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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
1
FACULTY OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY
AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF ZAGREB, CROATIA
ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES – ENGLISH FOR
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
ANDREA ŠUPIH-KVATERNIK
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY
AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
WITH ENGLISH –CROATIAN DICTIONARY
REVISED EDITION, 2008
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
REVIEWERS:
Egon Bauman, PhD
Sunita Bujas, prof.
Shirley Tomlinson, MA, MS
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
2
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
3
PREHRAMBENO-BIOTEHNOLOŠKI FAKULTET, SVEUČILIŠTE
U ZAGREBU
AND ENGLISH READER BOOK ONE AND BOOK TWO
ZBIRKA RADNIH MATERIJALA S VJEŽBAMA I ENGLESKOHRVATSKIM STRUČNIM RJEČNIKOM ZA STUDENTE
PREHRAMBENO-BIOTEHNOLOŠKOG FAKULTETA ,
SVEUČILIŠTA U ZAGREBU
Predgovor
Studij pri Prehrambeno-biotehnološkom fakultetu u Zagrebu
obuhvaća dva studija: studij Prehrambena tehnologija, sa
smjerovima Prehrambeno inženjerstvo i Nutricionizam i studij:
Biotehnologija, sa smjerovima Biokemijsko inženjerstvo i
Biokemijska mikrobiologija.
Radni materijali u udžbeniku “An English Reader for Food
Technology and Biotechnology” - Book One and Book Two - zbirka
su izvornih tekstova na engleskom jeziku iz raznih polja i područja
znanosti obuhvaćenih studijima i smjerovima pri ovom fakultetu.
Materijali su prilagođeni strukovnim potrebama studenata te
njihovom predznanju općeg engleskog jezika, na
koje se
nadovezuje terminologija struke.
Većina vježbi nadopunjena je strukovnim glosarom i raznim
vrstama vježbi, od brzog pregleda i razumijevanja cjelovitog
teksta, podjele teksta na smislene cjeline (scanning and
skimming), traženja najvažnijih riječi ili rečenica u tekstu (key
words and key sentences, paragraph topics) itd.
Srukovni vokabular se obrađuje na samom tekstu i to na dva
načina:
a) iza svakog teksta ispisan je glosar sa strukovnim izrazima koji
se nalaze u danom tekstu
b) od studenata se traži da sami izrade mali glosar vezan na
zadani tekst; time studente potičemo na samostalni rad s
dvojezičnim i jednojezičnim rječnicima.
c) Svi primjeri i vježbe jezičnih, vokabularskih i gramatičkih
struktura temelje se i uvježbavaju na samom izvornom
engleskom tekstu, tj. jeziku struke.
d) Obadvije zbirke – An English Reader Book One (pisan za
studente prve godine studija) i An English reader Book Two
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
4
(pisan za studente druge godine studija) obiluju raznovrsnim
materijalima i vježbama. Ovisno o smjeru studija i o razini
poznavanja općeg jezika kao i jezika struke, odabiru se, uz
obvezatne materijale, i dodatni materijali, koji se mogu obraditi
na više načina: frontalno, sa svim studentima, radom u
grupama, i pojedinačno sa studentima. Studenti mogu i
samostalno odabrati stručni ili znanstveni tekst na izvornom
engleskom jeziku, te ga obraditi i prikazati ostalim studentima i
predavaču u obliku seminarskog rada.
Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, prof.
viši predavač
Prehrambeno-biotehnološki fakultet,
Sveučilište u Zagrebu,
U Zagrebu, 2005.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
5
ZAHVALE
Kao i svaki udžbenik, i udžbenici “An English Reader for Food Technology
and Biotechnology” – Book One and Book Two – sa strukovnim rječnikom,
rezultat su dugotrajnog i ustrajnog rada, od prikupljanja građe, stručnih i
znanstvenih tekstova na izvornom engleskom jeziku, preko obrade i
prilagodbe tekstova potrebama studenata i nastave pri Prehrambenobiotehnološkom fakultetu u Zagrebu, sve do konačne pripreme teksta za
tisak.
Također je, tijekom izrade ovih udžbenika i rječnika, trebalo premostiti razne
probleme terminologije, u nedostatku adekvatnih englesko-hrvatskih
strukovnih rječnika. Isto tako bilo je veoma teško pronaći stručnjake koji bi bili
spremni pomoći pri pisanju ovakvog udžbenika. Naime, veoma je malo
profesora engleskog jezika, stručnjaka obrazovanih u smjeru humanističkih
znanosti koji bi bili spremni sudjelovati u izradbi udžbenika pisanog za
studente prirodnih znanosti. Isto tako teško bilo je pronaći stručnjake u
prirodnim znanostima s tolikim poznavanjem problematike engleskog jezika
koji bi mogli i htjeli, sa stručne strane, pomoći pri ovom radu.
Osobno sam imala veliku sreću i čast jer su mi pri radu na ovom udžbeniku
pomogle tri osobe, mislim da slobodno mogu reći, najkompetentnije za ovaku
vrstu interdisciplinarnog rada. Neizmjerno sam im zahvalna na pomoći i
podršci tijekom pisanja ovog udžbenika.
Prvo bih se željela zahvaliti profesorici Suniti Bujas, mojoj mentorici, koja je
utemeljila suvremenu nastavu jezika struke i zacrtala okvire i ciljeve nastave
jezika struke pri Prehrambeno-biotehnološkom fakultetu u Zagrebu. Duboko
sam joj zahvalna na podršci i pomoći.
Od srca zahvaljujem na pomoći profesoru dr. sc. Egonu Baumanu,
dugogodišnjem redovitom profesoru pri Prehrambeno-biotehnološkom
fakultetu u Zagrebu, znanstveniku “prirodnjaku”, koji je istovremeno i
jedinstvena “hodajuća” jezična enciklopedija.
Iskreno zahvaljujem i mr. sc. Shirley Tomlinson, profesorici engleskog jezika
u The English Language Centre u Brightonu, u Velikoj Britaniji. Iako
istovremeno izvorni govornik i profesorica engleskog jezika, zbog rada na
ovom udžbeniku i sama je morala duboko “uroniti” u, i za nju novo, polje
vokabulara prirodnih znanosti, kao i zakonitosti nastave jezika struke.
Zahvaljujem na podršci i pomoći Ministarstvu znanosti Republike Hrvatske,
Odboru za udžbenike i skripta Prehrambeno-biotehnološkog fakulteta,
Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, na čelu s prof. dr. sc. Senadinom Durakovićem i prof.
dr. sc. Vladimirom Rapićem.
Zahvaljujem i izdavačkoj kući Durieux na korektnom i profesionalnom odnosu.
Posebno zahvaljujem mojem suprugu, Hrvoju Šupih - Kvaterniku, direktoru
firme Kom-pa Konzalting, d.oo., na velikoj materijalnoj i logističkoj potpori pri
izradbi ovog udžbenika.
Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik,
U Zagrebu, 2005.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
6
POSVETA
Pišući udžbenike " An English Reader – Book One and Book Two”
moj jedini cilj bio je da mojim studentima pri Prehrambenobiotehnološkom fakultetu približim stručni engleski jezik i da im
olakšam čitanje i razumijevanje stručne i znanstvene literature,
kao i pisanje sažetaka
na engleskom jeziku, te, općenito
komuniciranje u svijetu znanosti na engleskom jeziku. Biti će mi
veliko zadovoljstvo ako sam u tome uspjela. Svim mojim
sadašnjim I budućim studentima, kojima su ovi udžbenici
namijenjeni, želim puno uspjeha u njihovom radu.
Knjige posvećujem mojim kćerkama Ivani i Jani, koje mojem životu
daju ljepotu, boje, smisao i snagu.
Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik
U Zagrebu, 2005.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
CONTENTS
1. CLASSIFICATION (20)
………………………………………………………………
8
2. THE PROPERTIES OF AIR (3)……………….............................................................
29
3. THE WEATHER ( 6 ) ….................................................................................
31
4. MAGNETS ( 3).....................................................................................……………...
37
5. ATOMS, ELECTRONS AND ELECTRICITY (5)……………………………….............. 40
6. MATTER AND VOLUME (3) ……………………………….......................................... 45
7. MASS AND WEIGHT ( 5)
……………………………………………………............... 48
8. TESTING YOUR KNOWLEDGE(4) ……………………………………………............. 53
9. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES (3)
....................... 57
10. ELEMENTS (3)
..................................................................................................
60
11.SUBSTANCES - Seprating solutions) (3) ............................................................ 63
12. SUBSTANCES Melting points and boiling points (4) ..........................................
72
13. GRAMMAR REVISION (4) .....................................................................................
72
14. SOLVENT AND SOLUTE (2)
……………………………………………….......... 74
15. WATER - NEXT TO OXYGEN (6)
…………………………………………................. 76
16. WATER-TREATMENT SYSTEM - ACTIVATED CARBON
(1) ………………........ 82
17. HYDROLYSIS (2) ……………………………………………………………….............. 83
18. ACIDS
(5)
……………………………………………………………….............. 85
19. FOLIC ACID (3)
……………………………………………………………….............. 88
20. TREATMENT OF THE LABORATORY SAMPLE (2) ………………………...............
91
21. LABORATORY SAFETY (2) …………………………………………………….............. 93
22. THE CELL - MILESTONES (3) ………………………………………………….............. 95
23. THE CELL (5)
………………………………………………………………………… 98
24. PROTOPLASM (4) ……………………………………………………………….............. 103
25. THE LIVING CELL ( 7)
……………………………………………………………......107
26. GENE SPLICING (5)
…………………………………………………………..........113
27. A GENE IS CLONED (2)
……………………………………………………………......118
28. HELLO, DOLLY - CLONING AND ITS TEMPTATIONS (6) ……………………….....120
29. DOLLY - "A FARMYARD FREAK" (3)
……………………………………….........126
30. PROTEINS (5)
………………………………………………………………………….129
31. PROTEINS, ACIDS, FATS (3)
…………………………………………………........134
32. PLASMIDS …………………………………………………………………………………...136
32. DISTRIBUTION OF NUTRIENTS IN PLANTS (6) ……………………………………...137
33. VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS (4) ………………………………………………...........143
34. FAT IN THE BODY ( 3) …………………………………………………………….............147
35. BACTERIA (4) ……………………………………………………………………................150
36. IRREGULAR FOREIGN PLURALS (1) …………………………………………..............154
37. MICROBES AS CHEMICAL MACHINES (2) …………………………………...............155
38. MICROBIOLOGY (4) ……………………………………………………………................157
39. OXYGEN, OXIDATION, ANTIOXIDANNTS (3)………………………………………......160
40. ENERGY FOR LIFE (4)
.......................................................................................163
41. DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION (7) ……………………………………………….........167
42. DETERMINATION OF SUGARS (2) ………………………………………….................174
43. VITAMINS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS (3) …………………………………………..…... 176
44. VITAMINS (4) ……………………………………………………………………................179
45. ASCORBIC ACID (4) .................................................................................................183
46. SUPERNUTRITION (11) ……………………………………………………………...........187
47. NEW DISCOVERIES IN MINERAL NUTRITION (3) ………………………..................200
48. THE STORY OF MERCURY AND MAN (4) …………………………………................203
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
7
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
8
CLASSIFICATION
A paragraph of classification divides people, places, or things into groups.
Classification is used by nutritionists to describe different categories of food,
by biologists to describe kinds of animals, and by psychologists to describe
personality types.
The words bellow signal a classification:
categories classes
groups
kinds
types
Gathering thoughts on nutrition
1. Which foods do you think are particularly healthful? Make a list.
2. Which foods do you usually eat every day? Make a list.
Five Essential Words
The following words are important in this chapter. They are also common in
many science readings and in everyday English, but often in a different
context.
energy, n.
essential, adj.
fuel, n.
repair, v.
source, n.
the power to act
necessary, basic
something burned to produce energy
to fix
the beginning; the origin
A. Choose the correct word from the Five Essential Words. Fill in the
blanks.
1. For months my car did not work very well. It burned too much _______ .
I was busy working and did not have the time or the_________ to fix it.
Besides, I did not know the __________ of the problem. I finally took the
car to a mechanic. He told me that the car was missing one________ part
from its engine. He was able to __________ the car in less than an hour.
2. The human body uses food for __________ . Food also gives _______ to
the body. It can also __________ minor damage in the body. Food is also
a __________ of the vitamins in the body. Vitamins are __________ for
our good health.
Compare the two texts.
B. Rapid reading and understanding
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
9
Some words in a sentence are more important than others because they
carry more information. Good readers focus on the important words
when they read.
Focusing on key words is faster and more efficient than reading every
word in a sentence.
The sentences below are from "The nutrients in Food". Practice reading
and understanding these sentences rapidly. Underline the letter in front
of the sentence which best conveys the meaning of the words in italics.
Examples:
Corn oil is a vegetable fat.
a. The oil from corn is a vegetable fat.
b. Corn is a vegetable fat.
c. Oil is a vegetable.
People need complete proteins
every day.
a. People must eat proteins which are
incomplete.
b. People must eat proteins which
complete.
c. People must eat complete meals.
1. Their appetite is good.
a. They want to eat.
b. They want to sleep.
c. They want to exercise.
2. All lean meats have iron.
a. Some lean meats have iron.
b. Meat without fat has iron.
c. Clean meats have iron.
3. Vitamins help prevent diseases.
a. Vitamins help prevent discomfort.
b. Vitamins help prevent seasickness.
c. Vitamins help prevent illnesses.
4. Vitamin D helps build strong
bones.
a. People who get vitamin D are strong
builders.
b. People who get vitamin D do not
have weak bones.
c. People who get vitamin D have long
bones.
5. Carbohydrates provide heat
and energy.
a. Carbohydrates are hot.
b. Carbohydrates are fuel.
c. Carbohydrates are active.
6. People need all the essential
nutrients.
a. People need every necessary nutrient
b. People need most of the necessary
nutrients.
c. People need a few of the necessary
nutrients.
7. Vitamin A comes from fruits
a. Lettuce has vitamin A.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
and vegetables.
10
b. Hamburger has vitamin A.
c. Bread has vitamin A.
8. Extra protein in the body
is stored as fat.
a. All the protein is store.
b. Excess protein is stored.
c. Expensive protein is stored.
9. The average adult has 10 to
11 kilograms of body fat.
a. Everybody has 10 to 11 kilograms of
fat.
b. Children have 10 to 11 kilograms of
fat.
c. A typical man or woman has 10 to
11.
10. People need about 800
milligrams of calcium a day.
a. Eat 800 grams of calcium every day.
b. Eat 600 milligrams of calcium every
day.
c. Eat 800 milligrams of calcium every
day.
Reading Skills: Identifying Topic Sentences
Most paragraphs have one sentence which expresses the general idea or
topic of the paragraph. This sentence is called the topic sentence of the
paragraph. In most paragraphs in textbooks, the topic sentence is the first
sentence. In other paragraphs, the topic sentence may be either the second
or the last sentence.
Identifying the topic sentence of a paragraph will help you understand the
general idea of the paragraph quickly.
Exercise 1.
Directions: Choose the correct topic sentence for each paragraph below.
Write the topic sentence of the paragraph on the line provided.
Example:
a. Water is found all over the world.
b. Water has important nutrients.
c. Water is essential for good health.
__________________________________________________
It is necessary for every process of the body like digestion and absorption of
food. In addition, water helps control the temperature of the body. It keeps the
temperature at 37oC (98.6oF). Water also cleans the tissues. Water is found
in all foods. For instance, fresh vegetables are 90 percent water, eggs are 74
percent water, and hamburger is 60 percent water.
The topic sentence of the sample paragraph is c. Water is essential for good
health. Finish the exercise.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
11
Paragraph 1
a. There are many ways to cook meat and grains.
b. There are two kinds of proteins: complete and incomplete proteins.
c. There are two kinds of amino acids.
__________________________________________________
Complete proteins, which the body needs for growth, have all the essential
amino acids. Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk, and cheese have complete
proteins. The body needs complete proteins every day. The second kind,
incomplete proteins, do not have all the essential amino acids. The proteins in
vegetables and grains, for instance, are incomplete proteins. Two ways to
form complete proteins from incomplete proteins are: (1) to mix vegetables
and grains correctly, or (2) to add a small amount of meat or milk to a large
amount of grains. The body can then use the complete proteins which result
from the mixtures.
Paragraph 2
a. If there is not enough iron in the diet, a person will get a disease
that is commonly called anaemia.
b. If people eat healthy meals, they will get all of the minerals they
need.
c. If people do not get enough oxygen, they will feel tired.
Iron
is
the
mineral
that
makes
blood
look
red.
_______________________________________________ . Anaemia is
found all over the world. People with anaemia do not have enough iron in
their blood. Because iron carries oxygen people who do not have enough iron
do not get enough oxygen for their normal activities. Their heart beats faster
so their bodies can get more oxygen. People who have anaemia often get
tired easily. Sometimes their skin looks white; it does not look pink and
healthy.
Paragraph 3
a. When a grain is processed, it tastes better.
b. When a grain is processed, it is more expensive.
c. When a grain is processed, it loses vitamins.
__________________________________________________
.
For
example, there is a big difference between brown and white rice. When rice is
processed, the brown outside (husk) is lost. The brown outside (husk) of rice
has an important B vitamin which white rice lacks. In short, brown rice has
more B vitamins than processed rice.
Paragraph 4
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
12
a. Vitamin D is called "sunshine" vitamin.
b. Vitamin D is found in only a few foods.
c. Vitamins are essential in tropical countries.
_____________________________________________________________
When people sit outside, ultraviolet rays from the sun change a fat in their
skin to vitamin D. Vitamin D helps the body absorb calcium. It helps build
strong bones, and it prevents a disease in children that is called rickets. When
children have this disease, their bones bend because they do not become
hard. Rickets is seldom found in sunny, tropical countries. Rickets is more
common in countries that have long winters with little sunshine, in cities where
pollution obscures the sun, or in towns surrounded by mountains which keep
the sun out.
Exercise 2
Directions: These questions are based on the completed paragraphs in
Exercise 1.
1. Choose the best answer for each blank.
1. The topic of the sample paragraph is
a. water
b. body temperature
c. nutrients
__________________ .
2. The topic of Paragraph 1 is
a. complete and incomplete proteins
b. a definition of amino acids
c. a description of how to cook grains
__________________ .
3. The topic of Paragraph 2 is
a. oxygen
b. minerals
c. anemia
__________________ .
4. The topic of Paragraph 3 is
a. processed grains
b. the importance of B vitamins
c. color of vitamins
__________________ .
5. The topic of Paragraph 4 is
a. children
b. climate
c. vitamin D
__________________ .
Reading Anticipation - Organization
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
13
1. Number the paragraphs in "The Nutrients in Food". How many
paragraphs are there? __________________
2. Read the introduction (Paragraph 1). First nutrients are defined. Then the
five general groups of nutrients are listed. In what order do you
think the author discusses these nutrients?
First:
Second:
Third:
Fourth:
Fifth:
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
3. Quickly read only the first sentence of each paragraph. From these
sentences, guess which paragraphs are about each of the topics
listed below. Underline or circle the number/s which paragraphs are about
each general topic. Paragraph 1 is an introduction. Finish the exercise.
Topics
Introduction
Carbohydrates
Fats
Proteins
Minerals
Vitamins
Conclusion
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
12
12
12
13
13
13
13
13
13
4. Look at your list of topics above, and try and say in which
paragraph you will probably find the answers to the following
questions.
__ a.
__ b.
__ c.
__ d.
__ e.
__ f.
__ g.
__ h.
__ i.
__ j.
Why are carbohydrates important?
What are the best sources of calcium and phosphorus?
Why do people need protein?
In general, why are nutrients important?
Give two examples of foods that have incomplete proteins.
What happens to a person who does not have enough iron?
How many vitamins are there?
How much body fat does the average adult have?
Why are the B vitamins important?
Where does vitamin C in the diet come from?
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
14
Reading Hints
1. Remember specific facts. As you read, try to understand and
remember one specific fact about each topic in the list of topics
above.
2. Focus on key words in a sentence.
Words: 1,150
Suggested reading time 7:30 minutes
THE NUTRIENTS IN FOOD
1. Nutrients are the parts of food that are important for life and health.
Nutrients are important for three reasons. First, some nutrients provide
fuel for energy. Second, some nutrients build and repair body tissues.
Third, some nutrients help control different processes of the body like the
absorption of minerals and the clotting of blood. Scientists think there are
40 to 50 nutrients. These nutrients are divided into five general groups:
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, and vitamins.
2. The first group of nutrients is carbohydrates. There are two kinds of
carbohydrates: starches and sugars. Bread, potatoes, and rice are
starches. They have many carbohydrates. Candy, soft drinks, jelly, and
other foods with sugar also have carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are
important because they provide the body with heat and energy. Sugar, for
instance, is 100 percent energy. It has no other food value. Sugar does
not build body tissues or control body processes. If there are too many
carbohydrates in the body, they are stored as body fat. The body stores
fuel as fat.
3. There are two types of fats: animal and vegetable. Butter, cream, and the
fat in bacon are animal fats. Olive oil, corn oil, and peanut oil are
vegetable fats. The body has fat under the skin and around some of the
organs inside. The average adult has 10 to 11 kilograms (20 to 25
pounds) of body fat. If adults eat too many carbohydrates and fats, they
can add another 45 kilograms (100 pounds) to their bodies. Fat is extra
fuel. When the body needs energy, it changes the fat into carbohydrates.
The carbohydrates are used as energy. Fat also keeps the body warm.
4. The third group of nutrients is proteins. The word "protein" comes from a
Greek word that means "of first importance". Proteins are of "first
importance" because they are necessary for life. Proteins are made of
amino acids, which build and repair body tissues. They are an important
part of all the muscles, organs, skin, and hair. The body has 22 different
amino acids. Nutritionists call eight of these amino acids essential
because the body does not manufacture them.
5. There are two kinds of proteins: complete proteins and incomplete
proteins. Complete proteins which the body needs for growth have all the
essential amino acids. Meat, fish, poultry, eggs milk, and cheese contain
complete proteins. The body needs complete proteins every day.
Incomplete proteins do not have all the essential amino acids. The
proteins in vegetables and grains, for instance, are incomplete proteins.
Two ways to form complete proteins from incomplete proteins are: (1) to
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
15
mix vegetables and grains correctly, or (2) to add a small amount of meat
or milk to a large amount of grains. The body can then use the complete
proteins which result from the mixtures.
6. Extra protein in the body can be changed to fat and stored as body fat. It
can also be changed to carbohydrates and used for energy. If people do
not eat enough carbohydrates and fats for the energy that they need, their
body uses proteins for energy. Then the body does not have the proteins
that it needs to build and repair tissues. A nutritious diet includes
carbohydrates and fats for energy, and proteins for growth.
7. The fourth group of nutrients is minerals. There are more than twenty
different minerals in the body. Three of the most important minerals are
calcium, phosphorus, and iron. Calcium and phosphorus work together.
The bones and the teeth contain 99 percent of the calcium in the body. If
people have enough calcium and phosphorus, their bones and teeth will
be strong and hard. In addition, their muscles, nerves, and heart will work
correctly. Milk and hard cheeses are the best sources of calcium. After the
age of 19, people need 400 to 500 milligrams of calcium a day. People
who do not drink three glasses of milk daily can eat 50 hamburgers or 56
apples to get the calcium they need.
8. Iron is the mineral that makes blood look red. All lean meats have iron;
liver is an especially good source of iron. Whole grains, nuts, some
vegetables, and dried fruits also have iron. If there is not enough iron in
their diets, people will get a disease that is commonly called anaemia.
Anaemia is found all over the world. People with anaemia do not have
enough iron in their blood. Because iron carries oxygen, people who do
not have enough iron do not get enough oxygen for their normal activities.
Their hearts beat faster so their bodies can get more oxygen. People who
have anaemia often get tired easily. Sometimes their skin looks white; it
does not look pink and healthy.
9. Nutritionists think there are thirteen vitamins that humans need. Vitamins
are important because they prevent diseases and help control body
processes. Vitamin A is important for healthy skin and eyes. People who
do not have enough vitamin A may have night blindness. Some
automobile accidents happen in the evening because people who lack
vitamin A do not see the road well after they look at the bright headlights
of a car. Vitamin A in the diet comes from deep yellow fruits and
vegetables, dark green leafy vegetables, and whole milk.
10. When people have enough B vitamins, their appetite is good and their
nerves are calm. B vitamins in the diet come from some kinds of meat and
vegetables, milk, cottage cheese, and whole grains. When a grain is
processed, it loses vitamins. For example, there is a big difference
between brown and white rice. When rice is processed the brown outside
(husk) is lost. The brown outside of rice (husk) has an important B vitamin
which white rice lacks. In short, brown rice has more B vitamins than
processed rice.
11. Vitamin C keeps the cells of the body together. It helps skin tissue recover
from cuts and burns. Vitamin C in the diet comes from tomatoes, citrus
fruits like lemons and oranges, and some vegetables such as cabbage
and green pepper.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
16
12. Vitamin D is called the "sunshine" vitamin. When people sit outside,
ultraviolet rays from the sun change a fat in their skin to vitamin D. Vitamin
D is also found in cod liver oil and the eggs yolks. It is sometimes added to
milk. Vitamin D helps the body absorb calcium. It helps build strong bones,
and it prevents a disease in children that is called rickets. When children
have this disease, their bones bend because they do not become hard.
Rickets is seldom found in sunny, tropical countries. It is more common in
countries that have long winters with little sunshine, in cities that have
pollution that obscures the sun, or in towns surrounded by mountains that
keep the sun out.
13. There is no one food that is essential but there are nutrients that are
necessary for good health. If people want to be healthy and active they
need to get all the essential nutrients. A healthy body needs
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, and vitamins.
"Thousands upon thousands of persons have studied disease. Almost no one has
studied health ".
Adelle Davis, a popular American nutritionist
Exercise 3.
Directions: "The Nutrients in Food" is a classification. The classification shows
how nutrients are divided into different groups. Make a diagram of this
classification in the space below.
Exercise 4: Directions: The reading discusses different nutrients. There is
generally the same kind of information for each nutrient. Draw a chart on
nutrients and fill it with the information you have read. Do not write sentences.
Write only the information.
Exercise 5. Below are some new specific facts. First, decide which general
topic the fact talks about. Then indicate which paragraph the new fact belongs
with. If the fact does not belong in any paragraph, put a 0.
Example:
____ Because the body does not store extra vitamin C, it is important
to get some vitamin C every day. (11)
____ a. Nuts and dried beans and peas are incomplete proteins.
____ b. Bright light destroys vitamin A in the body: As a result, people
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
17
who work in bright light use more vitamin A than other people.
____ c. Young people need 0.5 to 0.6 grams of calcium a day.
____ d. In an average diet, carbohydrates give about 35 percent of
the body's energy.
____ e. Pure fats give more than twice as much energy as carbo-hydrates.
____ f. There are hundreds of different kinds of proteins.
____ g. People who live near the coast get iodine from the water they
drink.
____ h. If people do not have enough vitamin C, they can get a
disease that is called scurvy.
____ i. About one-half of a person's body weight is water.
____ j. People who drink a lot of water, coffee, beer, or other liquids
may lose a lot of the B vitamins in their bodies.
Exercise 6.
Directions: Practice asking and answering questions about "The Nutrients in
Food". Work with your colleague. Use your chart. Do not look at the reading.
Example:
Q: What are the best sources of carbohydrates?
A: The best sources of carbohydrates are bread, potatoes, grains, and
sugar.
Q:
A:
Q:
A:
Q:
A:
Exercise 7.
Directions: Read each sentence. Find the paragraph in "Nutrients in Food"
which explains the situation. Give specific advice.
Example: Ms. Crosby does not have beautiful hair. (Paragraph 4)
Ms. Crosby probably does not have beautiful hair because she does not get
enough protein. If she wants to have beautiful hair, she should eat more
meat, fish, cheese, eggs, or milk.
1. Mr. Stills is very thin.
2. Miss Nash does not have good posture. She does not stand straight
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
18
because the muscles in her back are not very strong.
3. Mrs. Young does not have healthy teeth even though every day she
eats foods which have calcium.
4. Mr. Simon is often tired and out of breath.
5. Mr. Garfinkel does not see very well when he is driving at night.
6. Ms. Mitchell is usually very nervous.
7. When Mrs. King cuts herself, her skin does not heal quickly.
8. Mr. Pride has weak bones.
Exercise 8.
