Download Lecture Exam 3 Study Guide Sponges 1. Explain why sponges are

Lecture Exam 3 Study Guide
CHAPTER 33
INVERTEBRATES
Sponges
1. Explain why sponges are considered to be basal animals.
2. Label a diagram of a sponge (including the spongocoel, choanocyte, mesohyl, amoebocyte,
osculum, and spicules). Describe the function of each part.
3. Describe how a sponge feeds and digests its food.
Cnidaria
4. List the characteristics of the phylum Cnidaria that distinguish it from other animal phyla.
5. Describe the specialized cells that are found only in Cnidarians.
6. Describe the two variants of the basic body plan in Cnidaria. Explain the role of each variant in
Cnidarian life cycles.
7. List the four classes of Cnidaria and distinguish among them based on life cycle and
morphology.
Lophotrochozoa
8. Describe the features that led to the name of the clade Lophotrochozoa.
9. List the characteristics of the phylum Platyhelminthes that distinguish it from the other animal
phyla.
10. Describe the anatomy and generalized life cycle of a tapeworm.
11. Describe unique features of rotifers that distinguish them from other pseudocoelomates.
12. Define parthenogenesis. Describe how rotifers may reproduce asexually.
13. Describe a lophophore. Name two lophophorate phyla.
14. List the characteristics that distinguish the phylum Mollusca from the other animal phyla.
15. Describe the basic body plan of a mollusc and explain how it has been modified in the Bivalvia,
Cephalopoda, Gastropoda, Polyplacophora, and Cephalopoda.
16. Distinguish among the three classes of Annelida and give an example of each class.
17. Describe the adaptations that enable some leeches to feed on blood.
Ecdysozoa
18. Describe the feature that led to the name of the clade Ecdysozoa.
19. List the characteristics of arthropods that distinguish them from the other animal phyla. List the
three features that account for the success of this phylum.
20. Describe advantages and disadvantages of an exoskeleton.
21. Distinguish between a hemocoel and a coelom.
22. Define and distinguish between the major arthropod lineages:
a. Cheliceriforms
b. Hexapoda
c. Crustaceans
d. Myriapods
23. Describe three specialized features of spiders.
24. Briefly explain four hypotheses for the evolution of insect wings
25. Describe two features that may account for the great diversity of insects.
Deuterostomia
26. Describe the developmental similarities between echinoderms and chordates. Explain why
other phyla with deuterostome development are not included in the clade Deuterostomia.
27. List the characteristics of echinoderms that distinguish them from other animal phyla.
28. Distinguish among the six classes of echinoderms and give examples of each.
CHAPTER 34
VERTEBRATES
Invertebrate Chordates and the Origin of Vertebrates
1. Describe the four derived traits that define the phylum Chordata.
Craniates are Chordates with a Head
2. Discuss the importance of genetic duplication in chordate evolution.
3. Explain the fate of the neural crest cells in craniate development.
Vertebrates are Craniates with a Backbone
4. Describe the way of life and unique characters of the lamprey.
Gnathostomes are Vertebrates with Jaws
5.
6.
7.
8.
Explain one hypothesis for the evolution of the jaws of gnathostomes.
List the shared, derived characters that characterize gnathostomes.
Describe the features of sharks that are adaptive for their active, predatory lifestyle.
Describe and distinguish between Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes, noting the main traits of
each group.
9. Identify and describe the main subgroups of Osteichthyes.
10. Name the three living lineages of lobe-fins.
Tetrapods are Gnathostomes with Limbs
11. Define and distinguish among gnathostomes, tetrapods, and amniotes.
12. Describe the common traits of amphibians and distinguish among the three orders of living
amphibians.
Amniotes have Tetrapods with Amniotic Eggs
13. Describe an amniotic egg and explain its significance in the evolution of reptiles and mammals.
14. Describe a number of reptile features that are adaptive for life on land.
15. Explain why non-bird reptiles should be called “ectothermic” rather than “cold-blooded”.
16. Describe the specialized adaptations of snakes that make them successful predators.
17. List the modifications of birds that are adaptive for flight.
Mammals are Amniotes with Hair and Milk
18. Describe the derived traits characteristic of mammals.
19. Describe the evolutionary origin of mammals.
20. Distinguish among monotreme, marsupial, and eutherian mammals.
CHAPTER 40
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
ANIMAL FORM AND FUNCTION
Animal Form and Function
1. Distinguish between anatomy and physiology.
2. Explain how physical laws constrain animal form.
3. Use examples to illustrate how the size and shape of an animal’s body affect its interactions
with the environment.
4. Describe the challenges and benefits that come with complex animal form.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Define the terms tissue, organ, and organ system. Name the four main categories of tissues.
