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Topics for AP Environmental Science: A Review
The following is a list of topics and subtopics, as outlined by the College Board. Each of the
seven main themes is accompanied by the approximate percentage of the test that it accounts
for. Page numbers are provided for topics and subtopics to help you review the concepts; page
numbers correspond to Environmental Science by Withgott and Brennan (3rd edition) unless
otherwise specified.
I. Earth Systems & Resources (10-15% of test)
A. Earth Science Concepts:
 geologic time scale (figure 4.21 on page 106)
 plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanism (pp 199-201)
 seasons (page 477)
 solar intensity and latitude (page 476)
B. The Atmosphere:
 composition and structure (pp 474-476)
 weather and climate (pp 477-479)
 atmospheric circulation and the Coriolis Effect (pp 479 -480)
 atmosphere–ocean interactions (pp 480; 446-447; 510-511)
 ENSO (pg 510)
C. Global Water Resources and Use:
 Freshwater/saltwater (pp 413-418; figure 15.1 on pg 413; figure 16.3 on pg 445)
o distribution, composition
 ocean circulation (pp 446-448)
o upwelling vs. downwelling (447-448)
o thermohaline circulation (pp 510-511)
 agricultural, industrial, and domestic use (p 419, especially figure 15.9)
 surface and groundwater issues; global problems
o dams, dikes and diversions (pp 419 -423)
o irrigation (pp 423-425)
o depletion (pp 425-427)
o know case studies: Ogallala aquifer, Colorado River, Aral Sea
 conservation (pp 427-429)
o desalinization, xeriscaping, efficient irrigation and other agri. Reduction
o know relevant laws, agencies
D. Soil and Soil Dynamics:
 rock cycle (pp 198-199, especially figure 7.18)
 formation (pp 237-239)
o Physical, chemical and biological weathering
 composition (pp 239)
o soil profile, e.g. “O Horizon, A Horizon…” (Figure 9.7 on p 239)
 physical and chemical properties (pp 240-241)
o Texture (figure 9.8 on p 240) – be able to use a soil triangle
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o Color, structure, pH, cation exchange, porosity, water retention, etc…
main soil types (Figure 9.7 on p 239)
erosion and other soil problems (pp 242-246)
o splash, rill, gully, sheet erosion
o desertification
o salinization
o dust bowl
o overgrazing (pp 254-255)
soil conservation (pp 247-257)
o know relevant laws, agencies
II. The Living World (10–15%)
A. Ecosystem Structure:
 biological populations and communities
o levels of ecological organization (pp 122-124)
o Community composition (p 148)
 ecological niches (p 124)
o specialists vs. generalists (pp 124-125; 143)
o fundamental niche vs. realized niche (p 143)
o effect of latitude on biodiversity/niches (pp 299-301)
 interactions among species (pp 142-148)
o mutualism, commensalism, predation, parasitism, competition…)
 keystone species (p 154; 156-157)
o know examples
 species diversity and edge effects
o species diversity (p 296)
o “edge effects” refer to the boundary between two habitats (e.g. the border of a forest); some
species do well at edges (e.g. mosquitoes), but others do not (due to temp/humidity/wind/light
differences and competition)
 major terrestrial and aquatic biomes
o Aquatic: salt marshes, rocky intertidal, mangrove forests, estuaries, wetlands… (pp 449-454)
o Terrestrial: Temp. deciduous forest, temp. grassland, temp. rainforest, tropical rainforest, tropical
dry forest, savanna, desert, tundra, boreal forest, chaparral, polar (pp 161-170)
o know effects of temp, precipitation, altitude, latitude
o know approximate climatographs for each
B. Energy Flow:
 photosynthesis and cellular respiration (pp 102-103)
o gross vs. net primary productivity (pp 181-182)
 food webs and trophic levels
o Energy flow vs. matter cycling (p 180)
o Trophic levels (pp 148-150)
o Food webs (pp 150-154)
 ecological pyramids (149-150)
o Pyramids of numbers, energy (about 90% lost at each trophic level), biomass
C. Ecosystem Diversity:
 Ecosystem diversity, species diversity, genetic diversity
 biodiversity (pp295-323)

o distribution (pp 300-301)
o biodiversity by groups (pp 298-300
o benefits = ecosystem services (pp 310-314)
evolution (pp 113-120)
o natural selection: some genetic variations increase ability to survive/reproduce (pp 113-115)
 directional, stabilizing, disruptive selection
o speciation (pp 118-119)
D. Natural Ecosystem Change:
 climate shifts (pp 510-511; 514-515); need at least 30 years to see climate
o glacial, interglacial periods; ice ages
 species movement
 ecological succession (pp 155-158)
o primary vs. secondary
o climax communities
E. Natural Biogeochemical Cycles (pp 186-198):
 carbon (pp 188-189)
 nitrogen (pp 191-196; 487)
 phosphorus (pp 189-190)