Directions: There are several definitions in "The Nutrients in Food".
Underline and copy them.
ADDITIONAL READING SKILL: SCANNING
Remember: SCANNING is a reading skill used by good readers to find
specific information quickly. People scan to find facts and to answer
questions.
Exercise 1. Directions:
1. Read the questions.
2. Decide what kind of information to look for (e.g. a number, a date,
a person's name). Fill in the blank with the kind of information you
need.
3. Then scan the paragraph to find the sentence with the answer. Read
the sentence to be certain you have the correct answer.
4. Write the answer.
A. What percentage of an egg is water?
_____________________________________________________________
Water is essential for good health. It is necessary for every process of the
body, such as digestion and the absorption of food. In addition, water helps
control the temperature of the body. It keeps the temperature at 37oC (98.6o
F). water also cleans the tissues. Water is found in all foods. For instance,
fresh vegetables are 90 percent water, eggs are 74 percent water, and a
hamburger is 60 percent water.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
19
B. When did scientists announce the formula of vitamin B12?
______________________________________________________________
One type of anaemia from a poor diet is pernicious anaemia. In this disease,
there are too few red blood cells in the body and these red blood cells are too
large. Pernicious anaemia is now controlled by vitamin B12. In 1948 scientists
in England and the United States discovered a red crystalline substance
which they identified as vitamin B12. In 1955 they announced the chemical
formula of vitamin B12. Except for protein, B12 is the largest, most complex
molecule scientists know about. When a person has pernicious anaemia, the
doctor can inject a fraction of a gram of B12 into the muscle. B12 restores the
blood to normal. It makes the person comfortable because it eliminates the
nervousness associated with pernicious anaemia. It also helps the body use
the amino acids it needs for growth.
C. Where was research on raw egg whites done?
______________________________________________________________
Nutritional studies have shown that a large amount of raw egg white in the diet
is unhealthy. When the egg white is not cooked, one of its proteins combines
with an essential B vitamin in the egg. Then the body cannot absorb this B
vitamin. When researchers at the University of Georgia fed laboratory animals
raw egg whites, the animals lost their hair, got anaemia, and became
nervous. However, when the animals ate the egg that was cooked until the
white was firm, all of these symptoms disappeared.
D. How much does Dr. Herbert estimate Americans spend each year on
unnecessary vitamins?
Dr. Victor Herbert, professor of medicine at Columbia University, warns
people about taking too many vitamins. He estimates that Americans spend
about $2 billion each year on unnecessary vitamins. There is evidence that
taking too many vitamins causes problems. Too much B6 may damage the
liver. Too much vitamin C may damage growing bones. Too much vitamin E
may cause headaches and blurred vision. Dr. Herbert suggests that
Americans can get enough vitamins from a nutritious diet without taking
vitamin pills.
E. How long does a taste bud last?
__________________________________
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
20
We talk about four basic flavors: sweet, sour, salt, and bitter. Yet, we can
distinguish hundreds of subtle flavors. The flavor of a food comes from all of
our senses: taste, touch, sight, smell, and sound. Our taste depends on the
taste buds on the tongue. Taste buds last about seven days. They are
constantly being rebuilt. Children have about 9,000 taste buds and generally
prefer bland foods. The taste buds are at their most efficient at the age of 20.
As some people get older, their taste buds are able to distinguish fewer
flavors. People who drink too much alcohol may also lose the ability to
distinguish subtle flavors.
F. Who thinks corn and oats are only for animals?
_______________________________________________
People may reject certain foods because of their religious and cultural habits.
Hindus do not eat beef. Americans do not eat dog meat or horse meat. In the
Tiv tribe in Nigeria, the men eat pork but the women are not allowed to. In
certain parts of Africa, fish is considered an unclean food. Some Europeans
think that corn and oats are only for animals. The Jains (a Hindu sect) in India
believe that grains and seeds have the essence of life. Therefore, they avoid
them in their diet. Ugandans think milk carries a skin disease. In sum, each
cultural group has different foods which it does not eat.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
PARAGRAPHS FOR PRACTICE
This exercise gives you additional practice in reading, understanding, and
taking notes on paragraphs of classification.
1. Read each paragraph. Then reread it and take notes in the space
provided in the margin. Write only the words you need in order to
remember the information in the paragraph. Unless necessary, do not
write complete sentences.
2. Afterwards, use your notes to make the classifications. When writing the
classifications use only your notes and do not look at the whole text.
A.
Meat is the part of animals that
people eat. There are four kinds of
meat: red meat, organ meat (offal), fish,
and poultry. Red meat includes beef,
pork, lamb, and goat. Organ meats (offal)
are liver, heart, kidneys, brain, and
tongue. There are three classes of fish:
saltwater fish, freshwater fish, and
shellfish such as lobster and clams.
Poultry includes chicken, turkey, duck,
and hen.
Notes:
Classification:
B.
There are three main ways that vitamins
are lost from foods. First, some vitamins
dissolve in water. When vegetables are
cooked in water, the vitamins go into the
water. If the water is thrown away, the
vitamins are lost. In addition, heat, light
and oxygen change some vitamins. If
vegetables are cooked, the heat changes
some of the vitamins. Then these vitamins
are no longer healthful. For instance, broiling
grapefruit destroys some of its vitamin C.
Finally, people sometimes throw away the
part of a plant which has the most vitamins.
For example, when flour is processed, the
wheat germ, which is very rich in vitamins,
is lost.
Notes:
Classification:
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
21
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
C.
Let us look at three categories of diseases
which are related to food. First, people
may get a disease because they lack a
nutrient they need. For example, if they
do not have enough iron, they will develop a
form of anaemia. Secondly, people may
get food poisoning. There are four major
sources of food poisoning: harmful bacteria,
parasites (like worms), harmful chemicals,
and naturally poisonous plants such as
some mushrooms. Finally, some people
have food allergies. These people are
very sensitive to certain foods. for instance,
some people get sick when they eat eggs
because they are allergic to them.
Notes:
Classification:
D.
About 1.03 billion pounds of chemicals are
added to food in the United States every
year. There are four main types of additives
which are used. Preservatives keep food
fresh. They are often used in potato chips,
breakfast cereals, and oils. Other additives,
like calcium chloride and other calcium
compounds, help food keep its texture. For
instance, a calcium compound is added to
some salt so it will always pour easily. A third
group of additives helps liquids stay mixed.
These chemicals are usually used in peanut
butter, ice cream, and mayonnaise. Finally,
food colorings are used to make food look
better. They are found in candies, soft drinks,
and fruits.
Notes:
Classification:
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
22
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
E.
There are two general kinds of milk
available: whole milk and concentrated
milk. Whole milk has all the nutrients of
milk. It is usually 2 to 4 percent butterfat
and 8.5 percent milk solids. The rest is
water. When some or all of the water is
removed from the milk, the product is
called concentrated milk. There are three
main types of concentrated milk:
evaporated, dehydrated, and condensed.
Evaporated milk, which is very thick, contains
only 40 percent of its water. It usually
comes in cans. Dehydrated milk has no
water. It is a dry powder that usually
comes in boxes. Condensed milk is
evaporated and sweetened. It is about
42 percent sugar. People choose which
kind of milk to buy depending on their
needs.
Notes:
Classification:
F.
Activities can be divided into categories
according to the number of calories they
use up. One kind of activity is a sedentary
activity. A person who is reading, writing,
watching TV, or playing cards uses 80 to
100 calories an hour. Another kind of activity
is a light activity. A person who is doing a
light activity, such as cooking, dusting, or walking
slowly, uses 110 to 160 calories an hour.
A third kind of activity, moderate activity,
uses 170 to 240 calories an hour. These
are activities such as sweeping, gardening,
or carpentry work. A fourth group, vigorous
activities, uses 250 to 350 calories an hour.
These are activities like walking fast, bowling,
or golfing. Finally a person who is doing a
strenuous activity uses 350 or more calories
an hour. These are activities such as
swimming, playing tennis, or dancing.
Notes:
Classification:
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
23
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
24
APPLYING SKILLS
Use the passages below to apply the reading and vocabulary skills you have
studied in this chapter.
When you read these passages, make a diagram of the classification the
author presents.
Later use your diagram to explain one of the reading passages to a
colleague.
DRUGS
Drugs can be divided into three main groups: those that a person can buy
without a prescription, those that a person needs a doctor's prescription for
and those that are illegal.
Two popular non prescription drugs are caffeine and alcohol. Caffeine is
found in coffee, tea, chocolate, and cola drinks. It is a mental stimulant; it
stimulates the central nervous system and makes people feel alert. Students,
for example, often find they can study better if they have a cup of coffee. On
the other hand, caffeine can also make people nervous and irritable. If people
drink too much caffeine they may have trouble sleeping.
Alcohol is a depressant; it depresses the central nervous system. When
people drink they have less control over their actions. They cannot walk in a
straight line and they cannot drive as well as when they do not have alcohol in
their blood. People who drink a great deal sometimes fall into deep sleep.
Later, they may wake up with a strong headache which is called a hangover.
In addition to these non prescription drugs, there are two major categories of
prescription drugs: stimulants and depressants. The depressants include
barbiturates and morphine. Barbiturates are used as sleeping pills. Morphine
is used as a pain killer. The most common stimulants were amphetamines.
Doctors used to prescribe amphetamines as diet pills. However, they have
found that amphetamines can have serious side effects. They can make a
patient very nervous and, when the drug wears off, the patient may feel very
depressed. Doctors still give amphetamines to people with narcolepsy, an
illness that causes sudden, uncontrollable attacks of sleep.
The largest class of illegal drugs is the hallucinogens, drugs that change the
way a person thinks and cause hallucinations or visions. LSD and mescaline
are both strong hallucinogens. For some people marijuana is a mild
hallucinogen. Marijuana generally brings a pleasant feeling. However, when
people smoke marijuana, they sometimes cannot concentrate very well on
their activities, such as their work or driving.
GLOSSARY:
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
25
Additional reading
MALNUTRITION
Some people suffer from malnutrition. Their diets contain too great a quantity
of some nutrients, or too few calories. Nutritionists have three major ways of
deciding if a person is suffering from malnutrition: physical exams, laboratory
tests and diet studies.
In the physical exam the nutritionist looks for external signs of malnutrition.
For one thing, the nutritionist looks at the patient's skin. Rough, dry skin, for
example, may mean that the patient does not have enough vitamin A. In
addition, the nutritionist looks at the patient's mouth. Cracks at the corner of
the mouth, a purplish or bright red tongue and bleeding gums can all be signs
of vitamin deficiencies. The nutritionist also notices the patient's hair. If a
patient does not have enough protein, the hair may be thinner and duller than
normal.
In laboratory tests, nutritionists check the amounts of nutrients patients have
in their bodies. There are two main types of laboratory tests: blood tests and
urine tests. A blood test can show, for example, if a patient has anaemia from
too little iron in his or her diet. A urine test shows how much vitamin is
absorbed by the body and how much passes through the body because it is
not needed. If the patient's body absorbs a great deal of the vitamins, the
patient may have a vitamin deficiency.
There are three main ways nutritionists do diet studies. First, the nutritionist
may interview the patient and ask general questions about the patient's diet.
The nutritionist might ask questions such as the following: What do you
usually eat for breakfast? How much coffee do you drink in a day? How often
do you eat a raw vegetable salad? Second, the nutritionist may ask the
patient to recall everything she or he ate in the past 24 hours. This
information represents the person's usual diet. Finally, patients are asked to
keep their own list of what they eat. Later the nutritionist looks at the list to
see if the patient ate too much or too little of any nutrient.
GLOSSARY:
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
26
Additional Reading
COFFEE AND TEA
The most popular hot beverages in the world are coffee and tea. There are
many kinds of coffee beans and tea leaves, which are processed and served
in a variety of ways.
Coffee in different countries may have different amounts of caffeine and
different flavors. For example, coffee from Puerto Rico has less caffeine than
Brazilian or Columbian coffee. Sometimes coffee has little caffeine because
the beans are processed to remove most of the caffeine. In Germany, France
and New Orleans, Louisiana, chicory is added to the coffee to give it a special
flavor.
There are three major ways to prepare coffee. American coffee makers use a
filter. The two most common types are the drip machine and the percolator. A
percolator has a metal filter. A drip pot uses a paper filter and produces a
purer pot of coffee. Italian coffee, espresso, is made in an espresso machine
which uses steam pressure to produce a thick, powerful drink. Turkish coffee
is made in a special metal pot with a long handle. The coffee is placed in the
boiling water in the pot. It is heated until it rises. Then the pot is removed from
the heat until the coffee goes down. This procedure is repeated three times.
Tea is the world's most common drink. There is only one tea plant, but there
are many different varieties of tea. These varieties can be divided into two
main types: green and black. Green tea is picked and then processed
immediately. Black tea is processed about 24 hours after it is picked. The
varieties of tea are different mainly because they come from different places.
Furthermore, each variety is grown in different soil, and its leaves are picked
at different times. Most of the world's tea is grown in China, India, Sri Lanka
(Ceylon), Japan, and Southeast Asia.
Some countries have particular tea-drinking customs and habits. In Japan,
tea is served during a formal tea ceremony. Englishmen frequently add milk to
their tea. Iced tea is a popular summer drink in the United States. It was
invented in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1904 during the World's Fair. Richard
Blechynden, an Englishman, was trying to sell hot tea at the fair. Because the
weather was very warm, the public did not want hot tea. Blenchynden added
ice to the tea and found that he had invented a popular drink.
GLOSSARY:
Additional Reading
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
27
SOME ADVICE ON FOOD SHOPPING
The average family spends about one-sixth of its income on food. Because
food is expensive, it is important to spend money wisely when you shop. A
careful shopper can prepare nutritious and delicious meals inexpensively.
Here are some hints to help you shop better.
Buy only the food that you need. There are several ways to avoid buying extra
food. First, make a shopping list before you go to the store. Then, when you
are at the store, follow your list carefully. Furthermore, do not go shopping if
you are hungry. When you are hungry, foods look really delicious and you
want to buy more than you need. Finally, go shopping alone if you can. If you
shop with young children, they often ask you to buy them unnecessary food
like candy.
When you have a selection, choose the least expensive brand of a product.
There are three points to remember when you buy a can of tomatoes, for
example. First, look at the advertisements in the newspaper to see if your
supermarket is having a "special" on canned tomatoes. In addition, when you
are in the store, you should check the price per pound of tomatoes.
Sometimes you save money if you buy the larger size can; sometimes
however, you do not. Third, remember that a grade A product or a more
expensive product is not necessarily more healthful than grade B or a less
expensive product. Grade A tomatoes may look better, but all canned
tomatoes have the same nutrients.
Shoppers seem to have special difficulties when they buy fresh fruit and
vegetables. There are several things to consider when buying fresh foods.
Because fresh foods spoil if they are not used, you have to buy the correct
amount for the number of people you are serving. Remember that a pound of
some vegetables serves more people than a pound of other vegetables. For
instance, a pound of peas in their pod is only two to three servings, but a
pound of string beans is enough for six servings. In addition, plan to use fresh
foods that are in season because fresh foods are generally less expensive
when they are in season. Finally, choose fruit and vegetables that have a
bright, fresh color. A good color is often a sign that the food has a lot of
vitamins. Careful shoppers try to get as many nutrients as they can for each
dollar.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
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ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
28
THE PROPERTIES OF AIR
(1) The earth is surrounded by a layer of air. (2) This is between 150 and 200
km thick and is called the atmosphere. (3) Air is invisible and therefore it
cannot be seen. (4) But it occupies space and has weight in the same way
that visible substances do. (5) Air, then, takes up space and has weight. (6)
The atmosphere, therefore, weighs down on the surface of the earth. (7)
However, this weight cannot be felt pressing on us (8) Because air not only
exerts a downward pressure, but it also exerts pressure upwards and
sideways, and this pressure is balanced by the equal pressure which our
blood exerts in all directions. (9) In short, air exerts pressure in every
direction.
GLOSSARY
property, n.
visible, adj.
occupy, v.
exert pressure (on), v.
layer, n.
substance, n.
invisible, adj.
weigh down on, v.
svojstvo
vidljiv
zauzimati
vršiti pritisak na, pritiskivati
sloj
supstancija
nevidljiv
pritiskati
EXERCISES
A. Study the following statements carefully and write down whether they
are true or not true according to the information expressed above.
a) A layer of air surrounds the earth.
b) A layer of air is called an atmosphere.
c) Air can be seen.
d) Air is a visible substance.
e) The atmosphere presses down on us.
f) We can feel the weight of the atmosphere.
g) Air only exerts pressure upwards and sideways.
h) Air exerts an upward pressure.
B. Rephrasing
Rewrite the following sentences replacing the underlined word(s) with
expressions from the text that have the same meaning:
Example:
The layer of air which surrounds the earth is between 150
and 200 km thick.
The atmosphere is between 150 and 200 km thick.
1. Air weighs down on the surface of the earth.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
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BOOK ONE
2. Air exerts pressure upwards, downwards and sideways.
3. Air cannot be seen but it occupies space in the same way as do
substances which can be seen.
4. Air takes up space and has weight.
5. The fact that air occupies space is shown in...
C. Relationship between statements.
Place the following expressions in the sentences indicated. Replace
and reorder the words in the sentences where needed.
Example:
since (3)
Air is invisible and therefore it cannot be seen.
Since air is invisible, it cannot be seen.
1. consequently (3)
2. however (4)
3. in short (6)
4. it follows that (7)
5. nevertheless (8)
6. then (9)
D. 1. Draw a diagram based on the reading of the passage:
a) ............. is …………..
b) ........................which
c)
1. is ................
2. ............... space
3. has ...................
4. ............... in all directions.
2. Use your completed diagram to write out as many sentences as
you can:
a)
a)
b)
c)
c)
3. Use all the information in your completed diagram to write down a
definition of air in one sentence.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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29
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
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BOOK ONE
30
THE WEATHER
1. What makes the wind blow?
The pressure of the atmosphere varies all the time. Air increases in volume
as the temperature rises, and so a cubic meter of cold air is heavier than the
same volume of warm air. As warm air is lighter, it rises. It is displaced at
lower levels by colder air which moves in. Wind is simply the movement of air
between high and low pressure areas. The bigger the difference between the
pressures, the stronger the wind is. Atmospheric pressure is measured with a
barometer.
2. How are clouds formed?
The moisture in the atmosphere is produced by evaporation of water and by
the breathing of living things. As water vapor is lighter than air, it rises. It goes
on rising until it condenses. Then it can be seen in the form of clouds. The
process of condensation continues until the water becomes too heavy to stay
in the air and it falls as rain.
3. How is snow formed?
Currents of very cold air make the water vapor in clouds freeze. The clouds
then consist of minute particles of ice. But these ice particles remain lighter
than air until the temperature falls below a certain point. Then they combine,
become heavier, and fall as snow. Snowflakes are crystals with a beautiful,
patterned structure.
4. What is lightning?
Lightning is a sudden discharge of electricity from cloud to cloud or from cloud
to earth. The same sort of effect can be produced by connecting the positive
and negative terminals of a storage battery. This creates a short circuit and a
violent spark is discharged. Lightning from the sky is produced in the same
way, usually between clouds with opposite electrical charges.
GLOSSARY
condense, v.
minute, adj.
patterned, adj.
discharge, v.
create, v.
violent, adj.
spark, n.
-
change from gas to liquid
very small
arranged in a particular way
a movement of electricity
make, cause
sudden and powerful
the electricity contained by a body or a
battery
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
EXERCISES
A. WORD BUILDING
Look at these verbs and nouns
compress
expand
invent
transmit
extend
connect
move
convert
produce
revolve
- compression
- expansion
- invention
- transmission
- extension
- connection
- motion
- conversion
- production
- revolution
distil
propel
- propulsion
divide
- division
add
- addition
multiply
- multiplication
condense
- condensation
observe
- observation
inform
- information
evaporate
- evaporation
irrigate
- irrigation
- distillation
B. Now choose the words from the list to complete the sentences below:
1. Machines have made mass.......... possible in factories.
2. Clouds are formed by the .......... of water vapor in the atmosphere.
c = F-32 is the formula for the ..... of temperature.
3.
5
9
4. Forward ......... can be produced by backward thrust.
5. ............. is the process of reducing the volume of a substance by
outside forces.
6. Galileo's ............ of the planets made him certain that the earth
revolved around the sun.
7. The motor car was one of the most important ............. of modern
times.
Note that the ending -ion often indicates the process of doing something.
C. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
a. Answer these questions:
1. Which is heavier, cold air or warm air?
2. When does air increase in volume?
3. How long does water vapor go on rising in the air?
4. What do clouds consist of?
5. What happens when the positive and negative terminals of a battery
are connected?
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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6 How is lightning produced?
D. Make questions for these answers using the words in brackets.
1. It is the movement of air between high and low pressure areas.
(What...?)
2. With a barometer. (How...?)
3. Water vapor is lighter than air. (Which is ...?)
4. Until the temperature falls below a certain point. (How long ...?)
5. They have beautiful, patterned structure. (What sort of....?)
E. WORDS IN COMBINATION
a. Now rewrite the sentences below in the same way. Use the correct
negative prefix in each case.
1. It is not natural for animals to live in zoos.
1.
2. Tom was not able to complete his experiment as his instruments
were not accurate and his calculations were not correct.
2.
3. Metals are not organic.
3.
4. The exact number of organisms in the world is not known and
not calculable.
4.
5. Our information about the moon is still not complete.
5.
6. The color of that flower is not usual.
6.
7. The two parts of this circle are not equal.
F. Look at this example:
physics ---------- physical
Now write down the adjectives of these words:
mathematics
arithmetic
chemistry
biology
...................
...................
...................
...................
technology
botany
electricity
geology
..................
..................
...................
...................
G. Look at this example:
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
radiate
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radiation
Now form a noun from each of these verbs in the same way:
irrigate................ generate
calculate................ classify
form ................
transform
concentrate ................
.................. combine
.................. populate
.................. relate
.................
.................
.................
H. Choose the words from the list you have written to complete these
sentences.
1. The ................... of Tokyo is about 10 million.
2. A chemist studies the .................... of substances.
3. One of the most difficult problems is to find enough sources of
energy for the .................... of electric power.
I. THE PASSIVE
a. Look at this example
How is wind caused?
Wind is caused by differences in pressure.
Answer these questions in the same way and write down the answers:
1. How is snow formed?
1.
2. How are clouds formed?
2.
3. How is lightning caused?
3.
4. How is the moisture in atmosphere produced?
4.
5. How is sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere produced?
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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BOOK ONE
34
J. ARTICLES
Look at this table of general and particular statements and fill in any
missing words:
General statement
Particular statement
1. Water boils at 100oC.
2. Air pressure is measured
with a barometer.
3.... temperature is measured
with a thermometer
4. Farmers depend on rain.
5. Liquids are denser than gases.
6. Oil contains sulphur.
.... water in ... kettle is boiling
.... pressure on a high mountain is
lower that at ground level.
.... temperature last Sunday was
18˚C.
.... last rain here fell yesterday.
.... liquid in this bottle is water.
.... in the North sea contains little
sulphur.
7. Diamond is a carbon compound. .... diamond in her ring is very big.
8. Insecticides are usually made
....insecticide used on that farm is
in chemical factories.
DDT.
Explain your choice of articles.
K. Choose the correct form of the passive voice.
The first calculating machine .....................(build) in 1642, but since that date,
many improvements ................................(make).
Electro-magnetic computers ...................(produce) for the first time in America
in
1889. They ..................... (use) generally ............... until electronic computers
............. (introduce) in the 1940s. Since then, more and more advanced
computers ...................... (produce) for use in all fields.
Explain your choice of various Tenses in the Passive.
L. Put the following verbs from this list into the appropriate sentence
using the appropriate verbal form:
use
grow
compose
find
1. Microscopes ..…....... to examine very small organisms.
2. Butterflies ....……...... all over Britain.
3. Maize .....……....….... in warm countries.
4. carbon dioxide .....….. of carbon and oxygen.
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35
M. Here are ten halved sentences. Choose the right ending from list B to
match the beginning in the list A.
A
1. When a hovercraft moves,
2. If you don't know the
meaning of a word
3. Many scientists work in industry
4. If water is heated to 100oC
5. A baby rabbit is blind
6. If you use a more powerful
telescope
7. Most airlines use jet planes
8. water evaporates
9. Diamonds are useful for cutting
10. As oxygen is usually a gas,
B
we can neither see it, nor touch
it.
you will see further.
as they are so fast.
you can look it up in a
dictionary.
when it boils.
it boils and evaporates.
as they are so hard.
when it is born.
as there is more money to
support their work.
it travels on a cushion of air.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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BOOK ONE
MAGNETS
(1) A magnet is a substance which attracts certain substances.
(2) A substance which is attracted by a magnet can itself be made into
a magnet.
(3) Generally speaking, there are three substances which are attracted
by a magnet: iron, cobalt, and nickel.
(4) Substances which are attracted by a magnet are known as
magnetic substances, and those which are not are referred to as
non-magnetic substances.
(5) Iron, cobalt, and nickel are magnetic substances.
(6) They are attracted by magnets and they can themselves be
magnetized.
(7) Mixtures of metals, or alloys, which contain a magnetic substance
generally also have magnetic properties.
(8) Some alloys containing none of the above metals, however, are also
magnetic.
(9) Certain alloys containing manganese, aluminium and copper belong
to this class.
(10) They are magnetic, even though they contain no metal which is
itself magnetic.
(11) A magnet will attract a magnetic substance like iron.
(12) Not all parts of a magnet, however, have equal attractive force.
(13) If a bar magnet is placed in iron filings, most of the filings will stick
to the ends of the magnet, and very few will adhere to the central
part.
(14) The force of attraction, or magnetic force, is concentrated near the
ends of the magnet.
(15) These areas are known as the poles.
(16) A magnet sets in a definite direction when freely suspended.
(17) If a bar magnet is suspended by a thread and allowed to move
freely, it will come to rest with one pole pointing towards the south.
(18) The pole pointing towards the north is called the north-seeking, or
the north pole, and that which points towards the south the southseeking, or the south pole.
(19) If the north poles of two freely suspended magnets are brought into
proximity, so that they are close together, the ends of the two
magnets will swing away from each other.
(20) If on the other hand the north pole of one magnet is brought
close to the south pole of the other, the two ends will attract each
other.
(21) A north pole will attract a south pole and repel another north pole,
and it will be attracted by a south pole and it will be repelled by
another north pole.
(22) Like poles repel one another and unlike poles attract one another.
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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EXERCISES:
A. Contextual reference
1. In sentence (8), the above metals refers to:
a) iron, cobalt and nickel.
b) alloys.
2. In sentence (9) this class refers to:
a) The class of alloys which contain a magnetic substance.
b) The class of alloys which contain no iron, cobalt or nickel but are
magnetic.
c) The class of alloys which contain manganese, aluminium, and
copper.
3. In sentence (10) they refers to:
a) Manganese, aluminium, and copper.
b) Certain alloys containing manganese, aluminium and copper.
4. In sentence (15) these areas refers to:
a) The force of attraction, or magnetic force.
b) The ends of the magnet.
5. In sentence (19) they refers to:
a) The north poles.
b) The two magnets.
B. Rephrasing
Rewrite the following sentences replacing the words printed in italics with
expressions from the text which have the same meaning:
1. A substance which is attracted by a magnet can itself be made into
a magnet.
2. Substances which are not attracted by a magnet are referred to as
non-magnetic substances.
3. Generally speaking, mixtures of metals which contain a magnetic
substance have magnetic properties.
4. Alloys which contain iron, cobalt or nickel are generally magnetic.
5. If a bar magnet is placed in iron filings, most of the filings will stick to
the ends of the magnet.
6. The force of attraction of a magnet is concentrated near the ends
of the magnet.
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7. A magnet which is freely suspended sets in a definite direction.
8. If the north poles of two magnets are brought into proximity with
each other, they will repel each other.
9. The pole pointing towards the north is called the north-seeking pole.
10. A north pole will be attracted by a south pole.
C. Relationship between statements
Place the following expressions in the sentences indicated. Replace and
reorder the words in the sentences where necessary.
a) may be defined as (1)
b) furthermore (2)
c) therefore (5)
d) that is to say (6)
e) but (7+8)
f) although (7+8)
g) for example (99
h) then (11)
i) although (11+12)
j) for example (13)
k) thus (14)
l) for example (17)
m) however (20)
n) then (21)
o) then (21)
Rephrasing:
GLOSSARY
alloy, n.
