ex-wife for three years.
d. I spoke to his then-wife about the insurance.
e. My exercise routine is self-directed.
NOTE
Selfhood, selfsame, and unselfconscious are not hyphened.
*************************************************************************************
AP Stylebook
(Online subscription: https://www.apstylebook.com/)
Margie Wakeman Wells' Court Reporting: Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation
(Online subscription not available. Paperback can be ordered here:
https://www.margieholdscourt.com/products/court-reporting-bad-grammargood-punctuation/)
Chicago Manual of Style
(Online subscription: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/subscription_opts.html)
Gregg Reference Manual
(Online subscription: http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0073545430/information_center_view0/)
Lillian Morson's English Guide for Court Reporters
(Online subscription not available. Paperback can be found on Amazon.com)
Compiled by Marla Sharp, RPR, CLR, CCRR, CSR, March ‘14
Page 12
HYPHEN – SUSPENDED HYPHENS
Rules from AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK
suspensive hyphenation
The form: The 5- and 6-year-olds attend morning classes.
The form: He received a 10- to 20-year sentence in prison.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION RULE
THE SUSPENSION HYPHEN
HYPHEN.39: When there are multiple compound adjectives that all share the same last element, an element that is
expressed only once at the end, use a hyphen for each element even when that means that the hyphen is suspended on
the end of the word.
There are first-, second-, and third-floor units.
It includes foreign- and domestic-built cars.
There were 500-, 600-, and 700-pound loads.
This is called the “suspension hyphen” and occurs because of our penchant to cut down the language. Instead of saying
“first grade, second grade, and third grade,” a person often says, “first, second, and third grades.” When these words
are used as direct adjectives, the suspension hyphen is used to indicate the missing element, e.g., “…first-, second-, and
third-grade students.”
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16TH EDITION)
7.84 Omission of part of a hyphenated expression
When the second part of a hyphenated expression is omitted, the hyphen is retained, followed by a space.
fifteen- and twenty-year mortgages
Chicago- or Milwaukee-bound passengers
but
a five-by-eight-foot rug (a single entity)
Omission of the second part of a solid compound follows the same pattern.
both over- and underfed cats
but
overfed and overworked mules (not overfed and -worked mules)
Compiled by Marla Sharp, RPR, CLR, CCRR, CSR, April ‘14
Page 1
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (SIXTH EDITION)
GREGG SUSPENDED HYPHEN RULES
Suspending Hyphen
832a.When a series of hyphenated adjectives has a common basic element and this element is shown only with the last
term, insert a suspending hyphen after each of the incomplete adjectives to indicate a relationship with the last term.
long- and short-term securities
10- and 20-year bonds
private- and public-sector partnerships
a three- or four-color cover
single-, double-, or triple-spaced copy
two- and four-wheel drive
ice- and snow-packed roads
8 ½- by 11-inch paper
open- and closed-door sessions
BUT: 8 ½" x 11" paper (see 432)
b. When the common element appears only at the start of the first term, insert a hyphen before each of the incomplete
adjectives to indicate a relationship with the first term. (See 833e.)
a well-known and -loved figure in the community
a better-planned and -executed session
c. Use one space after each suspending hyphen unless a comma is required at that point.
a six- to eight-week delay 3-, 5-, and 8-gallon buckets
a 10- to 12-hour trip 8-, 12-, and 24-month CDs
d. When two or more solid compound adjectives with a common element are used together (for example, lightweight
and heavyweight) and the common element is shown only with the last term, use a suspending hyphen with the
incomplete forms to indicate a relationship with the common element.
This product is available in light- and heavyweight versions.
Please provide day- and nighttime phone numbers.
NOTE: Repeat the common element with each word if the use of the suspending hyphen looks odd or confusing; for
example, boyfriend or girlfriend (rather than boy- or girlfriend).
For the use of a suspending hyphen with prefixes or suffixes, see 833d-e.
Prefixes and Suffixes
833 a. In general, do not use a hyphen to set off a prefix at the beginning of a word or a suffix at the end of a word. (See
808b for two exceptions: ex- and -elect.)
aftertaste (see 842)
ambidextrous
antedate
antitrust (see 834)
audiovisual
backward
biweekly
booklet
Compiled by Marla Sharp, RPR, CLR, CCRR, CSR, April ‘14
Page 2
byline BUT: by-product
censorship
changeable
childlike (see 846)
circumlocution
coauthor (see 835b)
computernik
convertible
counterbalance
decentralize (see 11835a)
downsizing
edgewise (see page 345)
extralegal
fiftyish
fireproof
forefront
freedom
ha ndsome
happiness
homestead
hypersensitive
hypocritical
illegal
immaterial
indefensible (see ¶843)
inducement
infrastructure
interoffice
intramural (see ¶834)
introversion
likelihood
macroeconomics
meaningful
micromanage
midwinter (see ¶844)
mini bike
misspell
misspelling
monosyllable
multitasking
nationwide (see 820c)
nonessential
offbeat (see 1845)
outsourcing
overconfident
paramedical
patronage
photograph
po4syllabic
posttest
prerequisite (see 835)
proactive
pseudoscientific
reorganize (see 837)
retroactive
semiannual (see 834)
sixfold
sonogram
subdivision
supernatural
supranaturaI
thankless (see 846)
transcontinental
trilateral
trustworthy
ultraconservative (see 834)
unaccustomed
undercurrent
uppermost
upshot
Compiled by Marla Sharp, RPR, CLR, CCRR, CSR, April ‘14
Page 3
NOTE: Be wary of spell checkers that may urge you to insert hyphens after these prefixes.
b. Whenever necessary, use a hyphen to prevent one word from being mistaken for another. (See 837.)
lock the coop
multiply by 12
a unionized factory
buy a co-op
a multi-ply fabric
an un-ionized substance
c. As a rule, when adding a prefix to a hyphenated or spaced compound word, use a hyphen after the prefix.
pre-Revolutionary War times
non-interest-bearing notes
post-World War I events
non-computer-literate adults
ex-attorney general
non-civil service position
EXCEPTIONS: coeditor in chief, unair-conditioned, unself-conscious
d. When two or more prefixes have a common element and this element is shown only with the final prefix, insert a
suspending hyphen after each of the unattached prefixes to indicate a relationship with the common element. (See
832.)
pre- and postnatal care
maxi-, midi-, and miniskirts
macro- and microeconomics
inter- and intraoffice networks
pro- and antiunion forces
over- and underqualified job applicants
e. When two or more suffixes have a common element, it is possible to leave one of the suffixes unattached and insert a
suspending hyphen to indicate the relationship with the common element; for example, servicemen and -women.
However, to avoid confusion or awkwardness, it is usually better to repeat the common element with each suffix. (See
832.)
AWKWARD: I thought Nancy's reaction was more thoughtless than -ful.
BETTER: I thought Nancy's reaction was more thoughtless than thoughtful.
AWKWARD: I would characterize his behavior as childlike rather than -ish.
BETTER: I would characterize his behavior as childlike rather than childish.
f. When elements that serve as prefixes are used as other parts of speech, do not attach them to the word that follows.
extralegal activities (activities not regulated by law; here extra is a prefix)
extra legal responsibilities (additional legal responsibilities; here extra is an adjective)
caught up in the undercurrent (here under is a prefix)
under current regulations (here under is a preposition)
g. When a prefix is followed by a hyphen in an organizational name, respect the organization's preference.
Anti-Defamation League
Community Anti-Drug Coalitions of America
When the prefix ends with a or i and the base word begins with the same letter, use a hyphen after the prefix to prevent
misreading.
ultra-active
anti-intellectual
semi-independent
intro-amdominal
anti-inflationary
multi-institutional
Compiled by Marla Sharp, RPR, CLR, CCRR, CSR, April ‘14
Page 4
834 When the prefix ends with e and the base word begins with the same letter, the hyphen is almost always omitted.
reedit
preeminent
BUT: de-emphasize
reeducate
preemployment
de-energize
reelect
preempt
de-escalate
reemphasize
preexisting
reemploy
BUT: pre-engineered
reenforce
pre-owned
b. When the prefix is co and the base word begins with o, use a hyphen except in a few commonly used words.
co-occurrence
co-opt
BUT: coordinate
co-official
co-organizer
cooperate
co-op
co-owner
cooperative
However, when the base word following co begins with a letter other than o, omit the hyphen.
coauthor
coedition *
copromoter
cocaptain
coeditor
copublisher
cochair
cofounder
cosign
coconspirator
copartner
cosigner
cocontributor
copayment *
cosponsor
codefendant
copilot
costar
codeveloper
coproducer
coworker
*Merriam-Webster hyphenates this word.
836 a. Use a hyphen after self when it serves as a prefix.
self-addressed
self-destruct
self-help
self-censorship
self-evident
self-important
self-confidence
self-fulfilling
self-paced
MORSON’S
RULE 155
Use more than one hyphen when an idea has one ending but two or more adjective choices preceding it. Type one space
after any items in the phrase before the conjunctions and, or.
EXAMPLES
a. I’m not sure if she said an 8-, or 80-foot boat.
b. We wanted a three- or four-month waiting period to be instituted.
c. She was a 12- or 13-year-old child.
d. We sell 6-, 12-, and 18-month notes.
NOTE
Because of the unpredictable choices speakers make, there can be a slight variation on the above principle.
Compiled by Marla Sharp, RPR, CLR, CCRR, CSR, April ‘14
Page 5
EXAMPLES
e. I think it was thirty-two or –three days after the payment was due.
f. He is my ex-everything: ex-husband, -friend, -partner.
g. Let’s mark this document with Bates Nos. N000573 through -600.
CAUTION A
If two different prefixes apply to one word, use a suspending hyphen for the unattached prefix and write the other form
of the word as solid.
h. The pre- and postflow rates were unaaceptable.
i. As I have told you, reports about the micro- and macrocephaly research never came to my office.
j. The same clerks prepared the pre- and posttrial motions.
CAUTION B
If a prefix is added to a hyphened or spaced compound noun, add a hyphen after the prefix and keep the compound
adjective as it originally appeared before adding the prefix.
EXAMPLES
k. She brought her post-high school records with her.
l. He spoke often of those pre-tax exempt days.
m. I list money because it’s a non-income-producing property.
n. Since it’s non-civil rights issue, we did not engage a lawyer.
o. Those were my mini-money market contributions.
p. He asked me to re-X-ray her leg.
*************************************************************************************
AP Stylebook
(Online subscription: https://www.apstylebook.com/)
Margie Wakeman Wells' Court Reporting: Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation
(Online subscription not available. Paperback can be ordered here:
https://www.margieholdscourt.com/products/court-reporting-bad-grammargood-punctuation/)
Chicago Manual of Style
(Online subscription: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/subscription_opts.html)
Gregg Reference Manual
(Online subscription: http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0073545430/information_center_view0/)
Lillian Morson's English Guide for Court Reporters
(Online subscription not available. Paperback can be found on Amazon.com)
Compiled by Marla Sharp, RPR, CLR, CCRR, CSR, April ‘14
Page 6
HYPHENS WITH “MID” WORDS
Rules from AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, Morson’s, and Merriam-Webster
AP STYLEBOOK
mid- No hyphen unless a capitalized word follows: midair, mid-America, mid-Atlantic, midsemester and
midterm.
But use a hyphen when mid- precedes a figure: mid-30s.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
HYPHEN.3: Hyphenate the prefix to the word when the word is a proper noun, that is, when it is a
capitalized word.
I am anticipating a mid-June release.
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16TH EDITION)
7.83 Multiple hyphens
Multiple hyphens are usually appropriate for such phrases as an over-the-counter drug or a winner-takeall contest. If, however, the compound modifier consists of an adjective that itself modifies a compound,
additional hyphens may not be necessary. The expressions late nineteenth-century literature and early
twentieth-century growth are clear without a second hyphen. (Similar expressions formed with mid—
which Chicago classifies as a prefix—do not follow this pattern; see 7.85, section 4, under mid.) See
also 7.85, section 3, under century.
From the CMOS hyphenation table: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/16/ch07/ch07_sec085.html
Mid -- midthirties, a midcareer event, midcentury, but mid-July, the mid-1990s, the mid-twentieth
century, mid-twentieth-century history.
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Page 1
From CMOS Q&A online:
http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/CMS_FAQ/HyphensEnDashesEmDashes/HyphensEnDashesEmDashes51.html
Hyphens, En Dashes, Em Dashes
Q. Is it your recommendation to still use a hyphen in a phrases like “mid-1985”? If so, then would it be best to write “mid- to late
1985”?
A. We are still apt to consider mid to be a prefix meaning “middle” in expressions like “mid-1985,” hence the hyphen. The status
of prefix means that mid- forms one word in combination, unless it is joined to a capital letter or a numeral, in which case a
hyphen is employed: midsentence, midcentury; but mid-July, mid-1985. Your solution of “mid- to late 1985” (short for “mid1985 to late 1985”) is impeccably logical, though some editors prefer the rather odd “mid-to-late 1985,” because the stray hyphen
might be misleading to some readers.
Perhaps life would be simpler if we could just say, following Webster’s, that mid is not a prefix; rather, it is an
adjective (sometimes it is an adverb or preposition) of the type seen in expressions like “mid Atlantic,” but it tends toward
hyphenated combination form. That would allow us to write “mid-1985,” giving in to the tendency toward combination, and
“mid to late 1985,” arguing that without proximity, there’s no attraction.
I would recommend having it both ways, especially if you don’t like either of the “mid to late” solutions involving
hyphens. Continue to grant prefix status to mid, allowing words like “midpurgatory,” but when mid strays from its partner, drop
the hyphen, allowing “mid to late 1985,” an expression that I think is entirely clear (it’s essentially the equivalent of “middle to
late 1985”).
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (SIXTH EDITION)
830 a. In general, do not use a hyphen to set off a prefix at the beginning of a word or a suffix at the end
of a word. (See 808a for two exceptions: ex- and –elect.)
midstream
A hyphen normally follows mid in an expression of age or time (as in mid-sixties). See 434, 439.
434 Spell out ages in nontechnical references and in formal writing.
Shirley is in her early forties; her husband is in his mid-sixties.
439 Decades may be expressed as follows:
the mid-1960s OR the mid-sixties OR the mid-‘60s
833. As a rule, do not use a hyphen to set off a prefix from the root word.
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Page 2
aftereffects
misspell
prerequisite
antitrust
multipurpose
retroactive
hypersensitive
nonessential
semiannual
MORSON’S
RULE 148a:
Generally, when two or more words are combined to form a compound adjective that expresses a single
idea, these words are hyphened when they precede the noun they modify. The compound adjective that
is formed may include several different parts of speech. When in doubt, consult a dictionary.
a mid-six-figure range
a range in the mid six figures (See Rule 153o.)
RULE 153:
Use the hyphen between prefixes and words that are capitalized, unusual, a number,
or capable of being, misread.
d. We met in mid-November.
NOTE
Common prefixes such as anti, bi, co, counter, de, macro, micro, mid, mini, multi, non, post, pre, semi,
re, and others like them are generally printed solid, whether or not a vowel or consonant is doubled.
o. We observed a bruise on her left midthigh and midback. (The word mid, meaning “middle,” would stand alone in a
sentence like “The pain was in my upper back.”)
If none of the words or coined words appear that require clarity, using the hyphen is acceptable.
EXAMPLES
y. Linda and Jack’s den is huge, so I guess I was about mid-den when I smelled the smoke.
RULE 177
Numbers referring to decades or ages may be spelled out or written as figures.
EXAMPLES
b. Our assets declined sharply in the mid-‘70s.
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RULE 190
Reporters and scopists must work together to decide what works best for transcript clarity when
speakers use a series of untraditional or incomplete numerical expressions. Keep the records as
verbatim as possible, using words, not digits, if that makes the record clearer. Do not add symbols or
words that have not been spoken. (See Rule 159 Note.)
l. The property was priced somewhere in the mid-six-figure range, around 300,000-odd dollars.
MERRIAM-WEBSTER
From: http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/grammarlogs2/grammarlogs364.htm
QUESTION
This is a question about hyphenating eras using "mid," "early," and "late". I
understand that "mid" uses a hyphen (mid-1900s), and I don't believe that early and
late do (early 1800s, late sixteenth century), but what about when mid is used with
early or late? Is it "early to mid-1900s" or "early- to mid-1900s"? Is it "mid- to late
sixteenth century" or "mid- to late-sixteenth century"? I'm obsessing. Please help.
SOURCE OF QUESTION & DATE OF RESPONSE
Compiled by Marla Sharp, RPR, CLR, CCRR, CSR 11924, Feb. ‘14
Page 4
Minneapolis, Minnesota
Mon, Dec 13, 1999
GRAMMAR'S RESPONSE
When "mid" is combined with a number, a hyphen is added. Because we wouldn't
say "early-1900s," we wouldn't add the hyphen after "early" in "early to mid-1900s."
"Mid," we're told by Burchfield, could stand by itself at one time, as in "mid air,"
which Fowler said should never be hyphenated; nowadays, however, it is always
hyphenated, "mid-air." According to the Chicago Manual of Style, "mid" is nearly
always connected as a closed word, as in "midlife crisis" or "midweek conference,"
unless the second word of the compound begins with a capital letter (mid-Atlantic,
mid-Victorian) — or, they add later (under noun forms), a number. But the fact that
"mid" used to stand by itself suggests to me that we could write the compound as
"mid to late sixteenth century." Or you could write it as "mid-to-late sixteenth
century," and I don't think anyone would question it. (That possibility doesn't seem
to be covered in CMOS.) In short, I think you can stop obsessing and do whatever
you want to here. You seem to be in control.
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Page 5
“INTO” VS. “IN TO”
From AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS), Gregg, Morson’s & various Internet sites
(incomplete document)
AP STYLEBOOK
in, into
In indicates location: He was in the room.
Into indicates motion: She walked into the room.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16TH EDITION)
5.191 List of words and the prepositions construed with them
The list below contains the words that most often give writers trouble. Note that some of the words
included here—such as verbs that can be used transitively {the tire abutted the curb} or words that can
be used without further qualification {she refused to acquiesce} {his words were considered
blasphemy}—do not always take prepositions
[NOTE: only “into” words listed here]
admit (vb.) (“let in”): to, into
badger (vb.): into [doing something]; about [a situation]
coerce (vb.): into [doing something]
hale (vb.): to, into [a place]; before [a magistrate]
inaugurate (vb.): as [an officer]; into [an office]
inculcate (vb.): into, in [a person]
inquire (vb.): into [situations]; of [people]; after [people]
instill (vb.): in, into (not with) [a person]
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Page 1
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL
MORSON’S
VARIOUS INTERNET SITES
http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/into.html
“Into” is a preposition which often answers the question, “where?” For example, “Tom and Becky had
gone far into the cave before they realized they were lost.” Sometimes the “where” is metaphorical, as
in, “He went into the army” or “She went into business.” It can also refer by analogy to time: “The snow
lingered on the ground well into April.” In old-fashioned math talk, it could be used to refer to division:
“Two into six is three.” In other instances where the words “in” and “to” just happen to find themselves
neighbors, they must remain separate words. For instance, “Rachel dived back in to rescue the
struggling boy.” Here “to” belongs with “rescue” and means “in order to,” not “where.” (If the phrase
had been “dived back into the water,” “into” would be required.)
Try speaking the sentence concerned aloud, pausing distinctly between “in” and “to.” If the result
sounds wrong, you probably need “into.”
Then there is the 60s colloquialism which lingers on in which “into” means “deeply interested or
involved in”: “Kevin is into baseball cards.” This is derived from usages like “the committee is looking
into the fund-raising scandal.” The abbreviated form is not acceptable formal English, but is quite
common in informal communications.
TURN INTO/TURN IN TO
Probably out of simple absentmindedness, an amazing number of Web pages of educational institutions
call for people to fill out a form and “turn it into” some office or official. “Turn into” means “transform
into.” Your fairy godmother can turn a pumpkin into a coach.
The way to instruct someone to submit a document is “turn in to,” with a space between the “in” and
the “to”: “turn your application in to the registrar.”
Once you have your coach, you can turn into a driveway; but you cannot turn a form into a registrar
unless you have very advanced origami skills.
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Page 2
http://data.grammarbook.com/blog/uncategorized/into-vs-in-to/
Into vs. In To
How does one know when to use into or in to?
One of the main uses of the preposition into is to indicate movement toward the inside of a place.
Examples
The children jumped into the lake for a swim.
Mom drove the car into the garage.
In to is the adverb in followed by the preposition to.
Examples:
He turned his paper in to the teacher.
The administrators wouldn’t give in to the demands of the protesters.
We will explore into vs. in to in more depth in a future blog.
Pop Quiz
1. As a child, I was too afraid to go into/in to the Halloween haunted house.
2. I’m going to turn the wallet I found into/in to the police.
3. If your battery is running low, you’ll need to plug your power cord into/in to the socket.
Pop Quiz Answers
1. into
2. in to
3. into
http://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/in-to-or-into
In Versus Into
When you use in, you’re indicating position.
Her iPod was in her pocket.
When you use into in a sentence, you’re indicating movement; an action is happening.
She stuffed her iPod into her backpack.
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Page 3
In to Versus Into
Into is a preposition that has many definitions, but they all generally relate to direction and motion.
On the other hand, in by itself can be an adverb, preposition, adjective, or noun. To by itself is a
preposition or an adverb or part of an infinitive, such as to fly. Sometimes in and to just end up next to
each other. Some examples will help!
Motion or Direction
He walked into the room.
(Which direction was he going? Into the room. In the above sentence into is a preposition.)
Squiggly walked into the lamppost by accident.
(Into is a preposition showing motion and direction.)
“Step into the shower.”
(Into indicates movement and it is a preposition.)
In or To Are Part of the Verb
We broke in to the room.
(Broke in is a phrasal verb. The word in belongs with broke. The word to is a preposition to tell the
reader where the action of the verb happened. Where did you break in to? The room.)
Squiggly walked in to hear Aardvark talking about the surprise party.
(Because to is part of the verb hear [to hear, an infinitive], keep it separate from in.)
http://grammartips.homestead.com/into.html
Into/In To; Onto/On To
by Tina Blue
January 19, 2001
The pairs into/in to and onto/on to cause a lot of confusion for writers, but much of that confusion
can be cleared up if you focus on exactly what you are trying to say.
IN TO vs. INTO:
I. Into is a preposition. In a sentence, the preposition into will be part of a prepositional phrase
consisting of into + its object + any modifiers of its objects. The entire phrase it is a part of will function
adverbially to modify the verb or verb phrase that precedes the phrase.
1. When he walked into the room, he found that the meeting had already started.
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2. Put the toys into the basket.
3. The pumpkin was turned into a carriage.
II. In the phrase in to, in is an adverb, directly modifying a verb, and to is a preposition with its own
object. When the word into is used in a sentence where in to is meant, the resulting statement can be
absurd.
1. She turned her paper in to the teacher.
vs.
2. She turned her paper into the teacher.
In the second sentence, the paper is transformed--poof!--into the teacher. We've all heard the old
joke about the magician who was so talented that he could drive down the street and turn into a gas
station. Of course, if he just wanted to get gas somewhere, he would turn in to a gas station.
1. Put the cookie back into the jar.
2. I need to turn this book back in to the library.
3. Would you hand this assignment in to the teacher for me?
4. Turn your badge in to the officer at the desk.
5. Cinderella stepped into the carriage.
6. At midnight, the carriage turned back into a pumpkin.
http://www.grammar-monster.com/easily_confused/into_onto_up_to.htm
When a verb with in (e.g., hand in, dive in) is followed by to, keep the in and the to separate.
For example:
Jump in to see if it's cold.
Hand it in to the police.
Be aware though that some verbs can include the preposition into (e.g., dive in, dive into).
These rules apply to verbs with on as well.
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Watch the verb turn into as it has two meanings: to move into somewhere and to transform
something. For example: To turn into the garage. To turn into stone. To avoid ambiguity, use in
to for the move into somewhere meaning. The issue with upto and up to is much easier. The
word upto does not exist.
In To and Into
The word into is a preposition. It is written as one word.
Example:
She turned everything she touched into gold.
However, on occasion, the words in and to appear next to each other in a sentence, and writers
are unsure whether to use into or in to. This happens when the verb in the sentence includes
the word in (e.g., hand in, step in, turn in).
Examples:
Paul wanted to hand the purse in to see if there was a reward.
(In this example, the word to is from to see. When a verb is preceded by to, it is said to be in its
infinitive form.)
Paul wanted to hand the purse in to the police.
(In this example, the word to is a preposition in its own right.)
More confusion arises with verbs like drive in, put in and fall in. This is because drive into, put
into, and fall into are equally valid alternatives.
Examples:
Put the fruit in the basket.
(put in – okay)
Put the fruit into the basket.
(put into – okay)
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Put the fruit in to the basket.
Dive in the water.
Dive into the water.
(alternative to above)
Dive in to the water.
Dive in to test the water.
On To and Onto
The guidelines above apply equally to onto. It is noteworthy, however, that onto can mean on
top of. When this causes a problem, use on to.
Examples:
After seeing the sheep, we moved onto the cows.