 sulfur (p 486)
 water (196-198
 conservation of matter (p 89) – matter cannot be created or destroyed. (This is not quite true; it can be
converted into energy, such as is the case in nuclear fission/fusion)
o Energy flow vs. matter cycling (p 180)
V. Energy Resources and Consumption (10–15%)
A. Energy Concepts:
 energy forms (e.g. kinetic, potential, chemical; p 100)
 power – rate of energy use
 units:
o Energy = kWh, BTU
o Power = Watts (W)
 conversions (p 101)
o burning, releasing chemical energy as heat
o photosynthesis, cellular respiration, chemosynthesis
o spinning a turbine, converting kinetic energy into electricity (pp 548-549)
 Laws of Thermodynamics (pp 100-101)
o 1st: energy cannot be created or destroyed
o 2nd: energy will change from more ordered to less ordered (entropy)
B. Energy Consumption
1. History:
 Industrial Revolution, exponential growth (p 559)
 energy crisis (pp 562-564)
2. Present global energy use
 per capita consumption (pp 545 figure 19.4; p 557, 563)

energy generation/consumption, by source (pp 574-575, figures 20.1, 20.2)
3. Future energy needs
 figure 19.21, p 566
 M&A issue 7, 8
C. Fossil Fuel Resources and Use:
 formation of coal (pp 544-546, figures 19.3, 19.5), oil (p 551), and natural gas (p 550)
 extraction/purification methods
o subsurface mining, strip mining, mountaintop removal (p 547)
o drilling (on land, offshore; with or without a pump)
o hydraulic fracturing (“fracking”)
o primary vs. secondary extraction (p 553)
o oil sands, oil shale, methane hydrate (pp 558-559)
o crude oil refining (pp 554-555)
 world reserves and global demand
o Hubbert’s peak (pp 556-557) and “peak oil”
o Proven oil reserves (M&A issue 7
 Synfuels (synthetic fuel)… this is not in our textbook; here is a definition from eia.gov:
Synthetic Fuel: A gaseous, liquid, or solid fuel that does not occur naturally. Synfuels
can be made from coal (coal gasification or coal liquefaction), petroleum products, oil
shale, tar sands, or plant products. Among the synfuels are various fuel gases, including
but not restricted to substitute natural gas, liquid fuels for engines (e.g., gasoline, diesel
fuel, and alcohol fuels) and burner fuels (e.g., fuel heating oils).
 know environmental advantages/disadvantages of sources
 know relevant laws and treaties
D. Nuclear Energy:
 nuclear fission process (pp 576-577
 nuclear fuel – uranium (pp 576-577)
 electricity production (p 576, Table 20.1; p 578, figure 20.5)
 nuclear reactor types
o breeder reactors (p 577)
o pressurized (light) water reactor (PWR) (p 578)
o boiling water reactor (BWR) (http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/students/reactors.html)
 know environmental advantages/disadvantages (Figure 20.7 on page 579 compares to coal)
 safety issues (pp 579-583)
o Three mile island, Chernobyl, Fukushima
 radiation and human health (pp 584-585)
 radioactive wastes (pp 583-588)
o wet vs. dry storage
o Hanford, Yucca Mountain
 nuclear fusion (pp 577-578)
E. Hydroelectric Power (pp 595-598):
 dams (figure 20.23, p 596)
o Three Gorges
o Grand Coulee
 flood control, salmon, silting, other impacts (p 420)
F. Energy Conservation (pp 565-568):
 energy efficiency (pp 566-567)
 CAFE standards (565-566)
 hybrid electric vehicles (figure 19.22, p 567)
 mass transit (pp 370-371)
G. Renewable Energy:
 solar energy (pp 607-612)
o passive vs. active (p 608)
 solar electricity
o photovoltaic (PV) cells (pp 609-610)
 hydrogen fuel cells (pp 621-625)
 biomass (pp 588 -595)
 wind energy (pp 612 – 616)
 small-scale hydroelectric
o run-of-river (pp 595, 597 figure 20.24)
 ocean waves and tidal energy (pp 620 – 621)
 geothermal (pp 617 -620)
 know environmental advantages/disadvantages
III. Population (10–15%)
A. Population Biology Concepts (pp 125-132):
 population ecology
o size, density, distribution, sex ratios (pp 125-127)
o exponential vs. logistic growth (pp 129-130)
 carrying capacity (pp 129-130)
o limiting factors (density dependent, independent) (pp 130-131)
 reproductive strategies (pp 131-132)
o k-selected (p 131)
o r-selected (p 132)
o be able to compare/contrast and know examples of each
 survivorship (pp 127-128, figure 5.14)
B. Human Population
1. Human population dynamics:
 historical population sizes (p 4, figure 1.2)
o World population is now over 7 billion (as of 2012)
 distribution (p 215, figure 8.9)
o China = 1.3 billion (2011)
o India = 1.2 billion (2011)
o U.S. = 314 million (2012)
 fertility rates (pp 218-221)
o replacement-level fertility rate
o total fertility rate
 growth rates (p 128)
o crude birth rate, crude death rate
o immigration, emigration
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doubling time = 70/r (where “r” is the growth rate in percent.