Distinguish among collagenous fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers.
Describe the functions of macrophages and fibroblasts within connective tissue.
Compare and contrast the nervous and endocrine systems with respect to specificity of target
cells and speed and duration of response.
Regulating the Internal Environment
9. Distinguish between regulators and conformers for a particular environmental variable. Explain
how an animal may be both a regulator and a conformer.
10. Define homeostasis. Describe in general terms how an animal maintains homeostasis.
11. Distinguish between positive and negative feedback mechanisms. Which type of mechanism
contributes to homeostasis?
12. Define thermoregulation. Explain in general terms how endotherms and ectotherms manage
their heat budgets.
13. Name four physical processes by which animals exchange heat with their environment.
14. Discuss the role of hair, feathers, and adipose tissue in insulation.
15. Explain the role of vasoconstriction and vasodilation in modifying the transfer of body heat with
the environment.
16. Describe how a countercurrent heat exchanger may function to retain heat within an animal
body.
17. Describe animal adaptations to augment evaporative cooling.
18. Describe thermoregulatory mechanisms utilized by endothermic invertebrates.
19. Explain the mechanisms by which endotherms may increase their metabolic heat production.
20. Explain how ectotherms and endotherms may acclimatize to changing environmental
temperatures.
The Bioenergetics of Animals
21. Define bioenergetics.
22. Define metabolic rate and explain how it can be determined for animals.
23. Distinguish between basal metabolic rate (BMR) and standard metabolic rate (SMR). Identify
the broad categories of animals to which each term applies.
24. Describe, in broad terms, how the energy budgets of small and large endotherms differ.
25. Describe, in broad terms, how the energy budgets of ectotherms and endotherms of similar
size differ.
26. Define torpor, hibernation, estivation, and daily torpor.
CHAPTER 41
ANIMAL NUTRITION
Nutritional Requirements of Animals
1. List and briefly describe the three dietary categories of animals.
2. Name the three nutritional needs that must be met by an animal’s diet.
3. Define essential nutrients. Describe the four classes of essential nutrients.
4. Distinguish between water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins. Explain why megadoses of fatsoluble vitamins are more dangerous than equally large doses of water-soluble vitamins.
5. Distinguish among undernourishment, overnourishment, and malnourishment.
Overview of Food Processing
6. Define and compare the four main stages of food processing.
7. Compare intracellular and extracellular digestion.
8. Distinguish between a complete digestive tract and a gastrovascular cavity.
The Mammalian Digestive System
9. Describe the common processes and structural components of the mammalian digestive
system.
10. Name three functions of saliva.
11. Compare where and how the major types of macromolecules are digested and absorbed within
the mammalian digestive system.
12. Explain why pepsin does not digest the stomach lining.
13. Explain how the small intestine is specialized for digestion and absorption.
14. Describe the major functions of the large intestine.
Evolutionary Adaptations of Vertebrate Digestive Systems
15. Relate variations in dentition and length of the digestive system to the feeding strategies and
diets of herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.
16. Describe the roles of symbiotic microorganisms in vertebrate digestion.
Homeostatic Mechanisms and Energy Balance
17. Explain where and in what form energy rich molecules may be stored in the human body.
18. Explain why fat hoarding may have provided a fitness advantage to our hunter-gatherer
ancestors.
CHAPTER 42
CIRCULATION AND GAS EXCHANGE
Circulatory Systems of Animals
1. Define partial pressure and explain how it influences diffusion across respiratory surfaces.
2. Describe how the need for circulatory and respiratory systems changes with increasing animal
body size.
3. Distinguish between open and closed circulatory systems. List the three basic components
common to both systems.
4. List the structural components of a vertebrate circulatory system and relate their structure to
their functions.
5. Describe the general relationship between metabolic rates and the structure of the vertebrate
circulatory system.
6. Using diagrams, compare and contrast the circulatory systems of fish, amphibians, non-bird
reptiles, and mammals or birds.
7. Distinguish between a pulmonary and pulmocutaneous circuit.
8. Distinguish between pulmonary and systemic circuits and explain the functions of each.
9. Compare the hearts of vertebrates with double circulation to those of vertebrates with a single
circuit.
10. Define a cardiac cycle, distinguish between systole and diastole, and explain what causes the
first and second heart sounds.
11. List the heart valves in a human heart, describe their location, and explain their functions.
12. Describe the location and function of the sinoatrial (SA) node of the heart.
13. Describe the origin and pathway of the impulses from the SA node in the normal human heart.
14. Explain how the pace of the SA node can be modulated by nerves, hormones, body
temperature, and exercise.