After seeing the sheep, we moved on to the cows.
Up To and Upto
Finally, the easy one: up to is never written as one word.
Example:
I can afford upto 400 pounds.
(should be up to)
It takes up to four hours to hard boil an ostrich egg.
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NUMBER RULES
FROM AP STYLEBOOK, BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION,
TH
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16 EDITION),
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (SIXTH EDITION), AND MORSON’S
AP STYLEBOOK
numerals In general, spell out one through nine: The Yankees finished second. He had nine months to go.
Use figures for 10 or above and whenever preceding a unit of measure or referring to ages of people, animals,
events or things. Also in all tabular matter, and in statistical and sequential forms.
Use figures for:
– Academic course numbers: History 6, Philosophy 209.
– Addresses: 210 Main St. Spell out numbered streets nine and under: 5 Sixth Ave.; 3012 50th St.
See addresses.
– Ages: a 6-year-old girl; an 8-year-old law; the 7-year-old house. Use hyphens for ages expressed as adjectives
before a noun or as substitutes for a noun. A 5-year-old boy, but the boy is 5 years old. The boy, 5, has a sister, 10.
The race is for 3-year-olds. The woman is in her 30s. 30-something, but Thirty-something to start a sentence.
See ages.
– Planes, ships and spacecraft designations: B-2 bomber, Queen Elizabeth 2, QE2, Apollo 9, Viking 2. (Do not use
hyphens.) An exception: Air Force One, the president's plane. Use Roman numerals if they are part of the official
designation: Titan I, Titan II.
See aircraft names; boats, ships; spacecraft designations.
– Centuries. Use figures for numbers 10 or higher: 21st century. Spell out for numbers nine and lower: fifth
century. (Note lowercase.) For proper names, follow the organization's usage: 20th Century Fox, Twentieth Century
Fund.
– Court decisions: The Supreme Court ruled 5-4, a 5-4 decision. The word to is not needed, except in quotations:
"The court ruled 5 to 4."
– Dates, years and decades: Feb. 8, 2007, Class of '66, the 1950s. For the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, 9/11 is
acceptable in all references.
– Decimals, percentages and fractions with numbers larger than 1: 7.2 magnitude quake, 3½ laps, 3.7 percent
interest, 4 percentage points. Decimalization should not exceed two places in most text material. An exception:
blood alcohol content, expressed in three decimals, as in 0.056. For amounts less than 1, precede the decimal with
a zero: The cost of living rose 0.03 percent. When the decimal is 1 or less, the type of measurement should be
singular: 0.35 meter, 0.55 cubic foot, 0.75 kilometer. Spell out fractions less than 1, using hyphens between the
words: two-thirds, four-fifths. In quotations, use figures for fractions: "He was 2½ laps behind with four to go."
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See decimal units; fractions; percent.
– Dimensions, to indicate depth, height, length and width. Examples: He is 5 feet 6 inches tall, the 5-foot-6 man
("inch" is understood), the 5-foot man, the basketball team signed a 7-footer. The car is 17 feet long, 6 feet wide
and 5 feet high. The rug is 9 feet by 12 feet, the 9-by-12 rug. A 9-inch snowfall. Exception: two-by-four. Spell out
the noun, which refers to any length of building lumber 2 inches thick by 4 inches wide.
See dimensions.
– Distances: He walked 4 miles. He missed a 3-foot putt.
– Golf clubs: 3-wood, 7-iron, 3-hybrid (note hyphen).
– Highway designations: Interstate 5, U.S. Highway 1, state Route 1A. (Do not abbreviate Route and do not
hyphenate.)
See highway designations.
– Mathematical usage: Multiply by 4, divide by 6. He added 2 and 2 but got 5.
– Military ranks, used as titles with names, military terms and weapons: Petty Officer 2nd Class Alan Markow, Spc.
Alice Moreno, 1st Sgt. David Triplett, M16 rifle, 9 mm (note space) pistol, 6th Fleet. In military ranks, spell out the
figure when it is used after the name or without a name: Smith was a second lieutenant. The goal is to make first
sergeant.
See military units.
– Millions, billions, trillions: Use a figure-word combination. 1 million people; $2 billion, NOT one million/two
billion. (Also note no hyphen linking numerals and the word million, billion or trillion.)
See millions, billions, trillions; dollars.
– Monetary units: 5 cents, $5 bill, 8 euros, 4 pounds.
See cents.
– Odds, proportions and ratios: 9-1 longshot; 3 parts cement to 1 part water; a 1-4 chance, but one chance in three.
See betting odds; proportions; ratios.
– Rank: He was my No. 1 choice. (Note abbreviation for "Number"). Do not use in names of schools or in street
addresses: Public School 19. Exception: No. 10 Downing St., the residence of Britain's prime minister.
– School grades. Use figures for grades 10 and above: 10th grade. Spell out for first through ninth grades: fourth
grade, fifth-grader (note hyphen).
– Sequential designations: Page 1, Page 20A. They were out of sizes 4 and 5; magnitude 6 earthquake;
Rooms 3 and 4; Chapter 2; line 1 but first line; Act 3, Scene 4, but third act, fourth scene; Game 1, but
best of seven.
See act numbers; chapters; earthquakes; line numbers; page numbers; scene numbers.
– Political districts: Ward 9, 9th Precinct, 3rd Congressional District, 5th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals.
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See congressional districts; political divisions.
– Recipes: 2 tablespoons of sugar to 1 cup of milk.
See recipes.
– Speeds: 7 mph, winds of 5 to 10 mph, winds of 7 to 9 knots.
– Sports scores, standings and standards: The Dodgers defeated the Phillies 10-3 (No comma between the team
and the score); in golf, 3 up, but a 3-up lead; led 3-2; a 6-1-2 record (six wins, one loss, two ties); par 3; 5 handicap,
5-under-par 67 but he was 5 under par (or 5 under, with "par" understood). In narrative, spell out nine and under
except for yard lines in football and individual and team statistical performances: The ball was on the 5-yard line.
Seventh hole. Three-point play, but 3-point shot. In statistical performances, hyphenate as a modifier: He
completed 8 of 12 passes. He made 5 of 6 (shots is understood). He was 5-for-12 passing. He had a 3-for-5 day. He
was 3-for-5. He went 3-for-5 (batting, shooting, etc., is understood).
– Temperatures: Use figures, except zero. It was 8 degrees below zero or minus 8. The temperature dropped from
38 to 8 in two hours.
See temperatures.
– Times: Use figures for time of day except for noon and midnight: 1 p.m., 10:30 a.m., 5 o'clock, 8 hours, 30
minutes, 20 seconds, a winning time of 2:17.3 (two hours, 17 minutes, 3 seconds). Spell out numbers less than 10
standing alone and in modifiers: I'll be there in five minutes. He scored with two seconds left. An eight-hour day.
The two-minute warning.
See times; time sequences.
– Votes: The bill was defeated by a vote of 6 to 4, but by a two-vote margin.
Spell out:
– At the start of a sentence: Forty years was a long time to wait. Fifteen to 20 cars were involved in the accident.
The only exception is years: 1992 was a very good year.
See years.
– In indefinite and casual uses: Thanks a million. He walked a quarter of a mile. One at a time; a thousand clowns;
one day we will know; an eleventh-hour decision; dollar store.
– In fanciful usage or proper names: Chicago Seven, Fab Four, Big Three automakers, Final Four, the Four Tops.
– In formal language, rhetorical quotations and figures of speech: "Fourscore and seven years ago ..." Twelve
Apostles, Ten Commandments, high-five, Day One.
– In fractions less than one that are not used as modifiers: reduced by one-third, he made three-fourths of his
shots.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
(rules coming soon)
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CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16TH EDITION)
9.1 Overview and additional resources
This chapter summarizes some of the conventions Chicago observes in handling numbers, especially in
making the choice between spelling them out and using numerals. Such a choice should be governed by
a number of factors, including whether the number is large or small, whether it is an approximation or
an exact quantity, what kind of entity it stands for, and what context it appears in. Sometimes the goal
of consistency must give way to readability (e.g., at the beginning of a sentence; see 9.5). The guidelines
in this chapter apply mainly to general works and to scholarly works in the humanities and social
sciences, where numeric quantities are relatively infrequent. But even in scientific and other technical
contexts, numerals can never totally replace spelled-out numbers. For more detailed treatment of
numbers in technical contexts, consult Scientific Style and Format (bibliog. 1.1). See also 9.13–17.
9.2 Chicago’s general rule—zero through one hundred
In nontechnical contexts, Chicago advises spelling out whole numbers from zero through one hundred
and certain round multiples of those numbers. Most of the rest of this chapter deals with the exceptions
to this rule and special cases. For hyphens used with spelled-out numbers, see 7.85, section 1. For some
additional considerations, consult the index, under numbers. For numerals in direct discourse, see 13.42.
For an alternative rule, see 9.3.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Thirty-two children from eleven families were packed into eight vintage Beetles.
Many people think that seventy is too young to retire.
The property is held on a ninety-nine-year lease.
According to a recent appraisal, my house is 103 years old.
The three new parking lots will provide space for 540 more cars.
The population of our village now stands at 5,893.
9.3 An alternative rule—zero through nine
Many publications, including those in scientific or journalistic contexts, follow the simple rule of spelling
out only single-digit numbers and using numerals for all others (but see 9.7). Most of the exceptions to
the general rule (9.2) also apply to this alternative rule.
9.4 Hundreds, thousands, and hundred thousands
Any of the whole numbers mentioned in 9.2 followed by hundred, thousand, or hundred thousand are
usually spelled out (except in the sciences)—whether used exactly or as approximations. See also 9.8.
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•
•
•
Most provincial theaters were designed to accommodate large audiences—from about seven hundred
spectators in a small city like Lorient to as many as two thousand in Lyon and Marseille.
A millennium is a period of one thousand years.
The population of our city is more than two hundred thousand.
Some forty-seven thousand persons attended the fair.
•
The official attendance at this year’s fair was 47,122.
•
But
9.5 Number beginning a sentence
When a number begins a sentence, it is always spelled out. To avoid awkwardness, a sentence can often
be recast. In the first example, some writers prefer the form one hundred and ten; Chicago’s preference
is to omit the and.
•
One hundred ten candidates were accepted.
•
In all, 110 candidates were accepted.
Or
If a year must begin a sentence, spell it out; it is usually preferable, however, to reword. Avoid and in
such expressions as two thousand one, two thousand ten, two thousand fifty, and the like (see also
9.30).
•
Nineteen thirty-seven was marked, among other things, by the watershed eleventh edition of Bartlett’s
Familiar Quotations.
or, better,
•
The year 1937 . . .
If a number beginning a sentence is followed by another number of the same category, spell out only
the first or reword.
•
One hundred eighty of the 214 candidates had law degrees; the remaining 34 were doctoral candidates in
fish immunology.
or, better,
•
Of the 214 candidates, 180 had law degrees; the remaining 34 were doctoral candidates in fish
immunology.
9.6 Ordinals
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The general rule applies to ordinal as well as cardinal numbers. Note that Chicago prefers, for example,
122nd and 123rd (with an n and an r) over 122d and 123d. The latter, however, are common especially
in legal style (see 14.281–317). The letters in ordinal numbers should not appear as superscripts (e.g.,
122nd not 122nd).
•
•
•
•
•
•
Gwen stole second base in the top half of the first inning.
The restaurant on the forty-fifth floor has a splendid view of the city.
She found herself in 125th position out of 360.
The 122nd and 123rd days of the strike were marked by a rash of defections.
The ten thousandth child to be born at Mercy Hospital was named Mercy.
In the expression “nth degree,” Chicago style is to italicize the n (see also 7.59).
9.7 Consistency and flexibility
Where many numbers occur within a paragraph or a series of paragraphs, maintain consistency in the
immediate context. If according to rule you must use numerals for one of the numbers in a given
category, use them for all in that category. In the same sentence or paragraph, however, items in one
category may be given as numerals and items in another spelled out. In the first example, the numerals
50, 3, and 4 would normally be spelled out (see 9.2); in the second and third examples, 30,000 and
2,000, respectively, would normally be spelled out (see 9.4; see also 9.8). For numerals in direct
discourse, see 13.42.
•
•
•
A mixture of buildings—one of 103 stories, five of more than 50, and a dozen of only 3 or 4—has been
suggested for the area.
In the second half of the nineteenth century, Chicago’s population exploded, from just under 30,000 in
1850 to nearly 1.7 million by 1900.
Between 1,950 and 2,000 people attended the concert.
To avoid a thickly clustered group of spelled-out numbers, numerals may be used instead in exception to
the general rule.
9.8 Millions, billions, and so forth
Whole numbers used in combination with million, billion, and so forth usually follow the general rule
(see 9.2). See also 9.4. For monetary amounts, see 9.21–26; for the use of superscripts in scientific
contexts, see 9.9.
•
•
•
The city had grown from three million in 1960 to fourteen million in 1990.
The survey was administered to more than half of the city’s 220 million inhabitants.
The population of the United States recently surpassed three hundred million.
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To express fractional quantities in the millions or more, a mixture of numerals and spelled-out numbers
is used. In the second example below, the number fourteen is expressed as a numeral for the sake of
consistency (see 9.7).
•
•
By the end of the fourteenth century, the population of Britain had probably reached 2.3 million.
According to some scientists, the universe is between 13.5 and 14 billion years old.
Note that billion in some countries (including, until recently, Great Britain) means a million million (a
trillion in American usage), not, as in American usage, a thousand million; in this alternate system, the
prefix bi- indicates twelve zeros (rather than the American nine), or twice the number of zeros in one
million. Likewise, trillion indicates eighteen zeros (rather than the American twelve), quadrillion twentyfour (rather than the American fifteen), and so on. Editors working with material by British or other
European writers may need to query the use of these terms. See 5.220 under billion; trillion.
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (SIXTH EDITION)
(rules coming soon)
MORSON’S
RULE 170
Generally, numbers from one to ten are spelled out when they are isolated and do not relate to age,
date, money, percent, fractions, measurements, or any other specific reference. For these references,
the rules vary and are discussed in the other rules that follow.
EXAMPLES
a. We are preparing five copies of the transcript.
b. She lived in that apartment for three years.
c. The conversation lasted for five or ten minutes.
NOTE
Zero is sometimes expressed as oh or aught.
EXAMPLES
d. The numbers on his shirt were double ohs.
e. He loved to say, “Aught from aught is naught.”
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RULE 171
Generally, round numbers may be spelled out or written as figures. If the numerical expression cannot
be written in fewer than two words, use figures.
EXAMPLES
a. The company required the services of two hundred employees for every transaction. (OR: 200)
b. Some 300-odd pages of the transcript were misplaced.
c. Nearly 400 people came to honor her. (OR: four hundred)
NOTE
When an isolated number appears in a passage with not further references to it or any other numbers
and can be expressed in one or two words, that number may be spelled out, even though it may be over
ten.
EXAMPLES
d. I was traveling at fifteen miles an hour.
e. I was twenty feet away.
f. About eighteen of us went into the restaurant together.
g. I had collected seventeen of those mugs in flea markets.
RULE 172
Numbers are usually spelled out when they begin a sentence.
EXAMPLES
a. Twenty of the injured required hospitalization.
b. Forty-eight hours later, I began to fell the neck pain.
NOTE
If the number at the beginning of the sentence is too long or unclear, figures may be used.
EXAMPLES
c. 450 complaints were registered over an eighty-year period.\
d. 3,812 licenses were issued in 1990.
e. Q What model was that?
A 687A.
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RULE 173
Generally, spell out fractions when they are not part of a mixed number.
EXAMPLES
a. The approval of two-thirds of the organization in required by law.
b. Out feet contain one-fourth of all the 205 bones that are in our bodies.
c. The accident occurred three-quarters of a mile before Exhibit 146.
For technical or long fractions and for musical time references, you may use digits.
EXAMPLES
d. I erred when I measured it at 5/32 of an inch. (spoken as five thirty-seconds of an inch)
e. The first, second, and third entries should be 7/32, 9/32, and 13/32 of an inch. I regret my
mistake.
f. We argued about the ¾ time versus the 4/4 time that I wanted him to write the song in. (spoken
as three-quarter time, four-four time)
If a speaker refers to measurements on an exhibit that shows that the measurements are written as
decimals, those figures, though spoken as fractions, may be written as decimals.
EXAMPLES
g. I erred when I measured it at 5/32 of an inch. (spoken as five thirty-second of an inch)
h. By adding 0.06 of a gram of chlorine per unit, we eliminated the toxic effect. (spoken as sixhundredths)
NOTE
When fractions are part of a mixed number (a whole number and a fraction), use figures. Case fractions
are preferred if the keyboard has them. If not, separate the whole number from the fraction with one
space, and use a slant, or virgule, to separate the elements of the fraction.
EXAMPLES
i. She ordered a board 14 ¾ inches long and 20 ½ inches wide.
j. The infant was 6 ½ months old.
If you feel the distinction must be made between mixed numbers expressed in fourths and those
expressed in quarters, write the expression with quarters as words.
EXAMPLES
k. We locked in the rate at two and a quarter below the first offer.
l. I was wearing one-and-three-quarter-inch heels when I fell.
(See Time Out for a Date With Numbers to determine how verbatim the writing of numerical
expressions is.)
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When a speaker uses expressions like a half or a quarter without a whole number, use words. (See Rule
159 for fractions with hyphens.)
EXAMPLES
m. I gave him a half of everything I had.
n. We were about a quarter of a mile from the house when she became sick.
RULE 174
Mixed numbers (a whole number and a fraction) are spelled out at the beginning of a sentence. (See
Rule 148a for mixed numbers with hyphens.
EXAMPLES
a. Seven and a half feet of rope was needed to reach the tank’s bottom.
b. Five and one-fourth inches away from the left hand lay the gun.
RULE 175
Ages may be spelled our or written as figures. Since most ages are significant references, the use of
figures by the court reporter would seem best.
EXAMPLES
a. I will be 56 years old on my next birthday.
b. She was 21 at the time of the accident.
NOTE
When the age is given as the only words in response to questions like “How old are you?” or “How old
were you then?” words would be preferable.
EXAMPLES
c. Q How old is John?
A Eighteen.
d. Q How old is your wife?
A Forty.
RULE 176
Numbers referring to centuries are spelled out.
EXAMPLES
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a. Some eighteenth-century law prohibits that.
b. The brooch that she so dearly loves is from the seventeenth century.
c. As early as the eight century, this law existed.
RULE 177
Numbers referring to decades or ages may be spelled out or written as figures.
EXAMPLES
a. We are interested in all your contacts for the nineties. (OR: ‘90s)
b. Our assets declined sharply in the mid-‘70s.
c. I’d say she was in her 50s. (OR: fifties)
RULE 179
When writing a complete date, sue figures for the day and year.
EXAMPLES
a. The receipt is dated June 5, 1997.
b. The receipt has June 5 on it.
NOTE
When the date is given in its usual order, that is, month, day, year, the ordinals st, nd, rd, th are not
used. (See Time Out for a Date With Numbers, page 123.)
When the date is expressed in the British style, use no commas.
EXAMPLES
c. The receipt is dated 28 November 1998.
d. No appointments are entered for 11 October 1998.
RULE 180
When the day precedes the month or is separated from the month, the ordinals are used with the day.
EXAMPLES
a. The invoice for the 3rd of June, 1993, is missing.
b. We never received his check on the 20th of April.
c. Did you reply to his letter of the 15th?
d. We plan to meet on July the 1st.
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RULE 181
When a date is abbreviated, the figures may be separated by a slant, or virgule.
EXAMPLES
a. My appointments were for 6/12/94, 7/8/94, 8/8/94, and 9/5/94.
b. Your note is dated 5/8/95
NOTE
If the speaker uses an untraditional version of an abbreviated date, try to model the above pattern
nonetheless.
EXAMPLES
c. We canceled the orders on 5/9/1997.
d. We reordered on 15/1997.
If the speaker abbreviates a date to the year only, use the slant, or virgule, and use an apostrophe to
replace the omitted numbers. If the month and day precede the abbreviated year, use the traditional
comma and use an apostrophe for the omitted numbers.
EXAMPLES
e. My appointment were during ‘97/’98. (Also correct s ’97-’98. See Rule 126.)
f. Here’s my entry for March 16, ’97.
If the speaker gives a series of years and omits the words nineteen ninety after the first reference, use
apostrophes to show the omissions.
EXAMPLES
g. Who was doing the books in 1995 and ‘6 and ‘7?
h. I wasn’t working in 1994, ‘5, or ‘6.
RULE 182
In writing addresses, use figures for all house numbers except one.
EXAMPLES
a. I live at One Elm Drive.
b. My 1997 address was 14 Cedar Street, Colonia.
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RULE 183
In writing addresses, use words for all numbered street names from one to ten and use figures for all
numbered street names over ten.
EXAMPLES
a. The church is on the corner of Fourth Avenue and Walnut Street.
b. She no longer lives at 1211-33rd Street.
NOTE
A hyphen is usually used between the house number and the street number when East, West, North, or
South does not intervene.
RULE 184
Numbers that precede o’clock are usually written out, and numbers that precede a.m. or p.m. are
usually written as figures. This seems to make the first combination consistently formal in style and the
second one informal in style. Do not capitalize a.m. or p.m.
EXAMPLES
a. Let’s adjourn until three o’clock tomorrow.
b. When I last saw him, it was 8 p.m.
NOTE
When the court reporter hears the expression o’clock, that is what should be written. The ciphers, or
zeros, that follow a colon in time elements do not stand for the spoken expression o’clock.
With the advent if ASCII formatting, word searches, and index considerations, some reporters prefer
using a consistent time format, namely, digits and a colon: XX:XX. This is decision best left to working
reporters. The drawback is that the record is not 124
EXAMPLES
a. Let’s adjourn at 3:30.
b. Let’s adjourn at three-thirty.
If the time is expressed in three words, use figures to avoid an awkward word construction.
EXAMPLES
c. Let’s resume at 1:45
d. I met him at 1:25.
Some periods of time can be expressed only in words. Do not mix these as words and figures.
When the time is expressed in hours and minutes, the time may be spelled out or written as figures if
only two words are expressed.
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always expressed this way and, therefore, will not be verbatim. In other instances, redundant
expressions may be created.
When the number begins the sentence, a.m. and p.m. should be preceded by spelled-out numbers,
giving priority to Rule 172.
EXAMPLE
c. Q What time did you arrive?
A Six p.m.
If a sentence begins with a.m. or p.m., capitalize the first letter and lowercase the other letters. (See also
Rule 257 Note.)
EXAMPLE
d. A We met at 1:25.
Q A.m. or p.m.?
A P.m.
RULE 185
If a.m., p.m., or o’clock is omitted, spell the hour.
a. Let’s convene at eight.
b. Let’s return at eleven.
c. Let’s resume at twelve sharp.
RULE 186
EXAMPLES
e. We were going to meet at half past two.
f. It was a quarter to five, but she was still no there.
RULE 187
When this time is expressed in even hours, do not use the ciphers in running text. Ciphers may be used if
the material is tabulated.
EXAMPLES
a. I saw him three times that day: first, at 11 a.m.; then, at 1 p.m.; finally, at 5 p.m.
b. Did you keep that 2 p.m. appointment?
c. Here are my appointments for January 25 that are in the book:
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“11:00, Ms. Jillana Irons and Ms. Jessalyn Irons
11:20, Ms. Ania Thompson
11:40, Ms. Deiana Deery
NOTE
When the speaker uses military time, use figures and no punctuation unless seconds are designed, in
which case use colons.
EXAMPLES
d. I was due back on the base at 1500 hours. (spoken as fifteen hundred)
e. My shift was relieved at 2330 hours. (spoken as twenty-three thirty)
f. The gate opened at 0800 hours. (spoken as oh eight hundred)
g. This is recorded as happening from 02:49:50 to 02:58:30. (spoken as zero two forty-nine minutes
and fifty to zero two fifty-eight minutes and thirty)
h. I logged in at 23:24:30, meaning I was there at 11:24:30 p.m.
When the speaker uses a colloquialism to speak of hours and days, use figures and a slant. (See Rule
277e.)
EXAMPLES
i. Noise came from that apartment 24/7, and we called the cops every day.
j. I wanted to be fit, so I ate, slept, and dreamed exercise 24/7.
RULE 188
When preparing the title page of a transcript, do not use wordy time expressions such as 4:30 in the
afternoon, 4:30 p.m. in the afternoon, 4:30 o’clock p.m., or 9:30 in the afternoon. The hour, minutes (if
any), and a.m. or p.m. are sufficient.
EXAMPLES
a. Transcripts of the deposition…commencing at 9 a.m., pursuant to notice.
b. Before Walter Henry Doswell…commencing at 1:30 p.m.
If the speaker uses a wordy time expression in running text, the court reporter has no choice but to
write it.
RULE 189
When writing out an even amount of money, use the dollar sign and the figure but omit the decimal
point and ciphers.
EXAMPLES
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a. He agreed that $350 was a fair price.
b. He said $100; I said $50. We compromised on $75.