- legura
iron filings, n. - željezne strugotine
suspended, adj.
- obješen, koji lebdi
come to rest, v.
- umiriti se
proximity, n.
- blizina
repel, v.
- odbiti, odbijati
like poles
- isti polovi
unlike poles
- različiti polovi
force of attraction, n. -privlačna sila
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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39
ATOMS, ELECTRONS AND ELECTRICITY
(1)In order to talk about electricity, it is necessary first to talk about the atom.
The idea of the "atom" has a long history, one extending back to about 600
BC and the time of the ancient Greeks. They believed that all matter was
made up of atoms. The word "atom", in fact, comes from the Greek word
"atomos", which means "indivisible". It was not until 1897 that it was
discovered that the atom is not indivisible but is composed of even smaller
particles. Among these particles is one called the electron.
(2)Electrons orbit around the center or nucleus of the atom, much as the planets
in the solar system orbit around the sun. Electrons closer to the nucleus are
held more tightly than those in the outer orbits. It is the electrons in the
outermost orbit of certain kinds of atoms that can be made to flow as electric
current.
(3)Electrons flow easily through certain kinds of materials called "conductors".
Many metals, such as silver, copper, gold, and aluminium, are good
conductors. Good conductors are used in electric circuits to provide a path for
the current.
(4)Other substances provide strong resistance to the flow of current along the
desired path. Substances such as hard rubber, glass, wax, and certain kinds
of plastic, are good insulators. Thus, the cord (cable) on an electric appliance
consists of a piece of wire, generally copper, surrounded by a type of plastic
or rubber, which is the insulator confining the current to its path.
(5)The pressure that makes electrons flow along wires is called "voltage".
Voltage may be created by a generator at a power plant or by an electric
battery. When you turn on the light or an electric appliance, electrons are
drawn from a generator at a power plant. When you turn the light or appliance
off, there will be electric pressure or voltage built up at the switch, but no
current will flow. It is somewhat similar to the way a water system works.
(6)When you turn on a water faucet or a tap, water flows through the pipes,
which is like electric current flowing through wires. When you turn off a faucet,
water pressure remains but no water flows through the faucet. Similarly, when
you turn off an electric appliance, voltage remains, but no current flows. In a
water system, the whole operation depends on water pressure generated by a
water pump. In an electric system, the generator (or battery) creates the
pressure called voltage.
GLOSSARY:
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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BOOK ONE
40
EXERCISES:
A. Underline all the words that you do not understand in the passage. Check
them in your dictionaries.
B. Multiple Choice: Circle the number of the item that best completes the
statement.
1. Electrons will flow easily through copper and silver because they are good
________________
(1) particles
(2) conductors
(3) regulators
(4) insulators
2. Electrons are smaller particles of _______________
(1) circuits
(2) currents
(3) voltage
(4) atoms
3. One function of an insulator is to confine an electric current to its_____
(1) voltage
(2) orbit
(3) path
(4) generator
4. Similar to the way that planets orbit around the sun, electrons in an atom
orbit around the __________________
(1) nucleus
(2) generator
(3) flow
(4) voltage.
5. A substance that offers strong resistance to the flow of electric current is
called ________________
(1) a battery
(2) a conductor
(3) an appliance
(4) an insulator
6. Another term for electric pressure is _______________
(1) current
(2) voltage
(3) faucet
(4) switch
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7. Rubber, glass, and wax are good
(1) insulators
(2) conductors
(3) regulators
(4) generators
8. At a power plant a generator is used to create voltage, which is the pressure
that makes ________________ flow along electric wires.
(1) atoms
(2) circuits
(3) electrons
(4) orbits
C. True-False: Write + if the statement is true and 0 if it is false and then
correct the false statements to make them true.
____ 1. With a light turned off no current will flow but there will be voltage at
the switch.
____ 2. It was discovered in 1897 that the electron was made up of particles
called atoms.
____ 3. An electric cord (cable) consists of wire surrounded by an insulator.
____ 4. Electrons closer to the nucleus of an atom can easily be made
to flow as electric current.
____ 5. Plastic or rubber is often used as conductors.
____ 6. Voltage can be created by a battery.
____ 7. When a switch is turned on, voltage will prevent current from
flowing.
____ 8. The Greeks believed that all electricity was made of atoms and
electrons.
____ 9. Aluminium and gold can be used as conductors.
D. Word study
I. In the following list of words one does not belong. Draw a circle around it.
Explain why.
1. copper, gold, planet, aluminium
2. voltage, plastic, rubber, wood
3. nucleus, atom, electron, wax
4. circuit, conductor, particle, current
5. faucet, matter, substance, material
6. generator, pump, battery, voltage
7. pipe, pump, faucet, glass
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II. From column B select the equivalent of the italicized expression in column A
and place the letter of your answer in the blank. In some cases more than one
answer is possible.
Column A
___ 1. in order to talk
___ 2. composed of even
smaller particles
___ 3. much as the planets
___ 4. metals such as silver,
copper
___ 5.Thus, the cord (cable) on
an electric appliance
___ 6. generally, copper
surrounded by
___ 7. it is somewhat similar
to the way
Column B
a. yet
b. similar to
c. in most cases
d. about the same as
e. still
f. as a means to
g. usually
h. like
i. to
j. slightly
k. consequently
l. therefore
E. Grammar Practice
I. Adverbial Clauses: When and while are used to introduce adverbial clauses
which modify verbs or adverbs. How many adverbial clauses can you find in
the reading? List the verb or adverb that they modify.
II. Adjective Clauses: These clauses always have subject/verb word order, and
modify nouns and pronouns. Adjective clauses are introduced by:
that, which, who, or whom. Underline the adjective clauses in paragraphs 1, 2,
4, and 5. Give the noun or pronoun that they modify.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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III. Synonymous Sentences: Which sentence is closest in meaning to the
model sentence? Place the letter of your answer in the blank.
____ 1. In order to talk about electricity, it is necessary first to talk about
the atom.
a. The order of all discussion should include electricity and atoms.
b. Discussion of the atom should precede any discussion of
electricity.
c. First, we ought to include atoms and electricity in the
discussion.
____ 2. It is the electrons in the outermost orbit of certain kinds of atoms
that can be made to flow as electric current.
a. Certain atoms flow as an electric current.
b. The orbit of certain atoms has electrons flowing as electric
current.
c. Electrons orbiting furthest from the nucleus of certain atoms
can be induced to move as an electric current.
____ 3. When you turn the light or appliance off, there will be electric
pressure or voltage built up at the switch, but no current will flow.
a. With the switch turned off, electric current will be stationary and
voltage will increase at the switch.
b. No current will flow if the voltage keeps building up after you
turn off the lights or the appliance.
c. Voltage and electric pressure keep the current from flowing
while the switch is turned off.
F. Dictation: Copy paragraph 6 as your colleague dictates it.
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44
MATTER AND VOLUME
(1) Matter is the name given to everything which has weight and occupies
space. (2) It may usually be detected by the senses of touch, sight or smell.
(3) Matter may exist in three states: solid, liquid and gas. (4) All substances,
except those which decompose when heated, like wood, may be changed into
a liquid substance, and one in the liquid state may be changed into a gaseous
substance. (5) Changes can take place in the reverse order as well: gases
may be changed into liquids and liquids into solids. (6) A solid substance such
as ice may be changed into the liquid state, or liquefied, to become water,
and this may be changed into gaseous state, or evaporated, to become
steam. (7) Steam may also be converted into water and water into ice.
(8) All matter occupies space. (9) The space occupied by a quantity of matter is
called its volume, and this is usually measured in units such as cubic meters
or cubic centimetres. (10) Solids have a definite volume and shape, liquids
have a definite volume but no shape; the latter take on the shape of the
container in which they rest. (11) Gases have no definite volume and no
shape. (12) The volume of a piece of a solid substance, or a body, of regular
shape, like a cube, a sphere or a cylinder, may be calculated by using
mathematical formulae.
(13) The volumes of irregular bodies cannot be calculated by the use of regular
formulae. (14) They may be measured by means of devices like displacement
vessels and measuring jars.
EXERCISES:
A. Write down whether the statements are true or not according to the
information from the text:
_____ a) Matter can usually be seen, smelt or touched.
_____ b) Matter can be seen, smelt and touched.
_____ c) All substances can be changed from one state into another.
_____ d) A liquid can be changed either into a gas or into a solid.
_____ e) Volume is measured in cubic meters or cubic centimetres.
_____ f) Substances have a definite volume and shape.
_____ g) Gases have no volume.
_____ h) All bodies have a definite shape.
_____ i) A cylinder is a regular body.
_____ j) The volumes of all bodies can be calculated in the same way.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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B. Rewrite the following sentences replacing the underlined words with
expressions from the text which have the same meaning.
1. A substance in the solid state may be changed into a liquid
substance
2. Gases may be changed into liquids and liquids may be changed into
solids.
3. A solid may be changed into the liquid state.
4. A liquid may be changed into a gas.
5. The volume of bodies of regular shape, like cubes, are calculated by
using mathematical formulae.
6. The volumes of irregular bodies may be measured by means of
measuring jars.
7. Water may be changed into the gaseous state to become steam.
C. Number the sentences in the text.
Place the following expressions in the sentences indicated.
Replace and reorder the words in the sentences where necessary.
a) can be defined as (1)
b) thus (5)
c) also (6)
d) thus (6)
e) for example (7)
f) then (7))
g) then (9)
h) whereas (11)
i) however (14)
D. Contextual reference
1. In sentence 2, IT refers to:
a) weight
b) space
c) matter
2. In sentence 4, ONE refers to:
a) a substance
b) a substance in the solid state
c) a liquid substance
3. In sentence 6, THIS refers to:
a) a solid substance
b) water
c) ice
4. In sentence 9. THIS refers to:
a) a quantity of matter
b) its volume
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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5. In sentence 10. THE LATTER refers to:
a) solids
b) liquids
c) a definite volume
6. In sentence 14. THEY refers to:
a) irregular bodies
b) formulae
c) the volumes of irregular bodies
E. Read and translate the description of this experiment:
The Measurement of the Volume of Irregular Solids.
Water is poured into the displacement vessel until it overflows through the
pipe
into the measuring jar. The level of the water surface in the measuring jar is
read, and then the solid is lowered into the vessel until it is completely
covered
by the water. Water is displaced and flows down the pipe into the measuring
jar, and the level of the water surface in the measuring jar is read again. The
volume of water displaced is equal to the volume of the body.
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47
MASS AND WEIGHT
Weight is measure of the pull of gravity. Suppose an astronaut weighs 80
pounds. The gravitational attraction between the astronaut and the earth
equals a force of 180 pounds. On the moon, his weight changes. He weighs
only 30 pounds. The moon's gravitational pull, is only one sixth of that of the
earth. On his way to the moon, the spaceman actually becomes weightless.
The gravitational pull of both the earth and the moon are negligible in space.
The astronaut's weight changes when he lands on the moon. But his mass
remains the same on the moon as on the earth. Mass denotes the amount
of matter a body contains. It is constant, or changeless. In fact, the mass of
any object remains the same wherever it is located.
Mass and weight are often considered to be the same. There is a reason for
this confusion. A gram used to be a basic unit of measurement for both mass
and weight. At sea level. one gram of mass weighs one gram. The weight of
two grams of mass is two grams. The greater the mass the greater the
weight.
INERTIA
Mass is closely related to another property of matter. This property is inertia.
Inertia is the tendency of a body at rest to remain at rest, and of a body in
motion to remain in motion. A body at rest remains at rest unless an outside
force acts upon it. A body containing a great deal of mass strongly resists a
change in its motion or in its rest. The greater the mass, the greater is the
inertia of a body.
GENERAL PROPERTIES
There are other properties common to all matter in varying degrees. Among
them are elasticity, a granular structure, and the electrical nature of
fundamental particles. The fundamental particles of an atom are the electron,
proton and neutron. The proton has a positive charge. The neutron has
neither a positive nor a negative charge. Current electricity is a flow of free
electrons - electrons which are apart from the atom.
All matter is elastic to some degree. Elasticity is the tendency of a body to
return to its original shape after it is distorted by pressure or force.
Salt and sand are granular. Matter is granular when it is composed of tiny
particles. These tiny particles are the atoms and molecules that make up the
various substances of the earth. You can also observe many special
properties of matter. These special properties are not common to all bodies.
They are apparent only in specific kinds of matter. Glass, for example, can be
transparent or translucent. Wood is opaque. Matter can be hard, soft, brittle,
malleable or porous.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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CLASSIFYING MATTER
All bits of matter, as we have seen, have common properties. But specific
properties distinguish one matter from another. The scientists have grouped
matter into elements and compounds. In their classification they use the
broader term substance. They also recognize subgroups known as solutions
and mixtures.
SUBSTANCES
By definition, a substance is any particular kind of matter that has its own
specific properties. An ounce of a substance has the same basic properties
as a pound of the same substance. Water is a familiar substance. It is made
of two kinds of atoms (hydrogen and oxygen), but each drop of water is like
another drop of water.
Special properties of matter:
hard
soft
brittle
malleable
flexible
rigid
porous
A hard material is difficult to scratch. (e.g. glass)
A soft material is easy to scratch. ( e.g. chalk)
A brittle material breaks easily (e.g. glass)
A malleable material can be pressed into new shapes.
(copper)
A flexible material bends easily (e.g. rubber)
A rigid material does not bend easily (e. g. concrete)
A porous material is full of pores. (e.g. sandy soil)
GLOSSARY - MASS AND WEIGHT
mass, n.
masa
weight, n.
težina
pull of gravity sila teža
gravitational attraction (pull)-sila teža
weightless, adj.
bestežinski
negligible, adj.
zanemariv
denote, v.
označavati
basic unit
osnovna jedinica
measurement, n. mjerenje
inertia, n.
inercija
related to ,v.
povezan (sa)
at rest
u stanju mirovanja
in motion
u pokretu
elasticity, n.
elastičnost
particle, n.
čestica
granule, n.
zrnce, granula
charge, n.
naboj
to some extent
u nekoj mjeri
distort, v.
izobličiti
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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apparent, adj.
očit
compound, n.
spoj
transparent, adj.
proziran
translucent, adj.
propusan samo za svjetlo; pjeskaren
opaque, adj.
neproziran
hard, adj.
tvrd
soft, adj.
mekan
brittle, adj.
krhak, loman
malleable, adj.
kovak
porous, adj.
porozan
mixture, n.
mješavina, smjesa
scratch ,v.
(o)grepsti
flexible, adj.
savitljiv, elastičan
bend, bent, bent, irr. v. - svinuti, zavinuti
rigid, adj.
krut
smooth, adj.
gladak
rough, adj.
hrapav, neravan, grub
soluble, adj.
topljiv
insoluble, adj.
netopljiv
combustible, adj. upaljiv
non-combustible, adj.nezapaljiv
friction, n.
trenje
dissolve, v.
rastopiti
ductile, adj.
rastezljiv
conductive, adj.
provodljiv
flammable, adj.
zapaljiv, upaljiv
inflammable, adj. nezapaljiv
soil, n.
tlo, zemlja
EXERCISES:
A. Give the Croatian equivalent for the following properties:
smooth
rough
soluble
insoluble
combustible
non-combustible
transparent
translucent
opaque
ductile
conductive
flammable
inflammable
-
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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B. Find the opposites of the following properties:
elastic
combustible soluble
transparent smooth
rigid
-
C. Complete the following sentences:
1. Inertia is a tendency......................... .
2. The mass of the body is as constant as ......................... .
3. Mass is closely related to ......................... .
4. Elasticity is the tendency of a body ......................... .
5. Matter is made of ...................... and ....................... .
6. Weight is a measure of ...................... .
7. .................... denotes the amount of ...................... a body contains.
8. It is changeless or ........................ .
9. ...................... is a basic unit of measurement for mass and weight.
10. The greater the ...................... the greater is the weight.
11. Mass is closely related to .......................... .
12. The greater the mass the greater is the .................... of the body.
13. The fundamental particles of an atom are the ......................,
..................... and ....................... .
14. A neutron has neither a positive nor a negative ......................... .
15. ................. is the tendency of a body to return to its original shape.
D. Find proper meanings from list B for the words in list A:
List A
List B
1. moon
2. gram
3. at rest
a. not moving
b. a particle of an atom
c. composed of tiny
particles
d. a planet
e. unit of measurement
f. consisting of 2 or more
4. neutrons
5. granular
6. compound
E. Give definitions for:
a) mass b) weight c) inertia -
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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F. Translate into English:
1. Inercija je jedno od svojstava tvari.
2. Masa je usko povezana s inercijom.
3. Substancija je širok pojam.
4. Neka svojstva nisu zajednička svim tijelima.
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
NAME:
DATE:
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
TESTING YOUR KNOWLEDGE
MATTER
A. Read the text carefully and circle the correct answers:
1. There are three states of matter: solids, liquids and gases. Some
substances occur naturally in all three states. Others occur in only
one of them. Water is normally a liquid, but it can occur as a solid
- ice, and as a gas - water vapour.
A change in temperature is usually the reason for a change in the
state of a substance.
If we heat ice, for example, it will change into a liquid - water. The
temperature needed for changing the substance in this way from a
solid state into a liquid is called the melting point.
When water is heated until it starts to boil, it becomes steam or water
vapour. So, at its boiling point a liquid, water for example, turns into a
gas, in this case, water vapour.
If we want to turn a gas into a liquid, we need to change its
temperature again. This time we lower the temperature so that the
gas condenses and turns into a liquid.
When we lower the temperature even further, the liquid turns into a
solid, e.g. water freezes and we get ice. The freezing point is the
temperature at which water turns into ice.
EXERCISES
A.
1. There are three states of matter:
a) solids, liquids and ice
b) solids, liquids and gases
c) ice, water vapour and liquid
2. Water normally occurs as:
a) a liquid
b) a solid
c) a gas
3. A substance turns from one state to another because:
a) we heat it
b) we lower the temperature
c) we change the temperature
4. Freezing point is the temperature at which:
a) water becomes ice
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b) water vapour turns into a liquid
c) water turns into steam
5. The boiling point of water is the temperature at which:
a) a liquid turns into a gas
b) a substance changes its state
c) water turns into steam
6. A thermometer is an instrument for measuring:
a) heat
b) cold
c) temperature
7. We measure temperature in
a) degrees Centigrade
b) degrees Centigrade or Fahrenheit
c) Fahrenheit
8. Translate the following words into Croatian:
a) temporary
b) permanent
c) nutrient
d) container
B. Put the letter in front of the appropriate number of the words of the same
meaning:
__ 1. occur
__ 2. manufacture
__ 3. amount
__ 4. property
__ 5. bond
a. quantity
b. characteristic
c. happen
d. link
e. produce
C. Choose and circle the synonyms:
suppose
a) decide
b) explain
c) believe
exact
a) precise
b) general
c) partial
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a) a few
b) many
c) few
D. Translate the following instructions into Croatian:
1. Treat no chemicals lightly.
2. Use no open flame near flammable solvents.
3. Never work alone in the laboratory.
4. If you spill anything, clean it up immediately.
E. Fill in the gaps with the following words:
volume; gas; absorption; elasticity; element;
1. -------------- is the tendency of a body to return to its original shape.
2. -------------- is the measure of the amount of space that matter
occupies.
3. Each -------- has its symbol.
4. ----------- is a process in which one substance is taken in by another
substance.
5. Liquid in the form of vapour is called --------------- .
I. Translate the text into Croatian
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TESTING YOUR KNOWLEDGE: Translate the following passage into
Croatian.
NAME:
DATE:
MATTER
Matter has certain properties or characteristics. One familiar property of
matter is its state. There are three states of the matter: solid, liquid, and gas.
Among other properties of matter are volume, weight, mass and inertia.
Water provides a good example of how matter exists in three states. Ice is
solid water. Melt the ice and it becomes a liquid. Heat the liquid water to the
boiling point, and it turns to steam. Steam is the gaseous state of water. Many
other substances can also exist as a solid, liquid or gas.
VOLUME
All matter occupies space. Volume is the measure of the amount of space
that matter occupies. The scientist uses special graduated container to
measure the volume in the metric system.
A solid has a definite volume. There is no change in the volume of a solid
block of wood, for example, so long as it remains in one piece. Put a wooden
block on the floor, in a box or on a shelf. Bury it. Hold it beneath some water.
Wherever you place it, its volume remains the same. To change its shape and
volume you must cut it, burn it, or change it in some other way.
Similarly, a specific volume of a liquid remains unchanged. One litre of milk,
for example, is a specific volume. It makes no difference whether the milk is in
a bottle, poured into a pan, or spilled upon the floor.
The one litre volume remains the same. But there is a difference between the
shapes of a solid and a liquid. Unlike a solid, a liquid always takes the shape
of the container in which it is placed.
A gas also takes the shape of the container in which it is placed. It too, has no
definite shape. but the volume of a gas varies according to the size of its
container. You can pour a litre of milk into a gallon jug, and you still have only
one quart of milk. A gas, on the other hand, spreads out when it is transferred
from a small tank into a large tank. the gas takes the volume of its container.
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PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
The study of the properties of substances is an important part of chemistry,
because their properties determine the use to which they are put.
The physical properties are those properties of a substance that can be
observed without changing the substance into another substance.
The chemical properties relate to its participation in chemical reactions, i.e.
chemical changes.
Matter may be classified according to its physical state, i.e. the stage of
aggregation of the atoms, ions or molecules involved. For most purposes
three major subdivisions are adequate: the solid, the liquid and the gaseous
state.
Sometimes more restricted categories such as the crystalline state and the
plasma state are also used.
In everyday life we are familiar with sodium chloride (NaCl) as a solid,
mercury (Hg) as a liquid, and oxygen (O2) as a gas. We are also familiar with
water as a solid (ice), as a liquid, and as a gas (steam) and with the
transformation of water from one state into another. One might ask why some
substances are solids, others liquids and still others gases at normal
temperature and pressure. In addition one might ask what happens when a
substance undergoes a change of physical state. The answer to these
questions requires that we understand how these three states differ at the
atomic and molecular level, how the specific chemical nature of each
substance is related to the state or states of aggregation of its atoms, ions or
molecules.
The state or states of matter which are stable, i.e. show no tendency to
transform spontaneously into another state, depend on the temperature of the
substance and the pressure that is applied to it. The physical properties of
matter in a given state also vary with temperature and pressure.
Each pure substance may be recognized by specific physical properties, e.g.
melting point, boiling point, freezing point, condensing point, density,
solubility, conductivity, and many other properties which are characteristic of
it. Most of these properties can be measured precisely and expressed in
numbers.
The chemical properties of a substance describe its ability to form new
substances under given conditions. A change from one substance to another
is called a chemical change or a chemical reaction. Most substances have the
power to enter into many chemical reactions.
That is why the chemical properties of a substance may be considered to be
a listing of all the chemical reactions of a substance and the conditions under
which they occur. The study of these reactions constitutes a large part of the
study of chemistry.
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Main branches of chemistry:
General chemistry
is a survey of all the branches of chemistry.
Organic chemistry
is concerned with carbon and its compounds.
Inorganic chemistry
is concerned with the chemistry of elements other
than carbon and their compounds.
Analytical chemistry
is concerned with the identification, separation
and quantitative determination of the
composition of different substances.
Physical chemistry
is primarily concerned with the structure of
matter and the laws, principles and theories
which explain the transformation of one form
of matter into another.
Biochemistry
is the chemistry of living organisms.
GLOSSARY- PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
determine, v.
put to use
relate, v.
participation, n.
state of aggregation
purpose, n.
solid, n./adj.
liquid, n./adj.
gas, n.
gaseous, adj.
steam, n.
pressure, n.
undergo, underwent,
undergone, irr. v.
require, v.
stable, adj.
tendency, n.
specific, adj.
melting point
boiling point
freezing point
density, n.
solubility, n.
conductivity, n.
-
odrediti, određivati
upotrijebiti, iskoristiti
biti povezan, odnositi se na, prema
sudjelovanje
agregatno stanje
svrha, namijena, upotreba
krutina, kruto, čvrsto stanje
tekućina, tekuće stanje
plin, plinovito stanje
plinovit
vodena para
pritisak
-
prolaziti kroz, podvrgnuti se
zahtijevati, tražiti
stabilan, stalan, postojan
sklonost, tendencija
specifičan
talište
vrelište
ledište
gustoća
topljivost
provodljivost
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listing, n.
occur, v.
constitute, v.
AN ENGLISH READER
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-
nabrajanje
javljati se, pojaviti se, događati se
ustanoviti, činiti
EXERCISES
A. Give definitions of the following. You may consult your dictionaries.
- melting point - boiling point - freezing point - condensing point - density - solubility - conductivity B. Give the definition of physical and chemical properties of substances.
Find them in the passage.
Physical properties Chemical properties -
C. Underline all the passive forms in the text. Copy three of them in the
space below.
D. Underline all the modal verbs. List them in the space below.
E. Give an example for each of the following:
- a physical change - a chemical change -
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58
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
59
ELEMENTS
An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into other
substance by ordinary chemical means.
A "pure substance" consists of only one kind of matter.
This pure substance, or element, is neither combined nor mixed with anything
else. Gold, for example, is an element. If you take a piece of gold and break it
into bits, the smallest piece will still be gold, assuming that you applied
ordinary physical or chemical means such as heating, grinding, melting, etc.
Whatever your method, nothing changed the basic substance. The tiniest
piece of pure gold is an atom.
We can also say that a chemical element is a substance that contains only
one kind of atom.
There are 103 elements recognized today, 92 of which are naturally occurring
elements. Others are produced artificially only in atomic energy laboratories.
Since 1964 scientists have been claiming to have created six new elements,
but those elements have not yet been accepted officially.
Of the known elements more than eighty are solids in their natural state. Two
are liquids and ten are gases. Gold, silver, iron, copper, uranium, tin and
aluminium are representative solids. Mercury and bromine are the two liquids.
Hydrogen, oxygen and neon are examples of gases.
Each element has a symbol consisting of one or two letters. Chemists use the
symbol as an abbreviation for the element. In some cases, the symbol is the
first letter of the element's name. For example, C is the symbol for carbon. If
the names of two or more elements begin with the same letter, two letters of a
name are used. Calcium has the symbol Ca. Some symbols come from an
old word for the element. The symbol for lead, Pb, comes from the Latin word
for lead, plumbum.
A capital letter is used always as the first letter in a symbol of a chemical
element.
Chemists use the symbols of elements to write formulae for compounds.
The formulae tell which elements and how many atoms of each are in a
compound. The symbols also provide an international language for chemists.
The symbols for all the elements are in the Periodic Table of Elements.
EXERCISES
A. Make a list of all the definitions found in the text.
B. Fill in the table below. Give the name and the Croatian equivalent
for the following symbols of elements.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
Symbol
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
Name
60
Croatian equivalent
C
Cu
F
Au
H
I
Fe
Pb
Mg
Mn
Hg
N
O
K
Ag
Na
S
Sn
W
Xe
Zn
Note: Be sure you have checked the English pronunciation of all the
elements.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
DESCRIPTION OF AN ELEMENT
HYDROGEN
1. State of aggregation: gas
2. Color, odor: colorless, odorless
3. Molecular weight: 2.016
4. Density: 0.08988 g/dm3 at stpx = 1 atm/0oC
5. Melting point: -259.14oC
6. Boiling point: -257.7oC
7. Solubility in water: 21.5 ml/dm3 water at 1 atm 0oC
8. Occurrence: everywhere
9. Atomic number: 1
10. Valency: 1 (monovalent)
11. Atomic weight: 1.008
12. Reactivity: at room temperature net very reactive;
reactivity increases in the presence of a catalyst.
xstp = standard, temperature, pressure = standardne okolnosti
EXERCISES:
A. Here is some information on Mercury. List it as in the example on
Hydrogen:
.....silver grey, odorless
.....mono- and divalent
.....not very reactive
.....liquid at room temperature
.....13.600 g/dm3
.....not soluble
.....630 K = -273.15oC
.....no molecular weight
.....80
.....usually as a sulphide; can be elemental
.....200.6
.....234.3K = -273.15oC
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
61
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
62
SUBSTANCES
Melting points and boiling points
Everyday substances are found in one of three possible "states of matter":
solid, liquid or gas. For example, by changing the temperature, we can often
change a solid into a liquid or a liquid into a gas. for example, between 0o and
100o C, water is liquid. However, if you cool water below 0o C, it turns to solid
ice, and if you heat it above 100o C, it turns into gaseous steam. The melting
point of water is 0o C and its boiling point is 100o C.