o Example: if a population has a growth rate of 3.5% (0.035) then the doubling time is
70/3.5 = 20 years.
demographic transition (pp 219-221; know figure 8.15)
age-structure diagrams
o general (figure 5.13, p 128)
o by nation (pp 216-217)
2. Population size:
 strategies for sustainability
o women’s empowerment (pp 221-224)
o family planning, contraceptives (pp 224-225)
o government incentives, punishments
 case studies, national policies
o definitely know about China, India, Kenya
3. Impacts of population growth:
 hunger; disease; economic effects; resource use; habitat destruction
 population growth is highest in developing nations, lower in developed nations
IV. Land and Water Use (10–15%)
A. Agriculture
1. Feeding a growing population:
 human nutritional requirements (basics macromolecules on pp 96-98)
o vitamins and minerals needed as well; relate to golden rice debate we had about
vitamin A deficiencies
o undernourishment, overnutrition, and malnutrition (pp 265-266)
 types of agriculture
o traditional vs. industrial (pp 236-237); monocultures
o traditional tillage vs. no-till or reduced till (pp 247-250)
o fertilizing (pp 252-254)
o Organic farming and community-supported agriculture (pp 285-289)
o Feedlot agriculture: livestock and poultry (pp 281-283)
 Know pros and cons (water use, land use, etc…)
 Green Revolution (p 237; pp 266-267)
 genetic engineering and crop production (pp 273 -280)
o Know examples (e.g. golden rice, Bt, roundup ready, terminator seeds, etc…); see pp
274-275)
o Know basics of biotechnology (p 273) and transgenics
o Know pros and cons; public objections
 Deforestation
o Deforestation for agricultural use (pp 334-335)
 Irrigation (pp 250-252; 423-424
o Types = conventional, center-pivot, drip (p 252)
o Case studies (Colorado river, Aral sea, Ogallala aquifer…)
 sustainable agriculture (pp 285 – 289)
o protecting against soil degradation (pp 247 -250)
2. Controlling pests:
 types of pesticides
o insecticides, herbicides, etc… (p 268)
 costs and benefits of pesticide use
o effect on pollinators (know about pollinators and their ecosystem services; pp 271272)
o pesticide resistance (pp 269); relate to natural selection and our Jolly Rancher lab
 integrated pest management (IPM) (pp 270-271)
o Biological controls (p 270)
o Know case studies (cane toads, cactus moth, Bt…)
 know relevant laws and agencies
B. Forestry (pp 329-346):
 tree plantations (pp 340, 594)
 old growth forests
o primary vs. secondary (p 334)
 forest fires (pp 343-346)
o pros and cons of fire suppression, prescribed burning
o relevant laws
 forest management (pp 330 – 346)
o maximum sustainable yield (pp 330 - 331)
o ecosystem management, adaptive management (p 331)
o ecological and economic significance of forests (pp 332-333)
o Public, private timber
o Harvest methods (clear cut, seed tree, shelterwood, selection; pp 340-341)
o Even-aged, uneven aged stands
o Salvage logging
 national forests (pp 348-352; p 64; pp 338-339)
o Gifford Pinchot (p 33)
C. Rangelands :
 Overgrazing (pp 254-255, especially figure 9.22)
 Deforestation for rangeland
 Desertification (pp 244-245)
 rangeland management (pp 347-348)
 federal rangelands (p 339)
D. Other Land Use
1. Urban land development:
 planned development (pp 366-374)
o city planning, regional planning, zoning
o urban growth boundaries (p 368; e.g. Portland area)
o “smart growth”, new urbanism (p 369)
o Parks, greenways (pp 371-374)
 suburban sprawl (pp 361-366)
 urbanization (pp 358-361)… know relationship to industrialization
2. Transportation infrastructure (not covered much in class):
 federal highway system: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/interstate/history.htm
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canals and channels
o Canals are man-made aqueducts and waterways:
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/canhist.htm
o Channels are natural waterways
roadless areas (pp 342-343): http://www.fs.usda.gov/roadmain/roadless/home
ecosystem impacts
o habitat fragmentation and island biogeography theory (pp 316-319)