RULE 190
Repeat the dollar sign when figures appear in succession and the word dollar is repeated by the speaker.
EXAMPLES
a. The prices he quoted were $25, $85, and $125.
b. The profit on each item was $5 to $10.
NOTE
If the speaker does not use the word dollar for each number, write the word dollar at the end where it
appears in the stenographic notes.
EXAMPLES
c. It will cost you one to two dollars at the most.
d. The price went from 50 to 100 dollars in a month.
e. I would have given him 100, 200, or 300 dollars if he had only asked.
Reporters and scopists must work together to decide what works best for transcript clarity when
speakers use a series of untraditional or incomplete numerical expressions. Keep the records as
verbatim as possible, using words, not digits, if that makes the record clearer. Do not add symbols or
words that have not been spoken. (See Rule 159 Note.)
EXAMPLES
f. We paid about 500 bucks for the chair.
g. We kept going from the $110,000 to 128 or $130,000 range.
h. He offered one eighty-two five for the property. (Do not write $182,500 because that was not
spoken.)
i. I sold both properties for 250 or 300, maybe $375,000. I was hoping to get 450 or $500,000. (The
word dollars is represented by a symbol only where it was spoken.)
j. I urged him to stay in a range between 150 and 75 dollars. (The reporter may know that the
amount intended was $150 and $175, but the record must reflect what was spoken.
k. I made between five, six hundred thousand dollars on that job alone. (Writing 5, $600,000 makes
the range appear to go from a mere five dollars to hundreds of thousands.)
l. The property was priced somewhere in the mid-six-figure range, around 300,000-odd dollars.
m. The property cost 400,000-some dollars.
RULE 191
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When only cents are expressed, use the figure and the word cents.
EXAMPLES
a. The overcharge was 30 cents.
b. We increased our price by 47 cents.
NOTE
When the cents are below ten, spell the number out.
EXAMPLES
c. His opinion isn’t worth two cents.
d. For two cents I would have fired him.
e. I gave him exactly seven cents.
RULE 192
When dollars and cents are used in a numerical expression, use figures. (See Time Out for a Date With
Numbers, page 123.)
EXAMPLES
a. The shoes of mine that he lost cost $89.95. I’m a size 11, so I pay $2 extra.
b. The commercial said the necklace, the ring, the bracelet, and the earrings were all included for
$29.95.
RULE 193
When a series of numbers occurs in which dollars and cents are used, use the dollar sign, the figures,
and the decimal point. 128
EXAMPLES
a. These are the prices I paid: geraniums, $4.99 each; roses, $6.99 each; azaleas, $8.99 each; and
vegetable seeds, $.89 per package.
b. These were my costs: gravel, $16 a ton; beams, $7.50 each; finishing nails, $.89 a pound.
NOTE
If the word dollars and cents are not spoken, do not include the signs or decimals. Let the record speak
for itself.
EXAMPLES
c. These are the prices I paid: geraniums, 4.99 each; roses, 6.99 each; vegetable seeds, 89 per
package.
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d. These were my costs: gravel, sixteen a ton; beams, seventy-fifty; finishing nails, eighty-nine a
pound.
RULE 194
When the amount of money is millions, billions, or trillions, use the dollar sign, the figure, and the word
million, billion, or trillion.
EXAMPLES
a. A budget for $6.5 million was approved.
b. The hearing on the proposed $2 billion budget was postponed.
c. We were projecting a $182 billion deficit by the year 2006.
RULE 195
If the million, billion, or trillion amount is indefinite, use words.
EXAMPLES
a. We are not willing to watch a million dollars go down the drain.
b. Who dreamed up this million-dollar project?
NOTE
This rule applies to these words, as well as to the words hundred and thousand, even when money is not
in the context.
EXAMPLES
c. Over a thousand people watched the fireworks.
d. I told him a hundred times to check that lock.
Do not combine figures with hundred or thousand in any context. Do not write 22 hundred for 2200. Do
not write 22 thousand for 22,000. 129
RULE 196
Ordinals are spelled out up to tenth.
EXAMPLES
a. We consider it our duty, first, to our client; second, to the public.
b. When he came to the second traffic light, he made the wrong turn.
c. He pleaded the Fifth.
d. These are taken from the debates of the 95th Congress. (informal style for organization name)
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e. These are taken from the debates of the Ninety-fifth Congress. (formal style for organization
name)
f. We were on the 15th floor when we smelled the smoke.
RULE 197
If a series has some expressions below tenth and some above tenth, use figures and the ordinals.
EXAMPLES
a. We held sales on our 1st, 10th, and 25th anniversaries.
b. The 3rd, 12th, and 14th Amendments were being discussed at the time.
RULE 198
When expressing dimension, use figures and always spell out inches, feet, yards, ounces, pounds,
degrees. Avoid the symbol x in running text to mean “times” or “by.”
EXAMPLES
a. The box measures 8 by 4 feet.
b. The box measures 8 feet 10 inches by 4 feet 2 inches. (no commas)
c. He was about 6 feet 2 inches and weighed about 200 pounds.
d. The package weighed 5 pounds 6 ounces. (no commas)
e. I saw that the 3-by-4 had blood on it.
f. The 2-by-4 inch board lay on the deck. (Also see Rule 148 for hyphens.)
g. We bought 30 pies for 100 kids, figuring 8 times 30 equals 240 slices for the kids and coaches.
NOTE
Because the court reporter also hears shortened versions of these dimensions, using words, not digits or
unspoken expressions, may prevent confusion and misinterpretation.
EXAMPLES
h. She was five-four or five-six.
i. He was six-two, six-three.
j. She was a six-footer.
k. He was six-foot-seven.
l. Her birth weight was four-twelve. (hardly 412 unless it was a baby elephant)
m. Her twin brother weighed five-twelve and a half.
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RULE 199
When percentages are used in transcripts, write the numbers in figures and spell percent.
EXAMPLES
a. We had to raise our interest to 8 percent.
b. Our business was down by 20 percent.
c. We went from 2 to 6 percent for the sales tax.
NOTE
If the percent is at the beginning of the sentence, use words if it is not too long to spell out (Examples d,
e). If percents are given a series, the percent sign may be used (Example f). Do not use a hyphen when a
number and the word percent form a compound that expresses a ratio. (Example g).
EXAMPLES
d. Sixty-two percent favored the change in the bylaws.
e. 62.7 percent favored the change in the bylaws.
f. The discounts for their business were 10%, 20%, and 40%, depending on the quantity.
g. This led to a 3 percent decline in their business that year.
RULE 200
Express decimals as figures.
EXAMPLES
a. My records show 4.5 grams of sodium were added to the solution. (spoken as four point five)
b. We were testing the effects of 2.5 grams of zinc in that mixture. (spoken as two point five)
c. A .38-caliber revolver is allegedly the weapon. (spoken as thirty-eight)
d. The smallest of all shotgun calibers is the .410. (spoken as four-ten)
e. Who put the .357 Magnum on the chair? (spoken as three fifty-seven)
f. Was the .380 Beretta registered in Captain Morena’s name? (spoken as three eighty)
NOTE
Most writers suggest that a cipher should precede the decimal point if no number does to avoid
overlooking the decimal.
EXAMPLES
g. My records show 0.5 grams of sodium were added.
h. We were testing the effects of 0.3 grams of zinc in that mixture.
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Writing calibers, gauges, and other weapon dimensions has several exceptions to the above rules. Do
not use the cipher before the decimal with gun calibrations. Note also that the gauge of shotguns is not
written with a decimal, with the exception of expressions like .410 shotgun (a caliber spoken as fourten). No space, decimal, or hyphen is used with mm, which is the traditional style for writing millimeter
when it relates to weapons and film. For transcript style, using the hyphen in compound adjectives and
spelling out the word millimeter seem to make the record clearer.
EXAMPLES
i. A Colt .45 was the weapon.
j. We found a 12-gaurge shotgun under the stairs.
k. Where was the 9-millimeter Luger found? It was a 9-millimter, wasn’t it?
l. The Winchester 25-35 worked fine, but the 30-66 was beyond repair. (spoken as twenty-five,
thirty-five and thirty aught six or thirty oh six)
RULE 201
Use figures for measurements that have medical significance to the human body.
EXAMPLES
a. My pulse was 48.
b. Her vision is 20/20. (See Rule 277 for use of slant.)
c. Blood pressure was 120 over 80. (or 120/80)
d. Who recorded 40 degrees Fahrenheit on the chart?
NOTE
Capitalize Fahrenheit and Celsius. Do not capitalize centigrade.
RULE 202
Use figures when citing numbered references.
EXAMPLES
a. Please look carefully at Paragraph 8.
b. Please read lines 8 through 12 of your copy.
c. Let’s go back to Question 8.
d. Is Exhibit P-7 your rental agreement?
e. We agreed to rewrite Article IX of our bylaws.
f. You must use a No. 2 pencil on this survey sheet.
g. These pages have been stamped Bates Nos. C250 through C840.
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NOTE
When a reference is made to an item that is not actually numbered, do not capitalize the reference and
spell out the word number.
EXAMPLES
h. She’s my number one fan.
i. I’m son number two.
When number is spoken before the actual figures, abbreviate and capitalize it as No. If it is the first word
of the sentence, spell it out so as not to confuse it with the negative response No. (Also see Rule 256.)
EXAMPLES
j. Let’s go back to Question No. 8.
k. Number 675 is correct.
When the expression roman numeral precedes the actual figure, use the roman numeral version of the
number. (Also see Rule 217 for capitalization style.)
EXAMPLES
l. I want you to look at the preface of the book on roman numeral page iv.
m. The list under roman numerals VII and VIII are missing from my copy.
n. Look at the roman numeral V of the outline on page 6.
o. Now look at Arabic numeral 2, which is under roman numeral IV, on page 12.
RULE 203
Use figures to express numbers referred to as numbers and to express scores, arithmetic expressions,
ratios, odds, voting results, and similar statistics.
EXAMPLES
a. We all picked numbers from 1 to 30, and that’s how the winning ticket was chosen.
b. On a scale from 1 to 10, how would you rate your supervisor?
c. The doctor told me that 1 in 4 women would get the disease.
d. The formula did not call for 5 parts solvent to 1 part detergent.
e. I took his 20,000 and divided that by 4 for the percentage.
f. The Flyers were winning 2 to 1, but we left before the game ended.
g. The motion was defeated 6 to 5, and Mr. James stormed out of the room.
h. Does this total here represent 8 times? In this column you have 5 times 9 equals 45. Which is it?
If two numerical expressions come together, write one expression as a figure and write one expression
as a word. If a comma or other punctuation separates the two numerical expressions, digits may be used
for both expressions.
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EXAMPLES
i. Is 6 times 10 sixty?
j. I calculated 32 divided by 6 ½, 0.22 percent alcohol content. He was legally intoxicated.
k. It’s 4 months times 400. That’s 12 weeks times 400: $4,800 roughly.
RULE 204
When two numbers appear together to form a unit, one of the numbers, usually the first or shorter
number, is spelled out.
EXAMPLES
a. Each plant was given three 18-ounce injections of the fungicide.
b. The company reported that 45-two-inch silver blades were replaced.
c. At any given time, there are over seven hundred 737s in service in airports all over the country.
TIME OUT FOR A DATE WITH
NUMBERS
Do you have a newspaper nearby? Will you please read the date out loud? Did that bring anyone closer
to you? If it did, ask her or him to read the date also and listen very carefully to every syllable. If that
person is still standing by, ask her or him to tell you to the last penny how much her or his sneakers or
socks ort shirt or blouse or handbag or wallet cost.
The answers if written verbatim should be close to one of the following constructions.
The date is November first, nineteen ninety-seven.
The date is November one, nineteen ninety-seven.
The date is November first, nineteen hundred and ninety-seven.
My sneakers cost forty-nine ninety five.
My sneakers cost forty-nine dollars and ninety-five cents.
My sneakers cost forty-nine dollars ninety-five cents.
My sneakers cost 49.95.
Now measure the dimensions of a book or the paper. Say those dimensions out loud. Write those
dimensions down verbatim. (No metrics, pelase.) 134
The book is eight and a half inches by ten and three-quarter inches.
The book is eight and a half by ten and three quarters.
The book is eight and one-half inches by ten and three-quarter inches.
The book is eight and one-half inches by ten and three-fourths inches.
The book is eight point five inches by ten point seventy-five inches.
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So what’s the point of this exercise? The point is to determine if all numerical expressions should be
written verbatim, as some reporters say they must. If the answer is yes for you, then the above
examples are what you must do throughout all the days and pages of your court reporting career,
forever and ever. Amen. You could not write 3:05 p.m. if you take an oath to write all numerical
expressions verbatim. You would have to write three-oh-five p.m. You could not write that 365 days are
in the year of the witness said three hundred and sixty-five. You could not write 1997 if the speaker said
nineteen hundred and ninety seven. You could not write $19.95 when the speaker says nineteen dollars
and ninety-five cents. An oath is an oath.
On the other hand, if the answer is to write these numerical expressions as they are traditionally written
and understood, then consider the example below.
The date is November 1, 1997.
There is no need to differentiate between one and first in this construction. (IF YOU ARE A THEORY
STUDENT LEARNING NE SOUNDS OR A STUDENT TAKING A CERTIFYING EXAMINATION IN WHICH
CHANGING THE FORM IS COUNTED AS AN ERROR, CONSULT WITH THE TEACHER OR TEST EXAMINER.)
When the traditional order is changed or abbreviated, the difference between the words is noted by
writers of English textbooks and style manuals as follows:
This is the 1st of November, 1997.
This is November the 1st, 1997.
Today is the 1st.
Amounts of money are traditionally written using the dollar sign first (another contradiction for
verbatim writing), followed by the amount expressed in digits and a decimal point if necessary.
My sneakers cost $49.95.
If the words dollars and cents are omitted by the speaker, the court reporter should use words or figures
but no money signs. These are the times that the lawyer should clarify the answer for the record. If that
is not done by the lawyer, the reporter should play it safe and let the words stand on their own merit.
Q How much did you pay for the sneakers?
A I paid around forty or fifty. I’m not sure.
OR
A I paid around 40 or 50. I’m not sure.
The dimensions of the book can also be written in the traditional way.
The book is 8 ½ inches by 10 ¾ inches. 135
The book is 8.5 inches by 10.75 inches. (This is used if point is said.)
There is little to be gained by spelling all of this our for the sake of accommodating the article a in a a
half for one-half.
In summary, no recommendation is being made to edit or charge numerical expressions as spoken; but
the court reporter should see that a time-honored, tried-and-true method exists for writing dates,
money, and mixed numbers, so why not use it as often as possible?
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P.S. If someone was nearby and helped you by reading out loud or by listening as you read out loud, a
hug, a handshake, a pat on the back, a thank-you, a dog biscuit, some catnip, or some birdseed would be
a neat way to show your appreciation.
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NUMBER AT THE BEGINNING OF SENTENCE
From Grammar Girl, AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg, & Morson’s
GRAMMAR GIRL
HOW TO WRITE NUMBERS
Since this is my 100th episode, it seems like a fitting time to talk about how to use numbers in sentences. [Note:
There are many exceptions to the rules about how to write numbers. These tips will point you in the right direction,
but if you are serious about understanding all the rules, you need to buy a style guide such as The Chicago Manual
of Style or The Associated Press Stylebook.]
Whether to use a numeral or to spell out a number as a word is a matter of style. For general writing, most guides
agree that you should use words for the numbers one through nine, but for larger numbers the rules vary wildly
from style guide to style guide. Some say to use words for the numbers one to one hundred, one to ten, any word
that can be written with one or two words, and so on. Typically, people who write business or technical documents
are more likely to use numerals liberally, whereas people who write less technical documents are more likely to
write out the words for numbers. If someone handles numbers a different way than you do, they're probably using
a different style guide, so the best advice I can give you is to pick a style and stick with it when it makes sense.
(Since I used to be a technical writer, I write out the words for numbers one through nine, and use numerals for
most other numbers.) Fortunately, some rules about writing numbers are more universally agreed upon than the
general rules I just told you about.
Beginning of a Sentence
When you put a number at the beginning of a sentence, most sources recommend writing out the words. If the
number would be ridiculously long if you wrote out the words, you should rephrase the sentence so the number
doesn't come at the beginning. For example, this sentence would be hard to read if you wrote out the number:
Twelve thousand eight hundred forty-two people attended the parade. It's better to rephrase the sentence to read
something like this: The parade was attended by 12,842 people. The second sentence uses passive voice, which I
generally discourage, but passive voice is better than writing out a humongous number and taking the risk that
your readers' brains will be numb by the time they get to the verb. Some style guides make an exception to allow
you to use the numeral when you're putting a year at the beginning of a sentence, but others recommend that you
use words even in the case of years.
AP STYLEBOOK
Spell out: – At the start of a sentence: Forty years was a long time to wait. Fifteen to 20 cars were
involved in the accident. The only exception is years: 1992 was a very good year.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
20.5: THE NUMBER QUESTION: AT THE BEGINNING OF A SENTENCE
Most of us learned a rule that read something like “Do not use a figure at the beginning of a sentence.”
This rule was never really intended to mean that a sentence never begins with a figure. For practical
purposes in a transcript and otherwise, this rule must be restated.
NUMBER.14: Write out in words the numbers 1-99 when they begin a sentence.
Fifty-nine of us were involved in the project.
Seventeen were required each day.
Forty-three were defective and had to be returned.
NUMBER.15: Use figures for the numbers 100 and above when they begin a sentence.
782 were delivered at the beginning of January.
1969 was the year of the first moon landing.
355,000 were sold for the year.
Remember that consistency rule might come into play in the transcription of any number. If this is an
issue, follow the rule that would make the numbers consistent and would make them the most readable.
Obviously, this involves individual judgment.
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE
9.5 Number beginning a sentence
When a number begins a sentence, it is always spelled out. To avoid awkwardness, a sentence can often
be recast. In the first example, some writers prefer the form one hundred and ten; Chicago’s preference
is to omit the and.
One hundred ten candidates were accepted.
or
In all, 110 candidates were accepted.
If a year must begin a sentence, spell it out; it is usually preferable, however, to reword. Avoid and in
such expressions as two thousand one, two thousand ten, two thousand fifty, and the like (see also 9.30).
Nineteen thirty-seven was marked, among other things, by the watershed eleventh edition of Bartlett’s
Familiar Quotations.
or, better,
The year 1937 . . .
If a number beginning a sentence is followed by another number of the same category, spell out only the first
or reword.
One hundred eighty of the 214 candidates had law degrees; the remaining 34 were doctoral candidates in fish
immunology.
or, better,
Of the 214 candidates, 180 had law degrees; the remaining 34 were doctoral candidates in fish immunology.
9.2 Chicago’s general rule—zero through one hundred
In nontechnical contexts, Chicago advises spelling out whole numbers from zero through one hundred
and certain round multiples of those numbers. Most of the rest of this chapter deals with the exceptions
to this rule and special cases. For hyphens used with spelled-out numbers, see 7.85, section 1. For some
additional considerations, consult the index, under numbers. For numerals in direct discourse, see 13.42.
For an alternative rule, see 9.3.
Thirty-two children from eleven families were packed into eight vintage Beetles.
Many people think that seventy is too young to retire.
The property is held on a ninety-nine-year lease.
According to a recent appraisal, my house is 103 years old.
The three new parking lots will provide space for 540 more cars.
The population of our village now stands at 5,893.
9.3 An alternative rule—zero through nine
Many publications, including those in scientific or journalistic contexts, follow the simple rule of spelling
out only single-digit numbers and using numerals for all others (but see 9.7). Most of the exceptions to
the general rule (9.2) also apply to this alternative rule.
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL
AT THE BEGINNING OF A SENTENCE
421 Spell out a number that begins a sentence, as well as any related numbers.
Thirty-four former students of Dr. Helen VanVleck came from all parts of the country to honor their professor
on the occasion of her retirement.
Eight hundred people have already signed the recall petition.
Forty to fifty percent of the people polled on different occasions expressed disapproval of the mayor’s
performance in office. (NOT: Forty to 50 percent…)
422 If the number requires more than two words when spelled out or if figures are preferable for
emphasis or quick reference, reword the sentence.
The company sent out 298 copies of its consumer guidelines last month. (NOT: Two hundred and ninety-eight
copies of its consumer guidelines were sent out by the company last month.)
We had a good year in 1984.
(NOT: Nineteen hundred eight-four OR 1984 was a good year for us.)
Our mining operations provide 60 to 70 percent of our revenues.
(NOT: Sixty to seventy percent of our revenues come from our mining operations.)
MORSON’S
RULE 159
Figures from twenty-one to ninety-nine are hyphened if they are spelled out at the beginning of a
sentence. Fractions that are spelled out are also hyphened.
EXAMPLES
a. Twenty-five witnesses have appeared to date.
b. We need the approval of five-sixths of this jury.
c. One-half of the estate is hers, and one-half is mine.
RULE 172
Numbers are usually spelled out when they begin a sentence.
EXAMPLES
a. Twenty of the injured required hospitalization.
b. Forty-eight hours later, I began to fell the neck pain.
NOTE
If the number at the beginning of the sentence is too long or unclear, figures may be used.
EXAMPLES
c. 450 complaints were registered over an eighty-year period.\
d. 3,812 licenses were issued in 1990.
e. Q What model was that?
A 687A.
RULE 174
Mixed numbers (a whole number and a fraction) are spelled out at the beginning of a sentence. (See Rule 148a for
mixed numbers with hyphens.
EXAMPLES
a. Seven and a half feet of rope was needed to reach the tank’s bottom.
b. Five and one-fourth inches away from the left hand lay the gun.
RULE 199
When percentages are used in transcripts, write the numbers in figures and spell percent.
EXAMPLES
a. We had to raise our interest to 8 percent.
b. Our business was down by 20 percent.
c. We went from 2 to 6 percent for the sales tax.
NOTE
If the percent is at the beginning of the sentence, use words if it is not too long to spell out (Examples d, e). If
percents are given a series, the percent sign may be used (Example f). Do not use a hyphen when a number and the
word percent form a compound that expresses a ratio. (Example g).
EXAMPLES
d. Sixty-two percent favored the change in the bylaws.
e. 62.7 percent favored the change in the bylaws.
f. The discounts for their business were 10%, 20%, and 40%, depending on the quantity.
g. This led to a 3 percent decline in their business that year.
COMMA WITH NUMBERS
Rules by AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
[MARLA’S NOTE: AP, BGGP, and CMOS suggest commas with numbers in the thousand (with some
exceptions). Gregg suggests no comma with four-digit thousands, and Morson’s suggests it depends
on how it’s said.]
AP STYLEBOOK
comma (,) The following guidelines treat some of the most frequent questions about the use of
commas. Additional guidelines on specialized uses are provided in separate entries such as dates and
scores.
IN LARGE FIGURES: Use a comma for most figures greater than 999. The major exceptions are street
addresses (1234 Main St.), broadcast frequencies (1460 kilohertz), room numbers, serial numbers,
telephone numbers, and years (1876). See separate entries under these headings.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
20.2: THE NUMBER QUESTION: OVER TEN/UNDER TEN
RULE NUMBER 3: Always use figures for numbers in the thousands. With some exceptions, use a
comma for figures in the thousands.
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16TH EDITION)
9.55 Comma between digits
In most numerals of one thousand or more, commas are used between groups of three digits, counting
from the right. (In scientific writing, commas are often omitted from four-digit numbers.) See also 9.56.
1,512
32,987
4,000,500
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No commas are used in page numbers, line numbers (e.g., in poetry and plays), addresses, and years
(though years of five digits or more do include the comma). See also 9.35.
Punctuation conventions can be found on page 1535 of the tenth edition.
Our business office is at 11030 South Langley Avenue.
Human artifacts dating from between 35,000 BP and 5000 BP have been found there.
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (11TH EDITION)
123 Use a single comma:
d. To separate the digits of numbers into groups of thousands. (See 461)
Sales projections for the Southern Region next year range between $900,000 and $1,000,000.
NOTE: The comma is now commonly omitted in four-digit whole numbers (1000 through 9999) except
in columns with larger numbers that require commas. (See also 461a, note.)
[MARLA’S NOTE: This contradicts AP, BGGP, and CMOS’s Rule 9.55 above.]
461 a. When numbers run to five or more figures, use commas to separate thousands, hundreds of
thousands, millions, etc., in whole numbers.
12,375
147,3000
$11,275,478
4,300,000,000 BUT: 70,650.37248
NOTE: Omit the comma in four-digit numbers unless these numbers occur together with larger numbers
that require commas.
3500
$2000
MORSON’S
RULE 56
In a number expressed with figures, the comma separates hundreds, thousands, millions, and billions.
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Page 2
EXAMPLES
a. The budget reflects an increase to $30,000 for the starting salary.
b. We require 2,550,000 units for our January promotion.
NOTE
Do not use commas in the following numbers when they are expressed in four or more digits: house,
page, policy, social security, street, telephone, year, ZIP Code. Spaces, hyphens, and parentheses are
sometimes used within these longer numbers.