You can turn natural gas (which is mostly methane) into a liquid providing it is
cold enough. Liquid methane boils at a very low temperature indeed:
- 161o C. It melts at an even lower temperature: - 182o C. So, at room
temperature, it is much too hot for solid or liquid methane to exist. This is why
it is a gas. In a similar way, you can get liquid steel if the steel is heated
above its melting point of 1500o C.
The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which the solid
becomes a liquid; the boiling point is the temperature at which the pressure of
escaping gas equals the atmospheric pressure.
Mixtures are always impure.
You can always tell a mixture from a pure substance, because a mixture
rarely melts or boils at a sharp temperature. Instead, the changes happen
over a range of temperatures. In the table, there are seven mixtures and two
pure substances: only water and alcohol are pure. All the others contain more
than one type of substance, and melt over a range of temperatures. You can
check the purity of a particular substance by measuring its melting and boiling
points.
Solutions and suspensions.
There are two different sorts of mixtures. Some are all mixed into one state of
matter, and are called solutions. Steel (solid) and petrol (liquid) and air (gas)
are like this. But some are in more than one state, and these are called
suspensions. For example:
suspension
contains
number of states
smoke
fog
dust+air
water+air
two: solid and gas
two: liquid and gas
Exercises
A. After checking all the words you do not understand in your
dictionaries translate the text.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
63
Control Text.
Read the following text. Underline all the words you do not understand. Make
a list and find the meaning in your dictionaries. Translate the text.
SUBSTANCES - Melting points and boiling points.
Everyday substances are found in one of three possible states of matter:
solid, liquid or gas. For example, by changing the temperature, we can often
change a solid into a liquid or a liquid into a gas. For example, between 0oC
and 100oC, water is liquid. However, if you cool water below 0oC, it turns to
solid ice, and if you heat it above 100oC, it turns into gaseous steam. The
melting point of water is 0oC and its boiling point is 100oC.
You can turn natural gas (which is mostly methane) into a liquid providing it is
cold enough. Liquid methane boils at a very low temperature indeed -161oC.
It melts at an even lower temperature: -182oC. So, at room temperature, it is
much too hot for solid or liquid methane to exist. This is why it is a gas. In a
similar way, you can get liquid steel if the steel is heated above its melting
point of 1500oC.
The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which the solid
becomes a liquid. The boiling point is the temperature at which the pressure
of escaping gas equals the atmospheric pressure.
Mixtures are always impure. You can always tell a mixture from a pure
substance, because a mixture rarely melts or boils at a sharp temperature.
Instead, the changes happen over a range of temperatures. All mixtures
contain more than one type of substance, and melt over a range of
temperatures. You can check the purity of a particular substance by
measuring its melting and boiling points.
Solutions and suspensions. There are two different sorts of mixtures. Some
are all mixed into one state of matter, and are called solutions. Steel (solid)
and petrol (liquid) and air (gas) are like this. But some are in more than one
state, and these are called suspensions.
For example:
suspension
contains
number of states
smoke
fog
dust+air
water+air
two: solid and gas
two: liquid and gas
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
EXERCISES
A. Number the paragraphs
B.
Paragraph 1.
1. Find a passive sentence and copy it.
2. Underline all the nouns and adjectives and make a list below:
NOUNS
ADJECTIVES
3. Underline all the modal and auxiliary verbs by a double line.
Paragraph 2
1. Underline all the modal and auxiliary verbs. Make a list.
MODAL
AUXILIARY
Paragraph 3
1. Find comparatives and copy them.
2. Make a list of all the adjectives in this paragraph.
3. Find all the pronouns and underline them.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
64
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
Paragraph 4
1. Underline all the nouns and adjectives and make a list.
NOUNS
ADJECTIVES
2. Find a Present Participle. And copy the sentence.
Paragraph 5
1. What tense is used in this paragraph. Say why.
2. Make a list of the verbs used in this paragraph.
Paragraph 6
1. Copy all the passive forms.
B. 1. Find the definitions in the text and copy them in the space below.
2. Make a diagram of the classification of mixtures in the space
below.
C. Translate the text
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
65
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
Control Text
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
66
SUBSTANCES
Separating solutions
Solutions are not stopped by filters. In a solution, one or more substances are
dissolved by another substance. The one doing the dissolving is called the
solvent and the ones being dissolved are called solutes. The mixture of a
solute and a solvent is all in one state of matter, and so it will pass through a
filter together as a single substance. This is, however, not true for a
suspension, because a suspension is separated into the substances making it
up. For example, a vacuum cleaner filters the dust from dusty air by passing
the suspension through a paper bag. The paper traps the dust but allows the
air to pas through. In the same way, filtration is used to separate a
suspension of a solid in a liquid. Note that the solid gets trapped by the filter
paper.
Solids from solutions. In many cases, solutions contain solid solutes dissolved
in a liquid solvent. Some common solvents are water, alcohol, acetone and
petrol. To separate the dissolved solids from a solution, you need to use heat.
The liquid solvent boils off, but the bp (boiling point) of a dissolved solid is too
high for it to turn to gas. The gaseous solvent can be turned back to liquid by
passing the gas through a tube surrounded by a cooling water-jacket.
Sometimes, the heating is done in an open basin and the solvent is allowed to
escape. Both methods are shown below. The first is called distillation, and the
second evaporation.
Evaporation is a process in which liquids are turned to gases by heating;
condensation is a process in which gases are turned to liquids by cooling;
distillation is the evaporation and condensation of the solvent from a solution.
Liquids and gases from solutions. It is not easy to separate a liquid solute
from a solution. Both solute and solvent evaporate together, producing a
mixture of gases to be condensed. To separate this gaseous mixture a
fractionating column is used. The whole process is called fractional
distillation, as shown. The hot gases coming off the boiling liquid warm up the
beads on the column. Until the temperature of the column reaches the bp of
the liquid, the gas condenses on the beads. After a short while, the column
gets hot enough for the liquid with the lower bp to reach the top of the column.
But the one with the higher bp keeps condensing and running back to the
vessel. So, the two liquids are separated because of the difference in their
boiling points.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
EXERCISES
A.
1. Check the meaning of the following words. Mark what part of
speech they belong to ( n., adj., v., adv., etc,)
substance solute dissolved dissolving solvent solute mixture state of matter suspension separated filter dust paper bag trap filtration heat boil off turn back tube surrounded water - jacket basin distillation evaporation condensation fractionating column come off bead bp vessel 2. How many of the nouns can be transformed into verbs, and how
many verbs can be transformed into nouns? Give examples.
Example:
mixture - mix
escape ,v. - escape, n.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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67
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
3. How many phrasal verbs can you find in the text? Make a list.
Example: cool off
B. Number the paragraphs.
C. Paragraph 1
1. Find a passive sentence and copy it in the space below.
2. Find two participle clauses. Copy them and then transform them into
relative clauses.
3. Find a sentence in the Future Tense. Copy it in the space below.
C. Paragraph 2
1. Underline all the adjectives.
2. Underline all the participles with a double line.
D. Paragraph 3
1. Underline all the nouns.
2. Underline all the verbs with a double line.
E. Find all the definitions in the text and copy them below.
F. Make a diagram of the classification of substances.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
68
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
GLOSSARY
substance, n.dissolve,v.
acid, n.
measure, v.
measure, n.
density, n.
differ,v.
condition, n.
heating, n.
decompose, v.
semiconductor, n.
posses, v.
property, n.
cloud ,n.
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
tvar, supstanca, supstancija
otapati
kiselina
mjeriti
mjera
gusto}a
razlikovati se
stanje
grijanje
raspadati se, razgraditi se
poluvodič
posjedovati, imati
svojstvo
oblak
EXERCISES
A. Make the following sentences interrogative and let your colleague
answer them in interrogative form. Use: Do, What, How, .........
The substance dissolves in some acids.
The instrument measures the medium density.
These processes differ from chemical reactions.
The substance actively enters into the reaction.
The outer electrons leave the atom in some cases.
These substances react in certain conditions.
The temperature rises during this process.
Heating ionizes gas.
These molecules decompose in certain conditions.
This procedure reduces energy losses.
Semiconductors posses valuable properties.
The temperature remains constant throughout the experiment.
The substance catalyzes some chemical reactions.
Each atom has an electron cloud in normal conditions.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
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ISBN 953-188-219-3
69
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
B. Make questions with the words in brackets:
Use: What, Why, How, When, etc.
You measure it.
It enters the reaction.
He develops it.
They establish it.
He looks into the problem.
Their results vary.
They sometimes obtain different results.
They maintain the same temperature.
It is subjected to research.
I analyze the samples.
We filter off the impurities.
They often repeat the experiment.
We often discuss the problem.
They check the measuring instruments.
They inspect and wash the test tubes.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
70
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
GRAMMAR REVISION TEST
A. Make the following sentences negative using the word in the bracket, to
make it first interrogative.
1. The substance dissolves in some acids /Do, What/
2. The instrument measures the medium density.
3. These processes differ from chemical reactions.
4. The substance actively enters into the reaction.
5. The outer electrons leave the atom in some cases.
6. These substances react in certain conditions.
7. The temperature rises during this process.
8. Heating ionizes gas.
9. These molecules decompose in certain conditions.
10. This procedure reduces energy losses.
11. Semiconductors posses valuable properties.
12. The temperature remains constant, throughout the experiment.
13. The substance catalyses some chemical reactions.
14. each atom has an electron cloud in normal conditions.
B. Make questions with the words in brackets:
1. You measure it. /what, why, how, when/
2. It enters the reaction.
3. The temperature remains constant.
4. He develops it.
5. They establish it.
6. He looks into the problem.
7. Their results vary.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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ISBN 953-188-219-3
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
8. They sometimes obtain different results.
9. They maintain the same temperature.
10. It is subjected to research.
11. I analyse the samples.
12. We filter off the impurities.
13. They often repeat the experiment.
14. We often discuss the problems.
15. They check the measuring instruments.
16. They inspect and wash the test tubes.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
72
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
73
SOLVENT AND SOLUTE
A solution has two parts: the solvent and the solute. The solvent is the
substance present in the greater quantity. In the case of a sugar solution,
water is the solvent. The solute is the part present in the smaller amount.
Sugar is the solute in a sugar solution. There is still another way to think
about the solvent - solute relationship: the solute is the substance which is
dissolved. The solvent is the substance in which the molecules of the solute
are dispersed. Sugar dissolves in the formation of a sugar solution. The sugar
molecules disperse within the water. Water is an important solvent. In fact, it
is the most common solvent available to the chemist, the housewife, and the
student of science. Water is highly reactive.
SOLUTIONS
The most common solutions consist of a solid within a liquid. But solutions
can also involve other states. For example, there are solutions of gases within
liquids.
Solutions have special properties that set them apart from other mixtures. A
scientist defines a solution as a mixture composed entirely of individual
molecules and atoms. Suppose you had mixed sugar with salt. You would
have a mixture. But the individual particles would be grains of sugar and salt,
not molecules. The tiny molecules take on a very specific quality in the
definition of a solution. The molecules are distributed uniformly throughout the
entire amount of the solution. The breakdown of a sugar lump into water is a
physical change. A solution results, but there has been no chemical reaction.
No new materials have been produced.
TRUE SOLUTIONS
There is no visible proof of a sugar in a sugar solution. But there is a simple
way to verify the presence of sugar. A sugar solution is a true solution.
Scientists have established certain properties of a true solution. It never
settles. That is, the parts of it never separate. It can stand indefinitely. Yet,
you will never see a bottom layer or an upper layer beginning to form. There
is simply no settling.
Some solutions are colored, others are colorless. If not too highly colored, a
true solution is clear. Shine a beam of light along one surface of the solution.
Look through the solution from one side, and you will see the beam clearly.
The freezing point of a true solution is lower than the freezing point of water.
You can easily test this property with sugar solution. The freezing point of
water is O °C ( 32oF). Does sugar solution freeze at this temperature?
GLOSSARY - SOLVENT AND SOLUTE
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
solution, n.
involve, v.
set apart, v.
grain, n.
uniformly, adv.
verify, v.
establish, v.
settle, v.
disperse, v.
available, adj.
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
-
otopina
uključivati
izdvojiti
zrno
podjednako, pravilno
provjeriti
ustanoviti, utvrditi,
taložiti se
raspršivati se
dostupan
EXERCISES
A. Find one word to denote the described:
1. One of three states of matter; it has a definite volume
2. The ability of a substance to be dissolved; it varies with
the temperature.
3. A special kind of mixture having similar properties
throughout.
4. Any material, but usually a liquid, that can dissolve
another substance.
5. The change of matter into another substance as a result
of a chemical reaction.
6. Anything that takes space and has weight.
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
B. Complete these sentences following the pattern:
A scientists defines it. It can be defined.
1. The sugar molecules disperse it.
_______________
2. We can look through it.
3. You can dissolve it.
_______________
4. A chemist can freeze it.
5. One can see a beam of light.
6. You cannot see a bottom layer.
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
C. Find equivalents in column B for the words in column A.
1 entirely
2. establish
3. amount
4. forever
5. equally
a. evenly
b. indefinitely
c. completely
d. quantity
e. define
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
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BOOK ONE
75
WATER - NEXT TO OXYGEN
Civilization has long centred around sources of water. Water is essential to
man - he cannot live without it. Not only is it more important to him than food,
but without it he cannot grow crops, run factories, wash himself and his
clothes, or keep his home clean.
ADDITIONAL WATER FOR MAN'S NEEDS
One of the most serious problems facing us today is that of how to get more
water for man to use. As we know, the world's population is literally exploding.
It is expanding at such a rapid rate that scientists predict there will be more
people than our planet can house or feed properly.
It was accurately estimated in 1960 that by the year 2000, the population of
the world would be double.
Nearly three quarters of the earth's surface is covered by water - undrinkable
water, as far as man is concerned. This water cannot be used by man
because of its high mineral content. Of the remaining one quarter of the
earth's surface, at least 60% is considered to be arid. In these dry areas water
is indeed precious. Very few crops can be grown, and this means that few
people can be supported there.
There are different degrees of water purity. Purity is measured by the amount
of impurities in the water. For instance, water is considered to be of high
quality and potable if it has no more than 500 parts minerals, or salts, per one
million parts of water. Sea water, on the other hand, contains about 35,000
parts per million (ppm). For purposes of irrigation, water can have from 1,000
to 3,000 ppm.
WATER FOR INDUSTRY AND AGRICULTURE
Dual water supplies, though expensive, would help to use available water
more efficiently. The purer water could be used only for drinking, and the less
pure water for other purposes such as washing and agriculture.
The reason man cannot live on sea water is that the human kidney cannot
excrete salts in a concentration of more than about 2%. Sea water contains
approximately 3.5% minerals. This means that for every 100 millilitres of sea
water drunk, the kidneys would have to excrete a volume of 175 millilitres of
fluid in order to dilute the salt concentration. The additional 75 millilitres of
fluid would be drawn from the body's stores of water, in and around the cells.
This, in effect, dehydrates the body. People who drink sea water soon
become delirious. When this happens, they have become just as dehydrated
as a man on a desert without any water at all.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
76
WHAT TO DO
A partial answer to the problem of water scarcity is conservation. One way to
conserve water is to circulate water used for industrial purposes over and
over. When water is iced for cooling the machinery in a large factory, it is
ordinarily used only once, and then allowed to run into a common sewer with
all the waste material from the factory. However, if recirculation of water is not
considered when the plant is being built, it is often very expensive to install
such a system at a later time.
Another way to conserve water is to use treated and untreated sewage for
irrigation of crops. One problem here is that the flow of sewer water comes all
year round, regardless of how wet the ground may be already because of
natural precipitation. Another way to solve the problem of water scarcity is to
learn to make use of the most abundant supply of water we have - the sea. If
we could learn to get potable water from sea water, we would be sure of
never having a water shortage.
USE OF SEA WATER
The processes by which sea water is made usable are of two general kinds.
One involves taking the minerals out of the solution.
Taking the minerals from the saline water is usually done by chemical
methods.
Extracting pure water from the solution can be done in a number of ways.
One is by distillation, which involves heating the solution until the water
evaporates, and then condensing the vapour. Extraction can also be made by
partially freezing the salts in the remaining unfrozen solution.
A gas such as propane will combine with water molecules in a saline solution
to form a solid product, called a hydrate. When this solid is melted (heated)
the result is the original propane and pure water.
The main problem with all of these methods lies in the cost of processing. It is
the cost of the energy needed to convert sea water to drinking water that is so
high. In the United States, electricity, and fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, are
the main sources of energy. But in underdeveloped countries where fossil
fuels do not exist and electricity is an unavailable luxury, other sources must
be sought.
SOURCES OF ENERGY
The most likely sources of energy in arid regions are the wind and the sun.
Wind energy has been used to a limited extent in many countries; machines
to use it more effectively are still being developed. However, the amount of
wind available varies with the location and the season of the year. Solar
energy seems to offer more hope than any other source of energy,
particularly since those areas most in need of water lie rather close to the
equator and have a relatively clear atmosphere. But better ways of taking
advantage of this inexpensive - even free - source of energy need to be
found.
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Another interesting source of energy is the heat that can be recovered from
radioactive waste material. This source is dependable and predictable, but
more study and research is still needed in this area.
In addition to the problem of finding an inexpensive form of energy for
desalination of sea water, each process seems to present other problems.
For instance, when the saline solution is frozen, the salt left in brine sticks to
the ice crystals of water; this makes it necessary to clean the crystals before
they are melted. And all distillation that takes place at above 80o - 90o C is
hampered by the minerals that accumulate on the sides of the containers.
This makes heating the solution more difficult and more expensive. It
essentially insulates the container against further transfer of heat from the
outside. But, all of the problems are solvable, given enough time, interested
people and the funds necessary to carry out the research.
EXERCISES
A. Circle the correct ending for each sentence below:
1. Water covers about
a. one half of the earth's surface.
b. three-quarters of the earth's surface.
c. three-eighths of the earth's surface.
2. Water is considered to be of high quality and potable if the mineral
content is no more than
a. 500 ppm.
b. 3,000 ppm.
c. 35,000 ppm.
3. The main problem of all present methods of extracting usable water
from sea water lies in
a. the lack of equipment.
b. the cost of processing.
c. the shortage of labor.
4. Man cannot drink sea water because
a. the oxygen content is too low.
b. it contains harmful bacteria.
c. the mineral concentration is too high.
5. Distillation involves heating the solution
a. and then freezing it.
b. and then condensing the vapor.
c. and then applying chemicals to it.
6. A gas such as propane will combine with water molecules in a
saline solution to form
a. a hydrate.
b. protium.
c. a nodule.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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BOOK ONE
7. The most likely sources of energy in arid regions are
a. coal and oil.
b. the wind and the sun.
c. radioactive waste materials.
B. Three of the four words on each line are similar in meaning or have
something in common. Draw a line under the word that does not fit.
1. dual, potential, two, twice
2. delirious, dry, dehydrated, arid
3. accumulate, collect, gather, invert
4. sewer, pipe, brine, drain
5. seedling, shocking, surprising, startling
6. absolutely, literally, approximately, really
7. rainfall, maturity, precipitation, hail
8. place, insulate, put, install
9. advice, warning, hybrid, admonition
10. distillation, extraction, prediction, desalination
C. Before each word in list A write the letter or phrase from list B that
means the same.
List A
literally
2. arid
3. potable
4. dual
5. dehydrate
6. install
7. precipitation
8. propane
9. desalination
10. accumulate
11. brine
List B
a. having two parts
b. drinkable
c. dry
d. really
e. place in position for use
f. remove water (from)
g. a salt solution
h. gather, collect
i. rain, snow, etc.
j. removal of the salt
content
k. C3H8
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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D. Each sentence below contains two words joined by a hyphen ( - ).
Write a new sentence that shows how the words joined together
describe the word that follows them. The first two have been done for
you.
1. Many disease-causing microbes, in fact, are found in perfectly
healthy hosts.
1. Many microbes that cause disease, in fact, are found in perfectly
healthy hosts.
2. A ruminant is a plant-eating animal whose stomach consists of
several parts.
2. A ruminant is an animal which eats plant(s) whose stomach consists
of several parts.
3. Large computers and data-processing systems have made the
demand for mathematicians greater and greater.
3.
4. It is not just an accident that some are solid-colored tulips while
others are streaked.
4.
5. Growth-regulating chemicals are applied in minute amounts to
control the growth and behaviour of crop plants.
5.
6. A great deal of crop loss occurs each year as a result of lowtemperature injury.
6.
7. An artificial satellite is a man-made object intended to orbit the
earth, the moon, or another planet.
7.
8. Phytoplankton are tiny one-cell plants that drift at the mercy of the
currents.
8.
9. The production of light and electricity by marine animals, the
formation of sound-scattering layers, and the damaging effects of
certain organisms come within the province of the marine biologist
also.
9.
10. If the laws of motion are applied to rolling balls, to falling bodies, to
horse- drawn wagons, and to ships sailing the seas, could they also
apply to the moon going around the earth and to the planets
going around the sun?
10.
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TEST
A. Complete the following passage using the given words:
solvent, complex, occur, nutrient, blood, aqueous solution, suspension, wide
range of, reactions, essential, structure, tissues, achieve, hydrolysis reaction.
Water is the ................. in which the .................. reactions of living processes
............... . The movement of ........................ through the body is
.................by means of .................. which is an ................... ......................
and ............... .
Water is also important in a ........................ of other functions: for instance it
takes part in .................. .................. , is an ........................ part of the
structure of many plant and animal ...................... .
B. Match the following words with their descriptions and write the letter in front of
the number.
..... 1. Enzyme
..... 2. Alloy
..... 3. Solutions
..... 4. Absorption
..... 5. Cellulose
..... 6. Ecology
..... 7. Fat
..... 8. Cell
..... 9 pH
a) a special kind of mixture having similar properties throughout.
b) The study of all relationships of living things to their surroundings, and
to each others.
c) The smallest whole part of a living thing.
d) A process in which one substance is taken in and held by another
substance.
e) A substance consisting of a mixture of 2 or more metals or of a
metal and non-metal.
f) An organic catalyst. It promotes chemical reactions in body cells.
g) A carbon compound which supplies energy to the body.
h) The most common complex sugar; forms the wall of plant cells.
i) Negative decimal logarithm of hydrogen-ion concentration, giving
measure of acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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81
WATER-TREATMENT SYSTEM - ACTIVATED CARBON
This system is effective at removing chloroform, chlorine, some pesticides,
organic chemicals and bad taste and odor. The contaminants cling to the
porous surface of the carbon, which is usually contained in a replaceable
filter.
But carbon or charcoal filters have one serious drawback: they require vigilant
maintenance. Specialists warn that the organic material that collects on the
carbon surface can supply a food source for bacteria that may produce endotoxins. These poisonous substances, thought to be carcinogenic, may
eventually end up in your "clean" water.
Researchers found that the under-the-sink models containing powdered
activated carbon only removed chloroform in the first three gallons of water.
Afterwards, the water coming out of the filter contained more chloroform than
the water going in. Most experts agree that frequent changing is essential.
DISTILLATION
Water is heated until turns to steam and then the steam is condensed into
water. Theoretically, this removes all bacteria and contaminants from water.
But theory is not practice. distillation systems do not necessarily remove
chloroform and other organic chemicals, which can vaporize with the water
and then recondense. It was found that using an activated-charcoal filter with
a distiller will increase its organic-removal rate to over 90 percent. You may
need pre-treatment if your water is extremely hard or full of iron, which fouls
the device.
GLOSSARY
cling, clung, clung, irr. v.
charcoal, n.
drawback, n.
vigilant, adj.
maintenance, n.
foul, v.
-
uhvatiti se, prilijepiti se
(drveni) ugljen
nedostatak, mana,
budan; oprezan
uzdržavanje; održavanje
uprljati, onečistiti
EXERCISES
A. Find the differences between American and British gallons in your
dictionaries and find their equivalents in litres.
B. Find three passive sentences in the text and copy them below.
C. Translate the passage into Croatian.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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82
HYDROLYSIS
Hydrolysis brings about a chemical change. It occurs when a molecule of
water joins another compound.
In digestion, the water molecule hooks up with fats, proteins, and
carbohydrates. The resulting reaction causes the breaking of chemical bonds.
The fats, proteins and carbohydrates separate into their various subparticles.
The subparticles are molecules small enough to diffuse through the intestinal
membranes.
The hydrolysis of maltose is a simple example of this digestive process.
Maltose is a complex sugar. Let's say that a molecule of water combines with
a molecule of maltose. In the resulting breakdown, two molecules of glucose
emerge. Glucose, a simple sugar, diffuses through membranes. Here is the
equation for the hydrolysis of maltose:
Maltose + water -------------> glucose + glucose
C12H22O11 + H2O-----------> C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
/Maltose plus water yields glucose plus glucose or 2 molecules of glucose./
Hydrolysis is just one example of a chemical reaction that takes place in a
laboratory. This process, for example, is used commercially to manufacture
glucose (in the form of syrup) from starch. The equation for the hydrolysis of
starch is:
(C6H10 O5)n +NH2) --------------> NC6H12O6
The n represents a variable; it indicates that the exact number of molecules is
not the same for all such reactions.
GLOSSARY
bring about, v.
hook up, v.
take place, v.
sugar cane
sugar beet
-
uzrokovati, izazvati
zakvačiti
događati se, odvijati se
šećerna trska
šećerna repica
EXERCISES
A. 1. Sucrose is table sugar. It is obtained from sugar cane and sugar
beet. Say something about its hydrolysis.
2. What is the formula for sucrose? Write it down.
3. What does maltose yield when it undergoes hydrolysis?
4. Is hydrolysis important in candy making?
B. Complete the following sentences with the following words:
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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83
subparticles, variable, digestion hydrolysis.
1. Chemical change is brought about by means of ....................... .
2. The water molecule hooks up with fats, proteins and carbohydrates in
................... .
3. Molecules small enough to diffuse through the intestinal membranes are
called ...................... .
4. A ...................... indicates that the exact number of molecules is not
the same for all such reactions.
C. Find the equivalents in meaning from column A and B.
A
1. occur
2. hook up (with)
3. emerge
4. yield
B
a. connect (with)
b. appear
c. give, result in
d. take place
D. Join the correct sentence beginnings and sentence endings
A
1. Sucrose is obtained
2. Hydrolysis brings about
3. Maltose is
4. It occurs when
B
a. a complex sugar.
b. from sugar cane and sugar
beets.
c. a molecule of water joins
another compound.
d. a chemical change.
E. Complete the following sentences referring to the text:
1. Chemical change is brought about by means of __________________.
2. The water molecule hooks up with fats, proteins and carbohydrates in
_________________ .
3. Molecules small enough to diffuse through the intestinal membranes
are called __________________ .
4. The equation for the hydrolysis of maltose is: _______________________.
5. _____________________ indicates that the exact number of molecules
is not the same for all such reaction.
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84
ACIDS
1. An acid is a compound containing hydrogen which can be replaced
directly or indirectly, by a metal.
2.Its solution in water turns blue litmus red.
3. Acids can be classified into two groups.
4. Acids which always contain the element carbon are called organic
acids and they often come from growing things, like fruits.
5 Citric acid, which is found in lemons and oranges and other citrus
fruits, and acetic acid, which is found in vinegar, are organic acids.
6. Acids which do not contain the element carbon are known as
inorganic acids.
7. They are usually prepared from non-organic matter.
8. Inorganic acids consist of hydrogen and the chloride radical.
9. Hydrochloric acid consists of hydrogen and the chloride radical, and
sulphuric acid consists of hydrogen and the sulphate radical.
10. They are inorganic acids.
a) All acids contain hydrogen.
b) Inorganic acids contain the chloride radical.
c) Organic acids always come from growing things.
11. The hydrogen in an acid is replaceable by a metal.
12. Acids can be divided into classes according to the number of atoms in each
molecule which a metal can replace.
13. Those which have only one replaceable hydrogen atom in each
molecule are known as monobasic acids.
14. Other acids may contain either two or three such replaceable hydrogen
atoms in each molecule and these are known as dibasic and tribasic acids
respectively.
15. All the atoms of hydrogen in the molecules of inorganic acids are
replaceable by a metal.