3. Public and federal lands:
 management (pp 339, 349-350)
o U.S. Forest service
o National Park Service
o Fish and Wildlife Service
o Bureau of Land Management
 wilderness areas (p 350)
 national parks (pp 348-352)
o SLOSS dilemma (p 352)
 wildlife refuges
o national wildlife refuge (p 349)
 forests (pp 348-352; p 64; pp 338-339)
 wetlands (pp 414-415; pp 346-347)
 know relevant laws and agencies
4. Land conservation options:
 preservation (pp 33-35)
o John Muir, Theodore Roosevelt; Yosemite National Park
o Conservation (Gifford Pinchot) and Land Ethic (Aldo Leopold)
 Remediation (e.g. cleaning up after an oil spill; see Superfund)
 mitigation (p 529)
o EPA compensatory mitigation for wetlands:
http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/pdf/CMitigation.pdf
 restoration (pp 160-161)
5. Sustainable land-use strategies
 urban sustainability (pp 374-377)
 sustainable agriculture, sustainable forestry, sustainable grazing (see above)
E. Mining:
 mineral formation
o coal (pp 544-546, figures 19.3, 19.5)
o oil (p 551)
o natural gas (p 550)
 extraction
o subsurface mining, strip mining, mountaintop removal (p 547)
o drilling (on land, offshore; with or without a pump)
o hydraulic fracturing (“fracking”)
o primary vs. secondary extraction (p 553)
o oil sands, oil shale, methane hydrate (pp 558-559)
o crude oil refining (pp 554-555)
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
global reserves
o Hubbert’s peak (pp 556-557) and “peak oil”
o Proven oil reserves (M&A issue 7)
know relevant laws and treaties
F. Fishing:
 fishing techniques
o driftnetting, longlining, trawling (pp 459-460)
 overfishing (pp 457-462)
o Case study: Atlantic Cod
 Aquaculture (pp 283-285)
 know relevant laws and treaties
G. Global Economics:
 Basics of economics (pp 37-49)
o Supply and demand vs. cost-benefit (pg 41, figure 2.12)
o GPI vs. GDP (46)
o Externalities (p 42), nonmarket values (47), etc…
 Globalization:
o World Bank (pp 72-73)
o You should also know UN, EU, WTO, NGOs (pp 70-73) and how they influence economies and
environmental policies
 Tragedy of the Commons (p 5-6)
o know an example
VI. Pollution (25–30%)
A. Pollution Types
1. Air pollution:
 sources—primary and secondary
o Natural sources include volcanoes, natural fires, dust storms… (pp 480-481)
o Anthropogenic sources include industry, power generation, cars, electronics…
o Primary pollutants vs. secondary (p 481)
 major air pollutants
o EPA criteria pollutants (pp 482-483):
 Carbon monoxide
 Sulfur dioxide
 Nitrogen dioxide
 Tropospheric ozone
 Particulate matter
 lead
o VOCs
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
measurement units
o ppm, ppb, ppt
smog
o photochemical vs. industrial (pp 486-488)
o know case studies (e.g. London 1952)
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acid deposition—causes and effects (pp 490-495)
o know chemical reactions that produce acid deposition
heat islands and temperature inversions
indoor air pollution (pp 494-500)
o Tobacco and radon (most dangerous in developed world)
o Fuelwood burning in developing world
remediation and reduction strategies
o indoor pollution reduction (p 500)
o CFC reduction (488-491)
o Scrubbers (figure 17.14, p 485)
o Catalytic converter (p 672)
o Cap-and-trade systems (sulfur dioxide is an example)
know relevant laws
2. Noise pollution (p 376; also M&A “Whacker Madness Issue):
 sources (e.g. leafblowers, jackhammers…)
 effects (hearing loss, stress)
 control measures
o Washington State Dept. of Ecology: http://www.ecy.wa.gov/laws-rules/noise.html
3. Water pollution:
 Types (pp 429 – 431)
o Nutrient, pathogen, toxic chemicals, sediment, thermal)
 sources, causes, and effects
o Figure 15.21 (p 431) shows various point and non-point sources
 cultural eutrophication (pp 429-430; figure 7.5 on page 179)
o Case study: Gulf of Mexico “Dead Zone” (pp 174 – 175; 177 - 179)
 groundwater pollution (pp 432 – 433)
o bacteria, nitrates (“blue baby” syndrome), VOCs, etc…
 maintaining water quality (pp 433-435)