EXAMPLES
c. He gave 6227 East First Avenue as his address.
d. We found the formula on page 1266.
e. My old Zip was 07065.
f. My social security number is 164-82-8105.
g. My phone number is (609) 221-6262.
Patent numbers and serial numbers from the United States Patent Office do have commas within them.
EXAMPLES
h. That was Patent No. 5,660,221.
i. That is from the Patent Office application Serial No. 630,927.
CAUTION
If a number is verbalized in even hundreds, that figure may be written as the court reporter hears it,
that is, without a comma.
EXAMPLES
i. He ordered 7200 directories.
j. Over 3800 new entries have been added.
Do not, however, combine figures with the word “hundred” or “thousand,” as 72 hundred or 38
thousand. (See Rule 195 Note.)
[MARLA’S NOTE: This contradicts AP, BGGP’s Rule 20.2 above, and CMOS’s Rule 9.55.]
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HEIGHTS
Rules by AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK
http://www.apstylebook.com/online/?do=entry&id=867&src=AE
dimensions Use figures and spell out inches, feet, yards, etc., to indicate depth, height, length and width.
Hyphenate adjectival forms before nouns.
EXAMPLES: He is 5 feet 6 inches tall, the 5-foot-6-inch man, the 5-foot man, the basketball team signed
a 7-footer.
The car is 17 feet long, 6 feet wide and 5 feet high. The rug is 9 feet by 12 feet, the 9-by-12 rug.
The storm left 5 inches of snow.
The building has 6,000 square feet of floor space.
Use an apostrophe to indicate feet and quote marks to indicate inches (5'6") only in very technical
contexts.
See decimal units; fractions; percent.
– Dimensions, to indicate depth, height, length and width. Examples: He is 5 feet 6 inches tall, the 5-foot6 man ("inch" is understood), the 5-foot man, the basketball team signed a 7-footer. The car is 17 feet
long, 6 feet wide and 5 feet high. The rug is 9 feet by 12 feet, the 9-by-12 rug. A 9-inch snowfall.
Exception: two-by-four. Spell out the noun, which refers to any length of building lumber 2 inches thick
by 4 inches wide.
MY QUESTION TO AP STYLEBOOK:
Q. Would it be "five-four," "five four," "5-4," or 5'4" when someone says "I'm five four"? – from Los Angeles on Wed,
Oct 02, 2013
A. If you must use a direct quote, "I'm five four." An indirect quote would be clearer. She said she's 5 feet 4 ... or 5
feet 4 inches.
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Page 1
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
20.10: THE NUMBER QUESTION: HEIGHTS
NUMBER.33: Put heights in figures when said with the words feet and inches, which are written out.
He is 5 feet 11 inches
She is 6 feet even.
I judge her to be about 5 feet 3.
Since we do not usually use symbols for words that are said, we do not use the apostrophe for feet nor
the quote mark for inches. Again, there are reporters that do this. It is a matter of personal preference.
NUMBER.34: When the words feet and/or inches are not said, write out the numbers in words with no
punctuation between them OR put them in figures with a hyphen between them.
She is five three.
She is 5-3.
He is five eleven.
He is 5-11.
He measures a little over six eight.
He measures a little over 6-8.
Whether or not you opt for figures or words for the height is a matter of style and the nature of the
sentence in which the numbers are used. If there are several other figures – i.e., describing weight, age,
et cetera – the height is probably best put into figures also for the sake of consistency.
He is 31, weighs 230, 5 feet 11 inches, and has dark hair.
She is 5 foot 5 and weights 140 to 145 pounds and is 42 years old.
He is 31, weighs 230 pounds, 5-11, and has dark hair.
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE
9.13 Physical quantities in general contexts
In nontechnical material, physical quantities such as distances, lengths, areas, and so on are usually
treated according to the general rule (see 9.2). See also 9.15.
Within fifteen minutes the temperature dropped twenty degrees.
The train approached at seventy-five miles an hour.
Some students live more than fifteen kilometers from the school.
Three-by-five-inch index cards are now seldom used in index preparation.
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She is five feet nine (or, more colloquially, five foot nine or five nine).
It is occasionally acceptable to depart from the general rule for certain types of quantities that are
commonly (or more conveniently) expressed as numerals; such a departure, subject to editorial
discretion, must be consistently applied for like quantities across a work. See also 9.7. For the absence of
the hyphen in the second example below, see 7.85, section 2, under noun + numeral or enumerator.
a 40-watt bulb
a size 14 dress
a 32-inch inseam
a fuel efficiency of 80 miles per gallon (or 3 liters per 100 kilometers)
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL
430 When a measurement consists of several elements, do not use commas to separate the elements.
The measurement is considered a single unit. (See also 817.)
The package weighed 8 pounds 11 ounces.
The punch bowl holds 4 quarts 1 pint.
Hal is 6 feet 8 inches tall in his stocking feet.
NOTE: If this type of measurement is used as a compound modifier before a noun, use hyphens to
connect all the elements as a single unit.
A 6-foot-8-inch man
MORSON’S
RULE 148
Generally, when two or more words are combined to form a compound adjective that expresses a single
idea, these words are hyphened when they precede the noun they modify. The compound adjective that
is formed may include several different parts of speech. When in doubt, consult a dictionary.
a 5-foot-6 inch-tall woman
a woman 5 feet 6 inches tall
a 6-foot-3-inch man
a man of 6 feet 3 inches
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PERCENTAGES
Rules by AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK
percent
One word. It takes a singular verb when standing alone or when a singular word follows an of
construction: The teacher said 60 percent was a failing grade. He said 50 percent of the membership was
there.
It takes a plural verb when a plural word follows an of construction: He said 50 percent of the members
were there.
Use figures for percent and percentages: 1 percent, 2.5 percent (use decimals, not fractions), 10 percent,
4 percentage points.
For a range, 12 to 15 percent, or between 12 and 15 percent.
For amounts less than 1 percent, precede the decimal with a zero: The cost of living rose 0.6 percent.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
NUMBER.28: Put all percentages into figures, and write out the word percent. Do not hyphenate the
percentage used as an adjective.
It was a 7 percent increase.
We will need a raise of 3 percent.
It is up by 35 percent in just one year.
A percentage at the beginning of a sentence brings into play two rules – all percentages are in figures
and no two-digit figures at the beginning of a sentence – which conflict. The decision on which to use
should be based on how important the number is, how it looks on the page, and whether or not it could
be misread. It is a matter of personal preference.
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CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE
9.18 Percentages
Except at the beginning of a sentence, percentages are usually expressed in numerals. In nontechnical
contexts, the word percent is generally used; in scientific and statistical copy, the symbol % is more
common.
Fewer than 3 percent of the employees used public transportation.
With 90–95 percent of the work complete, we can relax.
A 75 percent likelihood of winning is worth the effort.
Her five-year certificate of deposit carries an interest rate of 5.9 percent.
Only 20% of the ants were observed to react to the stimulus.
The treatment resulted in a 20%–25% increase in reports of night blindness.
Note that percent, an adverb, is not interchangeable with the noun percentage (1 percent is a very small
percentage). Note also that no space appears between the numeral and the symbol %.
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (SIXTH EDITION)
447 Express percentages in figures, and spell out the word percent. (See 421-422 for percentages at the
beginning of a sentence.)
Carpenter Industries has increased its price by only 3 percent this year.
My client had been expecting at least a 25 percent discount from you.
(NOT: a 25-percent discount.)
Our terms are 2 percent 10 days, net 30 days. (These credit terms may be abbreviated as 2/10, n/30 on
invoices and other business forms.)
NOTE: The % symbol may be used in tables, on business forms, and in statistical or technical matter.
448
a. Fractional percentages under 1 percent may be expressed as follows:
one-half of 1 percent OR 0.5 percent
NOTE: The zero before the decimal point in 0.5 percent prevents misreading the amount as 5
percent.
b. Fractional percentages over 1 percent should be expressed in figures.
7 ½ percent OR 7.5 percent
9 ¼ percent OR 9.25 percent
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449 In a range or series of percentages, the word percent follows the last figure only. If the symbol % is
used, it must follow each figure (see 447, note).
Price reductions range from 20 to 50 percent. (BUT: from 20% to 50%.)
We give discounts of 10, 20, and 30 percent. (BUT: 10%, 20%, and 30%.)
MORSON’S
RULE 199
When percentages are used in transcripts, write the numbers in figures and spell percent.
EXAMPLES
a. We had to raise our interest to 8 percent.
b. Our business was down by 20 percent.
c. We went from 2 to 6 percent for the sales tax.
NOTE
If the percent is at the beginning of the sentence, use words if it is not too long to spell out (Examples d,
e). If percents are given a series, the percent sign may be used (Example f). Do not use a hyphen when a
number and the word percent form a compound that expresses a ratio. (Example g).
EXAMPLES
d. Sixty-two percent favored the change in the bylaws.
e. 62.7 percent favored the change in the bylaws.
f. The discounts for their business were 10%, 20%, and 40%, depending on the quantity.
g. This led to a 3 percent decline in their business that year.
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NUMERALS WITH NOUNS
Rules by AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK
numerals In general, spell out one through nine: The Yankees finished second. He had nine months to go.
Use figures for 10 or above and whenever preceding a unit of measure or referring to ages of people, animals,
events or things. Also in all tabular matter, and in statistical and sequential forms.
Use figures for:
– Academic course numbers: History 6, Philosophy 209.
– Addresses: 210 Main St. Spell out numbered streets nine and under: 5 Sixth Ave.; 3012 50th St.
See addresses.
– Ages: a 6-year-old girl; an 8-year-old law; the 7-year-old house. Use hyphens for ages expressed as adjectives
before a noun or as substitutes for a noun. A 5-year-old boy, but the boy is 5 years old. The boy, 5, has a sister, 10.
The race is for 3-year-olds. The woman is in her 30s. 30-something, but Thirty-something to start a sentence.
See ages.
– Planes, ships and spacecraft designations: B-2 bomber, Queen Elizabeth 2, QE2, Apollo 9, Viking 2. (Do not use
hyphens.) An exception: Air Force One, the president's plane. Use Roman numerals if they are part of the official
designation: Titan I, Titan II.
See aircraft names; boats, ships; spacecraft designations.
– Centuries. Use figures for numbers 10 or higher: 21st century. Spell out for numbers nine and lower: fifth
century. (Note lowercase.) For proper names, follow the organization's usage: 20th Century Fox, Twentieth Century
Fund.
– Court decisions: The Supreme Court ruled 5-4, a 5-4 decision. The word to is not needed, except in quotations:
"The court ruled 5 to 4."
– Dates, years and decades: Feb. 8, 2007, Class of '66, the 1950s. For the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, 9/11 is
acceptable in all references.
– Decimals, percentages and fractions with numbers larger than 1: 7.2 magnitude quake, 3½ laps, 3.7 percent
interest, 4 percentage points. Decimalization should not exceed two places in most text material. An exception:
blood alcohol content, expressed in three decimals, as in 0.056. For amounts less than 1, precede the decimal with
a zero: The cost of living rose 0.03 percent. When the decimal is 1 or less, the type of measurement should be
singular: 0.35 meter, 0.55 cubic foot, 0.75 kilometer. Spell out fractions less than 1, using hyphens between the
words: two-thirds, four-fifths. In quotations, use figures for fractions: "He was 2½ laps behind with four to go."
See decimal units; fractions; percent.
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NUMERALS WITH NOUNS
– Dimensions, to indicate depth, height, length and width. Examples: He is 5 feet 6 inches tall, the 5-foot-6 man
("inch" is understood), the 5-foot man, the basketball team signed a 7-footer. The car is 17 feet long, 6 feet wide
and 5 feet high. The rug is 9 feet by 12 feet, the 9-by-12 rug. A 9-inch snowfall. Exception: two-by-four. Spell out
the noun, which refers to any length of building lumber 2 inches thick by 4 inches wide.
See dimensions.
– Distances: He walked 4 miles. He missed a 3-foot putt.
– Golf clubs: 3-wood, 7-iron, 3-hybrid (note hyphen).
– Highway designations: Interstate 5, U.S. Highway 1, state Route 1A. (Do not abbreviate Route and do not
hyphenate.)
See highway designations.
– Mathematical usage: Multiply by 4, divide by 6. He added 2 and 2 but got 5.
– Military ranks, used as titles with names, military terms and weapons: Petty Officer 2nd Class Alan Markow, Spc.
Alice Moreno, 1st Sgt. David Triplett, M16 rifle, 9 mm (note space) pistol, 6th Fleet. In military ranks, spell out the
figure when it is used after the name or without a name: Smith was a second lieutenant. The goal is to make first
sergeant.
See military units.
– Millions, billions, trillions: Use a figure-word combination. 1 million people; $2 billion, NOT one million/two
billion. (Also note no hyphen linking numerals and the word million, billion or trillion.)
See millions, billions, trillions; dollars.
– Monetary units: 5 cents, $5 bill, 8 euros, 4 pounds.
See cents.
– Odds, proportions and ratios: 9-1 longshot; 3 parts cement to 1 part water; a 1-4 chance, but one chance in three.
See betting odds; proportions; ratios.
– Rank: He was my No. 1 choice. (Note abbreviation for "Number"). Do not use in names of schools or in street
addresses: Public School 19. Exception: No. 10 Downing St., the residence of Britain's prime minister.
– School grades. Use figures for grades 10 and above: 10th grade. Spell out for first through ninth grades: fourth
grade, fifth-grader (note hyphen).
– Sequential designations: Page 1, Page 20A. They were out of sizes 4 and 5; magnitude 6 earthquake;
Rooms 3 and 4; Chapter 2; line 1 but first line; Act 3, Scene 4, but third act, fourth scene; Game 1, but
best of seven.
See act numbers; chapters; earthquakes; line numbers; page numbers; scene numbers.
– Political districts: Ward 9, 9th Precinct, 3rd Congressional District, 5th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals.
See congressional districts; political divisions.
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NUMERALS WITH NOUNS
– Recipes: 2 tablespoons of sugar to 1 cup of milk.
See recipes.
– Speeds: 7 mph, winds of 5 to 10 mph, winds of 7 to 9 knots.
– Sports scores, standings and standards: The Dodgers defeated the Phillies 10-3 (No comma between the team
and the score); in golf, 3 up, but a 3-up lead; led 3-2; a 6-1-2 record (six wins, one loss, two ties); par 3; 5 handicap,
5-under-par 67 but he was 5 under par (or 5 under, with "par" understood). In narrative, spell out nine and under
except for yard lines in football and individual and team statistical performances: The ball was on the 5-yard line.
Seventh hole. Three-point play, but 3-point shot. In statistical performances, hyphenate as a modifier: He
completed 8 of 12 passes. He made 5 of 6 (shots is understood). He was 5-for-12 passing. He had a 3-for-5 day. He
was 3-for-5. He went 3-for-5 (batting, shooting, etc., is understood).
– Temperatures: Use figures, except zero. It was 8 degrees below zero or minus 8. The temperature dropped from
38 to 8 in two hours.
See temperatures.
– Times: Use figures for time of day except for noon and midnight: 1 p.m., 10:30 a.m., 5 o'clock, 8 hours, 30
minutes, 20 seconds, a winning time of 2:17.3 (two hours, 17 minutes, 3 seconds). Spell out numbers less than 10
standing alone and in modifiers: I'll be there in five minutes. He scored with two seconds left. An eight-hour day.
The two-minute warning.
See times; time sequences.
– Votes: The bill was defeated by a vote of 6 to 4, but by a two-vote margin.
Spell out:
– At the start of a sentence: Forty years was a long time to wait. Fifteen to 20 cars were involved in the accident.
The only exception is years: 1992 was a very good year.
See years.
– In indefinite and casual uses: Thanks a million. He walked a quarter of a mile. One at a time; a thousand clowns;
one day we will know; an eleventh-hour decision; dollar store.
– In fanciful usage or proper names: Chicago Seven, Fab Four, Big Three automakers, Final Four, the Four Tops.
– In formal language, rhetorical quotations and figures of speech: "Fourscore and seven years ago ..." Twelve
Apostles, Ten Commandments, high-five, Day One.
– In fractions less than one that are not used as modifiers: reduced by one-third, he made three-fourths of his
shots.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
20.1: THE NUMBER QUESTION: THE BASICS
A WORD OR FIGURE?
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NUMERALS WITH NOUNS
In transcribing a number, the issue is how it is going to look on the page? Should it be a word or a
figure? Should it be “I sold twenty” or “I sold 20”? In court reporting, there are special issues which
must be taken into account in making this decision. Numbers representing the time of day, dollar
amounts, measurements, decimals, dates – all add additional considerations. No matter what decision
is made, there should be a basis in formal English rules for the transcription of numbers and a
consistency in style within a transcript and from one transcript to another.
Formal English style tends toward “over 100/under 100”; that is, if we want to be very formal, we put
numbers under 100 into words and those over 100 into figures. A variation of this is to put numbers
that can be transcribed in one or two words into words and those transcribed in three or more words
into figures. It is clear that each of these variations is too cumbersome for the reporting transcript.
TECHNICAL VERSUS LITERARY STYLE
In general, a figure stands out on the page (technical style), and a number expressed as a word tends to
blend in with the other words (literary style). Because of the importance of numbers in a case and the
need to be able to clearly, quickly, and easily pick out a number on the page, court reporting has
adopted the technical style.
NUMBER.29:
Sequential Reference:
A sequential reference is a number that is part of a series of numbers, and it usually follows the word
that describes what it is:
It was Check 304 in the amount of $100.
She lives in Apartment 203.
We will mark this as Exhibit 38.
We consider a number to be sequential whenever it follows this word that describes it. The descriptive
word is usually capped with the exception of the words page, line, paragraph, verse, and size.
She can now wear a size 12.
It appears at the bottom of page 5.
I am reading from paragraph 14.
How did he get the chance to appear on Channel 5?
It is stamped Bates 1045 at the bottom.
Please refer to Chapter 12.
NUMBER.30: Use figures for all sequential references.
It is page 15, beginning on line 5.
I think it is discussed in Chapter 8 of the book.
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NUMERALS WITH NOUNS
Go down to paragraph 3.
Even without the descriptive word, a sequential number is in figures.
It is 4515 on the top of the page.
I believe it is in 19, the chapter on contracts.
She lived in 105, if I am not mistaken.
NUMBER .31: If the ordinal precedes the word that states what it is, use “over 10/under 10.”
I did not answer the eighth question.
I did not answer Question 8.
The 12th chapter will be the last
Chapter 12 will be the last.
This is the fourth exhibit on the same topic.
This is Exhibit 4 and is on the same topic.
NUMBER.32: Abbreviate the word number when it precedes a figure except at the beginning of a
sentence, where it should be written out.
I did not see No. 4 in the list of documents that I reviewed.
She wrote No. 356 to her landlord.
Number 7 is the one I want to focus on now.
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE
9.27 Page numbers, chapter numbers, and so forth
Numbers referring to pages, chapters, parts, volumes, and other divisions of a book, as well as numbers
referring to illustrations or tables, are set as numerals. Pages of the front matter are usually in lowercase
roman numerals; those for the rest of the book are in arabic numerals (see 1.5–8). For the use of en
dashes with number ranges, see 6.78. For documentation style, see chapters 14 and 15. See also 8.178.
The preface will be found on pages vii–xiv and the introduction on pages 1–35.
See part 3, especially chapters 9 and 10, for further discussion; see also volume 2, table 15 and figures 7–9.
Upon completion of step 3, on page 37, the reader is asked to consult appendix B, table 7.
Biblical references are given in numerals only; chapter and verse are separated by a colon with no space
following it. For abbreviations, see 10.45–51.
Acts 27:1
Exodus 20:3–17
Psalm 121; Psalms 146–50
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NUMERALS WITH NOUNS
2 Corinthians 11:29–30
Gen. 47:12
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL
359 Capitalize a noun followed by a number or a letter that indicates sequence.
EXCEPTIONS: Do not capitalize the nouns line, note, page, paragraph, size, and verse.
Act I
Appendix A
Article 2
Book III
Bulletin T-119
Car 8171
Chapter V
Chart 3
Check 181
Class 4
Column 1
Diagram 4
Exercise 8
Exhibit A
Figure 9
Flight 626
Illustration 19
Invoice 270487
Lesson 20
line 4
Model B671.4
note 1
page 158
paragraph 2a
Part Three
Plate XV
Platform 3
Policy 394857
Room 501
Section 1
size 10
Table 7
Track 2
Unit 2
verse 3
Volume II
For a more detailed discussion of this argument, see Chapters 5-6.
455 If the term number precedes a figure, express it as an abbreviation (singular: No.; plural: Nos.). At
the beginning of a sentence, however, spell out Number to prevent misreading.
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NUMERALS WITH NOUNS
Our check covers the following invoices: Nos. 8592, 8653, and 8654.
Number 82175 has been assigned to your new policy.
a. If an identifying noun precedes the figure (such as Invoice, Check, Room, Box, or the like), the
abbreviation No. is usually unnecessary.
Our check covers Invoices 8592, 8653, and 8654.
EXCEPTIONS: License No. HLM 744; Social Security No. 169-35-8142; Patent No. 953,461
b. The symbol # may be used on business forms (such as invoices) and in technical matter.
For the capitalization of nouns preceding figures, see ¶359.
619:
To form the plural of most abbreviations, add s.
Vol.→ Vols., No. → Nos., Dr. → Drs.
MORSON’S
RULE 191
When only cents are expressed, use the figure and the word cents.
EXAMPLES
a. The overcharge was 30 cents.
b. We increased our price by 47 cents.
NOTE
When the cents are below ten, spell the number out.
EXAMPLES
c. His opinion isn’t worth two cents.
d. For two cents I would have fired him.
e. I gave him exactly seven cents.
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NUMERALS WITH NOUNS
RULE 198
When expressing dimension, use figures and always spell out inches, feet, yards, ounces, pounds,
degrees. Avoid the symbol x in running text to mean “times” or “by.”
EXAMPLES
a. The box measures 8 by 4 feet.
b. The box measures 8 feet 10 inches by 4 feet 2 inches. (no commas)
c. He was about 6 feet 2 inches and weighed about 200 pounds.
d. The package weighed 5 pounds 6 ounces. (no commas)
e. I saw that the 3-by-4 had blood on it.
f. The 2-by-4 inch board lay on the deck. (Also see Rule 148 for hyphens.)
g. We bought 30 pies for 100 kids, figuring 8 times 30 equals 240 slices for the kids and coaches.
RULE 201
Use figures for measurements that have medical significance to the human body.
EXAMPLES
a. My pulse was 48.
b. Her vision is 20/20. (See Rule 277 for use of slant.)
c. Blood pressure was 120 over 80. (or 120/80)
d. Who recorded 40 degrees Fahrenheit on the chart?
NOTE
Capitalize Fahrenheit and Celsius. Do not capitalize centigrade.
RULE 202
Use figures when citing numbered references.
EXAMPLES
a. Please look carefully at Paragraph 8.
b. Please read lines 8 through 12 of your copy.
c. Let’s go back to Question 8.
d. Is Exhibit P-7 your rental agreement?
e. We agreed to rewrite Article IX of our bylaws.
f. You must use a No. 2 pencil on this survey sheet.
g. These pages have been stamped Bates Nos. C250 through C840.
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Page 8 of 10
NUMERALS WITH NOUNS
NOTE
When a reference is made to an item that is not actually numbered, do not capitalize the reference and
spell out the word number.
EXAMPLES
h. She’s my number one fan.
i. I’m son number two.
When number is spoken before the actual figures, abbreviate and capitalize it as No. If it is the first word
of the sentence, spell it out so as not to confuse it with the negative response No. (Also see Rule 256.)
EXAMPLES
j. Let’s go back to Question No. 8.
k. Number 675 is correct.
RULE 217
Capitalize references to numbered and lettered items with the exception of page, line, stanza, verse,
size, vitamins. Some writers capitalize paragraph and some do not. Some writers capitalize roman
numeral and some do not. Capitalize and abbreviate number when it comes between the reference
word and the figure.
EXAMPLES
a. Our interpretation on Article III, Section 2, has been upheld.
b. Will you read Question 8 slowly, please?
c. We will refer to Plaintiff’s Exhibit No. 10.
d. Please mark this Defendant’s Exhibit A.
e. Who recorded Policy No. 866702?
f. I wear a size 6 glove. That’s a size 8.
g. If you look at Figure 5, you can see where the streets intersect.
h. Are you reading from page 7, line 8?
i. I observed surgical fusion at C4-C5.
j. I know Flight 652 was a DC-9, not a Boeing 707.
k. I did not see any signs to Interstate 95 South.
l. Can you read the words after roman numeral V? (Use roman form of number.)
NOTE
When an exhibit is identified by a letter followed by a number with another letter, the first letter is
capitalized but not the second.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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Page 9 of 10
NUMERALS WITH NOUNS
When identification appears after the exhibit reference, do not capitalize identification.
See Rule 256 for abbreviating number to No.
EXAMPLES
m. Let’s see Exhibit L-14b.
n. Exhibit P-g for identification is missing.
o. Who has Drawing No. 5?