16. Sulphuric acid is an inorganic acid which is monobasic.
17. Orthophosphoric acid, an inorganic acid whose molecules contain three
atoms of hydrogen, is tribasic.
18. Acetic acid molecules each contain four hydrogen atoms but only one of
these can be replaced by a metal.
19. Acetic acid is monobasic.
e) A molecule of hydrochloric acid contains one atom of hydrogen.
f) Inorganic acids are monobasic.
g) Hydrochloric acid is the only monobasic acid.
h) A molecule of sulphuric acid contains three atoms of hydrogen.
i) Orthophosphoric acid is an inorganic acid.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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EXERCISES
A. Read the text carefully and then fill in the Croatian equivalents for
the following:
organic acid
inorganic acid
citric acid
acetic acid
hydrochloric acid
sulphuric acid
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
B. Fill in the Croatian equivalents for the following:
monobasic acid
dibasic acid
tribasic acid
orthophosphoric acid
...................................
....................................
.....................................
.....................................
C. Contextual reference
1. In sentence 2, its refers to:
a) acids
b) hydrogen
c) metal
2. In sentence 4, they refers to: a) acids
b) organic acids
c) inorganic acids
3. In sentence 10, They refers to:
a) Hydrogen and the chloride
radical
b) Hydrogen and the sulphate
radical
c) Hydrochloric acid and sulphuric
acid
4. In sentence 13, Those refers to:
a) classes
b) acids
c) atoms
5. In sentence 18, these refers to:
a) acetic acid molecules
b) the four hydrogen atoms
c) atoms
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D. Rewrite the following sentences replacing the underlined words with
expressions from the text that have the same meaning.
1. All the atoms of hydrogen in the molecules of inorganic acids are
replaceable by a metal.
2. Acids which do not contain the element carbon are known as
inorganic acids.
3. Acids can be divided into classes according to the number of atoms
in each molecule which a metal can replace.
4. Sulphuric acid has two replaceable hydrogen atoms in each
molecule.
5. Ortophosphoric acid contains three atoms of hydrogen in each
molecule.
6. Orthophosphoric acid, whose molecules contain three atoms of
hydrogen, is tribasic.
E. Relationships between statements
Place the following expressions in the sentences indicated. Replace
and reorder the words in the sentence where necessary.
a) can be defined as (1)
b) are classified as (5)
c) for example (9)
d) therefore (10)
e) however (15)
f) whereas (16,17)
g) although (19)
h) therefore (20)
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Test
A. Translate the following text into Croatian
FOLIC ACID
Folic acid was first obtained in pure form from 4 tons of spinach leaves.
Consequently investigators derived its name from the Latin word folium
meaning leaf or foliage.
Folic acid, the parent compound, is made up of three compounds linked
together: 1) pteridine, a yellow pigment; 2) para-aminobenzoic acid; and 3)
glutamic acid, an amino acid.
Folic acid is not present in foods nor is it active as such in the body because it
must be changed in body tissues to coenzyme forms before it can be used.
Only 25-50 percent of the foalcin in food appears to be absorbed. Once it
crosses the intestinal mucosal cell it is carried to the liver. Part of it
accumulates in the liver while the remainder is distributed via blood to all parts
of the body. body cells convert it to various coenzyme forms.
B. Find two sentences written in the passive and copy them in the space
below.
C. Description of an element: HYDROGEN
1. State of aggregation: gas
2. Color, odor: colorless, odorless
3. Molecular weight: 2.016
4. Density: 0.08988 g/dm3 at stpx = 1 atm/OoC
5. Melting point: -259.14oC
6. Boiling point: -257.7oC
7. Solubility in water: 21.5 ml/dm3 water at 1 atm OoC
8. Occurence: everywhere
9. Atomic number: 1
10. Valency: 1 (monovalent)
11. Atomic weight: 1.008
12. Reactivity: at room temperature not very reactive;
reactivity increases in the presence of a catalyzer
( xstp = standard, temperature, pressure = standardne okolnosti)
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D. The information below is given in a disorderly manner. Write it down
correctly and guess what element it is about.
______________________
........ silver gray, odorless
........ 630 K = -273.15oC
........ no molecular weight
........ mono- and di-valent
........ not very reactive
........ 80
........ liquid at room temperature
........ 13.600 g/dm3
........ not soluble
........ 200.6
o
......... 234.3K = -273.15 C
....... usually as a sulphide; can be elemental
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TEST
A. Read the description of nitric acid and then write a similar description of
sulphuric acid based on the notes provided.
Nitric Acid
Nitric acid is a colorless, fuming liquid with a boiling point of 80oC. It has the
chemical formula HNO3. It is a powerful oxidizing agent. It attacks most
metals, producing fumes of nitrogen oxide. Its low boiling point indicates that
it is highly volatile. The reaction of nitric acid with organic substances
produces important compounds such as TNT and celluloid. It is also widely
used in the fertilizer industry.
B. Notes on sulphuric acid:
colorless, oily, bp 338
old name - oil of vitriol
formula - H2SO4
extremely corrosive
reacts strongly with water ---------- heat ------ this property used in drying
not volatile
cheapest acid - used in many industries (incl. manufacture of
phosphate fertilizers, detergents, explosives)
Now write a description of sulphuric acid:
Sulphuric Acid
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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90
TREATMENT OF THE LABORATORY SAMPLE
1. When it arrives at the laboratory, the sample often requires further treatment
before it can be analyzed, particularly if it is a solid. This usually involves
decreasing the size of particles to a few tenths of a millimeter and through
mechanical mixing.
2. In dealing with solid samples, a certain amount of crushing and grinding is
ordinarily required to decrease the particle size. Unfortunately, these
operations tend to alter the composition of the sample.
3.Several factors may cause changes in the composition of the sample as a
result of grinding. Among these is the heat that is inevitably generated, which
can cause losses of volatile components in the sample. In addition, grinding
increases the surface area of the solid and thus increases its susceptibility to
reactions with the atmosphere.
4. The moisture content, and thus the chemical composition, of a solid is
frequently altered considerably during grinding and crushing. Both increases
and decreases can occur. Decreases of water content are sometimes
observed during the grinding of solids containing water in the form of
hydrates. Undoubtedly, the change is a result of localized heating during the
grinding and crushing of particles. More commonly, perhaps, grinding is
accompanied by an increase in adsorbed water results.
5. Intermittent screening often increases the efficiency of grinding. In this
operation, the ground sample is placed upon a wire or cloth sieve that will
pass particles of the desired size. The residual particles are then returned for
further grinding; the operation is repeated until the entire sample passes
through the screen. It is obvious that grinding must be continued until the last
particle has been passed. The need for further mixing after screening is also
apparent.
GLOSSARY - TREATMENT OF THE LABORATORY SAMPLE
decrease, v. smanjiti (se), opadati, slabiti
crush,v.
zdrobiti, gnječiti
alter, v.
promijeniti
susceptibility, n.osjetljivost
increase, n.
rasti, povećavati, povećati, umnožiti
decrease, n. smanjivanje, opadanje
due to
ovisno o
intermittently, adv.- povremeno, u razmacima
screen, v.
prosijati kroz grubo sito
wire, n.
žica
cloth, n.
sukno, tkanina
sieve, n.
sito, rešeto
residual, adj. koji preostaje, rezidualan
screen, n.
grubo sito, rešetka, zaslon
grind, ground, ground, irr. v. - samljeti, smrviti
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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BOOK ONE
EXERCISES
A. Translate the text into Croatian.
B.
a. Paragraph 1, sentence 1:
What kind of sentence is it?
Discuss the verbal forms in sentence 1.
b. Paragraph 2.
Underline all the gerund forms.
c. Paragraph 3.
Copy all the modal auxiliaries.
d. Paragraph 4.
1. Underline and copy two sentences with verbs in the passive voice.
2. Copy all the gerund forms.
3. Decide whether the words increases and decreases are nouns or
verbs in this paragraph.
4. Copy all the adverbs in this paragraph.
e. Paragraph 5.
Describe all the verbal forms in this paragraph.
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LABORATORY SAFETY
Most accidents in the laboratory can be avoided if a few precautions are
taken. Since it is difficult to say when accidents will occur, a number of rules
must be followed at all times. These rules are listed below.
1. Always wear safety glasses (goggles) in the laboratory.
2. Never work alone in the laboratory. Being alone in a situation in
which you may be helpless is suicide.
3. All organic chemicals can be toxic if sufficient quantities are taken in.
Always use the hood when working with toxic materials. Treat no
chemical lightly.
Remember that many chemicals can enter the body through the skin,
as well as through the mouth or lungs.
4. Use no open flames near flammable solvents. Fire can be avoided
by not lighting a burner until you are completely sure that no one
near you is handling a flammable material. Ether is particularly
dangerous.
5. Keep flammable solvents in flasks rather than in open beakers. Keep
gas and water valves closed except when these utilities are needed.
6. Never heat an enclosed system and never completely close an
assembly of apparatus in which a gas is being evolved.
7. Keep your laboratory place clean. If you spill any of your
materials, clean it up immediately.
8. Study the procedures which should be followed in case of any
accident. Be especially informed of antidotes which are available for
the chemicals you will be handling.
GLOSSARY - LABORATORATORY SAFETY
precautions
safety glasses
take in, v.
burner, n.
handle, v.
flammable, adj.
valve, n.
utility, n.
flask, n.
beaker, n.
enclosed system
assembly of apparatus evolve, v.
spill, v.
procedure, n.
antidote, n.
-
mjere opreza
zaštitne naočale
uzeti, unijeti, konzumirati
plamenik
rukovati
zapaljiv
ventil
pomagalo
tikvica
laboratorijska posuda; boca
zatvoreni sistem
sklop aparature
hlapiti, odvajati se, razviti se
proliti
procedira, uputa
protuotrov
EXERCISES
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
A. Translate into Croatian:
1. Use no open flames.
2. Treat no chemicals lightly.
3. Keep no flammable solvents in open beakers.
B. Choose the right definitions for the given words:
- utilities
- precautions
- antidote
- solvent
- medicine used against poison
- substance able to dissolve another substance
- services such as the supply of water, gas, etc.
- care taken in advance to avoid risk
C. Look at the text carefully and complete the following sentences.
Accidents occur:
1. when you do not .......................
2. if you ...............................................
3. if a) ........................... , b) ..............................., c) ........................
4. if you use ......................................
5. if you keep ...................................
6. if you heat ....................................
7. if you spill ......................................
8. if you are not informed ...................................................................
D. Translate into English:
1. Ne držite zapaljive otopine u otvorenim bocama.
2. Ne radite s otvorenim plamenom.
3. Zaštitite otrovne materijale ako ih ostavljate u laboratoriju.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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94
THE CELL
MILESTONES
1869 Elegant experiments with pea plants enable Austrian monk Gregor Mendel to
describe the mechanisms of heredity.
1944 Working with the bacterium that causes pneumonia O.T. Avery of Rockefeller
University and colleagues discover that genes are made of DNA.
1953 The double-helix structure of DNA is discovered by Francis H.C. Crick and
James D. Watson.
1965 RNA is used to achieve protein synthesis in a test tube. Scientists
demonstrate that sequences of three nucleotides specify amino acids to be
linked together to form proteins by the ribosomes. The genetic code
is cracked.
1970 Hamilton Smith and Daniel Nathans of Johns Hopkins University discover
and use a new class of restriction enzymes, the chemical scissors that
slice and separate DNA molecules.
1972 Paul Berg and others at Stanford University combine the DNA from two
viruses, a technique that yields what is called recombinant DNA.
1973 Stanley Cohen of Stanford and Herbert Boyer of the University of California
at San Francisco insert recombinant DNA into host bacteria that reproduce, or
clone, the foreign DNA. The age of genetic engineering
begins.
1977 Genetech, one of the first genetic engineering companies, embarks on the
biosynthesis of important drugs by recombinant DNA methods.
1977 Frederic Sanger of the British Medical Research council and Walter Gilbert
of Harvard University independently discover techniques for the rapid
sequencing, or reading, of the order of nucleotides in DNA molecules.
1978 Sickle-cell anaemia is diagnosed before birth of an infant by analysis of its
DNA.
1982 Human insulin produced by recombinant DNA techniques.
GLOSSARY - THE CELL - MILESTONES
elegant, adj.
pea, n.
monk, n.
heredity, n.
pneumonia ,n.
gene, n.
double-helix, n.
achieve, v.
test tube, n.
crack, v.
scissors, n.
slice, v.
separate, v.
combine, v.
insert, v.
embark, v.
sickle-cell anaemia
-
gladak, jednostavan
grašak
redovnik, fratar
naslijeđivanje
upala pluća
gen
dvostruka uzvojnica
postići, dosegnuti
epruveta. kušalica
puknuti, slomiti, razbiti, probiti
nožice, škare
razrezati na komade,
razdvojiti, odvojiti
spojiti
ubaciti, ugraditi
upustiti se
srpasta anemia
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
EXERCISES
A. Answer the following questions:
1. Who was the first to describe the mechanisms of heredity?
2. What did O.T. Avery and colleagues discover in 1944?
3. Where was the existence of DNA discovered?
B. Now you proceed in the same manner. Ask your colleagues to
answer as many questions as you can think of.
Q:
A:
Q:
A:
GLOSSARY
Antibody -
A protein that binds to an invading antigen prior to
the destruction of the antigen.
Antigen a foreign substance, usually a protein, that triggers
the body's production of a specific antibody
directed against the antigen.
Bacterium A single-celled micro-organism with a primitive
nucleus.
Chromosome A segment of DNA containing many genes.
Clone One or more genetically identical organisms.
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid, the stuff of which genes are
made, a long chain like molecule composed of
nucleotides.
E.Coli - Escherichia coli A common intestinal bacterium, studied by
generations of biologists, that has probably provided
more knowledge of biochemistry and genetics than
any other living thing.
Enzyme A protein that catalyzes one of life's chemical
reactions.
Gene A segment of DNA containing the code information
for making a specific protein.
Hormone A substance secreted by one type of cell that
carries a signal to another type of cell.
Monoclonal antibodies Identical antibodies cloned from a single source
and targeted for a specific antigen.
Nucleotide Building block of the DNA molecule composed of
an organic base, a sugar, and a phosphate.
Plasmid A self-replicating circular DNA molecule found in
bacteria and carrying two or more genes.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
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95
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
Protein -
A molecule of linked amino acids. Proteins serve
primarily as biochemical catalysts and as structural
parts for an organism.
Recombinant DNA A new combination of genes spliced together on a
single piece of DNA.
EXERCISES
A. Match the name in column A with the appropriate description in column B.
A
B
Enzyme
Gene
Protein
Antibody
Plasmid
Antigen
Bacterium
Clone
Hormone
DNA
Nucleotide
Chromosome
Recombinant DNA
a protein that binds to an invading antigen
a substance secreted by one type of cell
a foreign substance triggering the body's
production of antibodies
the stuff of which genes are made
a protein that catalyzes a life's chemical
reaction
a segment of DNA with the coded information
a molecule of linked amino acids
a single-celled micro-organism
a new combination of genes spliced together
on a single piece of DNA
a self-replicating circular DNA molecule
a segment of DNA containing many genes
one or more genetically identical organisms
building block of the DNA molecule
B. Now put as many questions as you can to your colleagues.
Start with: What, Which, How, Do, Does, etc.
C. Now speak out a definition and let your colleagues guess the name
or vice versa speak out a name and let your colleagues say the
definition.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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BOOK ONE
97
THE CELL
The human body is composed of some hundred thousand million cells, each
of which is complete in itself. These cells are grouped together in the body to
form tissues with special functions.
The largest component of a cell is its nucleus, and this is surrounded by a
watery fluid called cytoplasm. It contains a network of membrane-like material
- the endoplasmic reticulum - which is studded with small dark bodies known
as ribosomes. The cytoplasm also contains a number of bodies, among which
are the egg-shaped mitochondria and the smaller lysosomes.
The complex activities needed to sustain life take place within the body's
cells, and we may liken the activity of a cell to that of a chemical factory in
which a great variety of raw materials is processed and converted into
finished products. In a single cell many different raw materials are required,
though they are largely composed of only four elements: carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen. The processing stage, which is concerned with the
conversion of these simple raw materials into the much more complex
substances required to carry out the many functions of the cell, involves
thousands of different reactions. Each of these reactions comprises many
steps which must be carried out in a definite sequence with the result that the
chemical operations of a cell are much more complicated, and need much
greater integration, than those of a chemical factory.
In order to sustain life the cell's activities must be controlled and organized
into a self-regulating and self-renewing pattern. But how can such control be
achieved? The answer is to be found in the existence of a group of crucially
important substances called enzymes.
Enzymes control all the chemical changes, that is the metabolism, which
occur in living cells. They regulate the building up of anabolic reactions that
result in the formation of complex substances such as proteins from single
building units. They also regulate the breaking down or catabolic reactions
that result in release of energy. The role of enzymes can be better understood
when it is realized that each step is controlled by its own enzyme. The fact
that different cells perform different functions is explained in terms of the
enzymes that are present. About a thousand different enzymes have been
recognized in the body, but in any one cell only a selection are present. Even
so, most cells contain about 200 different enzymes, each of which is
responsible for controlling a particular step. The complement of enzymes
present in a cell automatically selects and controls those reactions which are
to take place.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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BOOK ONE
98
CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
The substance upon which an enzyme acts is called the substrate, and
enzymes are usually named after this substance. Thus the enzyme that acts
on urea is called urease and that which acts on maltose is called maltase. It is
a general rule that enzymes are named after the substrate upon which the
enzyme acts, and given the suffix -ase. But, there are some exceptions, such
as pepsin, tripsin and others that were named before the rule was formulated
and accepted.
The five main groups of enzymes are shown in the following table. Of these
the first two are the substrate, that is its reaction with water. Oxidases control
the oxidation of the substrate, and this usually takes the form of removal of
hydrogen.
NAME
EQUATION
REACTION CATALYSED
Hydrolases
Oxidases
Isomerases
Transferases
Synthetases
Hydrosysis
Oxidation
Intramolecular rearrangement
Transfer of a group
Addition of one molecule to another
GENERAL
AB+H2O ---------> AOH+ BH
ABH2 ----------> AB + 2H
ABC -----------> ACB
AB+C -----------> A + BC
A + B -----------> AB
EXERCISES
A. Make sentences using the words given below:
1. cell's activity / liken / chemical factory
2. raw material / process / finished products
3. reaction / comprise / step / definite sequence
4. sustain life / cell control / organize
B. Find out which definition describes each part of the cell listed below
and write the name of the part in front of the definition:
nucleus; lysosome; mitochondrion; ribosome; cytoplasm; protoplasm
1. _______________ A cellular organelle that contains various hydrolytic
enzymes.
2. _______________ Any or the RNA - rich cytoplasmic granules that are
sites of protein synthesis.
3. _______________ The center of activity in a cell.
4. _______________ The protoplasm of a cell inside the nuclear
membrane.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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5. _______________ Round or long organelles, found outside the nucleus,
which produce energy for the cell.
6. ________________ A matter of life.
C. Translate into Croatian:
1. group together 2. surrounded by 3. membrane - like material 4. largely composed of 5. concerned with 6. definite sequence 7. the answer is to be found D.
1. Translate Paragraph 1 into Croatian:
2. Paragraph 2:
a) Write down the plural of the word nucleus
_____________
b) Give the Croatian equivalent for membrane-like __________________
c) Find in your dictionaries the best Croatian equivalent for the word
studded and then translate the Paragraph 2.
3.Paragraph 3.
liken - compare a) Write down the missing words of the same origin:
variety, n.
process, v.
----------------------------, v. ----------------------------, adj.
----------------------------, n. ----------------------------, adj.
b) Find the sentence in the text describing the activities within the cell
and copy it in the space bellow.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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c) Translate Paragraph 3.
4. Paragraph 4.
a) Translate into Croatian:
processing stage -------------------------------------concerned with ---------------------------------------comprise ------------------------------------------------steps ----- ------------------------------------------------carry out - -----------------------------------------------(definite) sequence ----------------------------------integration -----------------------------------------------b) Translate Paragraph 4:
5. Paragraph 5.
a) Translate into Croatian:
in order to -------------------------------------------------self-regulating -------------------------------------------self-renewing ---------------------------------------------pattern ---------- -------------------------------------------the answer is to be found ------------------------------crucially important enzymes---------------------------Translate Paragraph 5.
6. Paragraph 6.
a) Translate into Croatian:
result in something ------------------------result in release of ------------------------b) Translate Paragraph 6.
E. After you have read the text again translate into English:
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
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100
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
1. Faza prerade uključuje tisuće raznih reakcija.
2. Enzimi kontroliraju razgradnju kataboličke reakcije.
3. Najveći sastavni dio stanice je jezgra.
4. Jezgra je okružena vodenkastom tekućinom koja se zove ...
5. Za normalnu funkciju, stanici su potrebne mnoge sirovine..
6. Prerada je, u stvari, pretvaranje sirovina u gotove proizvode.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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101
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
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102
PROTOPLASM
1. All protoplasm consists of certain chemical substances. It is not a definite,
fixed substance, but a moving, living material, constantly undergoing
changes. Usually, under a microscope, it shows up as a greyish, semitransparent, semi-liquid mass. It resembles uncooked egg white. Sometimes
it takes on the appearance of a jelly or of a sticky semisolid. At other times, it
assumes an oil-like state.
2. Protoplasm is a colloid. A colloid is a gelatinous substance consisting of
extremely small particles suspended in another material. A colloid is a
suspension. Protoplasm is a suspension consisting of water and various
elements. This colloidal suspension can vary in appearance depending upon
the amount of water and other materials in a particular sample.
3. Although scientists have identified the ingredients of protoplasm, they have
been unable to make it in their laboratories. Somehow, it has been impossible
to combine all the protoplasmic elements in just the right way.
4. On average, protoplasm consists mostly of oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and
nitrogen. These four elements account for 95% of the total weight of an
average quantity of protoplasm. Almost all protoplasm also contains calcium,
chlorine, sulphur, potassium, sodium, magnesium, iodine and iron. Trace
elements occasionally get into protoplasm along with the intake of food.
Protoplasm found in one part of a living thing, differs from the one found in
another part of the same organism. These differences are reflected in
chemical make up.
GLOSSARY
protoplasm, n.
protoplazma
undergo, underwent, undergone, irr. v. - proći, podvrći se
transparent, adj.
proziran
semi
polu
liquid, adj.
tekući, u tekućem stanju
resemble, v.
nalikovati, biti sličan
take on, v.
preuzeti, zauzeti, poprimiti
appearance, n.
izgled
suspended in
u suspenziji
jelly, n.
želatina, žele
sticky, adj.
ljepljiv
assume, v.
poprimiti, preuzeti
identify, v.
identificirati, prepoznati
ingredient, n.
sastojak, sastavni dio, sastojina
average, adj.
prosječan
on the average
u prosjeku
account for
otpadati na, imati
trace elements
elementi u tragovima
occasionally, adv.
povremeno, ponekad
intake, n.
unošenje, konzumiranje
chemical makeup
kemijski sastav
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
make up, n.
occur, v.
dominant, adj.
unique, adj.
bond, n.
capable of, adj.
link up
tie,v.
bind, v.
unite,v.
chemical bonding
share, v.
tend to,v.
outer,adj.
shell, v.
attract,v.
nucleus, n. pl: nuclei
similarly, adv.
ordinarily, adv.
convenient, adj.
plane, n.
stick out, v.
angle, n.
to some extent
bring about
readily,adv.
greyish, adj.
reddish,adj.
bluish, adj.
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
-
sastav, građa, struktura
događati se, odvijati se, odigrati se
dominantan
jedinstven
veza
sposoban za
vezati
vezati, povezivati
vezati
povezivati
kemijska veza, povezivanje
dijeliti; imati zajedničko
imati tendenciju; obično; u pravilu
vanjski
ljuska
privlačiti
jezgra
slično tome
obično
prikladan
ravnina
stršati
kut
u nekoj mjeri
izazivati, stvarati, dovoditi do
spremno, lako
sivkast
crvenkast
plavkast
consisting of = which consists of
depending on = which depends on
containing = which contains
EXERCISES
A. Give the Croatian equivalents for the following:
certain chemical substances
constantly undergo changes
take on the appearance
vary in appearance
depend upon the amount
identify the ingredients
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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104
B. Choose the correct answer:
1. Protoplasm consists of
a) all
b) no chemical substances.
c) certain
2. Protoplasm resembles
a) cooked
b) uncooked egg white.
c) fresh
3. A colloid is
a) an acid.
b) a compound.
c) a suspension.
C. Pair letters with figures to get logical sentences:
LETTERS
FIGURES
a. A colloid is
b. Protoplasm found in one part of
a living thing
c. Protoplasm
d. In a structural formula
e. Carbon joins readily
1. with other atoms
2. the symbols of the
elements are joined together
by lines.
3. a gelatinous substance.
4. is a colloid.
5.differs from the protoplasm
found in another part of the
same organism.
D. Find synonyms in columns A and B and write letters in front of the figures.
A
___ 1. readily
___ 2. link
___ 3. occasionally
___ 4. resemble
___ 5. various
___ 6. indicate
B
a. look like
b. different
c. show
d. easily
e. bond
f. sometimes
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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E. Translate into English:
1. Njihov izgled ovisi o količini vode u uzorku.
2. Živa tvar neprestano doživljava promjene.
3. Pod mikroskopom se vidi kao plavkasta masa.
4. U prosjeku, ona se uglavnom sastoji od kisika i vodika.
5. Katkada poprima izgled želea.
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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106
THE LIVING CELL
All cells are different. There is no such thing as two identical cells, or as a
typical cell. Cells vary in size, shape and arrangement. They differ in function.
One kind of cells serves a different purpose than another kind of cells. Each
has its own place within an organism. In spite of these differences, all cells
have basic similarities. All cells are made of protoplasm. Protoplasm is the
substance of life. Being alive, a cell is never at rest. In fact, all cells share a
common trait in their function and activity. Each contributes to the energy you
need for breathing, walking, thinking and living. Chemical reactions are
constantly going on within a cell. Each reaction needs energy. Every cell
consists of two basic subdivisions. One or these fundamental areas within a
cell is the nucleus. The other part is the cytoplasm. Recent studies indicate
that there is much chemical activity on the border of the nucleus and the
cytoplasm, with parts of each sometimes extending into the other. The
nucleus and cytoplasm are within a container which is known as the cell
membrane.
The nucleus is a control center. It contains genes and chromosomes. They
control all the activities of each individual cell. They determine the basic
characteristics of an organism. A cell reproduces, that is, it gives birth to a
new cell. All the cells in our bodies are reproducing themselves. The genes
and chromosomes make sure that a new cell is like the original cell from
which it came. The genes and chromosomes are found in a part of the
nucleus known as the chromatin. Ordinarily, the chromatin has the
appearance of a fine network of threads. At the time of cell division, it
becomes apparent that this network consists of separate threads, which are
the chromosomes. In reality, the chromosomes do not come together to form
a network. They exist separately. Different chromosomes have different
shapes. Many show up as short, slender rods. Others are curved. For
example, they may have the shape of the letter S or the letter J. Genes are
within the chromosomes. By staining a cell with a dye, scientists can bring the
chromosomes into view under the lenses of a microscope. The genes are too
small to be seen under a microscope, but experimentation has fully
established their existence. Every cell contains thousands of genes. Each
gene determines the identifying characteristics of an organism. Genes dictate
the colour of your eyes, the shape of your nose, the size of your foot, etc. You
inherit such features from your father and mother. Inherited traits and features
are passed from parents to child through genes in chromosomes.
Chromosomes are made of protein molecules and of a substance known as
nucleoprotein. Biologists believe that genes may possibly contain some
nucleoprotein. However, it could be that genes are deoxyribonucleic acid
molecules. DNA is an important biological code. The DNA molecules specify
the traits that will be passed along from a parent to a child.
The nucleus of a cell also contains spherical bodies known as nucleoli in the
nucleus. These tiny, round bodies show up as dark splotches when the cell is
stained. The stain makes them darker than other parts of the nucleus. The
nucleoli are manufactured by a certain chromosome within the nucleus. This
chromosome releases material that collects into a nucleolus. All the nucleoli
disappear during cell division.
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107
Thus, a chromosome within a new cell must manufacture its own nucleoli. It is
strongly believed that nucleoli contain a compound known as RNA. The
nucleoli discharge RNA into cytoplasm. RNA picks up the genetic information
/traits of inheritance / laid down by DNA.