o Know about WQI (Lab Investigations): turbidity, nitrate, pH, etc…
 water purification (pp 427 -428): desalinization
 sewage treatment (pp 435 – 439)
o primary, secondary treatment (436 – 438, especially figure 15.24)
o septic systems (p 435)
o case study: San Diego and Tijuana (pp 57-58)
 know relevant laws
4. Solid waste:
 types
o Industrial waste (pp 644 – 646)
 Industrial ecology (pp 645- 646)
o Municipal waste (pp 632 – 633)
 Paper, yard waste, food scraps are the top three
o Hazardous waste (pp 646 -653)
 e-waste (648 – 651)
 radioactive (p 651; pp 583 – 588)
 organic compounds, heavy metals (pp 647-648)
 disposal
o Landfills (pp 633 – 639)
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
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Sanitary landfills (pp 635-638)
WTE (waste-to-energy) and gas capture
Reduction
o Recycle (pp 641 – 643)
o Source reduction (pp 639-640)
o Reuse (p 640)
o Composting (p 640)
B. Impacts on the Environment and Human Health
1. Hazards to human health:
 Types of toxicants (my addition; not on College Board list):
o carcinogens, mutagens, teratogens, allergens, neurotoxins (pp 389-390)
o endocrine disruptors (pp 390 – 392)
o persistent organic pollutants (pp 394-395): DDT, PCBs, PBDE…
 environmental risk analysis (pp 402 – 404)
 acute and chronic effects (pp 399-401)
o synergistic effects (p 400)
 dose-response relationships (pp 398-399)
o Be able to make, read and interpret an LD50 or EC50 graph, possibly with a
logarithmic scale
 air pollutants (see above)
 smoking and other risks (see above)
2. Hazardous chemicals in the environment:
 types of hazardous waste (pp 646 -653; see above)
 treatment/disposal of hazardous waste (pp 649-652)
 cleanup of contaminated sites (pp 652-653)
o “brownfields” (p 652) and CERCLA “Superfund”
o Know case studies: Love Canal, NY; Times Beach, MO; etc…
 Biomagnification (pp 395-397; especially figure 14.13)
o know case studies such as PCBs and DDT
 know relevant laws
C. Economic Impacts:
 cost-benefit analysis (pp 40-44)
 externalities (p 42)
 marginal costs (p 41, figure 2.12)
 sustainability (p 660)
VII. Global Change (10–15%)
A. Stratospheric Ozone:
 formation of stratospheric ozone (p 475)
o http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/csd/assessments/ozone/2010/twentyquestions/Q2.pdf
 ultraviolet radiation (pp 101-102; p 383; p 475)
 causes of ozone depletion (pp 488-491)
 effects of ozone depletion (p 489)
o Increased UV radiation = more skin cancer, harm to crops and oceanic plankton productivity…
NOT GLOBAL WARMING!!!


strategies for reducing ozone depletion
o Montreal Protocol (pp 489-490)
know relevant laws and treaties
B. Global Warming:
 greenhouse gases and the greenhouse effect (pp 506-509)
o Gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water, CFCs
o Radiative forcing and albedo (p 509)
 impacts and consequences of global warming (pp 516-528)
o IPCC Assessment Report (pp 516-517)
o temperature increase (pp 518-519)
o changes in precipitation (pp 519-520)
o ice/snow melt (pp 520-521; 522-523)
o rising sea level (pp 521-524)
o ecosystem effects (p 524)
o societal impacts (pp 524-527)
 reducing climate change (pp 529-536)
o Kyoto Protocol (p 534)
o carbon offsets (p 535)
o Market mechanisms (pp 533, 535)
 mandates vs. incentives (p 533)
 cap-and-trade
o Electricity, transportation are the numbers 1 and 2 sources of emissions
 know relevant laws and treaties
C. Loss of Biodiversity
1. Causes:
 habitat loss (pp 304-305)
 overuse
o overfishing (pp 457-462)
o overharvesting (pp 307-308)
 pollution (p 306)
 introduced species (pp 305-307)
o know case studies e.g. Zebra mussels, Kudzu…
 endangered and extinct species
o extinction (pp 301-304)
o Red List (pp 303-304)
o know some case studies
2. Maintenance through conservation
 Marine conservation (pp 463-467)
o MPAs vs. marine reserves
 Conservation biology (pp 315-316)
 Island biogeography theory (pp 316-319)
 Captive breeding, reintroduction, cloning (pp 320-321)
3. know relevant laws and treaties
 CITES, ESA, etc…