*************************************************************************************
AP Stylebook
(Online subscription: http://www.apstylebook.com/)
Margie Wakeman Wells' Court Reporting: Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation
(Online subscription not available. Paperback can be ordered here:
https://www.margieholdscourt.com/products/court-reporting-bad-grammargood-punctuation/)
Chicago Manual of Style
(Online subscription: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/subscription_opts.html)
Gregg Reference Manual
(Online subscription: http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0073545430/information_center_view0/)
Lillian Morson's English Guide for Court Reporters
(Online subscription not available. Paperback can be found on Amazon.com)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Compiled by Marla Sharp, RPR, CLR, CCRR, CSR
Page 10 of 10
PARAGRAPHING
Rules by AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK
Q. Hi! Is there a general rule about paragraphs in AP? We've noticed that each sentence is its own paragraph in
most news copy and wondered if that was a rule. Thank you! – from Palm Beach, FL on Tue, May 06, 2008
A. No AP rule on paragraphs. However, we don't advocate writing each sentence as a separate paragraph.
"Moderation and a sense of order should be the main considerations in paragraphing," is the sage advice of "The
Elements of Style."
BAD GRAMMAR GOOD PUNCTUATION
23.1 THE PARAGRAPH: CHANGE OF TOPIC
PARAGRAPH.1: Paragraph when the subject matter of the material changes.
A Since it was the middle of the winter it was very dark and cold; furthermore, it was late at night. I did not
remain there for long because of the weather.
She had been there for quite some time. I don’t know how long.
A We were traveling eastbound at the time of the collision. Since it was early morning, we were looking
directly into the sun.
My brother was driving home at the time.
DISCUSSION
Paragraphing within the transcript gives it a more open look and makes it easier to read. As a rule of
thumb, there should be a paragraph every six to eight typed lines. At that point, the topic probably
shifts sufficiently to require a new paragraph. A 25-line page that is one speaker would usually have no
fewer than three paragraphs and likely more.
There does not have to be a complete change of topic. Often the paragraph indicates a shift in the focus
of the topic, e.g., from a discussion of the fact that it was raining on the day of the accident to a
discussion of the effect of the rain on how the car was handling.
Though we might not all agree on where the subject matter changes, it is essential to use this paragraph
rule to break up long speeches by one speaker.
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PARAGRAPHING
23.2: THE PARAGRAPH: CHANGE OF SPEAKER
See Chapter 9 for further discussion of paragraphing quoted material.
PARAGRAPH.2: Paragraph when the person speaking changes.
A She said, “I have never seen him before.”
I said that I did not believe her.
She said, “I swear to you that I do not know him.”
I said, “Okay. Explain the picture that shows the two of you.”
DISCUSSION
This occurs primarily in the “he said/she said” nature of relating a conversation that has taken place.
The paragraphs are not related to whether or not there are quotes but rather to the change in who is
speaking. So each time a different person is speaking or being quoted, there is a new paragraph. This is
a mandatory paragraph so that the speakers are “sorted out” for your reader.
When the “he said/she said” is part of the same sentence, do not use a paragraph as it is one
grammatical sentence.
When she said, “I have never seen him before, he said, “I do not believe you.”
When he asked you, “Where is it?” the answer was “I have no idea.”
When the question “Why go?” was asked, I responded, “Why not?”
23.3: THE PARAGRAPH: CHANGE OF THE PERSON BEING ADDRESSED
PARAGRAPH.3: Paragraph when the person being addressed changes.
THE COURT: I will sustain your objection.
Please do not answer the question.
Please rephrase your question.
A I was with several people that can verify that I –
Would you read that question back to me, please.
REPORTING
This occurs, for example, when the witness answers a question and then turns to say something to his
attorney. This is a mandatory paragraph and is not related to “padding” the transcript. This paragraph
helps to sort out and helps clarify the flow of the proceedings for those reading your transcript. The
specific set-up in the transcript may vary in different jurisdictions.
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PARAGRAPHING
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE
13.19 Period rather than colon preceding a quotation
Unless introduced by thus, as follows, or other wording that requires a colon, a block quotation may be
preceded by a period rather than a colon. Such usage should be applied consistently.
He then took a clearly hostile position toward Poland, having characterized it as a Fascist state that
oppressed the Ukrainians, the Belorussians, and others.
Under present conditions, suppression of that state will mean that there will be one less
Fascist state. It will not be a bad thing if Poland suffers a defeat and thus enables us to
include new territories and new populations in the socialist system.
13.20 Block quotations of more than one paragraph
Quoted material of more than a paragraph, even if very brief, is best set off as a block quotation. (For a
less desirable alternative, see 13.30.) A multiparagraph block quotation should generally reflect the
paragraph breaks of the original. But if the first paragraph quoted includes the beginning of that
paragraph, it need not start with a first-line paragraph indention. Subsequent paragraphs in the
quotation should be indicated either by first-line paragraph indention or (less desirably) by extra line
space between the paragraphs (see also 13.22). The following example, from Jane Austen’s Pride and
Prejudice, includes four full paragraphs:
He began to wish to know more of her, and as a step towards conversing with her himself,
attended to her conversation with others. His doing so drew her notice. It was at Sir William
Lucas’s, where a large party were assembled.
“What does Mr. Darcy mean,” said she to Charlotte, “by listening to my conversation with
Colonel Forster?”
“That is a question which Mr. Darcy only can answer.”
“But if he does it any more I shall certainly let him know that I see what he is about. He has a
very satirical eye, and if I do not begin by being impertinent myself, I shall soon grow afraid of him.”
If the first part of the opening paragraph were to be omitted, it would still begin flush left. For ellipsis
points at the beginning of paragraphs, see 13.54.
13.21 Block quotations beginning in text
A long quotation may begin with a few words run in to the text. This device should be used only when
text intervenes between the quoted matter in the text and its continuation.
“There is no safe trusting to dictionaries and definitions,” observed Charles Lamb.
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PARAGRAPHING
We should more willingly fall in with this popular language, if we did not find brutality
sometimes awkwardly coupled with valour in the same vocabulary. The comic writers . . . have
contributed not a little to mislead us upon this point. To see a hectoring fellow exposed and
beaten upon the stage, has something in it wonderfully diverting. (“Popular Fallacies,” Essays of
Elia, 277)
“In short,” says Crane, summarizing Gordon’s philosophy,
there has been “almost a continual improvement” in all branches of human knowledge; . . .
A permissible alternative is to set off the entire quotation, enclosing the intervening words of text in
brackets.
There is no safe trusting to dictionaries and definitions [observed Charles Lamb]. We should more
willingly . . .
13.22 Text following a block quotation
If the text following a block quotation is a continuation of the paragraph that introduces the quotation,
it begins flush left. If the resuming text begins a new paragraph, it receives a paragraph indention. In
works where all new paragraphs appear flush left, however, it may be necessary to impose extra line
spacing before new paragraphs following block quotations.
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (SIXTH EDITION)
265 A long quotation that will make four or more lines may be handled in one of the following ways:
a. The
preferred style for displaying the quoted material is to treat it as a single-spaced extract.
Indent the extract a half inch from each side margin, and leave a blank line above and below the
extract. Do not enclose the quoted material in quotation marks; the indention replaces the
quotation marks. If any quoted material appears within the extract, retain the quotation marks
around this material. If the extract consists of more than one paragraph, leave a blank line
between paragraphs. (See page 369 for an illustration of an extract in the body of a letter.)
NOTE: Ordinarily, start the quoted material flush left on the shorter line length; however, if a paragraph
indention was called for in the original, indent the first line a half inch. Indent the first line of any
additional paragraphs a half inch also, but do not leave a blank line between indented paragraphs.
b. Use
the same line length and spacing for the quoted material as for other text material on the
page.
(1) If
the quoted material consists of one paragraph only, place quotation marks at the
beginning and end of the paragraph. Use the normal paragraph indention of a half inch.
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Page 4 of 7
PARAGRAPHING
(2) If
the quoted material consists of two or more paragraphs, place a quotation mark at the
start of each paragraph but at the end of only one paragraph—the last one.
(3) Change
double quotation marks within the quoted material to single quotation marks, and
vice versa. (See ¶91245-246.)
"When you are writing a letter that grants a request you can follow this pattern:
"First, express appreciation for the writer's interest in the company's product or service.
"Next give the exact information requested and, if possible, additional information that may be of
interest.
"Finally, express willingness to 'be of further help!"
MORSON’S
If transcript pages consisted of solid, unbroken print, reading these pages would be arduous.
Fortunately, court reporters paragraph each question and answers and all other colloquy. But there are
times within the testimony, the charges, and the opinions that other breaks are needed for lengthy
responses and discussions. Here are six guides for paragraphing.
1. Remember that paragraphs come in all sizes. Transcript pages of solid material are more easily with three or
four paragraphs per page with each paragraph ideally six to eight lines long. However, there are times when a onesentence transitional paragraph is the only way to break into a new paragraph.
2. When dialogue is part of an answer, begin a new paragraph each time the speaker changes.
EXAMPLE
Shortly after that happened, Williams showed me this note. He said, “I got $20,000 extra, and because I’m
not sure what to do, I’m holding it until I see Carter on Monday.”
So I said, “Well, that’s a surprise.”
“Sure is,” he said. “Endorse It and I’ll put it in the bank.”
And that’s when I signed it.
3. When an idea or theme changes, begin a new paragraph.
EXAMPLE
I explained to her that my lease would soon be up, and I would be moving in with my sister. I told her to
start looking around for a place. My sister didn’t have room for her, and I didn’t want her to get caught at the last
minute with no place to go. We could store some of her things if she had to get a smaller place for a while, but my
sister’s house was bursting at the seams with the kids and all. She exploded and started to yell that I didn’t care
what happened to her.
But moving into my sister’s place was a lot easier than I thought it would be, and it was the right move.
The kids were happy to have there because my sister worked at night. I shared a room with my niece, and she liked
talking to me at night about things she said her mom might not understand. And my sister said I was really helping
her out financially and emotionally.
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Page 5 of 7
PARAGRAPHING
4. When the idea or theme changes, begin a new paragraph.
EXAMPLE
In that connection let me show you a letter that appears to be pver your name, although it appears
to be signed by your secretary. It is dated February 16, 1992. it has No. FC-05722 on the top. There is another
set of numbers on the bottom. It is addressed to Dr. John Klinzing.
Now, I ask you to tell me whether or not you can identify the letter, whether or not it refreshes your
recollection of your meeting with Dr. Klinzing. Do you need more time to look at it? It’s a copy but I think you
can make it out.
5. When the enumerations are given, begin a new paragraph with each complete listing. Use a period or
semicolon to end each item. (See Time Out for Enumerations, page 125.)
EXAMPLE
In Indictment No. 86-381, the sentence will be the New Jersey Penitentiary for a term of not less than one
year and not more than ten.
In Indictment No. 86-382, the sentence will be the New Jersey State Penitentiary for a term of not less
than one year and not more than ten to run concurrently with No. 381.
In Indictment No. 86-383, the sentence will be the New Jersey Penitentiary for a term of not less than one
year and not more than ten to run concurrently with 381and 382.
6. When the time or tense changes, begin a new paragraph.
EXAMPLE
For as long as I can remember, that store had a reputation for honesty, fair dealing, and quality
merchandise. My family and friends traded there for years. Not once did we have any complaints or arguments or
mean words of any kind. It was a family business, and we all knew each other and treated each other like family.
Then last year, the Corbins sold the business, and everyone has had trouble with the new owners. They
don’t want our kids in store. They call them names and threaten them. Our youngest was hit over the head and
came home bleeding. Then they call me 174 at work and tell me my boy is stealing and they’re going to take care of
him. If I walk out of the apartment near the store, they come out yelling at me.
7. Sometimes an expression that compares, contrasts, or emphasizes will signal a change in paragraphing. Some
of these expressions follow: at the same time, by the same token, consequently, for example, in contrast, in
general, on the other hand, specifically.
8. Finally, paragraphing verbatim English is an art that takes time to develop. Be patient and observant. If
everyone spoke according to the best rules and styles of grammar and organized his or her ideas coherently,
concisely, and thematically, the paragraphs would all have dynamic topic sentences, followed by logical and
supporting sentences. They would seem to divide themselves, and the court reporter, of course, would not need
any guidelines. Since this is not usually the case, the court reporter patiently develops paragraphing skills for the
sake of the reader and the record.
Compiled by Marla Sharp, RPR, CLR, CCRR, CSR
Page 6 of 7
PARAGRAPHING
*************************************************************************************
AP Stylebook
(Online subscription: https://www.apstylebook.com/)
Margie Wakeman Wells' Court Reporting: Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation
(Online subscription not available. Paperback can be ordered here:
https://www.margieholdscourt.com/products/court-reporting-bad-grammargood-punctuation/)
Chicago Manual of Style
(Online subscription: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/subscription_opts.html)
Gregg Reference Manual
(Online subscription: http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0073545430/information_center_view0/)
Lillian Morson's English Guide for Court Reporters
(Online subscription not available. Paperback can be found on Amazon.com)
Compiled by Marla Sharp, RPR, CLR, CCRR, CSR
Page 7 of 7
PLURALS AND POSSESSIVES
Rules by AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK
plurals Follow these guidelines in forming and using plural words:
MOST WORDS: Add s: boys, girls, ships, villages.
WORDS ENDING IN CH, S, SH, SS, X and Z: Add es: churches, lenses, parishes, glasses, boxes, buzzes. (Monarchs is
an exception.)
WORDS ENDING IN IS: Change is to es: oases, parentheses, theses.
WORDS ENDING IN Y: If y is preceded by a consonant or qu, change y to i and add es: armies, cities, navies,
soliloquies. (See PROPER NAMES below for an exception.)
Otherwise add s: donkeys, monkeys.
WORDS ENDING IN O: If o is preceded by a consonant, most plurals require es: buffaloes, dominoes, echoes,
heroes, potatoes. But there are exceptions: pianos. See individual entries in this book for many of these
exceptions.
WORDS ENDINGS IN F: In general, change f to v and add es: leaves, selves. (Roof, roofs is an exception.)
LATIN ENDINGS: Latin-root words ending in us change us to i: alumnus, alumni. (Words that have taken on English
endings by common usage are exceptions: prospectuses, syllabuses.)
Most ending in a change to ae: alumna, alumnae (formula, formulas is an exception).
Most ending in um add s: memorandums, referendums, stadiums. Among those that still use the Latin ending:
addenda, curricula, media.
Use the plural that Webster's New World College Dictionary lists as most common for a particular sense of word.
FORM CHANGE: man, men; child, children; foot, feet; mouse, mice; etc.
Caution: When s is used with any of these words it indicates possession and must be preceded by an apostrophe:
men's, children's, etc.
WORDS THE SAME IN SINGULAR AND PLURAL: corps, chassis, deer, moose, sheep, etc.
The sense in a particular sentence is conveyed by the use of a singular or plural verb.
WORDS PLURAL IN FORM, SINGULAR IN MEANING: Some take singular verbs: measles, mumps, news.
Others take plural verbs: grits, scissors.
COMPOUND WORDS: Those written solid add s at the end: cupfuls, handfuls, tablespoonfuls.
For those that involve separate words or words linked by a hyphen, make the most significant word plural:
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Page 1 of 19
PLURALS AND POSSESSIVES
—Significant word first: adjutants general, aides-de-camp, attorneys general, courts-martial, daughters-in-law,
passers-by, postmasters general, presidents-elect, secretaries-general, sergeants major.
—Significant word in the middle: assistant attorneys general, deputy chiefs of staff.
—Significant word last: assistant attorneys, assistant corporation counsels, deputy sheriffs, lieutenant colonels,
major generals.
WORDS AS WORDS: Do not use 's: His speech had too many "ifs," "ands" and "buts." (Exception to Webster's New
World College Dictionary.)
PROPER NAMES: Most ending in es or s or z add es: Charleses, Joneses, Gonzalezes.
Most ending in y add s even if preceded by a consonant: the Duffys, the Kennedys, the two Kansas Citys. Exceptions
include Alleghenies and Rockies.
For others, add s: the Carters, the McCoys, the Mondales.
FIGURES: Add s: The custom began in the 1920s. The airline has two 727s. Temperatures will be in the low 20s.
There were five size 7s.
(No apostrophes, an exception to Webster's New World College Dictionary guideline under "apostrophe.")
SINGLE LETTERS: Use 's: Mind your p's and q's. He learned the three R's and brought home a report card with four
A's and two B's. The Oakland A's won the pennant.
MULTIPLE LETTERS: Add s: She knows her ABCs. I gave him five IOUs. Four VIPs were there.
PROBLEMS, DOUBTS: Separate entries in this book give plurals for troublesome words and guidance on whether
certain words should be used with singular or plural verbs and pronouns. See also collective nouns and
possessives.
For questions not covered by this book, use the plural that Webster's New World College Dictionary lists as most
common for a particular sense of a word.
Note also the guidelines that the dictionary provides under its "plural" entry.
collective nouns
Nouns that denote a unit take singular verbs and pronouns: class, committee,
crowd, family, group, herd, jury, orchestra, team.
Some usage examples: The committee is meeting to set its agenda. The jury reached its verdict. A herd of cattle
was sold.
Team names and musical group names that are plural take plural verbs. The Yankees are in first place. The Jonas
Brothers are popular.
Team or group names with no plural forms also take plural verbs: The Miami Heat are battling for third place.
Other examples: Orlando Magic, Oklahoma City Thunder, Utah Jazz.
Many singular names take singular verbs: Coldplay is on tour. Boston is favored in the playoffs. The Cardinal is in
the NCAA tournament.
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Page 2 of 19
PLURALS AND POSSESSIVES
But some proper names that are plural in form take a singular verb: Brooks Brothers is holding a sale.
PLURAL IN FORM: Some words that are plural in form become collective nouns and take singular verbs when the
group or quantity is regarded as a unit.
Right: A thousand bushels is a good yield. (A unit.)
Right: A thousand bushels were created. (Individual items.)
Right: The data is sound. (A unit.)
Right: The data have been carefully collected. (Individual items.)
possessives Follow these guidelines:
PLURAL NOUNS NOT ENDING IN S: Add 's: the alumni's contributions, women's rights.
PLURAL NOUNS ENDING IN S: Add only an apostrophe: the churches' needs, the girls' toys, the horses' food, the
ships' wake, states' rights, the VIPs' entrance.
NOUNS PLURAL IN FORM, SINGULAR IN MEANING: Add only an apostrophe: mathematics' rules, measles' effects.
(But see INANIMATE OBJECTS below.)
Apply the same principle when a plural word occurs in the formal name of a singular entity: General Motors'
profits, the United States' wealth.
NOUNS THE SAME IN SINGULAR AND PLURAL: Treat them the same as plurals, even if the meaning is singular: one
corps' location, the two deer's tracks, the lone moose's antlers.
SINGULAR NOUNS NOT ENDING IN S: Add 's: the church's needs, the girl's toys, the horse's food, the ship's route,
the VIP's seat.
Some style guides say that singular nouns ending in s sounds such as ce, x, and z may take either the apostrophe
alone or 's. See SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS, but otherwise, for consistency and ease in remembering a rule, always use
's if the word does not end in the letter s: Butz's policies, the fox's den, the justice's verdict, Marx's theories, the
prince's life, Xerox's profits.
SINGULAR COMMON NOUNS ENDING IN S: Add 's unless the next word begins with s: the hostess's invitation, the
hostess' seat; the witness's answer, the witness' story.
SINGULAR PROPER NAMES ENDING IN S: Use only an apostrophe: Achilles' heel, Agnes' book, Ceres' rites,
Descartes' theories, Dickens' novels, Euripides' dramas, Hercules' labors, Jesus' life, Jules' seat, Kansas' schools,
Moses' law, Socrates' life, Tennessee Williams' plays, Xerxes' armies.
SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: The following exceptions to the general rule for words not ending in s apply to words that
end in an s sound and are followed by a word that begins with s: for appearance' sake, for conscience' sake, for
goodness' sake. Use 's otherwise: the appearance's cost, my conscience's voice.
PRONOUNS: Personal interrogative and relative pronouns have separate forms for the possessive. None involve an
apostrophe: mine, ours, your, yours, his, hers, its, theirs, whose.
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Page 3 of 19
PLURALS AND POSSESSIVES
Caution: If you are using an apostrophe with a pronoun, always double-check to be sure that the meaning calls for
a contraction: you're, it's, there's, who's.
Follow the rules listed above in forming the possessives of other pronouns: another's idea, others' plans,
someone's guess.
COMPOUND WORDS: Applying the rules above, add an apostrophe or 's to the word closest to the object
possessed: the major general's decision, the major generals' decisions, the attorney general's request, the
attorneys general's request. See the plurals entry for guidelines on forming the plurals of these words.
Also: anyone else's attitude, John Adams Jr.'s father, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania's motion. Whenever
practical, however, recast the phrase to avoid ambiguity: the motion by Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania.
JOINT POSSESSION, INDIVIDUAL POSSESSION: Use a possessive form after only the last word if ownership is joint:
Fred and Sylvia's apartment, Fred and Sylvia's stocks.
Use a possessive form after both words if the objects are individually owned: Fred's and Sylvia's books.
DESCRIPTIVE PHRASES: Do not add an apostrophe to a word ending in s when it is used primarily in a descriptive
sense: citizens band radio, a Cincinnati Reds infielder, a teachers college, a Teamsters request, a writers guide.
Memory Aid: The apostrophe usually is not used if for or by rather than of would be appropriate in the longer
form: a radio band for citizens, a college for teachers, a guide for writers, a request by the Teamsters.
An 's is required, however, when a term involves a plural word that does not end in s: a children's hospital, a
people's republic, the Young Men's Christian Association.
DESCRIPTIVE NAMES: Some governmental, corporate and institutional organizations with a descriptive word in
their names use an apostrophe; some do not. Follow the user's practice: Actors' Equity, Diners Club, the Ladies'
Home Journal, the National Governors Association. See separate entries for these and similar names frequently in
the news.
QUASI POSSESSIVES: Follow the rules above in composing the possessive form of words that occur in such phrases
as a day's pay, two weeks' vacation, three days' work, your money's worth.
Frequently, however, a hyphenated form is clearer: a two-week vacation, a three-day job.
DOUBLE POSSESSIVE: Two conditions must apply for a double possessive – a phrase such as a friend of John's – to
occur: 1. The word after of must refer to an animate object, and 2. The word before of must involve only a portion
of the animate object's possessions.
Otherwise, do not use the possessive form of the word after of: The friends of John Adams mourned his death. (All
the friends were involved.) He is a friend of the college. (Not college's, because college is inanimate.)
Memory Aid: This construction occurs most often, and quite naturally, with the possessive forms of personal
pronouns: He is a friend of mine.
INANIMATE OBJECTS: There is no blanket rule against creating a possessive form for an inanimate object,
particularly if the object is treated in a personified sense. See some of the earlier examples, and note these:
death's call, the wind's murmur.
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Page 4 of 19
PLURALS AND POSSESSIVES
In general, however, avoid excessive personalization of inanimate objects, and give preference to an of
construction when it fits the makeup of the sentence. For example, the earlier references to mathematics' rules
and measles' effects would better be phrased: the rules of mathematics, the effects of measles.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
(coming soon)
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16TH EDITION)
5.19 Genitive case
The genitive case denotes (1) ownership, possession, or occupancy {the architect’s drawing board}
{Arnie’s room}; (2) a relationship {the philanthropist’s secretary}; (3) agency {the company’s
representative}; (4) description {a summer’s day}; (5) the role of a subject {the boy’s application} (the
boy applied); (6) the role of an object {the prisoner’s release} (someone released the prisoner); or (7) an
idiomatic shorthand form of an of-phrase (e.g., one hour’s delay is equal to a delay of one hour). The
genitive case is also called the possessive case, but possessive is a misleadingly narrow term, given the
seven different functions of this case. The genitive is formed in different ways, depending on the noun
or nouns and their usage in a sentence. The genitive of a singular noun is formed by adding ’s {driver’s
seat} {engineer’s opinion}. The genitive of a plural noun that ends in -s or -es is formed by adding an
apostrophe {parents’ house} {foxes’ den}. The genitive of an irregular plural noun is formed by adding ’s
{women’s rights} {mice’s cage}. The genitive of a compound noun is formed by adding the appropriate
ending to the last word in the compound {parents-in-law’s message}. See also 7.15–28.
5.20 The “of”-genitive
The preposition of may precede a noun or proper name to express relationship, agency, or possession.
The choice between a genitive ending and an of construction depends mostly on style. Compare the
perils of Penelope with the saucer of the chef. Some nouns can readily take either the genitive form or
the of-genitive {the theater’s name} {the name of the theater}, but others sound right only in the ofgenitive. Compare everything’s end with the end of everything. The of-genitive is also useful when a
double genitive is called for {an idea of Hill’s} {an employee of my grandfather’s business}.