The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear membrane. Materials flowing into and
from the nucleus must pass through it. DNA, for example, is filtered through
the membrane when it leaves the nucleoli and flows into the cytoplasm. The
nuclear membrane is much like the cell membrane. It is a multilayered
structure consisting of protein and fat. The nuclear membrane shows up
under the microscope as an extremely thin wall separating the nucleus from
the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is a semi-fluid. At times this changing substance is
like a jelly, at other times it becomes watery. As a living portion of the cell,
cytoplasm of course, is made up of protoplasm. Biologists look upon the
cytoplasm of a cell as an area rather than as a single substance. It contains
several separate structures: mitochondria, the Golgi bodies, vacuoles,
plastids, ribosomes and the endoplasmic reticulum.
The mitochondria of various cells take various shapes. A mitochondrion can
be short and rodlike. Or, in a different cell it can be a long filament. But,
whatever its shape, a mitochondrion is a center of much activity. It is the
"powerhouse" of the cell, a place where energy is released.
A cell has a specific job to do. The function of a nerve cell differs from that of
a muscle cell. Some cells use more energy than others. Cells demanding
much energy contain many mitochondria. A cell may have as few as fifty
mitochondria or as many as five thousand.
To produce energy, these cellular power plants must, of course, have fuel.
Their fuel is food in the form of acids. Various acids work their way into the
mitochondria just as gasoline flows into the carburettor of an internal
combustion engine. These acids are first produced through the digestive
breakdown of fats, proteins and carbohydrates. /Glucose is a prime supplier/.
The mitochondria remove carbon atoms from the acids, leaving water and
carbon dioxide as waste products.
With this breakdown of the molecules, energy is released. This chemical
reaction is a form of oxidation known as respiration. In some respects it is
similar to the simple burning /oxidation/ of a candle. Oxidation /respiration/
within the cell, however, differs in a significant way from an ordinary flame. In
a cell, the energy in not released as heat. Instead, through a series of
complicated steps, it is transferred to another substance. The substance
receiving and storing this energy is known as adenosine triphosphate or ATP.
ATP, then, releases this energy by breaking a bond. A compound known as a
phosphate separates from the ATP. When the bond is broken, adenosine
diphosphate is left. This substance is commonly referred to as ADP.
Substances known as enzymes control and speed up the chemical reaction
within the cell. They are contained in parts of the cytoplasm known as
ribosomes. Ribosomes are microscopic granules. With the help of enzymes,
they manufacture proteins. Thus the tiny ribosomes can be looked upon as
"protein factories". The ribosomes are distributed along an irregular structure
known as the endoplasmic reticulum. The endoplasmic reticulum consists of
channels that connect the cell membrane with the nuclear membrane. Also
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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among the living parts of the cell are the Golgi bodies, fatty materials shaped
in various ways.
Their function has not been fully explained, but they are most apparent in the
cell of the glands. Biologists think they have something to do with the
manufacture of glandular secretions. Many cells contain plastids. A plastid is
an intricately structured storage center. Recent electron microscope studies
show that folds of the cell membrane run through the cytoplasm, forming the
endoplasmic reticulum. We call this a kind of skeleton. Clustered on the
reticulum are the ribosomes, particles which synthesize proteins.
The structure of plant cells
The outer layer of a plant cell is called the cell wall. This is composed of a
non-living material called cellulose. The inner surface of the cell wall is lined
with a layer of protoplasm. The nucleus is embedded in this layer. The
protoplasm which surrounds the nucleus is called cytoplasm. The cytoplasm
sometimes contains chloroplasts. These are small bodies composed of
proteins. The surface of the cytoplasm is covered with a cell membrane. The
centre of a plant cell consists of a cavity called the vacuole. It is filled with
fluid.
The walls of a plant cell are often joined to other cells which surround it. The
lining between the walls of two cells is called the middle lamella.
Plant-animal cells
Similarities:
Both plant cells and animal cells contain nuclei. A plant cell contains a
nucleus. An animal cell also contains a nucleus
Differences:
Plant cells contain vacuoles, whereas animal cells often do not have
vacuoles. Animal cells, however, often do have vacuoles.
THE LIVING CELL - GLOSSARY
vary, v.
shape, n.
arrangement, n.
be at rest
trait, n.
contribute, v.
cytoplasm, n.
border, n.
extend, v.
container, n.
membrane, n.
gene, n.
chromosome, n.
give birth, v.
-
razlikovati se
oblik
raspored
mirovati
crta, obilježje
doprinijeti
citoplazma
rub, granica
širiti se, pružati se
vrećica; posuda
membrana
gen
kromosom
roditi, dati
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make sure
chromatin, n.
network, n.
thread, n.
apparent, adj.
slender, adj.
rod, n.
stain, v.
dye, n.
establish, v.
inherit, v.
feature, n.
acid, n.
spherical, adj.
splotch, n.
release, v.
ribonucleic, adj.
storage, n.
discharge, v.
discharge, n.
lay down, v.
bound, v.
multi-layered, adj. jelly, n.
look upon, v.
vacuole, n.
rodlike, adj.
filament, n.
powerhouse, n.
muscle, n.
power plant, n.
fuel, n.
internal combustion, n.digestive, adj.
breakdown, n.
curved, adj.
ribbon, n.
flat, adj.
cylindrical, adj.
rectangular, adj.
tapering, adj.
segment, n.
spherical, adj.
swelling, n.
groove, n.
hook, n.
ring, n.
anterior, adj.
posterior, adj.
-
AN ENGLISH READER
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osigurati; brinuti se (da), uvjeriti se, provjeriti
kromatin
mreža
nit, vlakno
očit, vidljiv, jasan
tanak
štapić
obojiti
boja
ustanoviti, potvrditi, dokazati
naslijediti
crta; karakteristika
kiselina
okrugao, kuglast, sferičan
mrlja
osloboditi, otpuštati
ribonukleinski
pohrana, spremište, skladište
izbaciti, ispuštati, lučiti
iscjedak, pražnjenje, otpuštanje
planirati, odrediti
omeđivati, ograditi, usmjeriti
višeslojan, slojevit
želatina
gledati, smatrati, držati
vakuola
štapičast
vlakno, nit,
(električna) centrala
mišić
električna centrala
gorivo
nutarnje gorenje
probavni
razgradnja
zaobljen, zavinut
traka
ravan; plosnat
cilindričan
pravokutan
koji se sužava (prema kraju)
isječak, segment
sferan, sferičan, okrugao, kuglast
oteklina, izbočina
žlijeb, brazda, utor
kuka
prsten
prednji
stražnji
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
evenly spaced
swelling, n.
groove, n.
AN ENGLISH READER
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-
a transverse section a longitudinal sectionNote!
bacterium
coccus
spirillum
flagellum
nucleus
nucleolus
mitochondrion -
110
ravnomjerno raspoređen
oteklina, izbočina
žlijeb, brazda, utor
transverzalni, poprečni, dijagonalni presjek
duljinski presjek
pl: bacteria
pl: cocci
pl: spirilla
pl: flagella
pl: nuclei
pl: nucleoli
pl: mitochondria
Something can be:rod -shaped
spiral-shaped
square-ended
round-ended, etc
EXERCISES:
A. Complete these comparisons:
a/....plant .....cells.....animal cells contain... and...
b/ Plant cells always contain .................animal cells often............
c/ Plant cells are surrounded by ..... Animal cells ......., are not....
d/ In ...... plant cells.... animal cells, the nucleus..... by cytoplasm.
e/ In .... the nucleus is embedded in the cytoplasm lining the cell walls, .... in
.... it is connected to the cell walls by......
f/ In... the chloroplasts are spiral-shaped,......in....... they are round.
B. Read the text carefully; give it an appropriate heading and translate
it.
___________________________________
Bacteria are very small organisms with single cells. They can be divided into
three groups according to shape.
Cocci are spherical in shape. Some species occur in groups, some occur in
chains, some have two cells joined together.
Bacilli form bacteria are cylindrical or rod-shaped. Some are round-ended
rods, others have square ends. Some bacilli have long flagella. Spirilla are
spiral in shape. The bacterium which causes cholera is comma-shaped with a
single flagellum.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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C. Translate into English:
inverted flask spherical flask
beaker
gas-jar
conical flask
test tube
U-shaped tube
a rod
a spiral
D. Arrange the following words into pairs of words with similar meaning:
A
___1. powerhouse
___2. differ
___3. stain
___4. shape
___5. trait
___6. specific
___7. manufacture
___8. apparent
B
a. vary
b. dye
c. power plant
d. definite
e.produce
f. form
g. feature
h. obvious
E. Give the name for the parts of the cell described by the following
sentences:
1. The nucleus and the cytoplasm are contained in it.
--------------2. It contains genes and chromosomes.
--------------3. It is semi - fluid.
--------------4. It is the powerhouse of the cell.
--------------5. When the cell is stained they show up as dark splotches. --------------6. It picks up the genetic information laid down by DNA.
--------------7. Nucleoli contain that compound.
--------------8. They control and speed up chemical reaction within --------------9. With the help of enzymes they manufacture proteins.
--------------10. Fatty materials, most apparent in the cells of the glands. ---------------
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GENE SPLICING
Called gene splicing or recombinant DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), it is a way
to redesign the genetic composition of an organism. This new technology has
devised methods to produce insulin for diabetics, enzymes to dissolve blood
clots, and gene transplants to combat genetic disorders.
DNA is the blueprint of any organism and is made up of genes that are strung
together to form the DNA chain. A gene is a small unit that is responsible for
one piece of information in the chain. In human beings, for example, one
gene may determine the color of the eyes and another the shape of a
person's nose.
Every living organism has DNA, which determines the growth and function of
the cells. Each organism has its own distinctive genetic composition.
In gene splicing, scientists use special enzymes to break a DNA molecule
apart at specific places between genes. At the specific place, the scientists
may or may not remove a gene. The next step is to add a new gene or group
of genes from some other organism. After the new set of genes is added, the
molecule is put back together. The new DNA molecule now functions with
new instructions and begins to reproduce itself.
Because scientists still do not completely understand the total effect of gene
splicing, they conduct most experiments on organisms such as bacteria. A
one-celled germ found in the colon, E.Coli, is frequently used in gene splicing
experiments.
Some valuable discoveries have resulted from gene splicing. Besides those
already mentioned in the first paragraph, one recent discovery was a
hormone (human growth hormone) used to treat dwarfism. Interferon, a
protein produced by the body to fight infection, has been reproduced through
gene splicing. Some scientists hope that it will be useful in treating cancer.
Because quantities are limited, however, interferon is still very expensive, so
its use is limited.
Some scientists believe that the nutritive value of plants could be improved by
the injection of new genes. Others feel that the same value could be achieved
with livestock. In industry, bioengineers are developing special genes to use
against pollutants in water or to help extract crude oil from exhausted wells.
Some people are critical of gene splicing. They are afraid that gene splicing is
unethical because it changes the blueprint for life. Other critics believe it is
possible that gene splicing will create "monster" - type substances.
The answer to the concerns of the critics cannot be given because DNA is still
being researched. Basically, the issue is social in nature. Science seeks to be
pure, while the applications of a scientific discovery are social, governed by
the attitudes of people.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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GLOSSARY - GENE SPLICING
splice, v.
sastaviti dva kraja, povezivati, kanelirati, spojiti
blueprint, n.
plan, nacrt, ovdje: genska karta
string, strung, strung, irr. v.-vezati, nizati
break apart, v.
razdvojiti, razderati, odvojiti, raskinuti
add, v.
dodati, zbrojiti
put together, v.
složiti, sastaviti
dwarf, n.
patuljak
treat, v.
liječiti
cancer, n.
rak, karcinom
livestock, n.
stoka, blago
pollutant, n.
zagađivač
extract, v.
ekstrahirati, izvući, iscijediti, istisnuti
crude oil
sirova nafta
exhaust, v.
iscrpiti
well, n.
izvor, vrelo
for life
zauvijek
basically, adv.
u osnovi
seek, v.
tražiti, težiti
pure, adj.
čist
a scientific discovery znanstveno otkriće
govern, v.
upravljati
attitude, n.
stav, pristup
matrix, n.
matrica
EXERCISES
A. Identification: Identify or define the following:
DNA gene interferon B. Completion:
Complete the following statements using information from "Gene
Splicing".
1. _____________ are strung together to form the DNA ___________, which
is the ______ of any organism.
2. A new technology that redesigns the _______________composition of
an organism is called _________ ______________.
3. DNA determines the _____________ and _______________ of cells and
gives each its own distinctive genetic ________________ .
4. In gene splicing a DNA _______________is broken apart by
special__________and sometimes a new ____________ is added which
functions with new ____________ and begins to ______________ itself.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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5. A protein that fights infection, called _________________, is a product
of gene splicing and is used to treat _______________ .
6. Injecting a new _________________ in plants, some scientists believe,
could improve their ______________ value.
C. True - False:
Write + if the statement is true and 0 if it is false and then correct
the false statements to make them true.
________ 1. Gene splicing has already produced some "monster" - type
substances.
________ 2. Special genes are being developed to fight pollution in
water.
________ 3. Some bioengineers work with exhausted oil wells to stimulate
production of crude oil by using special genes.
_________4. Interferon determines the color of a person's eyes and the
shape of his nose.
_________5. E.Coli, a famous bioengineer, developed a special gene
splicing machine.
_________6. Gene splicing has produced a hormone that can treat
dwarfism.
_________7. Deoxyribonucleic acid is the blueprint of any organism.
_________8. DNA uses special enzymes that are found in the colon.
_________9. Recombinant DNA is a term used instead of gene splicing.
________10. Some of the concerns about splicing are more social than
scientific.
Now correct the false statements:
D. Word Study
I. From column B select the word or expression equivalent in meaning
to those in column A. Place the letter of your answer in the blank.
A
B
_____ 1. devise
_____ 2. make up
_____ 3. mention
_____ 4. govern
_____ 5. method
_____ 6. growth
_____ 7. place
_____ 8. effect
_____ 9. function
a. absolute
b. precise
c. refer
d. feeling
e. development
f. yet
g. control
h. invent
i. location
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_____10. specific
_____11. total
_____12. still
_____13. attitude
_____14. stage
115
j. way
k. purpose
l.period
m. compose
n. result
II. Form verbs from the following nouns and then write a sentence,
using the verb in the Past or Past perfect Tense with an object. The
first one is done as an example.
1. composition/ to compose
Science has composed blueprints for
gene splicing.
2.transplant/ ___________________________________________________
3.shape/
___________________________________________________
4.splicing/
___________________________________________________
5.instruction/ ___________________________________________________
6.experiment/___________________________________________________
7.discovery/____________________________________________________
8.injection/_____________________________________________________
9.application/___________________________________________________
E.Grammar Practice
Cloze Practice: Fill the blanks with the missing words and then check your
answers by referring to paragraphs 5 and 6 in the reading.
Because scientists still do __________ completely understand the total
___________ of gene splicing, they __________ most experiments on
organisms ___________ bacteria. A one-celled ____________ found in the
_______________, E. Coli, is frequently _________in gene splicing
experiments. _____________ valuable discoveries have resulted
_______________ gene splicing. Besides those _____________ mentioned
in the first ______________, one recent discovery was_____________
hormone (human growth hormone) used to treat ______________.
Interferon, ______________ protein produced by the ____________ to fight
infection, has ____________ reproduced through gene splicing.
________________ scientists hope that it ___________ useful in
treating___________. Because quantities are limited, _____________,
interferon is still very ____________, so its use is ____________ .
F. Definitions:
There are several definitions in the text. Find them and copy them in the
space below.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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Control text
A GENE IS CLONED
The recombinant molecule can be inserted into the bacteria that are to act as
factories manufacturing the desired protein. By far the most popular choice of
bacterial host is an organism known as Escherichia coli (E. coli). The
predominance of this bacterium in genetic engineering is partly an accident of
history. Molecular biologists have studied this particular species for decades,
and as a result, more is known about the inner workings of this microscopic
creature than about any other organism, including humans.
The plasmids were chosen because they have an inherent ability to enter the
cells of E. coli, and this invasion can be facilitated by adding a few simple
chemicals to the mixture. Plasmids posses another property which is of great
value to biotechnologists - they can make copies of themselves. Once inside
a bacterial cell, a single plasmid can multiply itself to yield up to a few dozen
identical replicas. If the plasmid contains a human gene, then that gene is
copied along with the rest of the molecule. As the bacterium which harbours
the plasmids is also growing and dividing - as often as once every twenty
minutes - each daughter cell takes with it a few of the plasmids, which again
reproduce themselves. Before long, a single bacterium will have given rise to
millions of descendants. A population of cells all derived from a single
ancestor is called a clone, and all cells in a clone have the same genetic
make-up. Thus, within a day or so a single bacterium carrying a recombinant
molecule will yield millions of identical cells, all of which contain the original
human gene, and the gene is then said to have been cloned.
EXERCISES
A. Consulting your dictionaries finish the glossary. You will have to add to
the list below.
GLOSSARY - A GENE IS CLONED
recombinant along with host to give rise to by far insert to yield up to dominant predominance inherent facilitate multiply replica harbour MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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daughter cell descendant ancestor genetic make-up B. Answer the following:
1. Write down what you already know from your previous knowledge about
Escherichia coli.
2. How is a gene cloned?
3. What is the role of plasmids in gene cloning.
C. Grammar revision.
1. Find all the sentences in the Present Perfect Tense and copy them in
the space below. (Remember when and why the Present Perfect
Tense is used.)
2. Find all the sentences in the Passive form and underline them. When
it is possible transform them into the Active.
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HELLO, DOLLY
CLONING AND ITS TEMPTATIONS
With the publication of a paper in Nature on February 27th, 1997, a Scottish
sheep called Dolly became the most famous sheep in history. The reason is
that she is the first mammal to have been cloned from the tissue of an adult
animal.
Despite the public anxiety that the advent of Dolly has stimulated, she has not
sprung from nowhere. People have been trying (but failing) to clone animals
from adult tissues for decades. Moreover, the creators of Dolly, Ian Wilmut
and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute, near Edinburgh, used their
technique to clone their first sheep back in 1995. The difference is only that
their previous experiment used the cells of an embryo rather than an adult.
A clone is an organism that is genetically identical to another. Mammals, all of
which reproduce sexually, do not clone naturally, except into identical twins.
Unlike many other organisms, adult mammals cannot clone themselves.
The making of a clone
The simplest way to clone a mammal is to copy what happens during the
formation of identical twins. In the earliest stages of development, when the
egg has divided into only a few cells, each is identical and none has yet taken
on any special tasks. Each, if it becomes separated from the others, has the
ability to grow into a complete being. Human identical twins grow this way by
accident; in animals, scientists have frequently split early embryos
deliberately.
Dolly, though, is a bit different. Until now mammals have usually been cloned
by "nuclear transfer". This involves fusing two cells together: a donor cell
containing all of its DNA, and an egg cell from which the DNA has been
removed. Removal of DNA from an egg is a precise but not difficult operation,
and has been done routinely for years. Once the two cells have been fused (a
process usually encouraged by a small electric shock), the developing
embryo is installed in a surrogate mother.
Until now, however, growing viable adult mammals using this technique has
been impossible, unless the donor cell is taken directly from an embryo.
Attempts to clone mammals from older cells consistently ended in failure, with
glaring chromosomal abnormalities all too apparent. Until Dr Wilmut and his
colleagues published their most recent paper, no one was sure whether this
happened because older differentiated cells had switched off some genes
permanently, or because no one had found a means of making them feel at
home in an egg.
The key to Dr Wilmut's success lays in co-ordinating the states of the donor
cell and the recipient egg. During the cycle by which a single cell grows before
dividing (in what is known as mitosis) into two daughter cells, it passes
through three phases, known as G1, s and G2. During the s phase the
chromosomes are copied, doubling the amount of DNA in the cell, so that
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when the cell splits each of its daughters receives the same amount of DNA
the parent started with. Without this doubling, each daughter cell would inherit
only half of the parent cell's DNA, and after a few generations each
descendant cell would have only a fraction of the genetic information present
initially.
This means that when the cell enters the G2 phase it has twice as much DNA
as it needs just to do its job. Previous attempts to clone mammals have
typically used donor cells in the s or G2 phase, and an egg cell that is already
starting mitosis. In principle, this should work: the egg is already prepared to
split in two cells, and either the s or G2 phase should provide the right amount
of DNA for this to occur smoothly.
For some reason it does not. When the two cells fuse, a bit more DNA
replication takes place. This snarls up mitosis, producing useless, broken
chromosomes. So Dr Wilmut and his colleagues tried something different.
Instead of using a donor cell that was actively going through the cell cycle,
they used a cell that was quiescent. That is, a cell which just after splitting,
has stopped all further activity. Quiescence occurs naturally in some cells but Dr Wilmut and his colleagues induced it in their donor cells by starving
them of nutrients.
This caught the cells right at the start of the cell cycle, it meant that they had
the normal amount of DNA. Moreover, it meant that the donor cells were more
similar to the eggs in other respects too. During the cell cycle, different
proteins accumulate, and the molecular make-up of a cell alters. The use of a
quiescent rather than actively growing cell kept the rest of the cellular
environment in tune with the one in the egg. When the two cells fused,
development could go on normally.
Last year, Dr Wilmut and his colleagues showed that this technique could
work on cells taken from early embryos that were then grown for several
generations in the laboratory. In this, they were also the first: previously, in
order to work, nuclear transfer had to be done using fresh embryonic cells.
And now they have shown that the DNA from three kinds of more mature
tissue - older embryonic tissue, fetal tissue, and tissue from an adult - can still
direct the development of a complete organism.
An old Dolly
The technique is far from perfect. Out of 277 fused pairs of cells where the
donor cell was from adult tissue, only one - Dolly - survived. Indeed, out of a
total of 834 fused pairs, only eight lambs were born, and one of these died
immediately after birth. Nonetheless, it is now clear that the cloning of an
adult mammal is possible. From a scientific point of view, three questions are
now of special interest. Will Dolly and her remaining companions survive to
adulthood? Will they age normally? And how easy would it be to use the
same technique to clone other mammals?
During the growth and development of an organism, cells differentiate. Heart
cells become different from nerve cells, which are different in turn from blood
cells, and so on. Until Dolly, it was not at all clear whether or not this
differentiation took place through the permanent inactivation or disabling of
genes irrelevant to being a heart cell or a nerve cell. In some ways, it is still
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not clear. Dolly was grown from just one kind of cell taken from the ewe's
udder; DNA from other cells, especially nerve cells, may not be able to
recover all of its functions. However, Dolly's existence suggests that at least in
some cases, it is possible to develop a viable offspring from a single adult
cell.
Dolly is still young, however. Her genetic mother was six years old, and the
DNA in her mother's cells had been replicated many times. During DNA
replication, mistakes are sometimes made. Apparently none was bad enough
to prevent Dolly from coming into being. But cloning experiments with
amphibians typically failed to grow a clone from adult tissue into anything
beyond a tadpole. Dolly's ability to survive will be of great interest.
The big scientific (as opposed to ethical) question about Dolly is how she will
age. For not all of the DNA important in an organism's development is
contained in the nucleus. A fraction of it is outsourced to components of the
cell known as the mitochondria. Once upon a time, the mitochondria were
free-living bacteria. Now they provide energy for the hosts. Without them,
cells cannot survive for long.
In mammals, mitochondria are inherited just from the mother. Indeed, every
egg cell contains hundreds of mitochondria, which are parcelled out among
the daughter cells during the initial cell division. Mitochondria carry their own
genes, but not all the mitochondria in a cell carry the same genes. And during
the lifetime of an organism, the balance of mitochondrial DNA can shift. In
humans, diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and some forms of
diabetes are one consequence of this shifting.
The fusion of an old cell with a genetically unrelated egg raises two concerns.
One is whether the mitochondria from the two cells will be compatible. Given
Dolly's survival so far, it suggests that they are. But the bigger issue is
whether the mitochondria that Dolly inherited from her mother will, by dint of
having shifted in balance during the mother's life, shorten Dolly's or expose
her to mitochondrial diseases.
Since Dolly achieved stardom, many words have been spilled over the
desirability of cloning humans. But it is still by no means certain that the
technique that worked in her case can be used to clone other mammals. Dr
Wilmut expects that it should be possible in pigs as well (despite the fact that
pig embryos do not do well when they are put in a Petri dish instead of a
womb). But Colin Steward, an embryologist at the National Cancer Institute, in
Frederick, Maryland, reckons that the technique may not be easy to transfer
directly to mice, or to humans.
This is because even if the DNA from the donor cell retains all of its functions,
it may still need to be "reprogrammed" before it can conduct the development
of a new organism. That is, the switches that turn genes on or off need to be
modified. Dr Steward points out that the DNA in a sheep's embryo does not
start running the show until the egg has divided three or four times (i.e., into 8
or 16 cells). In mice, it must start up immediately after the first cell division
and in humans after the second. This may not give the DNA enough time to
prepare.
Mice are no doubt the next target. Some biologists dearly want to clone
adults, and it would be much easier to experiment on cloned mice than cloned
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sheep. But whether or not anyone should be allowed to make similar efforts to
clone humans is going to be a subject of much debate.
GLOSSARY - HELLO, DOLLY
mammal, n.
sisavac
adult, adj.
odrastao
anxiety, n.
zabrinutost
advent, n.
dolazak, prispijeće
spring, sprang, sprung, irr.v. - iskočiti, niknuti, nastati
task, n.
uloga, svrha
split, split, split, irr.v.razdvojiti, podijeliti, otcijepiti, raskoliti, kalati
surrogate, n.
surogat, nadomjestak
viable, adj.
koji se može održati na životu, sposoban za
život
switch off, v.
prekinuti vezu, prespojiti, ugasiti
snarl, v.
mrsiti, zaplesti, zamrsiti,
quiescent, adj.
miran, koji miruje, nepokretan
quiescence, n.
mirovanje
fuse, v.
pomiješati se, stopiti se; rastaliti, rastopiti
disable, v.
onesposobiti, učiniti neupotrebljivim
ewe, n.
ovca (ženka)
udder, n.
vime
offspring, n.
potomak
come into being
oživjeti
tadpole, n.
punoglavac
outsource, v.
izniknuti, proisteći
host, n.
domaćin
parcel out, v.
prenijeti, prenositi, predati
by dint of
pomoću
womb, n.
maternica, utroba
dearly, adv.
skupocjen, vrijedan
EXERCISES
A. Number the paragraphs and give each paragraph a key word or
words.
B. Answer the following questions:
1. Who is Dolly?
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2. What is she famous for?
3. Who made her famous and why?
4. Where is the Roslin Institute?
5. When and where was the first sheep cloned?
6. What is a clone?
7. Can some organisms clone themselves?
8. Can mammals clone themselves?
9. What can cloning be compared to?
10. Have any mammals been cloned until now?
11. How were they cloned?
12. What is the difference between cloning mammals until now and
cloning of Dolly?
13. Describe the process of cloning Dolly.
14. What is quiescence and why is it important in cloning?
15. How many cells were cloned in the experiment where Dolly was the
only survivor?
16. From a scientific point of view what are the questions of special
interest now?
17. When do the cells differentiate?
18. How and when does this differentiation take place?
19. What kind of cell was used for growing Dolly?
20. How will Dolly age?
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21. Explain the origin and the role of mitochondria.
22. Which diseases in humans are one of the consequences of mitochondrial
DNA shift?
23. Which other animals are likely to be cloned next?
24. What is "reprogramming"?
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Genetic engineering
DOLLY - "A FARMYARD FREAK"
Within hours of her public debut last week, Dolly the cloned sheep was
lambastered as a "farmyard freak" and harbinger of genetic doom. France's
farm minister, Philippe Vasseur, spoke darkly of six-legged chickens and
eight-footed sheep following behind Dolly in quick succession.
President Clinton has given an advisory panel of experts just 90 days to come
up with proposals for government action. The government could prohibit the
cloning of human beings or issue regulations limiting what researchers can
do. But the government cannot control the actions of individuals or private
groups determined to clone humans for whatever purpose. And science has a
way of outstanding all ethical restraints.
"In science, the one rule is that what can be done will be done", warns Rabi
Moses Tendler, professor of medical ethics at Yeshiva University in New
York.
He opposes cloning on Biblical grounds.