The Structure and Arrangement of Blood Vessels
15. Relate the structures of capillaries, arteries, and veins to their functions.
16. Explain why blood flow through capillaries is substantially slower than blood flow through
arteries and veins.
17. Explain how blood returns to the heart, even though it must sometimes travel from the lower
extremities against gravity.
18. Explain how blood flow through capillary beds is regulated.
19. Explain how osmotic pressure and hydrostatic pressure regulate the exchange of fluid and
solutes across capillary walls.
20. Describe the composition of lymph and explain how the lymphatic system helps the normal
functioning of the circulatory system. Explain the role of lymph nodes in body defense.
The Components of Blood
21. Describe the composition and functions of plasma.
22. Relate the structure of erythrocytes to their function.
23. List the functions of leukocytes.
24. Describe the function of platelets. Outline the sequence of events that occurs during blood
clotting.
25. Distinguish between a heart attack and a stroke.
26. Distinguish between low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) and high-density lipoproteins (HDLs).
27. List the factors that are correlated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
Gas Exchange in Animals
28. Define gas exchange and distinguish between a respiratory medium and a respiratory surface.
29. Describe the general requirements for a respiratory surface and list a variety of respiratory
organs that meet these requirements.
30. Describe respiratory adaptations of aquatic animals.
31. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of water as a respiratory medium.
32. Describe countercurrent exchange in fish gills. Explain why it is more efficient than the
concurrent flow of water and blood.
33. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of air as a respiratory medium and explain how
insect tracheal systems are adapted for efficient gas exchange in a terrestrial environment.
34. For the human respiratory system, describe the movement of air through air passageways to
the alveolus, listing the structures that air must pass through on its journey.
35. Compare positive and negative pressure breathing. Explain how respiratory movements in
humans ventilate the lungs.
36. Distinguish between tidal volume, vital capacity, and residual volume.
37. Compare the respiratory systems of birds and mammals, explaining the greater efficiency of
oxygen exchange in birds.
38. Explain how breathing is controlled in humans.
39. Describe how carbon dioxide is picked up at the tissues and carried in the blood.
40. Describe the respiratory adaptations of the pronghorn that give it great speed and endurance.
41. Describe respiratory adaptations of diving mammals and the role of myoglobin.
CHAPTER 43
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Innate Immune Defenses Against Infection
1. Distinguish between innate and acquired immunity.
2. Explain how the physical barrier of skin is reinforced by chemical defenses.
3. Define phagocytosis. Name four types of phagocytic leukocytes.
4. Explain how phagocytic leukocytes recognize microbes.
5. Describe the roles of antimicrobial proteins in innate immunity.
6. Explain how interferons limit cell-to-cell spread of viruses.
7. Describe the inflammation response, including how it is triggered.
8. Describe the factors that influence phagocytosis during the inflammation response.
9. Describe what occurs during the condition known as septic shock.
10. Explain how the action of natural killer cells differs from the action of phagocytes.
How Acquired Immunity Arises
11. Distinguish between:
a. antigens and antibodies
b. antigen and epitope
c. B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes
d. antibodies and B cell receptors
e. primary and secondary immune responses
12. Briefly summarize the basic facts of acquired immunity.
13. Explain how B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes recognize specific antigens.
14. Compare the production and functions of class I MHC and class II MHC molecules.
15. Explain how the particular structure of a lymphocyte’s antigen binding site forms during
development. Explain the role of recombinase in generating the staggering diversity of
lymphocytes.
16. Distinguish between the variable (V) and constant (C) regions of an antigen receptor.
17. Explain why the antigen receptors of lymphocytes are tested for self-reactivity during
development. Predict the consequences that would occur if such testing did not take place.
18. Describe the mechanism of clonal selection. Distinguish between effector cells and memory
cells.
19. Describe the cellular basis for immunological memory.
Acquired Immune System Defenses
20. Distinguish between
a. humoral and cell-mediated response
b. active and passive immunity
21. Describe the roles of helper T lymphocytes in both humoral and cell-mediated immunity.
22. Describe the functions of the proteins CD4 and CD8.
23. Explain how a single antigen can provoke a robust humoral response.
24. Describe the production and uses of monoclonal antibodies.
25. Compare the processes of neutralization and opsonization.
26. Describe the variation found in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and their role in the
rejection of tissue transplants.
Immunity in Health and Disease
27. Describe an allergic reaction, including the roles of IgE, mast cells, and histamine.
28. Explain what causes anaphylactic shock and how it can be treated.
29. Explain how general health and stress levels may affect the immune system.
30. Distinguish between inborn and acquired immunodeficiency.
31. Describe some of the mechanisms that pathogens have evolved to thwart the immune
response of their hosts.