7.5 Standard plural forms
Most nouns form their plural by adding s or—if they end in ch, j, s, sh, x, or z—by adding es. Most English
speakers will not need help with such plural forms as thumbs, churches, fixes, or boys, and these are not
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PLURALS AND POSSESSIVES
listed in standard dictionary entries, including those in Webster’s Collegiate. (All inflected forms are
listed in Webster’s Third New International; moreover, the online versions of most dictionaries
accommodate the correct plural forms in their search engines.) Most dictionaries do, however, give
plural forms for words ending in y that change to ies (baby, etc.); for words ending in o (ratio, potato,
etc.); for certain words of Latin or Greek origin such as crocus, datum, or alumna; and for all words with
irregular plurals (child, leaf, etc.).
7.6 Alternative plural forms
Where Webster’s gives two forms of the plural—whether as primary and secondary variants, like zeros
and zeroes, or as equal variants, like millennia and millenniums—Chicago normally opts for the first. In
some cases, however, different forms of the plural are used for different purposes. A book may have
two indexes and a mathematical expression two indices, as indicated in the Webster’s entry for index.
7.7 Plurals of compound nouns
Webster’s gives the plural form of most compounds that are tricky (fathers-in-law, coups d’état, courtsmartial, chefs d’oeuvre, etc.). For those not listed, common sense can usually provide the answer.
bachelors of science
masters of arts
spheres of influence
child laborers
7.8 Plurals of proper nouns
Names of persons and other capitalized nouns normally form the plural by adding s or es. Rare
exceptions, including the last example, are generally listed in Webster’s.
Tom, Dick, and Harry; pl. Toms, Dicks, and Harrys
the Jones family, pl. the Joneses
the Martinez family, pl. the Martinezes
the Bruno family, pl. the Brunos
Sunday, pl. Sundays
Germany, pl. Germanys
Pakistani, pl. Pakistanis
but
Romany, pl. Romanies
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An apostrophe is never used to form the plural of a family name: “The Jeffersons live here” (not
“Jefferson’s”). For the apostrophe in the possessive form of proper nouns, see 7.16.
7.9 Plural form for Native American group names
According to current preference, names of Native American groups usually form their plural by adding s.
In earlier writings the s was often omitted (indeed, Webster’s has continued to present both forms as
equal variants).
the Hopis of northeastern Arizona (not Hopi)
the language spoken by Cherokees
but
the languages of the Iroquois
7.10 Singular form used for the plural
Names ending in an unpronounced s or x are best left in the singular form.
the seventeen Louis of France
the two Dumas, father and son
two Charlevoix (or, better, two towns called Charlevoix)
7.11 Plural form of italicized words
If italicized terms—names of newspapers, titles of books, and the like—are used in the plural, the s is
normally set in roman. A title already in plural form, however, may be left unchanged. In case of doubt,
avoid the plural by rephrasing.
two Chicago Tribunes and three Milwaukee Journal Sentinels
several Madame Bovarys
too many sics
but
four New York Times
The plural endings to italicized foreign words should also be set in italics.
Blume, Blumen
cheval, chevaux
señor, señores
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7.12 Plural form for words in quotation marks
The plural of a word or phrase in quotation marks may be formed in the usual way (without an
apostrophe—a departure from Chicago’s former preference). If the result is awkward, reword. Chicago
discourages a plural ending following a closing quotation mark.
How many more “To be continueds” (not “To be continued”s) can we expect?
or, better,
How many more times can we expect to see “To be continued”?
7.13 Plurals of noun coinages
Words and hyphenated phrases that are not nouns but are used as nouns usually form the plural by
adding s or es. (If in doubt, consult an unabridged dictionary like Webster’s Third New International,
which indicates the preferred inflected forms for most nouns, including all of the examples below.)
ifs and buts
dos and don’ts
threes and fours
thank-yous
maybes
yeses and nos
7.14 Plurals for letters, abbreviations, and numerals
Capital letters used as words, numerals used as nouns, and abbreviations usually form the plural by
adding s. To aid comprehension, lowercase letters form the plural with an apostrophe and an s. For
some exceptions beyond those listed in the last three examples, see 10.43; see also 10.55 (for the
International System). For the omission of periods in abbreviations like “BS,” “MA,” and “PhD,” see 10.4.
See also 7.58–65.
the three Rs
x’s and y’s
the 1990s
IRAs
URLs
BSs, MAs, PhDs
vols.
eds.
but
p. (page), pp. (pages)
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n. (note), nn. (notes)
MS (manuscript), MSS (manuscripts)
7.15 Possessive form of most nouns
The possessive of most singular nouns is formed by adding an apostrophe and an s. The possessive of
plural nouns (except for a few irregular plurals, like children, that do not end in s) is formed by adding an
apostrophe only. For the few exceptions to these principles, see 7.19–21. See also 5.19.
the horse’s mouth
a bass’s stripes
puppies’ paws
children’s literature
a herd of sheep’s mysterious disappearance
7.16 Possessive of proper nouns, letters, and numbers
The general rule extends to proper nouns, including names ending in s, x, or z, in both their singular and
plural forms, as well as letters and numbers.
SINGULAR FORMS
Kansas’s legislature
Chicago’s lakefront
Marx’s theories
Jesus’s adherents
Berlioz’s works
Tacitus’s Histories
Borges’s library
Dickens’s novels
Malraux’s masterpiece
Josquin des Prez’s motets
PLURAL FORMS
the Lincolns’ marriage
the Williamses’ new house
the Martinezes’ daughter
dinner at the Browns’ (that is, at the Browns’ place)
LETTERS AND NUMBERS
FDR’s legacy
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1999’s heaviest snowstorm
7.17 Possessive of words and names ending in unpronounced “s”
In a return to Chicago’s earlier practice, words and names ending in an unpronounced s form the
possessive in the usual way (with the addition of an apostrophe and an s). This practice not only
recognizes that the additional s is often pronounced but adds to the appearance of consistency with the
possessive forms of other types of proper nouns.
Descartes’s three dreams
the marquis’s mother
François’s efforts to learn English
Vaucouleurs’s assistance to Joan of Arc
Albert Camus’s novels
7.18 Possessive of names like “Euripides”
In a departure from earlier practice, Chicago no longer recommends the traditional exception for proper
classical names of two or more syllables that end in an eez sound. Such names form the possessive in
the usual way (though when these forms are spoken, the additional s is generally not pronounced).
Euripides’s tragedies
the Ganges’s source
Xerxes’s armies
7.19 Possessive of nouns plural in form, singular in meaning
When the singular form of a noun ending in s is the same as the plural (i.e., the plural is uninflected), the
possessives of both are formed by the addition of an apostrophe only. If ambiguity threatens, use of to
avoid the possessive.
politics’ true meaning
economics’ forerunners
this species’ first record (or, better, the first record of this species)
The same rule applies when the name of a place or an organization or a publication (or the last element
in the name) is a plural form ending in s, such as the United States, even though the entity is singular.
the United States’ role in international law
Highland Hills’ late mayor
Callaway Gardens’ former curator
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the National Academy of Sciences’ new policy
7.20 “For . . . sake” expressions
For the sake of euphony, a few for . . . sake expressions used with a singular noun that ends in an s end
in an apostrophe alone, omitting the additional s.
for goodness’ sake
for righteousness’ sake
Aside from these traditional formulations, however, the possessive in for . . . sake expressions may be
formed in the normal way.
for expedience’s sake
for appearance’s sake (or for appearances’ sake [plural possessive] or for the sake of appearance)
for Jesus’s sake
7.21 An alternative practice for words ending in “s”
Some writers and publishers prefer the system, formerly more common, of simply omitting the
possessive s on all words ending in s—hence “Dylan Thomas’ poetry,” “Etta James’ singing,” and “that
business’ main concern.” Though easy to apply and economical, such usage disregards pronunciation
and is therefore not recommended by Chicago
7.22 Joint versus separate possession
Closely linked nouns are considered a single unit in forming the possessive when the thing being
“possessed” is the same for both; only the second element takes the possessive form.
my aunt and uncle’s house
Gilbert and Sullivan’s Iolanthe
Minneapolis and Saint Paul’s transportation system
When the things possessed are discrete, both nouns take the possessive form.
my aunt’s and uncle’s medical profiles
Dylan’s and Jagger’s hairlines
New York’s and Chicago’s transportation systems
Gilbert’s or Sullivan’s mustache
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7.23 Compound possessives
In compound nouns and noun phrases the final element usually takes the possessive form, even in the
plural.
student assistants’ time cards
my daughter-in-law’s address
my sons-in-law’s addresses
7.24 Possessive with genitive
Analogous to possessives, and formed like them, are certain expressions based on the old genitive case.
The genitive here implies of.
in three days’ time
an hour’s delay (or a one-hour delay)
six months’ leave of absence (or a six-month leave of absence)
7.25 Possessive versus attributive forms
The line between a possessive or genitive form (see 7.24) and a noun used attributively—to modify
another noun—is sometimes fuzzy, especially in the plural. Although terms such as employees’ cafeteria
sometimes appear without an apostrophe, Chicago dispenses with the apostrophe only in proper names
(often corporate names) that do not use one or where there is clearly no possessive meaning.
children’s rights
farmers’ market
women’s soccer team
boys’ clubs
taxpayers’ associations (or taxpayer associations)
consumers’ group (or consumer group)
but
Publishers Weekly
Diners Club
Department of Veterans Affairs
7.26 Possessive with gerund
A noun followed by a gerund (see 5.110) may take the possessive form in some contexts. This practice,
usually limited to proper names and personal nouns or pronouns, should be used with caution. For an
excellent discussion, see “Possessive with Gerund,” in Fowler’s Modern English Usage (bibliog. 1.2). The
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possessive is most commonly used when the gerund rather than the noun that precedes it can be
considered to be the subject of a clause, as in the first four examples below. In the fifth example,
Fathers is clearly the subject of the sentence and assuming is a participle (verb form) rather than a
gerund (noun form); the possessive would therefore be incorrect.
Fathers’ assuming the care of children has changed the traditional household economy.
We all agreed that Jerod’s running away from the tigers had been the right thing to do.
Our finding a solution depends on the nature of the problem.
Eleanor’s revealing her secret (or Eleanor’s revelation) resulted in a lawsuit.
but
Fathers assuming the care of children often need to consult mothers for advice.
When the noun or pronoun follows a preposition, the possessive is usually optional.
She was worried about her daughter (or daughter’s) going there alone.
I won’t put up with him (or his) being denigrated.
The problem of authors (or authors’) finding the right publisher can be solved
7.28 Possessive with italicized or quoted terms
As with plurals, when an italicized term appears in roman text, the possessive s should be set in roman.
When the last element is plural in form, add only an apostrophe (see 7.19). Chicago discourages,
however, attempting to form the possessive of a term enclosed in quotation marks (a practice that is
seen in some periodical publications where most titles are quoted rather than italicized).
the Atlantic Monthly’s editor
the New York Times’ new fashion editor
Gone with the Wind’s admirers
but
admirers of “Ode on a Grecian Urn”
9.54 Plural numbers
Spelled-out numbers form their plurals as other nouns do (see 7.5).
The contestants were in their twenties and thirties.
The family was at sixes and sevens.
Numerals form their plurals by adding s. No apostrophe is needed.
Among the scores were two 240s and three 238s.
Jazz forms that were developed in the 1920s became popular in the 1930s.
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GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (SIXTH EDITION)
POSSESSIVE SINGULAR NOUNS ENDING IN “S”
631a To form the possessive of singular nouns that do end with an s sound, be guided by your
pronunciation. If you create a new syllable when you pronounce the possessive, add an apostrophe plus
s.
your boss’s approval
Dallas’s parks
our coach’s strategy
Phoenix’s suburbs
631b To form the possessive of singular nouns that do end with an s sound, be guided by your
pronunciation. If adding an extra syllable makes the word hard to pronounce, add only an apostrophe.
for goodness’ sake
New Orleans’ chefs
Massachusetts’ roads
Los Angeles’ freeways
634 To form the possessive of singular compound nouns, add an apostrophe plus s to the last element
of the compound.
an eyewitness’s story
my stockbroker’s advice
my son-in-law’s job
the attorney general’s plan
MORSON’S
RULE 127
Use an apostrophe and s to show the plural form of uncapitalized letters, and uncapitalized
abbreviations.
EXAMPLES
a. Are there two s’s in your name?
b. She never closes the a’s and o’s when she writes.
c. He keeps mixing up his a.m.’s and p.m.’s in telling you the story.
d. Her neatness about everything drives me crazy. She’s the kind who dots all her i’s and crosses all her t’s
and expects everyone else to do the same.
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RULE 128
Use an apostrophe and s to show the plural form if ant word that is unfamiliar or likely to be misread.
EXAMPLES
a. He mailed all the thank-you’s so late that it was an embarrassment to the firm.
b. She was told all the do’s and don’ts on the first day.
c. We altered all the owners of pubs and go-go’s in town about the counterfeit money.
If the pluralized form is quoted, keep the entire expression inside the quotes.
EXAMPLES
d. The only thing we’re getting from your witness is a lot if “I guesses” and “me too’s.”
e. When I tell my doctors how sick I am, I get a chorus of “you’re not alones.”
NOTE
Words that are common are still made plural by adding s or es.
EXAMPLES
f. She told us there would be no ands, ifs, or buts regarding lateness.
g. There were a lot of whereases discusses, but they were complicated.
h. I checked out all the ways and wherefores before signing.
i. He explained all the ins and outs to the associates.
j. Tell me the pros and cons of doing it your way.
k. We had our ups and downs, but they weren’t too serious.
If there is a chance of misreading, use quotation marks.
RULE 129
The plurals of numbers and capitalized abbreviations can be written without an apostrophe and s if
there is no chance of misreading. When abbreviations are lowercased, use the apostrophe and s.
EXAMPLES
a. We thought our company would take off in the 1990s.
b. This clock dates back to the 1700s.
c. The 2-by-4s fell off the truck.
d. All of my IOUs were paid.
e. There were so many Ph.D.s in the room that I was intimidated and did not talk much.
f. He was admitted, suffering from the DTs.
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g. All the c.o.d.’s were routed through my department; all the f.o.b.’s were routed through Cora’s; all the
s.o.b.’s were routed through Mr. Kane’s. I’m just kidding about the s.o.b.’s. (See Rule 113.)
NOTE
Some writers still use the apostrophe and s for the plural of all numbers and capitalized abbreviations,
but the trend is to omit this form. Consult a dictionary for abbreviation choices.
RULE 130
Use an apostrophe before adding a suffix to show that a letter, number, or abbreviation has become a
verb form.
EXAMPLES
a. Can you tell us who X’d out the total on this page?
b. We evaluate a person’s character and then determine if he can be ROR’d. (released on recognizance)
c. The officer star-69’d the phone and got the number.
d. When the company started RIF’ing, my husband became agitated. (reduction in force)
e. After a lof of bs’ing, they UPS’d the reports.
f. He OK’s all the charts for distribution with that special stamp.
Examples a and f are the literal descriptions of placing the letter X on a page and the letters O and K on a
chart. If the meaning is that someone gives approval or writes a signature, then the sentence should be
written as follows: He okays al the charts for distribution.
In Example 130f, the expression OK’s is the verb form. The plural form would not have an apostrophe.
EXAMPLE
g. I can count over a dozen separate OKs on this one invoice.
NOTE
Words like emceeing and deejaying are replacing the older form of abbreviation and apostrophe.
EXAMPLES
h. I was deejaying at Phil’s last night. (formerly written as DJ’ing)
i. Who emceed the award ceremony? (formerly written as MC’d)
Consult a dictionary often to see which words follow which patterns.
Dictionaries also use the hyphen before adding a suffix to shoe that a letter or abbreviation has become
a verb form.
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EXAMPLES
j. bs bs’d bs’ing bs-ing
k. od od’d od’ing od-ing OD OD’d OD-ing
l. x x’d x’ed x’ing x-ing
When a shortened word that ends in “c” becomes a verb, add the letter “k” rto keep the hard “g”
sound.
EXAMPLES
m. You attended the picnic in the park. Had you picnicked there before?
n. We did their job on spec. Actually, we had specked another job for them last year.
o. They found the book in the rec area shortly after the prisoners had recked outside for an hour.
p. He was contracted to dry-vac an area that had never been dry-vacked before.
q. The trauma team was medevacking the patient to St. Barnadas.
RULE 131
Use an apostrophe and s to show possession in most singular nouns.
EXAMPLES
a. Your client’s testimony is inaccurate.
b. That woman’s testimony has never been proved.
c. The defendant’s testimony has many discrepancies.
d. Counsel’s remarks are stricken.
e. The Court’s position is clear.
f. Camille’s sister called me often.
g. I have often said that Ms. Ricordino’s talents seem limitless.
RULE 132
When a singular noun ends in s or z, the possessive may be made by adding an apostrophe and s if an
extra s syllable is heard and written in the notes of the court reporter.
EXAMPLES
a. The witness’s memory was vague about the day of the trip. (Spoken as three syllables.)
b. We feel J.P. Cross’s wife was understaffed
c. Mr. Martinez’s wife was permanently disabled.
d. We gave Boaz’s medical history to the attending physician.
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If the court reporter does not hear the speaker use the extra s syllable and, therefore, does not include
it in the notes, the singular possessive is made by just adding the apostrophe.
EXAMPLES
e. Mr. Reynold’s car was blocking my driveway. (OR: Reynolds’s if spoken as three syllables.)
f. Mrs. Jones’ car was on the shoulder of the road. (OR: Jones’s if spoken as two syllables.)
g. The topaz’ luster was marred by the scratches.
h. We gave Moses’ medical history to the attending physician.
RULE 133
Use an apostrophe after the s in most plural nouns to show possession.
EXAMPLES
a. You have hears the girls’ testimony supported by their school principal.
b. The ladies’ addresses were not given.
c. Your witnesses’ stories are all different and contradictory.
d. I was driving the Joneses’ car when the accident happened.
NOTE
Often the singular possessive and the plural possessive of a word will sound the same. The court
reporter must then read the context very carefully for clues as to which form is intended. Read the pairs
of examples below out loud, and you will hear the same sounds. However, usually only one of the two is
acceptable based on the context.
EXAMPLES
e. The plaintiff’s case is weak. (only one plaintiff is named in the suit)
The plaintiffs’ case is weak. (more than one plaintiff is named in the suit)
f. My witness’s story is complex.
My witnesses’ story is complex.
g. The girl’s version is false.
The girls’ version is false.
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AP Stylebook
(online subscription: http://apstylebook.blogspot.com/ Also try: http://apstylebook.blogspot.com/)
Chicago Manual of Style
(online subscription: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/subscription_opts.html)
Gregg Reference Manual
(online subscription: http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0073545430/information_center_view0/)
Lillian Morson's English Guide for Court Reporters
(can be found on Amazon)
Margie Wakeman Wells' Court Reporting: Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation
(order here: https://www.margieholdscourt.com/products/court-reporting-bad-grammargoodpunctuation/)
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QUESTION MARK OR PERIOD WITH POLITE REQUESTS
Rules by AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK
END OF A DIRECT QUESTION: Who started the riot?
Did he ask who started the riot? (The sentence as a whole is a direct question despite the indirect question at the
end.)
You started the riot? (A question in the form of a declarative statement.)
INTERPOLATED QUESTION: You told me — Did I hear you correctly? — that you started the riot.
MULTIPLE QUESTIONS: Use a single question mark at the end of the full sentence:
Did you hear him say, "What right have you to ask about the riot?"
Did he plan the riot, employ assistants, and give the signal to begin?
Or, to cause full stops and throw emphasis on each element, break into separate sentences: Did he plan the riot?
Employ assistants? Give the signal to begin?
CAUTION: Do not use question marks to indicate the end of indirect questions:
He asked who started the riot. To ask why the riot started is unnecessary. I want to know what the cause of the riot
was. How foolish it is to ask what caused the riot.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
Page 621: Polite Request: A polite request asks a person to do something or to provide information.
(page 77)
Would you put your initials on the diagram at the point where you were parked.
Will you had that to your witness.
Would you please bring that with you to tomorrow’s session.
7.6: THE PERIOD: THE POLITE REQUEST
DEFINITION
Polite Request: A polite request asks a person to do something or to provide information.
Would you put your initials on the diagram at the point where you were parked.
Will you hand that to your witness.
Would you please bring that with you to tomorrow's session.
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DISCUSSION
Though it feels like a question and sometimes even sounds like a question because of the tone of voice,
a polite request is really an extension of the command form. It asks that someone do something or give
information rather than simply answer with a positive or negative response. The use of the word please
does not alter the terminal punctuation.
Will you be here tomorrow at 9:00 or not?
Would you please arrive tomorrow at 9:00.
Will you be able to stand for the entire performance?
Will you relate to me where everyone was standing in the room.
Would you always, while you worked there, turn in a report at the end of the day?
Would you turn in that report before you leave, please.
PERIOD.20: Use a period at the end of a polite request.
Would you tell me the phone number there.
Would you sign this at the bottom.
Will you please fill that in when you receive the deposition.
DISCUSSION
The polite request calls for an action to be done; sometimes the action is simply giving a piece of
information. It is a nice way to tell someone to do something. Neither yes nor no, in and of itself, is an
appropriate response to a polite request; and, most especially, yes or no cannot be the only response to
a polite request.
Look at these examples.
Q Would you state your name.
A Yes.
Q Will you give me the names of your children.
A Yes.
The response to each question in these sentences is meaningless as t here really is no question being
asked. "Yes" does not work as an answer. The attorney is requesting information, not asking a question.
It would certainly not be appropriate for the witness to respond with "I don't think so. No. Not today.”
The appropriate response is for the witness to state his name or give the names of the children, et
cetera. It is a request that the witness do something and is punctuated with a period.
At times, a person may respond with yes to a polite request but will go on and do the action asked for.
That is still a polite request. and a period is used.
Q Would you state your name.
A Yes. Jane Clauson.
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In good English a polite request begins with will or would or sometimes may.
Will you state your name for the record.
Would you put your initials to mark the place your car came to rest.
May I hand you this letter.
REPORTING
Since not all sentences that begin with will or would are polite requests, you will have to distinguish
between an actual question that begins with will or would and a polite request. The question is
punctuated with an interrog; the polite request, with a period.
Q Would you be willing to go with me tomorrow?
A Yes.
Q Will you be able to be in court later today for the motion?
A No.
Q Would you tell me what time you left.
A 9:00 P.M.
Q Will you give me your husband's name.
A Bill.
For a polite request, the intent is to get the action requested to happen. Sometimes only an action is
required; sometimes information is needed. A polite request is not a question. It takes a period.
Will you bring me a glass of water.
Would you please give me your phone number.
THE WORDS CAN AND COULD
Confusion often arises because of the incorrect use of the words can or could. When correctly used,
these words imply one’s ability to do something. When that is the meaning, a question mark is clearly
the correct punctuation. When used incorrectly, can and could become just incorrect ways to make a
request that someone do something.
When the meaning seems to be asking someone to do something, assume the sentence to be a polite
request, and punctuate it with a period.
Could you pick that up for me.
Can you close the door for us.
Can you read that first page to yourself.
RULE
PERIOD.21: When the meaning of can or could is about physical ability, use an interrog. When the
meaning of can or could is to get someone to do something, use a period.
Can you swim?
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Can you swim in the pool with the other kids this afternoon.
Could you complete the puzzle without help?
Could you please complete this puzzle.
Can you lock it by yourself?
Can you lock it when you leave.
REPORTING
Sometimes the witness's response helps determine the meaning and therefore the punctuation; in other
words, you may be able to take your clue for the terminal punctuation from the way the witness
responds.
Q Can you give me the names of all the people in the room?
A No. I cannot. I do not know them.
Q Can you give me the names of all the people in the room.
A John. Charles, Marilyn, Brent, and Bruce.
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16TH EDITION)
6.68 Indirect questions
An indirect question never takes a question mark. See also 6.52.
He wondered whether it was worth the risk.
How the two could be reconciled was the question on everyone’s mind.
When a question within a sentence consists of a single word, such as who, when, how, or why, a
question mark may be omitted, and the word is sometimes italicized.
She asked herself why.
The question was no longer how but when.
6.69 Requests as questions
A request disguised as a question does not require a question mark. Such formulations can usually be
reduced to the imperative.
Would you kindly respond by March 1.
or
Please respond by March 1.
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Q&A
Q. What is the proper use of “would” or “could” in sentence structure? For example, would you please
close the door? Or, could you please close the door?
A. I don’t see much difference. But I would suppose that “would” is more polite, because it expresses
the idea of probability, and of willingness, and of the desire that something be done, whereas “could” is
more in the realm of ability (yes I can).
And according to the American Heritage dictionary, “would” is used to make a polite request. But then
again, a similar thing is said about “could”: “Used to indicate tentativeness or politeness. I could be
wrong. Could you come over here?”
Now, as far as I’m concerned, it becomes then a matter of context and tone. Look at the difference
between these two sentences, for example:
Would you do me a favor?
Would you please just shut up.
And even “will” could be used interchangeably with “would” or “could.”
I guess perhaps “could” and “would” are just both vying for what is a sort of awkward subjunctive mood,
trying to put a command into the mode of the hypothetical, to increase the possibilities of expression—
toward either politeness or irony (e.g., changing the tenor of “Please close the door”).