Some ethicists regard the cloning of humans as inherently evil, a morally
unjustifiable intrusion into human life. Others measure the morality of any act
by the intention behind it; still others are concerned primarily with the
consequences -for society as well as for individuals. Father Richard
McCormick, a veteran Jesuit ethicist at the University of Notre Dame,
represents the hardest line: any cloning of humans is morally repugnant.
Though many see her as a dangerous scientific precedent, Dolly is not the
first genetically engineered creature to hit the headlines, nor the most
fantastic. Transgenic animals - those whose DNA has been fiddled to include
foreign genes or to remove existing ones are now common place in academic
laboratories and biotechnology firms. They are, essentially, living test tubes
that allow scientists to model human diseases, try better treatments and
generate larger quantities of useful proteins more cheaply than ever before.
Compared with goats making human antibodies, pigs producing human clotbusting factors and designer mice, Dolly is a humdrum scion basking in the
celebrity of her unusual origins.
Almost 20 years ago, some of the first transgenic mice - a species beloved of
biologists - were created by injecting human DNA into the nuclei of newly
fertilised mouse eggs. These delicate injections were performed under a
microscope using hair-thin glass needles to deliver the genes and the
slightest hint of pressure to hold the egg in place. As scientists hoped, the
mice that developed from these manipulated embryos included the foreign
DNA in their own chromosomes and then passed it on to their offspring,
generation upon generation.
Want to know how changes in certain genes cause cancer? Build a mouse
with mutant p53, a gene that normally produces a tumour-suppressing
protein, and hunt for tumours. Need to know if excessive amyloid tangles
cause Alzheimer's disease? Easily done by supplementing your mouse-to-be
with the gene for the human protein and watching for signs of brain
breakdown in the adult. Dying to learn if antibodies are essential to protect
against certain parasitic infections? Just blot the genetic blueprint in your
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transgenic mouse, thereby "knocking out" the enzyme used to make
antibodies in the first place, and see how the parasite and its host square off.
Such transgenic mice (and some rats as well) are rightly prized for the
information they provide on disease and development. But their small size
and short life-span makes them better living test tubes than walking factories.
When it comes to producing rare and valuable human proteins for medical
therapy, scientists have chosen to trade up to a larger model.
Using microinjection techniques, a barnful of transgenic species has been
developed to secrete milligrams of human protein in their milk, hundreds or
thousands of times more than could be gathered directly from people or from
genetically manipulated cells grown in the lab.
At Genzyme Transgenic Corporation in Farmingham, Massachusetts, special
goats have been designed to produce human antithrombin III, a protein that
controls blood clotting. Antithrombin III harvested from the goats' milk looks
exactly like the human protein and behaves the same, at least in the test
tube. Clinical trials, now in progress, will show if it can help patients
undergoing coronary bypass surgery who are particularly vulnerable to
excessive clotting and the dangers of thrombosis.
Near Edinburgh, transgenic sheep at PPL Therapeutics and the Roslin
Institute, Dolly's home, have been busy churning out human alpha-1antitrypsin. Clinical trials have begun to test the safety of this protein on
healthy volunteers. If all goes well, tests will begin on cystic-fibrosis patients
shortly. Much of the damage to their lungs and pancreas is due to a runaway
enzyme in their bodies, called elastase, as it was the case in earlier animal
experiments.
PPL Therapeutics has also had success in creating cows which spike their
own milk with human alpha-lactalbumin, a nutrient supplement or
"nutraceutical". Although transgenic cattle can give high yields of the desired
protein, they are slow to reproduce. Instead, many scientists have grown
partial to transgenic pigs. They are all the rage in xenotransplantation, where
porcine tissues engineered to resist human immune responses are seen by
companies such as Imutran, in Britain, as a likely source of replacement
organs for patients.
By contrast, William Velander's pigs at Virginia Polytechnic and State
University in Blacksburg will never come under the knife. He and William
Drohan at the American Red Cross in Rockville, Maryland are milking their
designer pigs for precious (and profitable) human blood products such as
Factor VIII and fibrinogen.
One block to large-animal engineering is that the most revolutionary
technique in mouse transgenics - called embryonic stem cell technology does not work in many other mammalian species. This means that while it is
possible to produce the mouse of your dreams, selection in other animals is
limited. This is frustrating for scientists trying to develop more reliable animal
models of human disease or to use such technology to improve animal health
or agricultural output. Nuclear transplantation, Dolly's immaculate conception,
may be one way of overcoming this barrier in sheep and other species.
Present company not included?
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EXERCISES
A. Check the words in your dictionaries and write your own glossary.
GLOSSARY - DOLLY - A FARMYARD FREAK
B. After reading the passage again write an essay on the moral and ethical
issues on cloning. How useful may it be and what dangers can it
produce.
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PROTEINS
Proteins make up about 15% of protoplasm. They are the chief building
materials of protoplasm, and thus, the body itself. They are essential nutrients
and a necessary part of everyone's diet. Protein manufacture occurs in all
body cells. Every protein molecule contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen. Some proteins also contain some elements as potassium sulphur
and iron. These long protein molecules have a complicated structure.
AMINO ACIDS
Proteins are made up of smaller units called amino acids. There are more
than one hundred amino acids known to exist in nature. Of the total, 23 are
found in proteins. Each protein molecule has a characteristic number and
arrangement of amino acids.
An amino acid itself, of course, is a molecule. Thus, each amino acid consists
of specific elements in a definite combination. There are basic elements
present in every amino acid. These basic elements are carbon, hydrogen, the
amino group which has the symbol NH2, and the carboxyl group, which has
the symbol COOH. Thus, the general formula for an amino acid is:
H
------------- C --------------COOH
NH2
Amino acids join together in living organisms to form protein molecules. This
manufacture of protein is constantly going on, for the amino acids are highly
reactive. At the same time proteins are also breaking down into amino acids.
When they are linked in protein molecules, the link is always between the
carbon (C) of the COOH group and the nitrogen (N) of the NH2 group. In the
reaction, the OH of the COOH group and the hydrogen atom of the NH2
group are removed. They join together to form water. Thus, water is a byproduct of the reaction that produces proteins from amino acids.
THE MAKING OF A PROTEIN
The simplest amino acid is glycine. Two glycine molecules can come together
to form a simple, two-chain protein. This protein is known as glycyl glycine.
The structural formula of an amino acid chain appears at first to be very
complicated. However, a careful reading shows that we are involved only with
building blocks. All the pieces fall into place.
NUCLEIC ACID
The chemistry of living things is known as biochemistry. All the chemical
reactions that take place in a plant or animal cell are biochemical reactions.
They involve an interplay between matter and energy, the rearranging of
atoms and molecules, and the emergence of new materials along with the
disappearance of others. A living organism is like a factory that keeps taking
in raw materials and turning out new products. All the biochemical reactions
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taking place within a living organism are carefully controlled. There are even
blueprints that give the final results of these reactions. These blueprints are
nucleic acids. One important nucleic acid is known as deoxyribonucleic acid,
or DNA.
CARBOHYDRATES
About 1% of protoplasm is made up of carbohydrates. A carbohydrate is an
organic compound containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The term
carbohydrate indicates the elements which these compounds contain.
There are two kinds of carbohydrates: sugar and starch. They play an
important part in the biochemical processes that release energy. Thus, as
nutrients, sugar and starch provide energy for the body.
KINDS OF SUGARS
The sugar in candy is known as sucrose. It is just one of several kinds of
sugar. The various types are classified as simple sugars, double sugars and
complex sugars. Among the simple sugars are glucose, fructose and
galactose. The double sugars are sucrose, maltose and lactose. Cellulose is
a complex sugar.
STARCH
As a carbohydrate, starch is made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. it is a
product of green plants. such foods as bread, potatoes, corn, rice, spaghetti
and macaroni contain starch. foods containing starch are in the diet of people
everywhere. Like sugar, starch is a fuel nutrient. That is, it provides heat and
mechanical energy for the body. But carbohydrates are lacking in such
nutrients as proteins, minerals, vitamins.
FATS
Fat, too, is a fuel nutrient. A fat is rich in energy. When a fat is broken down in
the digestive process, energy is released. We get vegetable fats from such
plants as corn, peanuts and soybeans. Animal fats are found in cream, butter,
lard, eggs, bacon, and other meats.
PROTEINS - DESCRIPTION OF AN EXPERIMENT
What is needed:
sugar, egg white, nitric acid, ammonium hydroxide,
gas burner, goggles
Put sugar in one test tube and egg white in the other. Label each test tube.
Carefully cover the sample in each test tube with concentrated nitric acid. Do
not get nitric acid on your hands. Wear goggles to protect your eyes.
Heat each sample until it boils. Use the gas burner. Make sure the mouth of
the test tube is pointed away from your body. Be careful. Do not point the test
tube toward someone else. Let the sample boil by passing the test tube in
and out of the flame. Then remove the test tube from the flame. Remove the
acid from each sample by pouring it carefully into some water. Let the test
tube cool. Then add a little ammonium hydroxide do each sample. A pale
yellow indicates the presence of protein. The brighter the yellow, the greater
is the amount of protein in the sample.
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GLOSSARY - PROTEINS
protein, n.
bjelančevina
essential, adj.
glavni, osnovni
nutrient,n.
hranjiva tvar
diet,n.
vrsta ishrane
potassium,n.
kalij
sulphur, n (sulfur) sumpor
iron, n.
željezo
amino acid, n.
amino kiselina
arrangement, n.
raspored, organizacija
carboxyl group, n. karboksilna grupa
by-product, n.
nus-produkt
blueprint, n.
šifra, plan, prvi otisak
glycine, n.
glicin
biochemistry, n.
biokemija
interplay, n.
međusobno djelovanje
emergence, n.
pojava, nastanak
disappearance, n. nestanak
nucleic acid, n.
nukleinska kiselina
deoxyribonucleic acid, n.-deoksiribonukleinska kiselina
carbohydrate, n. ugljikohidrat
starch, n.
škrob
candy, n.
bombon
sucrose, n.
saharoza
simple sugars
monosaharidi
double sugars
disaharidi
complex sugars
polisaharidi
fructose, n.
fruktoza
galactose, n.
galaktoza
maltose, n.
maltoza
lactose, n.
laktosa
cellulose, n.
celuloza
corn, n.
AmE - kukuruz; BrE - žito
rice, n.
riža
lack in , v.
nemati
vitamin, n.
vitamin
digestive process,n. probavni proces
peanut, n.
kikiriki
soybeans, n.
soja
lard, n.
svinjska mast
bacon, n.
slanina
goggles, n.
zaštitne naočale
gas burner
plinski plamenik
test tube, n.
epruveta, kušalica
holder, n.
držač
label, n.
etiketa
label, v.
obilježiti
sample, n.
uzorak
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make sure
pazite, provjerite
nitric acid, n.
dušična kiselina
ammonium, n.; pl: ammoniaamonijak
EXERCISES
A. Answer the following questions:
1. Why should you avoid getting nitric acid on your hands?
2. Why should you make sure the mouth of the test tube is pointed
away from your body?
3. How can you make the sample in the test tube boil?
4. What indicates the presence of the protein in this experiment?
5. Name as many kinds of foods containing protein as you can
remember.
B. Write down the nouns with the same root as the verbs listed.
V
e.g. to heat
N
heat
V
to sample
to cover
to concentrate
to point
to protect
to color
to indicate
to test
N
C. Complete the following sentences using the words from the text:
1. ______________are the building blocks of proteins.
2. Each protein molecule has a characteristic ______________
and____________of amino acids.
3. _________________ manufacture occurs in all body cells.
4. The simplest amino acid is _________________.
5. DNA is short for _________________________________________.
6. Cellulose is a ________________________ sugar.
D. Translate into English:
1. Obilježite svaku epruvetu.
2. Zagrijte vodu do vrenja.
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3. Pustite da se epruveta ohladi.
4. Pazite da vam dušična kiselina ne kapne na ruke.
5. Pažljivo izlijte tekućinu u vodu.
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PROTEINS, ACIDS, FATS
Proteins are an essential nutrient and a necessary part of everyone's diet.
Protein manufacture occurs in all body cells. Every protein molecule contains
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Some proteins also contain such
elements as potassium, sulphur and iron. These long protein molecules have
a complicated structure and many contain a million or more atoms.
Amino acids are smaller units that proteins are made of. There are more than
a hundred amino acids known to exist in nature. Of the total, about 23 are
found in proteins. They can be looked upon as "building blocks" of proteins.
Each protein molecule has a characteristic number and arrangement of amino
acids. And there are thousands of different protein molecules. Each amino
acid consists of specific elements in a definite combination. The basic
elements present in every amino acid are carbon, hydrogen, the amino group
and the carboxyl group. Amino acids join together in living organisms to form
protein molecules. This manufacture of proteins is constantly going on, for the
amino acids are highly reactive. At the same time proteins are also breaking
down into amino acids... When they are linked in protein molecules the link is
always between the carbon and the nitrogen. They join together to form
water. Thus, water is a by-product of the reaction that produces proteins from
amino acids.
Nucleic acids. All the chemical reactions taking place within a living organism
are carefully controlled. There are even "blueprints" that spell out the end
results of these reactions. These blueprints are nucleic acids. One important
nucleic acid is known as DNA. The DNA molecule, in theory, is shaped like a
spiralled ladder. The "rungs" of the ladder are arranged differently in each
individual DNA molecule. Billions of arrangements are possible.
A carbohydrate is an organic compound containing carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. The term "carbohydrate" indicates the elements that these
compounds contain. There are two kinds of carbohydrates: sugar and starch.
The sugar in candy is known as sucrose. It is just one of several kinds of
sugar. The various types are classified as simple sugars, double sugars and
complex sugars. Among the simple sugars are glucose, fructose and
galactose. Sucrose, maltose and lactose are double sugars.
Starch. As a carbohydrate, starch is made up of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. Foods containing starch are in the diets of people everywhere. Like
sugar, starch is a fuel nutrient. That is, it provides heat and mechanical
energy for the body. Starch helps to provide the energy you need for all your
daily activities. It contributes energy to the life processes going on in all body
cells. Sugar and starch are essential to life and to the health of the body. But
carbohydrates are lacking in such nutrients as protein, minerals and vitamins.
Starch undergoes a chemical change when it is digested. It is changed to
sugars. The digestive enzymes cause the groups of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen atoms in a molecule of starch to separate. The separated atoms form
glucose.
Fats. On average, about 13 per cent of protoplasm, by weight, is made up of
fats. Fat, too, is a fluent nutrient. A fat is rich in energy. When a fat is broken
down in the digestive process, energy is released.
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All fats contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. /most fat molecules consist of
three molecules of fatty acids attached to one molecule of an alcohol known
as glycerine.
EXERCISES
A. There are several definitions in the text. Write them down in the
space below.
B. There are several classifications that can be found in the text. Find
them in the text and write them down in the space below.
C. Translate the text.
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Control text
Translate into Croatian:
PLASMIDS - THE MAGIC CIRCLES
All the genes essential for the bacterium's survival are carried on its single,
large, circular chromosomes. There are also much smaller circles of DNA
inside some bacteria and these rings are known as plasmids. Plasmids are
enigmatic structures and their functions are not entirely understood, although
it is clear that many of them carry genes which enable bacteria to resist
antibiotics. Plasmids have an odd relationship with the rest of the cell; most
importantly for genetic engineering, they will often pass from one cell to
another, even if the cells are of different species.
Therefore, if plasmids are taken from one set of bacteria and the human
cDNA gene is "stitched" into the plasmid ring, the plasmid's natural ability will
allow it to enter bacteria and convey the human gene into its new home. A
plasmid used in this way is called a vector, from the Latin word for carrier or
bearer. Certain types of viruses can also act as vectors.
To stitch the human gene into a plasmid we call upon the services of another
type of enzymes, a restriction enzyme. All enzymes are remarkably precise
tools, and in restriction enzymes their powerful ability to distinguish between
similar structures is brought to a peak of perfection. Faced with a tangled
mass of DNA, restriction enzymes scan the double helix until they recognize
certain specific sequences of bases, and then make a precise cut across the
two DNA strands In the case of a circular plasmid molecule, this opens the
ring ready for the insertion of the human gene.
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
136
DISTRIBUTION OF NUTRIENTS IN PLANTS
The green appearance of the water in ditches and lakes is caused by tiny,
microscopic green plants called algae. Each of these plants consists of a
single cell.
Transport of nutrients in these plants is not much of a problem. The sugars
and other products of photosynthesis are used in the very cell in which they
are produced.
In higher plants, which are very complex, the cell is usually more specialized.
Many cells are so specialized that they cannot produce their own food for
photosynthesis.
Usually, root cells are colorless and must obtain their sugar from the green
leaves of the plant. A considerable distance is often involved, so an efficient
transport system is necessary. It is rare that one finds plants with green roots
capable of photosynthesis. (One of these is Hydrocharis, a pretty floating
plant of the ponds and ditches of Holland).
It is generally believed by scientists that millions of years ago plant life
originated in the water, and that gradually new forms of plant life developed
that could live on land. This would not have been possible if an effective
transport system had not evolved inside the plant to distribute food, water,
and minerals. The development of such a transport system was the key to the
great development of land plants. The giant sequoia tree, in California, sends
down to the ends of its roots sugars that are made in the leaves hundreds of
feet up in the air. And the ends of the roots may be a hundred feet away from
the base of the tree.
Plants have three systems that make possible a rapid interchange of
substances among various parts of the plant body.
Although all three systems involve different tissues, they do interconnect so
that material may go from one system to the other. In addition to the food
transport system, there is the water transport system and the air transport
system.
FOOD TRANSPORT SYSTEM
The food transport system is the most delicate of the three. It is easily
damaged because it is alive; that is, the cells through which the food is
transported are biochemically active. Wounds, heat, and exposure of the
plant to toxic chemicals all damage the system that transports food. If you cut
off a branch and put it in water, it may seem alive for many days or even
weeks; yet the food transport system stops functioning soon after the branch
is cut off from the tree.
WATER TRANSPORT SYSTEM
The water transport system is much less delicate than the food transport
system. Water transport in stems takes place in long, strong capillaries.
These are dead cells. During the last century, a German scientist cut down a
tree and then placed the base in a tub containing picric acid. The yellow,
poisonous acid moved up to the top of the tree. There it killed the leaves, but
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
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ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
137
the water transport system was not affected by the poison. When you cut
through a tree trunk or branch, you notice two different tissues: the bark, and
the water transport system through the wood. These transport tissues wear
out as the tree grows. So they are continually replaced. Every year new
water-conducting vessels appear in new wood, and every year new foodconducting tubes appear in new bark. The tissue responsible for this
rejuvenation is a very thin layer of delicate cells. These cells are in a
cylindrical layer around the stem, between the wood and the bark, and they
form a tissue called the cambium. The fast-growing cambium is ideally
located to receive nutrients, having the food stream to its front and the flow of
water and minerals to its back.
AIR TRANSPORT SYSTEM
The air transport system is simply an interconnecting arrangement of air
spaces between cells. This system is especially well-developed in marsh
plants whose roots are not exposed to much oxygen. The leaves of marsh
plants such as rush or mangrove can transport oxygen from the stomata
through the stem to the roots, all within the body of the plant. Gas spreads
fairly rapidly.
The porosity of a leaf can be shown by a simple apparatus invented by Dr.
Alvin. The instrument is designed to measure the condition of the stomata in
leaves while they are still growing.
In addition to air, other gases will enter plants through open stomata and
invade the interior of the leaf through the air space between the cells. Smog is
a poisonous gas, a product of heavy car traffic in sunny climates. When the
stomata are closed, smog cannot enter and no damage is done. But if a cloud
of smog rolls over plants on a sunny morning when the stomata are open, it
will ruin the leaves of sensitive plants. Many vegetable growers have left
metropolitan areas because of the smog.
GLOSSARY - NUTRIENTS IN PLANTS
distribution, n.
nutrient, n.
appearance, n.
ditch, n.
photosynthesis, n.
efficient, adj.
float, v.
pond, n.
originate, v.
evolve, v.
sequoia, n.
rapid, adj.
damage, n.
wound, n.
tub, n.
picric acid
-
distribucija, raspored
hranjiva tvar
izgled
jarak, graba
fotosinteza
efikasan, brz, djelotvoran
plutati
ribnjak
poticati (od, iz)
razviti, evoluirati
sekvoja
brz
šteta
ozljeda
posuda, kada
pikrinska kiselina
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
affected by
tree trunk
bark, n.
wear out, v.
rejuvenation, n.
stem, n.
cambium, n.
marsh, n.
mangrove, n.
chamber, n.
porosity, n.
invade, v.
interior, adj.
smog, n.
ruin, v.
accurate, adj.
acquire, v.
obtain, v.
rush, n.
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
-
na koji ( loše) djeluje, utječe
stablo, deblo
kora drveta
istrošiti
pomlađivanje
peteljka, stabljika, deblo
kambij
močvara, močvarno tlo
tropsko drvo, mangrovo drvo
komora
poroznost
napasti
unutarnji
smog
uništiti, oštetiti
točan, precizan
steći
dobiti, postići
rogoz
alga, n.; pl: algae alga
stoma, n.; pl:stomata puči
interchange of substances - izmjena tvari
EXERCISES
A. Number the paragraphs.
B. Paragraph 1.
1. Underline all the verbal forms.
2. Copy all the passive forms.
3. Copy all the participles.
C. Paragraph 2.
1. Underline all the modal verbs and make a list in the space below.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
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139
2. Copy two passive forms.
D. Paragraph 3.
1. Make a chart of all the verbal forms in Paragraph 3.
E. Paragraph 4.
1. Explain why is do used in the sentence:
“Although all three systems involve different tissues, they do interconnect so
that material may go from one system to the other”.
F. Food Transport System
Paragraph 5.
1. Underline all the passive forms.
2. Say what kind of sentence the following is:
If you cut a branch and put it in water, it may seem alive for many days or
even weeks;.....
G. Water Transport System
Paragraph 6.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
1. Underline and copy all the Past Simple forms active or passive.
2. Underline and make a list of all the participles.
H. Air Transport System
Paragraph 7.
Discuss with your colleagues the verbal forms in Paragraph 7.
Write an example for each.
I. Draw a line under the correct ending of each sentence:
1. It is believed by scientists that millions of years ago life originated
a) in the mountains
b) in the water
c) in the marshes
2. The green appearance of water in ditches and lakes is caused by
a) algae
b) gases
c) picric acid
3. Many vegetable growers have left metropolitan areas because of
a) traffic noise
b) lack of sunshine
c) smog
4. Usually root cells must obtain their sugar from
a) chemicals in the soil
b) the green leaves of the plant
c) the capillaries
5. The distribution of nutrients in plant is called
a) interchange
b) rejuvenation
c) transport
6. The cambium of a tree is located
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
a) under the roots
b) between the wood and the bark
c) in the sap
J. Three of four words on each line below are similar in meaning or
have something in common. Draw a line under the word that does
not belong with the others.
1. task, job, work, stem
2. evolve, grow, expose, develop
3. marsh, concept, idea, notion
4. nutrient, food, status, mineral
5. chemistry, porosity, philosophy, literature
6. complex, accurate, exact, correct
7. expand, enlarge, invade, increase
8. acquire, obtain, identify, secure
9. stomata, ditch, river, canal
10. vessel, tube, capillary, rejuvenation
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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141
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
142
VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS
Vegetables are the most important source of edible oils and fats. Most
vegetable oils are liquid at 20o C, though there are a few notable exceptions
such as palm oil, palm kernel oil and coconut oil which melt above this
temperature. Soya beans are grown extensively in China and the USA and
soya bean oil is now the most important edible vegetable oil accounting for
about a quarter of all vegetable oil supplies.
After the oil has been extracted from the bean, the residue left constitutes a
valuable source of protein. Soya bean oil is the major vegetable oil used in
margarine manufacture and large quantities are also used in cooking fats.
Vegetable oils are normally extracted from seeds, kernels and nuts, either by
mechanical pressure or by solvents. The latter method involves the use of a
liquid solvent of low boiling point in which the oil is soluble. After the seed or
nut has been ground, it is shaken with the solvent, the oil extracted and the
solid residue left behind. When the liquid mixture is heated, the low boiling
solvent evaporates, leaving the oil.
The olive oil is a valuable source of oil, over a million tons of olive oil being
produced annually. Olive oil is notable for the large proportion of unsaturated
acids which it yields on hydrolysis and also for its purity. The finest olive oil
may be used without purification and is used for all purposes in
Mediterranean countries, while in Great Britain it is used as salad oil.
REFINING OF CRUDE OILS
Crude olive oil is exceptional in that it can be used for edible purposes without
refining. Most vegetable oils, however, contain a number of impurities such as
moisture, free fatty acids, colouring matter, resins, gums, and sometimes
vitamins. The refining process is carried out in a number of stages.
1. Degumming
Crude oils often contain impurities in suspensions which, in the presence of
water, forms gum. The impurities are removed by adding hot water to the
warm oil, which is then transferred to a centrifugal separator. The separator
revolves at a high speed and the gum particles, which have a higher density
than the oil, are thrown to the bottom of the vessel, leaving an upper layer of
clarified oil.
2. Neutralizing
Owing to spoilage, all crude oils contain a small proportion of fatty acid and
low-grade oils may contain considerable quantities. The acids are removed by
neutralizing the oil with a solution of caustic soda, which converts the fatty
acid into an insoluble soap. The soap is then removed by allowing it to settle
to the bottom of the neutralizing tank. If the impurity is palmitic acid, for
example, insoluble sodium palmitate is formed.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
143
3. Washing and drying
In order to remove the last traces of soap from the oil, it is washed with warm
water. Two layers form, and the lower water layer is run off, leaving the oil
layer, which is then dried under vacuum.
In modern plant these separate stages are being replaced by a continuous
automatic process in which the neutralizing stage is carried out much more
quickly in a centrifugal separator. The oil is now clear and free from acid, but
it is usually yellowish in colour and still has a distinct odour. It is, therefore,
bleached and deodorized.
4. Bleaching
The oil is warmed and Fuller's earth and activated carbon are added. Both
these materials have a large capacity for adsorbing colored matter. The
mixture is stirred and a partial vacuum is maintained. When all the colored
matter has been adsorbed, the oil-earth mixture is passed through filter
presses from which the oil emerges as a clear colorless liquid.
5.Deodorizing
The oil is heated under vacuum in a tall tank and steam is injected so that the
liquid mixture is violently agitated. In one method it is sprayed upwards as an
umbrella-shaped fountain, so that a large surface area of liquid is continually
exposed, and the volatile, odoriferous substances and remaining free fatty
acids are stripped from the oil. The oil is now pure and ready for blending. It is
desirable that the oil should not come in contact with air once it has been
refined, as this leads to deterioration due to oxidation.
GLOSSARY
edible, adj.
palm oil
kernel, n.
coconut, n.
melt, v.
soya bean, n.
grow something
extract, v.
residue, n.
seed, n.
kernel, n.
-
jestiv
palmino ulje
sjemenka, koštica, kost
kokos
topiti se, rastapati se, postati tekućim
zrno soje
uzgajati
izdvojiti, odvojiti, ektrahirati
ostatak, talog
sjemenka, sjeme, zametak
koštica; sjemenka, jezgra; sadržaj koštice, zrno
žitarice
nut, n.
orah, orašasto voće,
grind, ground, ground, v.irr. - mljeti, samljeti, drobiti
shake, v.
tresti, protresti, pomiješati
solid residue
kruti talog (ostatak)
notable, adj.
poznat (po)
evaporate, v.
ishlapiti
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
saturated, adj.
unsaturated, adj.
purification, n.
crude, adj.
refine, v.
impurity, n.
moisture, n.
free fatty acids
resin, n.
gum, n.
carry out, v.
degumming, n.
revolve, v.
vessel, n.
density, n.
clarified, v.
neutralize, v.
owing to
low-grade
caustic soda
settle, v.
palmitic acid
bleach, v.
Fuller's earth
dedorize, v.
stir, v.
emerge, v.
blend, v.
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
-
zasićen
nezasićen
proćišćivanje
sirov
rafinirati
nećistoća
vlaga
slobodne masne kiseline
smola, biljni vosak
biljna smola, kaučuk, guma
izvesti, provesti
uklanjanje smole ili voska
okretati se oko osi
posuda
gustoća, viskoznost
proćišćen, razbistren
neutralizirati
zbog, radi
loše kvalitete
kaustična soda
slegnuti se
palmitinska kiselina
izbijeliti, izbijeljivati, bijeliti
Fullerova zemlja
dezodorirati, ukloniti miris
miješati
izaći, proizlaziti
pakirati; flaširati
EXERCISES
A. Make a list of vegetable oils mentioned in the text.
B. List the processes of refining crude oils:
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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C. Find three examples for each verbal form listed in the text.