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (SIXTH EDITION)
Myth No. 3: When a polite request is phrased as a question, end it with a period. This is another statement that
does not, unfortunately, always hold true. In fact, once a period is used at the end of some requests, they no
longer sound very polite. I once posted the following note in my home: "Will you please close the door." My
children knew that this was not really a polite request but a firm parental command. When they chose to ignore it,
I amended the sign to read, 'Will you please close the door!" (I was relying on the exclamation point to carry the
full force of my exasperation.) That approach failed too, so I tried a new tack in diplomacy, amending the sign once
again: "Will you please close the door?" My children now knew they had broken my spirit. They now sensed in the
sign a pleading note, a petitioning tone, the begging of a favor.
They also knew that now I was asking them a real yes-or-no question (or at least I was creating the illusion of
asking). Then, in the paradoxical way that children have, once they knew they had the chance to say no, they
began to answer my question with tacit affirmations, tugging the door after them on the way out or kicking it shut
behind them on the way in.
My problems with my kids are, of course, my own, but learning how to express and punctuate polite requests
tends to be a problem for all of us. Consider, for a moment, the wording of those three signs, alike in all respects
except for the final mark of punctuation. The version that ends with a period is really a quiet but nonetheless firm
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demand. There is no element of a question in it at all. The voice rises in an arc and then flattens out at the end on a
note of resolution. In the version that ends with an exclamation point, the voice rises in a higher arc and resounds
with greater intensity and force of feeling, but it, too, comes down at the end—this time with something of a bang.
In the final version, the one with the question mark, the voice starts on an upward curve and then trails off, still on
an upward note. Three different readings of the same words, each with a different impact on the reader—all
evoked by three different punctuation marks at the end.
Once you become sensitive to the effects produced by these marks of punctuation, handling polite requests
becomes quite simple. All you have to do is say the sentence aloud and listen to the sound of your own voice. If
you end the sentence with your voice on an upward note, you know that a question mark is the right punctuation
to use. If your voice comes down at the end, you know that you need a period. And if you really feel forceful about
it, you probably want an exclamation point. If there is any potential danger in so simple a rule, it is this: we
sometimes express our requests orally as flat assertions ("Will you please do this for me.") when, as a matter of
good taste and good manners, we ought to be asking a question ("Will you please do this for me?"). Now it is true
that in the normal course of events we all make demands on one another, and though we tack on a "Will you
please" for the sake of politeness, these are still demands, not questions. As long as your reader is not likely to
consider them presumptuous, it is appropriate to punctuate these demands with periods:
Will you please sign both copies of the contract and return the original to me.
May I suggest that you confirm the departure time for your flight before you leave for the airport.
As opposed to these routine demands, there is the kind of polite request that asks the reader for a special favor.
Here, if you really want to be polite, you will punctuate your request as a question so as to give your reader the
chance to say no.
May I please see you sometime next week?
May I please get an advance copy of the confidential report you are doing?
Will you please acknowledge all my correspondence for me while I'm away?
In these cases you are asking for things that the reader may be unable or unwilling to grant; therefore, you ought
to pose these requests as questions. (If you try reading them as statements, you will observe how quickly they
change into peremptory demands.) Suppose, however, that these requests were addressed to your subordinates.
Under those conditions you would have the right to expect your reader to make the time to see you, to supply you
with an advance copy of the confidential report, and to handle your mail for you; therefore, you would be justified
in ending these sentences with periods. But even when you have this authority over your reader, you ought to
consider the alternative of asking. The inspired public official who replaced the "Keep Off the Grass" signs with a
simple "PLEASE?" understood people and how they like to be talked to. If a question mark will get faster results or
establish a nicer tone, why not use it?
- For a further discussion of polite requests, see 51103.
There are other myths that one could discuss, but these three are sufficient to permit me to make one central
point. Mastery over the rules of punctuation depends to a considerable extent on cultivating a sensitivity to the
way a sentence moves and the way it sounds.
Punctuating by ear has come to be frowned on—and with much justification—for it has come to mean punctuating
solely by feeling, by instinct, by intuition, without much regard for (or knowledge of) the structure of the language
and the function of punctuation. Yet the solution, it seems to me, is not to abandon the technique of punctuating
by ear but to cultivate it, to develop in yourself a disciplined sense of the relationship between the sound and the
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structure and the mechanics of language. Many authorities on language, if pressed, have to concede that they
often consider first whether a thing sounds right or looks right: only then do they utter a pronouncement as to why
it is right. If they rely on their ears for this kind of assurance, then why don't you cultivate the same skill?
MORSON’S
RULE 2
Use a period to end a sentence that is a request, a gentle command, or a suggestion phrased in the form of a
question. Such polite requests call for action, not for answers, and are spoken to those who are usually willing or
obligated to comply. The words will and may often begin these sentences.
EXAMPLES
a. May I have a copy by October 11.
b. Will you please increase the copies to six, not three.
c. May we suggest that you mail those copies before the holiday rush.
NOTE
If can were used in the first two examples instead of may and will, the sentences would end with question marks
because the ability and capacity to do a thing would be questioned and would need to be answered.
EXAMPLES
d. Can I have that copy by October 11?
e. Can you increase the copies to six, not three?
CAUTION A
The polite request period was probably devised for use in written communication rather than oral communication.
It allows the writer to convey a command in a cordial and acceptable way without having to await an answer
before the action is taken.
To demonstrate this purpose, pretend that there are no polite requests, only questions. In the following
illustration, Letter 1 poses a question that must be answered by writing a Letter 2. Then a letter 3 must be written
to accompany the action. On the other hand, treating the first communication below as a polite request and
ending it with a period eliminates the need for the second communication. The letter content has been
summarized in the illustrations below.
Letter 1, dated October 4: May I have that copy by October 11?
Letter 2, dated October 6: Yes, you will have that copy by October 11.
Letter 3, dated October 8: Enclosed is the copy you requested on October 4.
CAUTION B
For the court reporter, however, who must begin with the oral, not written, communication, the polite request
takes many forms, and the reporter alone must tailor the punctuation to fit the circumstances. In most cases of
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colloquy between lawyer and witness or judge and witness, the witness is expected to give answers, so the polite
request is less frequently used, and most requests are followed by question marks.
EXAMPLES
f. Will you please tell the jury how the injury occurred?
g. May I have your permission to sign on your behalf?
h. Will you please give us your new address?
CAUTION C
On the other hand, colloquy among the officers of the court is more likely to be sprinkled with polite requests
because an action, not an answer or an objection, will follow. Carefully consider using the period after requests
made between the judge and the lawyer, the lawyer and the court reporter, the lawyer and another lawyer, and
the judge and those in the courtroom.
EXAMPLES
i. May I have that copy when you finish marking it. (lawyer to court reporter)
j. May I say that to me she seems to need help also. (lawyer to judge)
k. Will you please mark this P-7. (lawyer to court reporter)
l. May it please the Court. (lawyer to judge)
m. Will you please be seated, ladies and gentlemen. (judge to all in the courtroom)
n. Will the court please come to order. (court official to all in the courtroom)
CAUTION D
The court reporter should also consider the following sentences, and sentences like them, as polite requests.
EXAMPLES
o. Will the defendant please rise.
p. May I add that she is my sister-in-law.
q. Will you please speak louder.
r. May I remind you that you are under oath.
s. May I beg the Court’s indulgences as I explain this matter. I was unable to secure the writ because it was a holiday.
CAUTION E
In this last example, if the judge permits the speaker to continue after the word matter, use the period. If the
speaker pauses to let the judge decide if he or she will indulge the speaker and then the judge speaks to give
approval or disapproval, use the question mark.
EXAMPLE
t. MR. TAYLOR: May I beg the Court’s indulgence as I explain this matter?
THE COURT : Yes, you may.
MR. TAYLOR: I was unable to secure the write because it was a holiday.
In the summary, the punctuation of the polite request is tailored by the court reporter’s experience in court and
the following: Is it a gentle or cordial command for action? Who is speaking to whom? Is there an answer?
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The trend may very well develop to ignore the polite request altogether in court reporting and to treat any request
as a question, no matter how polite or whether an action follows or not.
VARIOUS GRAMMAR WEBSITES
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/marks/question.htm
Use a question mark [ ? ] at the end of a direct question. It is considered bad form to use a question mark in
combination with other marks, although that is often done in informal prose in an attempt to convey complex
tones: He told you what!? That combination (or similar combination) of punctuation marks is sometimes called an
interrobang, but the interrobang currently has no role in academic prose.*
A tag question is a device used to turn a statement into a question. It nearly always consists of a pronoun, a
helping verb, and sometimes the word not. Although it begins as a statement, the tag question prevails when it
comes to the end-mark: use a question mark. Notice that when the statement is positive, the tag question is
expressed in the negative; when the statement is negative, the tag question is positive. (There are a few
exceptions to this, frequently expressing an element of surprise or sarcasm: "So you've made your first million,
have you?" "Oh, that's your plan, is it?") The following are more typical tag questions:
•
He should quit smoking, shouldn't he?
•
He shouldn't have quit his diet, should he?
•
They're not doing very well, are they?
•
He finished on time, didn't he?
•
She does a beautiful job, doesn't she?
•
Harold may come along, mightn't he?
•
There were too many people on the dock, weren't there?
(Be careful of this last one; it's not "weren't they?")
Be careful not to put a question mark at the end of an indirect question.
•
The instructor asked the students what they were doing.
•
I asked my sister if she had a date.
•
I wonder if Cheney will run for vice president again.
•
I wonder whether Cheney will run again.
Be careful to distinguish between an indirect question (above), and a question that is embedded within a
statement which we do want to end with a question mark.
•
We can get to Boston quicker, can't we, if we take the interstate?
•
His question was, can we end this statement with a question mark?
•
She ended her remarks with a resounding why not?
•
I wonder: will Cheney run for office again?
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Put a question mark at the end of a sentence that is, in fact, a direct question. (Sometimes writers will simply
forget.) Rhetorical questions (asked when an answer is not really expected), by the way, are questions and
deserve to end with a question mark:
•
How else should we end them, after all?
•
What if I said to you, "You've got a real problem here"? (Notice that the question mark here comes after
the quotation mark and there is no period at the end of the statement.)
Sometimes a question will actually end with a series of brief questions. When that happens, especially when the
brief questions are more or less follow-up questions to the main question, each of the little questions can begin
with a lowercase letter and end with a question mark.
•
Who is responsible for executing the plan? the coach? the coaching staff? the players?
If a question mark is part of an italicized or underlined title, make sure that the question mark is also italicized:
•
My favorite book is Where Did He Go?
(Do not add a period after such a sentence that ends with the title's question mark. The question mark will also
suffice to end the sentence.) If the question mark is not part of a sentence-ending title, don't italicize the question
mark:
•
Did he sing the French national anthem, la Marseillaise?
When a question ends with an abbreviation, end the abbreviation with a period and then add the question mark.
•
Didn't he use to live in Washington, D.C.?
When a question constitutes a polite request, it is usually not followed by a question mark. This becomes more
true as the request becomes longer and more complex:
•
Would everyone in the room who hasn't received an ID card please move to the front of the line.
http://www.writingenglish.com/question.htm
3. Use a period at the end of a polite request, which is worded as a question, instead of a
question mark.
o
Will you please use the correct postage for that letter.
*************************************************************************************
AP Stylebook
(Online subscription: https://www.apstylebook.com/)
Margie Wakeman Wells' Court Reporting: Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation
(Online subscription not available. Paperback can be ordered here:
https://www.margieholdscourt.com/products/court-reporting-bad-grammargood-punctuation/)
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Page 10
Chicago Manual of Style
(Online subscription: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/subscription_opts.html)
Gregg Reference Manual
(Online subscription: http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0073545430/information_center_view0/)
Lillian Morson's English Guide for Court Reporters
(Online subscription not available. Paperback can be found on Amazon.com)
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QUOTATION MARKS WITH “QUOTE-UNQUOTE”
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
QUOTES.13: When the word quote or unquote is said, put in the words as said and surround them with commas.
Also, use the quotation marks.
He was, quote/unquote, "too tired" to go with us.
She said, quote, "Get out." Those were her exact words.
He is a, quote, "nerd," end quote, of the first order.
DISCUSSION
There is never a time that appropriate punctuation is omitted because of a word or words said, and the words
quote and unquote are no exceptions. We do not omit the quote marks just because the words are said.
Quote/unquote, said together, have a slash mark between them.
He describes it as "flying high," unquote.
She said, quote/unquote, "You are fired."
I told him that he is, quote, "incorrigible," end quote.
MORSON’S
RULE 105
When a speaker introduces a passage and punctuates aloud with quote, open quote, quote/unquote,
open/close quote, unquote, or end quote, the reporter must decide if the context requires the actual marks or
the actual words. For those who would say all the words must appear as is, the first set of examples would
apply.
EXAMPLES
a. I will read the relevant line, quote: I saw him when he was serious; I saw him when he was hilarious. I
didn’t like him either way, end quote.
b. She was, quote, crazy as a bedbug, unquote.
c. He was, quote/unquote, just plain crazy. (See Rule 276 for the use of the slant.)
d. You are right about the first section that you cried; however, quote, Failure of the hospital to provide
such statement shall constitute a valid defense, unquote.
NOTE
The words that take the place of punctuation (quote, open quote, unquote) are set off with commas; the first
word of a fragment that follows these words is not capitalized, but the first word of a complete sentence is.
EXAMPLES
e. I will read the relevant line: “I saw him when he was serious; I saw him when he was hilarious. I didn’t like
him either way.
f. You are right about the first section that you cited; however, “Failure of the hospital to provide such
statement shall constitute a valid defense.”
In any event, do not use both the words and the punctuation.
DICTIONARIES & ONLINE
http://www.wordreference.com/definition/quote-unquote
quote-unquote interj
an expression used before or part before and part after a quotation to identify it as such, and sometimes to
dissociate the writer or speaker from it
http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/quoteunquote
quote-unquote
Definitions
exclamation
an expression used before or part before and part after a quotation to identify it as such, and sometimes to
dissociate the writer or speaker from it
Example Sentences Including 'quote-unquote'
"I have never seen a race with so many quote-unquote credible candidates.
Globe and Mail (2003)
So America didn't get it, it wasn't quote-unquote successful.
Misc (1999)
http://onelook.com/?w=quote-unquote&ls=a
General (2 matching dictionaries)
1. quote-unquote, quote-unquote: Collins English Dictionary [home, info]
2. quote-unquote: Wordnik [home, info]
http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jlawler/aue/quote.html
>What is the proper usage of "quote unquote," as in "Bob told me he's
>quote unquote semi-retired?" I would imagine it's "...quote semi-retired
>unquote," although I almost never hear it used that way. The first usage
>seems a lot more popular.
Sure does. There's a reason, of course. As you surmise, the two ways of making verbal quotes are identical in
intent, and in fact identical with the gesture of drawing "quotes" in the air with one's index and middle fingers
(the "V" fingers) on both hands. This may be just an American gesture, but I suspect it's common enough. This is
often accompanied by an "ironic" intonation on the item that is to be "quoted" in any of these usages.
The pragmatic sense is to bracket the item in question in exactly the same way philosophers do with
what they call "scare quotes", that is, a warning that the writer does not take responsibility for the
correctness of any description, thus effectively saying the writer believes something like the reverse of
the description.
But this is a convention of written language. What you describe is one way that spoken English can also
avail itself of that convention. It can provide "quotes" by saying quote. Rather like Lisp. Cool.
Now what about the unquote? If you have a lengthy quotation, you need to know where both ends are.
So we say unquote at the end (incidentally making spoken English more like printing -- where the
beginning and ending quotation marks are different -- than like ASCII, where they're identical). Lisp
doesn't need to mark the end of the quote; this is where all those parentheses come in handy. Also cool.
However, if you are doing scare quotes in speech, and thereby taking your chances with the listener's
short-term memory, chances are you're targeting only one word or phrase -- one phonological unit in any
case -- and you don't really need to mark the end; it's obvious. All you really need is a marker at the
beginning to warn your parter to listen ironically.
So "quote-unquote" becomes a compound prefixal particle, and you don't have to worry about the other
shoe falling. Much the same fate overtook the as far as ... is concerned/goes constructions, and the so
[Adjective] that ... construction. The last parts of these are simply dropped in many cases. And I've
heard people say just "quote" (without the "-unquote") in this usage, as well as the doublet.
As far as usage of the construction is concerned, I'd say it's gone too far to separate the two now.
Besides, it sounds insufferably pedantic to insist on quote word unquote; and -- the clincher -- you
would never write it, because you could use real quotes. So it's exclusively colloquial, and "proper"
written usage is therefore irrelevant, because there isn't any.
That's why it sounds better. As Peter Schickele says (about music), if it sounds good, it is good.
- John Lawler
Linguistics Department and Residential College
University of Michigan
SEMICOLONS BEFORE CONJUNCTIONS
Rules by AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK
TO LINK INDEPENDENT CLAUSES: Use semicolon when a coordinating conjunction such as and, but or for
is not present: The package was due last week; it arrived today.
If a coordinating conjunction is present, use a semicolon before it only if extensive punctuation also is
required in one or more of the individual clauses: They pulled their boats from the water, sandbagged
the retaining walls, and boarded up the windows; but even with these precautions, the island was hardhit by the hurricane.
Unless a particular literary effect is desired, however, the better approach in these circumstances is to
break the independent clauses into separate sentences.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
12.4: THE SEMICOLON: CONNTECTING INDEPENDENT CLAUSES:
THE COORDINATE CONJUNCTION
See Chapter 14 for a discussion of the comma in a compound sentence.
SEMICOLON.9: Change the comma before the coordinate conjunction in a compound sentence
(two independent clauses) to a semicolon when there are other marks of punctuation in the
sentence that tend to "hide" or “obscure" the comma before the conjunction.
I went with my brother, sister, and parents; and my husband, Bill, took the others.
The three of them — John, Takashi, and Mario — worked; but Andrea, my sister, had a
plane to catch.
It was Monday, June 10, that he was fired; and on Tuesday, June 11, he left the country.
There is always a comma before a coordinate conjunction that has an independent subject and verb
after it. Obviously, there is often other punctuation in the sentence as well. When there is other
punctuation in the sentence that tends to shroud or obscure the comma and make the division
between the two sentences unclear, a semicolon should be used.
The comma that delineates the division between the two independent clauses is the most important
mark of punctuation in the sentence and needs to be clearly distinguishable from the rest. The best
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thing to do is change the comma to a semicolon.
Consider this sentence:
We would object, Your Honor, on the grounds of relevancy, relevancy to the topic of the
lawsuit, this lawsuit, and, Your Honor, we make a motion to strike.
We would object, Your Honor, on the grounds of relevancy, relevancy to the topic of the
lawsuit, this lawsuit; ID and, Your Honor, we make a motion to strike.
Because of the awkward language and the need for all of the punctuation that is there, a clearer
distinction, a clearer delineation -- that is, more than just a comma -- between the first and the
second sentence would help the reader sort out the sentences. Thus the semicolon before the
and helps to make the distinction between the two sentences clearer.
I worked exclusively with Harris, Johns, and Miller; and Getz headed the other team on
the project.
There were three peopie in the car, the blue car; and Mr, Kim, my boss, was driving the
van with everyone else.
The market carries a variety of interesting items; and the clerk -- I know him very well -is always very helpful, very courteous.
There are times when the sentence is so complicated or has so much other punctuation that a period
is the most effective punctuation.
The trucks from Rancho, Rancho Construction -- there were at least three every day —
came in and had to be loaded before 3:00 on Mondays, before 2:00 on Tuesdays, and
before 3:00 on Wednesdays. And, consequently, we had Manny, Eric, and John working
on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays -- there was no truck loading on the days later
in the week — in order to ensure that the loading took place.
12.5: TILE SEMICOLON: WITH INTERNAL COMMAS IN A SERIES
SEM1COLON.10: In a series where there are commas separating the series and where one member
of the series has internal punctuation -- that is, punctuation within it -- use a semicolon to separate
each member of the series.
I had salad; steak, which was tough; and a baked potato.
He lived in Rome, Georgia; Paris, Tennessee; and Palestine, Texas,
They were a Hilton; an Embassy Suites, which was the best; and a Marriott.
Look at this sentence. How many doctors did he see?
My father-in-law saw Dr. Knowlton, a general practitioner, Dr. Overton, a heart specialist,
Dr. Marks, a surgeon.
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The way it is punctuated, the sentence looks to be saying he saw six doctors. If the sentence is to reflect
that he saw three doctors with a description of what each is doing, the sentence has to be punctuated
with semicolons. The semicolons say that he saw just three doctors. The semicolons are separating the
members of the series.
My father-in-law saw Dr. Knowlton, a general practitioner; Dr. Overton, a heart specialist;
Dr. Marks, a surgeon.
The logic here is that, if there is an internal comma or some other mark of punctuation within one
member of the series, it will not always he clear where the series divides or how many parts there
are to the series. Therefore, semicolons are used to separate the members of the main series.
We sent a copy to the chairman; a copy to the president; and a copy to the office staff,
factory workers, and maintenance personnel.
SEMICOLON.11: Separate each member of the series with the same type of punctuation.
He sent the correspondence to Miller, Hubbell, Henderson, who is the senior
administrator; Ruiz, Cheng, and Hartman.
☺ He sent the correspondence to Miller; Hubbell; Henderson, who is the senior
administrator; Ruiz; Cheng; and Hartman.
The rule could be worded "What you do to one member of a series, do to every member of the
series."
There is sometimes a tendency to put the semicolons only where the "extra" comma is in a series
and leave the rest of the series with simple commas. If there is just one comma somewhere inside a
member of the series, each member of the series needs to be separated by a semicolon.
He worked in Austin, a beautiful city; Houston; Dallas; Lubbock; El Paso; Fort Worth;
Bryan; and San Antonio.
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE RULE (12th Edition)
Rule 6.59: Before a conjunction. An independent clause introduced by a conjunction may be preceded
by a semicolon, especially when the independent clause has internal punctuation. For the more
common use of a comma with conjunctions, see 6.32.
•
Frobisher had always assured his grandson that the house would be his; yet there was no
provision for this bequest in his will.
•
Maria had determined to question the ambassador; but bodyguards surrounding him, as
well as the presence of dancing girls, prevented him from noticing her.
Compiled by Marla Sharp, Feb ’12
RPR, CLR, CCRR, CSR 11924
Page 3
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE RULE (16th Edition)
6.57 Semicolons before a conjunction
Normally, an independent clause introduced by a conjunction is preceded by a comma (see 6.28). In
formal prose, a semicolon may be used instead—either to effect a stronger, more dramatic separation
between clauses or when the second independent clause has internal punctuation.
Frobisher had always assured his grandson that the house would be his; yet there was no provision for this
bequest in his will.
Garrett had insisted on remixing the track; but the engineer’s demands for overtime pay, together with the
band’s reluctance, persuaded him to accept the original mix.
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (SIXTH EDITION)
Rule 177 A comma is normally used to separate two independent clauses joined by a coordinating
conjunction. However, under certain circumstances a semicolon is appropriate before the coordinating
conjunction.
a. Use a semicolon in order to achieve a stronger break between clauses than a comma provides.
NORMAL BREAK: Man people are convinced that they could personally solve the problem if given the
authority to do so, but no one will come forward with a clear-cut plan that we can evaluate in advance.
STRONG BREAK: Many people are convinced that they could personally solve the problem if given the
authority to do so; but no one will come forward with a clear-cut plan that we can evaluate in advance.
b. Use a semicolon when one or both clauses have internal commas and a misreading might occur if a
comma were also used to separate the clauses.
CONFUSING: I sent you an order for bond letterheads, onionskin paper, carbons, and envelopes, and
shipping tags, cardboard cartons, stapler wire, and binding tape were sent to me instead.
CLEAR: I sent you an order for bond letterheads, onionskin paper, carbons, and envelopes; and shipping tags,
cardboard cartons, stapler wire, and binding tape were sent to me instead.
c. If no misreading is likely, a comma is sufficient to separate the clauses, even though commas are also
used within the clauses.
On June 8, 19--, I discussed this problem with your customer service manager, Betty Dugan, but your
company has taken no further action.
All in all, we’re satisfied with the job Bergquist Associates did, and in view of the tight deadlines they had to
meet, we’re pleased they came through as well as they did.
Compiled by Marla Sharp, Feb ’12
RPR, CLR, CCRR, CSR 11924
Page 4
MORSON’S RULE
Rule 24
Use a semicolon to separate two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or,
nor) when either clause is very long and has a comma or commas used within it.
EXAMPLES
a) You are instructed that under the written contract in evidence in this case, the defendant was
entitled to rely upon the promise of the seller that any radio sets delivered would be free from
all defects in the workmanship and material; and if you find from a preponderance of the
evidence that any sets furnished defendant were not free from such defects in workmanship or
material, the plaintiff cannot recover for such defective set or sets, if any.
b) I discovered many errors and saved the company thousands of dollars over the years by taking
work home nearly every night to check over the invoices; but when the computers were added,
it was like child’s play because so much was programmed to avoid the kinds of errors that were
so common before.
c) There are certain lanes of travel as far as where you’re recommended to run; but a boat can
pass on your left, pass on your right, come up behind you and pass.
Remember that sentences can begin with and or but; so if the reporter wants to write these examples as
two separate sentences, that is also correct.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
AP Stylebook
(Online subscription: https://www.apstylebook.com/)
Margie Wakeman Wells' Court Reporting: Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation
(Online subscription not available. Paperback can be ordered here:
https://www.margieholdscourt.com/products/court-reporting-bad-grammargood-punctuation/)
Chicago Manual of Style
(Online subscription: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/subscription_opts.html)
Gregg Reference Manual
(Online subscription: http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0073545430/information_center_view0/)
Lillian Morson's English Guide for Court Reporters
(Online subscription not available. Paperback can be found on Amazon.com)
Compiled by Marla Sharp, Feb ’12
RPR, CLR, CCRR, CSR 11924
Page 5
SEMICOLONS
Rules by AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, and Morson’s
AP STYLEBOOK
semicolon (;) In general, use the semicolon to indicate a greater separation of thought and information
than a comma can convey but less than the separation that a period implies.
The basic guidelines:
TO CLARIFY A SERIES: Use semicolons to separate elements of a series when the items in the series are
long or when individual segments contain material that also must be set off by commas:
He is survived by a son, John Smith, of Chicago; three daughters, Jane Smith, of Wichita, Kan., Mary
Smith, of Denver, and Susan, of Boston; and a sister, Martha, of Omaha, Neb.
Note that the semicolon is used before the final and in such a series.
Another application of this principle may be seen in the cross-references at the end of entries in this book.
Because some entries themselves have a comma, a semicolon is used to separate references to multiple
entries, as in: See the felony, misdemeanor entry; pardon, parole, probation; and prison, jail.
See dash for a different type of connection that uses dashes to avoid multiple commas.
TO LINK INDEPENDENT CLAUSES: Use semicolon when a coordinating conjunction such as and, but or for
is not present: The package was due last week; it arrived today.
If a coordinating conjunction is present, use a semicolon before it only if extensive punctuation also is
required in one or more of the individual clauses: They pulled their boats from the water, sandbagged the
retaining walls, and boarded up the windows; but even with these precautions, the island was hard-hit by
the hurricane.
Unless a particular literary effect is desired, however, the better approach in these circumstances is to
break the independent clauses into separate sentences.
PLACEMENT WITH QUOTES: Place semicolons outside quotation marks.
BAD GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
(coming soon)
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE
CMOS Rule 6.54 Use of the semicolon
In regular prose, a semicolon is most commonly used between two independent clauses not
joined by a conjunction to signal a closer connection between them than a period would.
She spent much of her free time immersed in the ocean; no mere water-resistant watch
would do.
Though a gifted writer, Miqueas has never bothered to master the semicolon; he insists that
half a colon is no colon at all.
________________________________________________________________________
Compiled by Marla Sharp, RPR, CLR, CCRR, CSR
Page 1 of 3
SEMICOLONS
CMOS Rule 6.55 Semicolons with “however,” “therefore,” “indeed,” and the like
Certain adverbs, when they are used to join two independent clauses, should be preceded by a
semicolon rather than a comma. These transitional adverbs include however, thus, hence,
indeed, accordingly, besides, therefore, and sometimes then (see also 6.56). A comma usually
follows the adverb but may be omitted if the sentence seems just as effective without it (see
also 6.36).
The accuracy of Jesse’s watch was never in question; besides, he was an expert at intuiting the time of
day from the position of the sun and stars.
Kallista was determined not to miss anything on her voyage; accordingly, she made an appointment
with her ophthalmologist.
The trumpet player developed a painful cold sore; therefore plans for a third show were scrapped.
CMOS Rule 6.56 Semicolons with “that is,” “for example,” “namely,” and the like
A semicolon may be used before expressions such as that is, for example, or namely when they
introduce an independent clause. For an example, see 6.43. See also 6.55.
CMOS Rule 6.57 Semicolons before a conjunction
Normally, an independent clause introduced by a conjunction is preceded by a comma (see
6.28). In formal prose, a semicolon may be used instead—either to effect a stronger, more
dramatic separation between clauses or when the second independent clause has internal
punctuation.
Frobisher had always assured his grandson that the house would be his; yet there was no provision for
this bequest in his will.
Garrett had insisted on remixing the track; but the engineer’s demands for overtime pay, together
with the band’s reluctance, persuaded him to accept the original mix.
MORSON’S
RULE 19
Use a semicolon to separate two independent clauses that are closely related in meaning and
that have no coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor) placed between them.
EXAMPLES
a. No one is at fault; no one should be blamed.
b. He is my husband; he is my best friend.
________________________________________________________________________
Compiled by Marla Sharp, RPR, CLR, CCRR, CSR
Page 2 of 3
SEMICOLONS
c. We were the best of friends; we were the worst of enemies.
d. The king talked and walked about; half an hour after, his head was cut off.
NOTE
Each of the above examples has two independent clauses and is, therefore, a compound
sentence. An independent clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb. Such a clause
can stand alone and can express a complete idea.
CAUTION A
Court reporters are left to decide how closely related these independent clauses are. If the
reporter prefers, these clauses may be also separated by a period, in which case a capital letter
will begin the second clause.
EXAMPLES
e. No one is at fault. No one should be blamed.
f. He is my husband. He is my best friend.
g. We were the best of friends. We were the worst of enemies.
h. The king talked and walked about. Half an hour later, his head was cut off.
CAUTION B
If the coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor) is used between the independent clauses, the
semicolon is not used. A comma may be placed before the conjunction if either clause exceeds
five words. (See Rule 42.)
EXAMPLES
i. No one is at fault, and no one should be blamed.
j. He is my husband and he is my best friend.
k. We were the best of friends, but we were the worst of enemies.
************************************************************************
Margie Wakeman Wells' Court Reporting: Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation
(Online subscription not available. Paperback can be ordered here:
https://www.margieholdscourt.com/products/court-reporting-bad-grammargood-punctuation/)
Chicago Manual of Style
(Online subscription: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/subscription_opts.html)
Gregg Reference Manual
(Online subscription: http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0073545430/information_center_view0/)
Lillian Morson's English Guide for Court Reporters
(Online subscription not available. Paperback can be found on Amazon.com)
________________________________________________________________________
Compiled by Marla Sharp, RPR, CLR, CCRR, CSR
Page 3 of 3
“SIC” RULES
Rules from AP Stylebook, Bad Grammar/Good Punctuation,
Chicago Manual of Style, Gregg Reference Manual, Morson’s, and Grammar Girl
AP STYLEBOOK
(sic)
Do not use (sic) unless it is in the matter being quoted. To show that an error, peculiar usage or spelling is in
the original, use a note to editors at the top of the story, below the summary line but ahead of a byline.
Eds. note: [ Eds: The spelling cabob is in the original document. ]
or
Eds. note: [ Eds: The spelling Jorga is correct. ]
(NOTE FROM MARLA: AP Stylebook is the only style manual to suggest parentheses instead of
brackets.)
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (16TH EDITION)
13.59 “Sic”
Literally meaning “so,” “thus,” “in this manner,” and traditionally set in italics, sic may be inserted in
brackets following a word misspelled or wrongly used in the original. This device should be used only
where it is relevant to call attention to such matters (and especially where readers might otherwise
assume the mistake is in the transcription rather than the original) or where paraphrase or silent
correction is inappropriate (see 13.4, 13.7 [item 5]).
In September 1862, J. W. Chaffin, president of the Miami Conference of Wesleyan Methodist Connection,
urged Lincoln that “the confiscation law past [sic] at the last session of Congress should be faithfully executed”
and that “to neglect this national righteousness” would prove “disastrous to the American people.”
Sic should not be used merely to call attention to unconventional spellings, which should be explained (if
at all) in a note or in prefatory material. Similarly, where material with many errors and variant spellings
(such as a collection of informal letters) is reproduced as written, a prefatory comment or a note to that
effect will make a succession of sics unnecessary.
13.7 Permissible changes to punctuation, capitalization, and spelling
Although in a direct quotation the wording should be reproduced exactly, the following changes are
generally permissible to make a passage fit into the syntax and typography of the surrounding text. See
also 13.8.
Compiled by Marla Sharp, Jan. ‘14
Page 1
1. Single quotation marks may be changed to double, and double to single (see 13.28); punctuation relative
to quotation marks should be adjusted accordingly (see 6.9). Guillemets and other types of quotation
marks in a foreign language may be changed to regular single or double quotation marks (see 13.71).
2. The initial letter may be changed to a capital or a lowercase letter (see 13.13–16).
3. A final period may be omitted or changed to a comma as required, and punctuation may be omitted
where ellipsis points are used (see 13.48–56).
4. Original note reference marks (and the notes to which they refer) may be omitted unless omission would
affect the meaning of the quotation. If an original note is included, the quotation may best be set off as a
block quotation (see 13.9), with the note in smaller type at the end, or the note may be summarized in
the accompanying text. Authors may, on the other hand, add note references of their own within
quotations.
5. Obvious typographic errors may be corrected silently (without comment or sic; see 13.59), unless the
passage quoted is from an older work or a manuscript source where idiosyncrasies of spelling are
generally preserved. If spelling and punctuation are modernized or altered for clarity, readers must be so
informed in a note, in a preface, or elsewhere.
6. In quoting from early printed documents, the archaic Latin ʃ (small letter esh, Unicode character U+0283,
similar to the integral sign), used to represent a lowercase s at the beginning or in the middle but never at
the end of a word (“Such goodneʃs of your juʃtice, that our ʃoul . . .”), may be changed to a modern s.
Similarly, Vanitie and Vncertaintie (a quoted title) may be changed to Vanitie and Uncertaintie, but
writers or editors without a strong background in classical or Renaissance studies should generally be
wary of changing u to v, i to j, or vice versa. See also 11.61, 11.142–43.
13.8 Permissible changes to typography and layout
The following elements of typography and layout may be changed to assimilate a quotation to the
surrounding text:
1. The typeface or font should be changed to agree with the surrounding text.
2. Words in full capitals in the original may be set in small caps, if that is the preferred style for the
surrounding text. (See also 10.8.)
3. In dialogue, names of speakers may be moved from a centered position to flush left.
4. Underlined words in a quoted manuscript may be printed as italics, unless the underlining itself
is considered integral to the source or otherwise worthy of reproducing.
5. In quoting correspondence, such matters as paragraph indention and the position of the
salutation and signature may be adjusted.
For paragraph indention in block quotations, see 13.20. For reproducing poetry extracts, see 13.23–27.
For permissible changes to titles of books, articles, poems, and other works, see 8.163.
Compiled by Marla Sharp, Jan. ‘14
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8.163 Permissible changes to titles
When a title is referred to in text or notes or listed in a bibliography or reference list, its original spelling
(including non-Latin letters such as π or γ) and hyphenation should be preserved, regardless of the style
used in the surrounding text. Capitalization may be changed to headline style (8.157) or sentence style
(8.156), as applicable. As a matter of editorial discretion, an ampersand (&) may be changed to and, or,
more rarely, a numeral may be spelled out (see 14.96). On title pages, commas are sometimes omitted
from the ends of lines for aesthetic reasons. When such a title is referred to, such commas should be
added, including any comma omitted before a date that appears on a line by itself at the end of a title or
subtitle. (Serial commas need be added only if it is clear that they are used in the work itself; see 6.18.) If
title and subtitle on a title page are distinguished by typeface alone, a colon must be added when
referring to the full title. A dash in the original should be retained; however, a semicolon between title
and subtitle may usually be changed to a colon. (For two subtitles in the original, see 14.98. For older
titles, see 14.106.) The following examples illustrate the way titles and subtitles are normally punctuated
and capitalized in running text, notes, and bibliographies using headline capitalization. The first three
are books, the fourth an article.
Disease, Pain, and Sacrifice: Toward a Psychology of Suffering
Melodrama Unveiled: American Theater and Culture, 1800–1850
Browning’s Roman Murder Story: A Reading of “The Ring and the Book”
“Milton Friedman’s Capitalism and Freedom—a Best-Seller for Chicago”
For titles within titles (as in the third and fourth examples above), see 8.171, 8.175.
BAG GRAMMAR/GOOD PUNCTUATION
THE WORD SIC.1: Use the word sic in brackets after an element where the word or words are blatantly
and/or factually incorrect.
We sent it on Friday, June 31 [sic].
We traveled that weekend to the capital of Kentucky, Louisville [sic].
The first moon landing in 1979 [sic] supported our program.
Most often the word sic is used inside of quoted material to denote an error in the original. Since you,
the reporter, are the editor of the transcript, you are using sic to show that the error is not yours.
“(As I arrived at the seen) [sic], there was total chaos.”
“The insurance company liability [sic] is obvious.”
“The patient was given Lipator [sic] for cholesterol issues.”
In addition to using sic to show an error in quoted material, it is also used to point out an obvious error
in the transcript. Inserting the word sic for an error is self-protection for you. It indicates your
Compiled by Marla Sharp, Jan. ‘14
Page 3
recognition of the error. A transcript littered with the word sic, however, does not read well. Pick and
choose the occasions that you are going to use it. It should be used sparingly and not be overused or
used when there is another remedy available.
THE WORD SIC.2: Do not use the word sic for a slight mispronunciation or for words that are made up.
It caused a nuclear disaster. (though he said nucular)
It caused both of us to shudder. (though he said bof)
There was a slight “crink” in my leg muscle.
When there is a simple mispronunciation, it is best to simply transcribe the correct word. When a word
is made up, it is best to use a pair of quotes to signal the “unusual” word.
THE WORD SIC.3: Do not use the word sic when the error is immediately corrected.
A It is spelled V-a-l-l-i-u-m.
MR. NELSON: No. It is V-a-l-i-u-m.
THE WITNESS: Thank you.
Q How long did you live in Illinois? Danville, was it?
A It was Danville, Indiana, not Illinois.
When the error is immediately corrected, there is no need to do anything as the correction is obvious. If
the correction comes on later pages, sic is appropriately used to show the error.
Some reporters use the word verbatim in brackets to show an error on the part of the speaker. This is
perhaps less harsh than sic – a reporter in a seminar referred to it as a “kinder, gentler sic” – and can be
used to note a speaker error rather than a factual error. We might also use it for an obvious grammar
error for someone whose grammar is otherwise quite good or for a mispronounced word or a wrong
word – neither of which you are going to change – when it would otherwise look like a reporter error.
I cannot say that I like them [verbatim] boys. (when the person’s grammar is otherwise quite good)
We spoke with Mr. Woodlawn [verbatim] on several occasions. (when the name is actually
Woodland)
They fired him on the 17th [verbatim] of April. (when 19th is said every other time it comes up)
Certainly, the use of verbatim in brackets is a judgment call by the reporter, and we probably do not all
agree on when and where to use it.
Compiled by Marla Sharp, Jan. ‘14
Page 4
GREGG REFERENCE MANUAL (SIXTH EDITION)
Rule 282 - When the original wording contains a misspelling, a grammatical error, or a confusing
expression of thought, insert the term sic (meaning “so” or “this is the way it was”) in brackets to
indicate that the error existed in the original material.
As he wrote in his letter, “I would sooner go to jail then [sic] have to pay your bill.” (The word sic is not
underscored in typed material.)
MORSON’S
The Latin word sic means “thus, so in that manner,” and writers traditionally use it to show that an
original manuscript or document that is being quoted contains an error in spelling or grammar or fact. In
effect, the person who reproduces the quoted passage us saying, I found this error as you see it. I did
not create it. I am only rewriting what someone else wrote.”
In the following examples, notice that [sic] is placed immediately after the error and it has brackets
around it (or parentheses if the keyboard has no brackets). Notice also that the word is not capitalized,
that no period follows it unless it is the last word in the sentence, and that italics, if available, are used.
EXAMPLES
a. Q Were the directions written?
A This is the note he shoved at me. It says, “Drop the package on the corner of Popular [sic]
Street.”
b. Q Will you read the underlined portion of the bank’s letter?
A It says, “You will be persecuted [sic] for fraud and embezzlement if you do not respond in
person to explain what happened to those checks.”
c. Q Did you sign the contract?
A I signed the contract, and you can see that it says, “shall have access to the bridle [sic] suite for
three days and two nights, beginning,” which is why I wrote the next letter to make sure they were
not horsing around with my reservations.
The court reporter is placed in a precarious and dangerous position regarding the use of [sic]. The
original purpose was to use [sic] for the reproduction of written material. A writer would see the error
and rewrite the passage as is, noting the error. However, when the documents are read aloud in court
and, therefore, quoted, the reporter writes what is heard and is unlikely to know if principle has been
misspelled as principal in the document. Consequently, great reluctance and great caution should be
exercised before usinf [sic], because one must be absolutely sure, first, that there is an error; second,
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Page 5
that the record will not take care of the error itself by the context around it; and third, that the person
committing the error is not an immediate superior who will be outraged to see the errors highlighted.
As an illustration in the last instance, if the judge has spoken if President Lincoln as the fifteenth
President of the United States and the point is of no legal consequence, the court reporter should not
use [sic].
If a witness uses the date 1998 instead of 1996 and it is of legal consequence, the court reporter should
confer with the judge before using [sic].
If a witness continues to talk about a person and misidentifies the person often, it is the duty of the
lawyers to correct the error. If the lawyer does not, let the error speak for itself and do not use [sic].
EXAMPLE
d. Q Did you know Mrs. Robertson?
A Mistress Robinson was my neighbor.
Q How long was Mrs. Robertson your neighbor?
A Mistress Robinson was my neighbor for over 25 years.
If the witness uses the wrong word or number, it is the duty of the lawyer to correct the eroor. If the
lawyer does not, let the record speak for itself.
EXAMPLE
e. Q Where did you go to school?
A Robert-Welsh School.
Q Do you mean the Roberts-Walsh Business School?
A That’s right.
When long passage from previous testimony or other documents are read into the record, the likelihood
of misreading increases considerably. A reporter who gets to compare the original with his or her notes
and sees the misreadings may feel that using [sic] will overwhelm the record. A better way to handle the
misreadings is to use the parenthetical (as read) to introduce the reading. This certifies the reading
without creating problems for the reporter by calling attention to all of the discrepancies. Do not use
[sic] with (as read).
In the following examples, assume that the speaker misreads one and the same, misrepresentation,
Williams, and extracted. Also assume that the speaker omits reading the words directly and law.
Example f is a cluttered and poor record. Example g is a clear and accurate record.
EXAMPLES
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Page 6
f. Let me read from page 32: “The act of gathering, loading, and storing was one in [sic] the same
continuous act, although the original representation [sic] was calculated to mislead. Mr. William
[sic] admitted that he abstracted [sic] articles [sic] from the storage building, but there were some
questions of the common rule.”
g. Let me read from page 32 (as read): “The act of gathering, loading, and storing was one in the
same continuous act, although the original representation was calculated to mislead. Mr. William
admitted that he abstracted articles from the storage building, but there were some questions of
the common rule.”
In summary, the court reporter will rarely use [sic] because it’s too likely to appear that the court
reporter is judging what is of legal consequence 9there is a system of appeal for that0 and what is an
error or misspoken word (there are lawyers for that).
P.S. Are you curious about another sic word? Of course, you are. That’s the verb that means “to urge to
attack or to chase.”
EXAMPLE
h. Q Did your neighbor raise sheep?
A Yes. They were vicious sheep.
Q Why do you say that?
A Whenever I walked around the fence, I could hear him tell them, “Sic him.”
Q He sicced his sheep on you?
A Yes and I was sick of his siccing those sheep on me. I told my wife, “If he sics those sheep on
me once more, there’s going to be a dead ewe. I said ‘you,’ and that’s why she took out a warrant
for my arrest.”
THE COURT: Case dismissed. Sic transit Gloria mundi. (See entry on page 166.
GRAMMAR GIRL
Parentheses, Brackets, and Braces
Episode 233: July 29, 2010
Today guest-writer Bonnie Trenga will help us talk about three punctuation marks: one you undoubtedly
know how to use, another you possibly misuse, and yet another you’ve likely never used. If you’ve ever
wondered when to favor parentheses over square brackets and when to stick in a pair of curly braces,
listen on.
Parentheses
You’re probably well versed in how to use those sideways eyebrow thingies, better known as parentheses. First, remember that a
pair of them is called “parentheses,” whereas a single one is a “parenthesis.” You may want to review episode 222 in which we
Compiled by Marla Sharp, Jan. ‘14
Page 7
compared parentheses to dashes and commas. For now, let’s just say that parentheses mainly enclose information that is not vital
to a sentence. No matter what you put within parentheses, your sentence must still make sense if you delete them and everything
inside. Note that you are allowed to put both partial sentences and complete sentences within parentheses. But no more than a
whole paragraph, please, requests authority Brian Garner (1).
Before we move on, we need to address one issue: how to use terminal punctuation marks with parentheses. If your sentence starts
with an opening parenthesis, then what’s inside your parentheses is a complete sentence. You must therefore ensure that the
terminal punctuation mark, such as a period, question mark, or exclamation point, goes inside the closing parenthesis: “(I knew he
wouldn’t want to do that.)”. If what’s within the parentheses is only a partial sentence, put the terminal punctuation outside instead: “I
moved to America when I was 10 (in 1980).”
For the most part, these two rules seem fairly easy to understand—complete sentence: terminal punctuation inside; partial
sentence: terminal punctuation outside. However, when you have a sentence that contains another complete sentence within
parentheses, the punctuation could become confusing. Let’s say you want to add the complete sentence “I can’t believe it!” inside
parentheses within another complete sentence. In this case, the exclamation point would go inside the closing parenthesis and then
a period would go outside: “I ate the whole box of donuts (I can’t believe it!).”
That works, but I often recommend making the sentence inside parentheses a complete sentence on its own that follows the first
sentence. Make sure you have a reason for putting it in parentheses.
Square Brackets
Now it’s time to introduce our potentially misused friends: square brackets. Brackets, which are one long line short of a standing-up
rectangle, appear on the keyboard to the right of the letter “p.” They seem less common than their parenthetical cousins, though you
do sometimes see both punctuation marks within the same sentence. Use brackets in sentences where you want to put parentheses
within parentheses. Since two parentheses in a row would be confusing, you bookend your parentheses with brackets. So, the order
is opening parenthesis, opening bracket, closing bracket, closing parenthesis. For example, you would write “They are getting
married (they love each other [of course!]).”*
According to Garner, square brackets also come in handy for subsequent authors and editors who want to “enclose comments,
corrections, explanations, interpolations, notes, or translations that were not in the original text” (2).
If you are in a scholarly field, you may find yourself writing a paper and quoting an expert, and perhaps you discover you need to
clarify what the expert said. Bill Walsh in Lapsing into a Comma (3) warns, “Bracketed material should clarify language, not replace
it….” You shouldn’t alter what the original writer wrote, so use brackets around your clarification. For example, if the original
quotation reads, “This enterprising paleontologist discovered a new species of plant eater,” you shouldn't change it to “[Bob Jones]
discovered a new species of plant eater.” You’d have to quote the material this way: “This enterprising paleontologist [Bob Jones]
discovered a new species of plant eater.” (Note also that you wouldn’t be allowed to use parentheses around the name you add,
because it would seem—incorrectly—like an aside that appeared in the original text.)
Remember, though, that brackets differ from the three dots called an ellipsis, which you use when you are deleting extraneous
words from a direct quotation. If you want to learn more about an ellipsis, see the recent Grammar Girl episode on ellipses.
Sometimes you might decide to start a sentence by quoting someone, but the quotation does not include a capital letter. If your work
is informal or not overly formal, it is acceptable to just change the lowercase letter to a capital one. On the other hand, scholars who
must be “rigorously accurate” (4) are required to use a set of brackets around the capital letter they are changing. For example, if
the quoted word is “it,” with a lowercase “i,” and a rigorously accurate scholar wants the word “it” to start a sentence, she would have
to write bracket-uppercase I-bracket-lowercase t: “[I]t.”
The last place you are likely to encounter square brackets is around the Latin word “sic,” which
means “thus.” You use it—in italics—when you’re quoting someone who has made an error, such
as a misstatement of fact or a spelling mistake. You should use bracket-sic-bracket only when you
need to aid readers (5); you don’t want to show off or seem pedantic by constantly pointing out
others’ failings. Admittedly, though, we grammar types understand this urge to correct others.
Braces
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Our last foray into punctuation marks leads us to what are known as curly braces. To type one, press the shift key as you punch the
bracket key, to the right of the letter “p.” I must say I have never used curly braces. In fact, although they looks like punctuation
marks, they really aren’t (6), at least not in the way you can type them yourself.
They’re on your keyboard because they have specialized uses in mathematics and science. For example, they are used to enclose
the third level of nested equations when parentheses and brackets have already been used for the first two levels (7).
Big curly braces that span multiple lines are sometimes used to enclose groups of words that belong together (8) or triplet lines in
poetry, but your keyboard doesn’t have those big curly braces that span multiple lines.
Summary
Today you’ve learned how to use various curved, square, and curly squiggles within your sentences. Be sure to keep them straight!
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