GERUND
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
PAST PARTICIPLE
1.
2.
3.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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146
FAT IN THE BODY
When fatty foods are eaten they pass through the digestive system. In the
small intestine they are partly hydrolysed by lipase, one fatty acid molecule
being split off from a fat molecule at a time, so that the result is a mixture of
free fatty acids and mono and diglycerides. As the hydrolysis is not complete,
little free glycerol is produced. A proportion of the fat is not hydrolysed at all,
but is absorbed directly into the blood in a highly emulsified form. Although
the exact mechanism of the digestion and absorption of fat is not fully
understood, it is certain that about two hours after a meal the blood becomes
"milky" in appearance due to the presence of emulsified fat, and that within
another few hours this fat has disappeared from the blood.
It might be supposed that once fat has been absorbed it would be oxidized
directly to produce energy while the surplus would be transferred to the
"reserve" and stored in the fat deposits of the body. Modern evidence,
however, suggests a rather different sequence of events. After absorption,
most of the fat is transported to the fat storage cells of the body and is not
oxidized immediately. This seems to occur even when the body is in urgent
need of energy. The fat deposits are not stable though; they are in a constant
state of flux. In experiments carried out on rats fatty acids labelled with
deuterium were fed to rats and within a week nearly half of the fat deposits
were found to contain deuterium. This method of tracing the path of
molecules during metabolism by labelling certain atoms with isotopes is
known as isotopic tracer technique. The results show that fatty acids are
rapidly interchanged between fats indicating that the latter are constantly
broken down and resynthesized.
When the body uses fat as a source of energy - which is mainly when there is
a shortage of carbohydrate - the glycerol and fatty acids are oxidized. The
breakdown of glycerol involves reaction with ATP to form glycerol phosphate
which is subsequently broken down, in a series of oxidation steps, to carbon
dioxide and water. The oxidation of fatty acids takes place in steps, a
fragment containing two carbon atoms being removed in each step. If stearic
acid is oxidized, for example, it is first broken down to palmitic acid, palmitic
acid is then oxidized to myristic acid and so on, until butyric acid is reached.
EXERCISES
A. Give Croatian equivalents for the following groups of words:
- partly hydrolysed
- one at a time
- it is not fully understood
- sequence of events
- this seems to occur
- label atoms with isotopes
- fat depots were found to contain - it is subsequently broken down MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
B. Find synonyms for the following words and write them down:
- proportion - exact - label C. Find the right answer:
1. When fatty foods are eaten they pass
2. Fatty acids are partly hydrolyzed in
3.
a) through the stomach.
b) through the liver.
c) through the digestive
system.
a) stomach.
b) small intestine.
c) large intestine.
a) All the fat is hydrolysed.
b) A portion of the fat is hydrolyzed.
c) A portion of the fat is not hydrolyzed
4. The exact mechanism of the digestion is
a) fully understood.
b) not fully understood.
c) completely understood.
5. After absorption most of the fat is transported to
a) the fat storage cells of the body.
b) storage cells.
c) to the fat.
6. In experiments carried out on rats fatty
acids labelled with deuterium were fed to:
a) rats.
b) guinea pigs.
c) mice.
7. The body uses fat as a source of
a) fat.
b) energy.
c) carbohydrates.
8. The oxidation of fatty acids takes place
a) in steps.
b) in fragments.
c) in acids.
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D. Translate into Croatian:
If energy is not required immediately, molecules of glycerol and fatty acid
recombine and are deposited again as fat. There is, therefore, a dynamic
equilibrium between the breakdown and rebuilding processes.
When fats are metabolized at an abnormally fast rate, acetoacetic acid
accumulates faster than it can be removed and its concentration in the blood
increases.
This condition may result from the use of diets containing too much fat and
too little carbohydrate and it also occurs during starvation and in people
suffering from diabetes.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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149
BACTERIA
Wherever life exists on the earth, from the bottom of the sea to the mountain
tops, bacteria are found. They live in and on plants and animals, in water and
on dust particles in the air. One ounce of ordinary soil may contain upwards of
100 million invisible bacteria. Of the several thousand known species, only
about 150 cause disease. Thus their role in nature is more helpful than
harmful.
Bacteria are small, mostly under 1 micron in diameter. Bacterial cells are
limited to three simple shapes: bacilli (rods), cocci (spheres) and spirilla
(spirals). Bacteria reproduce by fission. After division the daughter cells may
stay together in a colony whose structure - chain, cluster, sarcina, or other
arrangement is determined by the plane of division.
Structure of bacteria
The small size and the absence of clearly visible nuclei once made bacteria
seem like very simple organisms. However, new staining, breeding and
biochemical methods, together with the electron microscope, now reveal how
complex these little organisms really are.
A cell wall composed of complex sugars is always present. The cytoplasm
has a certain amount of structure. The cell has a membrane, whose folds dip
into the cytoplasm. Ribosomes are abundant, as well as granules of food and
other substances. There are no mitochondria, however, and the clumps of
chlorophyll and other pigments are never contained within membranesurrounded plastids as in cells of higher organisms.
Many bacilli and spirilla swim by means of flagella, each consisting of two or
three twisted strands of myosin-like protein. Each motile species has a typical
arrangement of flagella. Many species have thick, slimy capsules, resembling
those of blue-green algae.
Spores
Spores are heavy-walled structures, possibly protective, but not well
understood, that form within certain bacilli. They can withstand the
temperature of boiling water for hours. When conditions become favourable,
the spore wall softens and the germinating bacterium grows out of it and
resumes activity.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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Bacterial metabolism and its use
Like other kinds of organisms, bacteria carry on metabolic activities. Their
metabolism releases energy, as well as many kinds of waste products.
Pigments in colored bacteria, toxins in deadly ones, and the useful products
of fermenting organisms, are all by-products of metabolism.
In many ways, bacteria are useful to man. We cultivate them to make
vaccines, vitamins and antibiotics for medical use. Every waste product
released by organisms has a bacterium -or a co-operating fungus - to dispose
of it.
Staining bacteria
Robert Koch made it easier to examine bacteria when he invented methods of
staining which are still in use. He used a loop of platinum wire to spread a
smear of bacteria on a slide, passed the slide through a flame to kill and fix
the microbes, and then colored them with aniline dyes. Since bacterial cells
differ so little in shape, microscopic examination alone will not distinguish the
many species.
Differential stains are useful because various bacteria react differently to
them. In the Gram stain (named after its inventor) the cells are dyed blue with
crystal violet, then treated successively with iodine and alcohol. Gram-positive
bacteria retain the blue color, while Gram-negative bacteria are decolorized.
Nobody knows why the stain works. Yet the Gram reaction indicates
important differences. Gram-positive bacteria have structurally simple cell
walls containing little fat; penicillin is effective against them. Gram-negative
organisms have layered cell walls with considerable fat; they respond to
streptomycin but not to penicillin. In deciding on the diagnosis and treatment
of a puzzling bacterial infection, Gram-staining is one of the first tests a doctor
orders.
A similar differential test, the acid-fast stain, is used to diagnose tuberculosis.
GLOSSARY - BACTERIA
bacterium, n. pl: bacteria
particle, n.
bacillus, n. pl.: bacilli
coccus, n. pl.: cocci
sphere, n.
spirillum, n. pl.: spirilla
spiral, adj.
spiral, n.
fission, n.
cluster, n.
sarcina, n.
-
bakterija
čestica
bacil
koki
kugla; sfera
spirilli
spiralan
spirala, uzvojnica
dijeljenje; cijepanje
nakupina, grozd
nakupina, paket koka
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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arrangement, n.
plane of division, n.
stain, v.
nucleus, n. pl: nuclei
staining, n.
breeding, n.
reveal, v.
fold, n.
dip, v.
abundant, adj.
clump, n.
chlorophyll, n.
flagellum,n. pl: flagella
twisted, adj.
strand, n.
myosin, n.
motile, adj.
slimy, adj.
alga, n. pl.: algae
spore, n.
withstand, v.
germinate, v.
metabolism, n.
carry on metabolic activites
cooperating fungus
loop, n.
smear, n.
Gram stain
dye, n.
puzzling, adj.
decolorize, v.
acid-fast, adj.
-
nakupina, red
ravnina diobe
bojati
jezgra, nukleus
bojanje
uzgajanje
otkriti, pokazati
nabor
uroniti
brojan, obilan
nakupina, grumen
klorofil
bič, flagela
smotan, zavijen
vlakno, nit
miozin
pokretan
sluzav
alga
spora
izdržati
(pro)klijati, razvijati se
metabolizam
biti metabolički aktivan
simbiotska gljivica
eza; petlja
razmaz
bojanje po Gramu
boja dye,v. bojiti
nejasan, nerazjašnjen
gubiti boju
otporan na kiselinu
ounce, n. (oz) = six tenths of a pound = 28,35 gr
EXERCISES
A. Write down and pronounce the plural forms of the following nouns:
1. nucleus
2. virus
3. nucleolus
4. bacterium
5. coccus
6. bacillus
7. spirillum
8. alga
9. fungus
10. stimulus
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
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B. Fill the blank in each of the sentences below with the appropriate
word from the text which correctly completes the meaning:
1. Not all __________ of bacteria cause diseases.
2. Bacteria are very ______________ little organisms.
3. Koch invented methods of ______________ ___________ .
4. Bacteria reproduce by __________________ .
5. Spores can ________________ the temperature of boiling water for
hours.
C. Find one word expressing the meaning of the whole sentence and
write it down in the space provided:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
_______________ Substances produced by micro-organisms which
interfere with the growth of other organisms.
_______________ Smallest unit of an element.
_______________ Rod-shaped bacteria.
_______________ The chemistry of living organisms.
_______________ Living outer layer of the protoplasm of a cell.
_______________ Spherical bacteria.
_______________ Substance which cannot be changed into any
simpler form.
_______________ A form of reproduction in which the cell divides
into two or more daughter cells.
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IRREGULAR FOREIGN PLURALS
Singular
Plural
alga
quantum
nucleus
phenomenon
analysis
matrix
algae
quanta
nuclei
phenomena
analyses
matrices
D. According to the examples above write the plural forms of the
following words:
Singular
Plural
spectrum
synthesis
bacterium
criterion
hypothesis
formula
fungus
catalysis
symposium
bacillus
radius
axis
equilibrium
index
________________
________________
________________
________________
________________
________________
________________
________________
________________
________________
________________
________________
________________
________________
E. Complete the following sentences using correct plural forms:
1. Each chemical element has its characteristic spectrum. Most
elements give very complex ___________________ .
2. The mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus. In most atoms
the ___________ are made up of protons and neutrons.
3. One criterion of a chemically pure substance is its color. Other
___________are its melting point and boiling point.
4. An interesting phenomenon was observed. Oxidation and reduction
are basic chemical __________________ .
5. The scientists subject any hypothesis to test or experiment. Many
___________________ will have to be discarded.
6. The quantum theory states that radiant energy is emitted and
absorbed in very small but definite portions which are called energy
______________ .
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MICROBES AS CHEMICAL MACHINES
In 1857 Louis Pasteur published a report showing that the souring of milk is
caused by microbes which convert milk sugar into lactic acid. The process
can be chemically expressed as follow:
C6H12O6 ---------------------->2CH3CHOHCOOH
(sugar)
(lactic acid)
In its gross result and in appearance this is one of the simplest chemical
changes representing the breakdown of one molecule of sugar into two
molecules of lactic acid.
During the same period Pasteur studied alcoholic fermentation as exemplified
by the conversion of grape juice into wine. In this case, micro-organisms were
responsible for the change in yeast, which converts the sugar of grape juice
into alcohol according to the following equation:
C6H12O6 ---------------------->2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2
THE PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF OXYGEN
When left exposed to the air, wine will turn into vinegar, and this is the next
problem to which Pasteur turned. Hen showed that in this case the change is
caused by another type of micro-organisms, the bacterium now called
Acetobacter, which oxidizes alcohol into acetic acid according to the following
formula:
CH3CH2OH + O2 -------------------->CH3COOH + H2O
(alcohol)
(acetic acid)
The conversion of sugar into lactic acid or alcohol occurs independently of the
presence of oxygen, whereas the conversion of alcohol into acetic acid results
from an oxidation in which atmospheric oxygen participates. Pasteur,
however, observed that when a sugar solution was placed in an atmosphere
from which the oxygen had been completely removed a very different kind of
substance was likely to appear, namely butyric acid. Under these conditions,
the bacteria which proliferate live best without oxygen and in fact may die in
the presence of this gas. "Anaerobic" bacteria convert sugar into butyric acid.
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GLOSSARY - MICROBES
souring, n.
convert, v.
lactic acid
breakdown, n.
grape juice
yeast, n.
conversion, n.
acetic acid
participate, v. butyric acid
proliferate, v.
kiseljenje
pretvoriti, pretvarati
mliječna kiselina
razgradnja
sok od grožđa
kvasac
pretvaranje
octena kiselina
sudjelovati
maslačna kiselina
razmnožavati se, množiti se putem proliferacije
EXERCISES
A.
1. Underline all the Past Simple forms.
2. Underline all the Future Tense forms.
3. Underline all the Passive forms.
4. Underline all the Participles.
B. Write at least 10 questions to cover the text.
C. Make a list of all the acids you know in English. You may consult
your dictionaries.
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Additional Reading
MICROBIOLOGY
Turning over a new leaf
A bacterium without cell walls could prevent disease in cabbages and other
crops, writes Bernard Dixon.
It is no longer fashionable, or even permissible, for scientists to spend time
simply thinking of or studying natural phenomena for any other reason than to
develop a saleable product. More is the pity - as a paper published this month
in Letters in Applied Microbiology shows. Written by microbiologists, it
establishes that bacteria deprived of their cell wall can live in close
association with Chinese cabbage cells and thereby protect the plant against
disease. The work has considerable practical possibilities. Yet it was initiated
by the researchers' late colleague Alan Paton, as a result of observations
made while peering for hours down a simple, old-fashioned microscope.
The Aberdeen research is based on varieties of bacteria known as L-forms.
Bacteria of this sort have lost, either permanently or temporarily, the ability to
synthesise the materials that constitute their cell walls. They are bounded only
by the delicate membrane that normally lies under the rigid wall.
Most bacteria can be turned into unstable L-forms by treating them with
penicillin or lysozyme (a natural antiseptic in tears and other secretions).
Some of them can be stabilised in that state. Many L-forms also change their
appearance as they go through a complex life cycle, which includes tiny
granular forms that pass like viruses through very fine filters.
Studying potato, carrot and turnip cells from plants infected by bacterial softrot diseases, Paton noticed some of the cells were densely packed with
bacteria that had caused the disease, but other harmless ones too. Further
studies suggested that L-form granules could have entered through apertures
denied to much larger, "normal" bacteria. by injecting ordinary bacteria
together with penicillin or lysozyme into plant tissues, the Aberdeen
microbiologists have since created associations between a wide variety of
different bacteria and plants.
The fact that the bacteria in such partnerships continue to show the
biochemical activities they conducted when living alone suggests that one
potential practical use of these associations might be to enhance the
nutritional value of crops. Other new characteristics, such as drought and cold
resistance, might be introduced into crops too.
The other putative range of applications is resistance to the fungi, viruses and
bacteria that cause diseases. In theory there are several ways in which an Lform, living in close association with a plant, might protect it against infection.
One would be simply by being there, barring the way to invasion by a harmful
microbe. More actively, an L-form could produce an antibiotic that destroys
the invader.
This month's report by Anne Glover and her colleagues provides evidence
that L-forms can indeed protect plants against disease-causing bacteria. Their
experiments were in two parts. First, they prepared L-forms of the bacterium
Pseudomonas syringiae and added them to germinating Chinese cabbage
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seeds. They grew the seedlings, and removed any surface bacteria and
confirmed the presence of the bacterium inside the plant.
To determine whether the Chinese cabbage could now resist a potentially
serious infection, they used Xanthomonas campestris, a bacterium
responsible for spot disease of peppers and other infections. To facilitate
infection, they damaged the leaves of the seedlings and then applied X.
campestris.
The result was striking. Six days later, plants carrying the L-forms were
healthy and showed no sign of disease, while the plants that had not been
augmented by the L-forms, were in a bad way. The leaves infected by X.
campestris were dead, and the others were wilting. Experiments with the
original Ps. syringae showed it failed to protect Chinese cabbage in the same
way; only the L-form worked.
It's not yet clear how the L-forms safeguard the plant cells against invasion.
However, the effect seems not to be one of simple physical exclusion,
because Ps. syringae with its cell wall intact does not work. What seems to
happen is that the plant responds to the L-form, with which it can co-exist, in
such a way as to repel more threatening invaders.
GLOSSARY - MICROBIOLOGY
phenomenon, n. pl: phenomena - pojava; fenomen
deprived, adj.
lišen, bez
cell wall, n.
stanična stijenka
late, adj.
pokojni
peer, v.
zuriti
bounded, adj.
ograničen
delicate, adj.
osjetljiv; tanak
tiny, adj.
sićušan
fine, adj.
sitan, tanak
rigid, adj.
čvrst, krut
treat, v.
tretirati; liječiti
turnip, n.
bijela repa
densely, adv.
gusto; zgusnuto
aperture, n.
otvor
association, n.
nakupina; skupina
drought, n.
suša; suhoća
putative, adj.
takozvani, navodan; tobožnji
disease-causing bacteria bakterije koje uzrokuju bolest
fungus, n. pl. fungi
gljivica
virus, n. pl: viruses
virus
seedling, n.
presadnica
augment, v.
povećati, uvećati
wilt, v.
uvenuti
repel, v.
odbiti
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EXERCISES
A. After you have read and understood the text, read it again trying to
find the answers to the questions bellow. Read the questions first.
1. What does a paper published this month in Letters in Applied
Microbiology show?
2. Is this an important finding?
3. Who started it?
4. What is the Aberdeen research based on?
5. Which plants did Alan Paton study?
6. What did he find out?
7. What have the Aberdeen microbiologists created since?
8. What is the other putative range of applications?
9. What do Anne Glover and her colleagues report?
10. In how many parts were their experiments done? Describe them.
11. What was the result of their experiment? Describe it.
12. What is the conclusion of the paper?
13. What is your own conclusion after reading this text?
14. Can you find a hint of criticism while reading the paper?
15. Do you agree with it and why? State your point.
B. Find at least two sentences with gerund forms.
C. Find at least two sentences with present participles.
D. Find at least two sentences with past participles.
E. Find at least two sentences in passive form.
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OXYGEN, OXIDATION, ANTIOXIDANTS
Oxygen can be beneficial - or it can be harmful.
We all need oxygen to live, to grow, to be energetic. Oxygen starvation
prevents our healthy cells from functioning properly. Although essential to life,
oxygen can also be destructive through oxidation. Oxidation is the process of
oxygen combining with other compounds in our bodies. An example of
undesirable oxidation is the interaction of oxygen with components of the cell
membrane called lipids. This oxidation reaction results in the breakdown of
body cells. The oxidation of lipids also creates peroxides which are damaging
to proteins. Lipid peroxidation and damage to crucial proteins causes cells to
deteriorate during the ageing process.
An iron fence will corrode, creating iron-oxide when exposed to the oxygen in
air. Just as a good coat of paint protects the iron fence from oxidation, so will
certain nutrients protect our body cells from oxidation.
Our bodies are composed of billions of cells and the health of these cells is
directly related to our health. Vitamins A, C, E and Selenium are nutrients
which keep our body cells functioning properly by limiting oxidation damage.
VITAMIN A
Beta-Carotene, an important antioxidant in our food, is converted to vitamin A
in the body. It protects body fat and lipid membranes against oxidation by
trapping potentially dangerous oxygen molecules. It also increases the ability
of cells to prevent foreign substances from penetrating them. Experiments
have indicated that a lack of vitamin A made body cells more vulnerable to
certain harmful conditions while increased amounts of vitamin A made them
more resistant.
VITAMIN C
This oxidant vitamin was found to deduce the damage to proteins from
peroxides. Generously supplied, it protects the liver from damaging
substances.
VITAMIN E
Vitamin E has long been recognized as an important antioxidant and has
been used clinically in a variety of oxygen-related conditions. Like other
antioxidants, it works by uniting with oxygen to prevent the oxygen from being
converted to harmful peroxides. By inhibiting oxidative damage to cell
membranes, the integrity of our body cells is maintained.
SELENIUM
Researchers have shown that people living in regions where Selenium is
found in water and plants have fewer incidences of certain degenerative
conditions than people living in Selenium deficient areas. Selenium is known
to be an essential component of an enzyme (Glutathione Peroxidase) that
helps to prevent oxidation damage to cells.
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GLOSSARY - OXYGEN - OXIDATION - ANTIOXIDANTS
beneficial,adj.
harmful, adj.
starvation, n.
oxidation, n.
undesirable, adj.
breakdown, n.
crucial, adj.
fence, n.
expose, v.
paint, n.
damage, n.
convert, v.
increase, v.
ability, n.
trap, v.
lack, n.
vulnerable, adj.
reduce, v.
damage, n.
liver, n.
recognize, v.
unite, v.
inhibit, v.
maintain, v.
research, n.
incidence, n.
degenerative condition deficient, adj.
component, n.
tissue, n.
water-soluble, adj. oil-soluble, adj.
level, n.
depletion, n.
adverse, adj.
-
koristan
štetan, škodljiv
glad, nedostatak
oksidacija
neželjeni, loš
razgradnja, raspadanje
bitni, važni, krucijalni
ograda
izložiti
boja
šteta
pretvoriti
povećati
sposobnost
uhvatiti, uloviti, hvatati
nedostatak
ranjiv, osjetljiv
reducirati, smanjiti
šteta
jetra
prepoznati, priznati, prihvatiti
ujediniti se, sjediniti se, spojiti se
spriječiti, onemogućiti
održavati, održati
znanstveno istraživanje
pojavljivanje, rasprostranjenost
degenerativna stanja
manjkav
sastavni dio
tkivo
topljiv u vodi
topljiv u ulju
razina, nivo,
iscrpljenje, ispražnjenje
suprotan, protivan, štetan, nepovoljan
EXERCISES
A.
1.Name the beneficial and harmful effects of oxygen.
2. Say which nutrients are essential for our body and why.
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B. Translate into Croatian:
These four nutrients work together to help protect the body's tissues against
oxidation damage.
Vitamin C works in water-soluble regions of the cell, while Vitamin E works in
oil-soluble regions of the cell. Vitamin C levels in the blood decrease with the
depletion of Vitamin A.
Vitamin E works alongside Vitamin A by protecting Vitamin A from being
destroyed by oxygen. Vitamin E also supports Selenium; they work together
in avoiding adverse oxidations. Selenium neutralizes peroxides while vitamin
E protects fats from being destroyed by oxygen.
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162
ENERGY FOR LIFE
A. Each of the underlined words below has several meanings. Use the context
to help you decide which of the meanings is appropriate in each case. Read
each text through first, then circle the letter in front of the right answer.
Example:
When plants make sugar they convert light energy into chemical energy.
a) take someone's property and use it
b) cause a person to change his opinion and beliefs
c) change from one state, use or purpose into another
d) change from one type of money to another
Right answer: c
1.The various processes carried out by the body, such as movement, growth
and reproduction, all require the expenditure of energy.
a) treatments of film for developing
b) series of actions leading to a particular result
c) projecting pieces of bone
d) particular systems or treatments of materials used
2. During daylight hours, green leaves absorb carbon dioxide and water and
release oxygen.
a) set free
b) press (of a handle)
c) allow to be printed
d) give up (a property or a right)
3. One group of digestive enzymes breaks down starchy foods into sugars
such as glucose.
a) fails to function
b) collapses
c) separates into simple substances
d) destroys
4. The carbon cycle refers to the movement of carbon compounds from
the bodies of plants and animals into the air and back again.
a) a complete series of events that recur again and again
b) a long period of time
c) a form of transport with two wheels
d) a group of songs, poems, etc., connected with a theme
5. Just as wood when burned gives off energy in the form of heat and
light, so food gives off energy when it is burned, or oxidized, in the
cells.
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a) small rooms in prison
b) groups of people in a secret political organization
c) pieces of apparatus for making a current of electricity
d) individual units of living matter
B. The following passage describes the two important processes of
photosynthesis and respiration. Read through it carefully and fill in the gaps.
Choose the correct word from the alternatives given in the margin.
All life on earth exists ................. two chemical so that / because of
processes called photosynthesis and respiration.
Through photosynthesis, green plants make
carbohydrates ................ carbon dioxide (in the air)
to / from
and water (in the soil), using ....... energy of
an / the
sunlight absorbed ........ the chlorophyll in their
by / of
leaves. Oxygen gas is a by-product of the
process ...... is released into the atmosphere.
and / but
Through respiration, both plant and animal cells
take up oxygen and use it ........ turn the sugar
to / for
in food into energy. The by-products of respiration,
water and carbon dioxide, are returned to
the atmosphere to ......... used once again in
be / have
photosynthesis. ........ cycle is endlessly repeated.
A / The
C. Now translate the previous passage into Croatian.
D. Read the short text below. It gives a short factual description of the process
of photosynthesis. Notice the underlined verbs.
During photosynthesis plants make sugars such as glucose. To do this, the
energy of light is absorbed by the chlorophyll and is used to combine oxygen
and water. Oxygen is released as a by-product and diffuses out of the plant
into the atmosphere.
1. What are the verbal forms used in this description? Say why.
E. The following sentences are all factual descriptions of biological
structures. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form.
1. A cell .................... of a nucleus and cytoplasm.
2. The nucleus of a cell ............. by a jelly-like substance.
3. The jelly-like substance ............... cytoplasm.
4. The thin skin, which ............ the cytoplasm and
nucleus of a cell, is known as the cell membrane.
5. The cell membrane ............. certain chemicals to
pass in and out of the cell.
6. Other chemicals, however, ............ from passing
(consist)
(surround)
(call)
(enclose(
(allow)
(prevent)
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through the membrane.
7. The body .............. with skin and hair.
8. A membrane is a sheet of tissue which covers
or ................. a surface.
164
(cover)
(line)
F. Translate these sentences into Croatian.
G. Read the following passage and while reading think about the answers
to these questions.
1. How can respiration be defined?
2. What are the raw materials of respiration?
3. What are the products of respiration?
4. What two forms of respiration are described?
_________________________
In modern biology, respiration can be defined as: the processes which lead to,
and include, the chemical breakdown of materials to provide energy for life.
These processes occur inside the living cells of every type of organism.
The energy for life is released during respiration from substances known as
food. There are many different foods and they are taken into the body in
many different ways, but in the majority of organisms foods are converted into
the sugar, glucose, before they are used as a source of energy.
In most organisms, energy is released by a process called aerobic respiration,
which requires a continuous supply of oxygen molecules obtained from the air
or water surrounding the organism. In certain circumstances, however, energy
can be released without the use of oxygen molecules. This is known as
anaerobic respiration.
The aerobic respiration of glucose is usually summarized by the following
chemical equation:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ------------------->6CO2 + 2898 kJ of energy
Aerobic respiration releases all the energy within each glucose molecule; that
is, it produces the same amount of energy that is released when glucose is
burnt in oxygen gas. The chemical equation above gives the false impression
that respiration involves only one chemical reaction because it shows only the
raw materials and end products of respiration. The whole process involves
some fifty separate reactions, each catalyzed by a different enzyme. The
result is a controlled release of energy which is far more useful to the
organism than a sudden explosive burst of energy.
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
It differs from aerobic respiration in three important ways. First, anaerobic
reactions break down glucose in the absence of oxygen molecules. Second,
anaerobic reactions do not completely break down glucose into carbon
dioxide and water, but into substances such as lactic acid or alcohol. Third,
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anaerobic respiration releases far less energy than aerobic respiration,
because glucose is not completely broken down. Organisms which respire
anaerobically are called anaerobes.
Certain bacteria are complete anaerobes. They live permanently in conditions
where no oxygen exists. Certain other micro-organisms, such as yeast, obtain
most of their energy by anaerobic respiration, but can also respire aerobically
in the presence of oxygen.
Give a title to the passage. Choose the best alternative
a) Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration
b) energy for Life through Respiration
c) The Need for Oxygen
H. Say if the following statements are TRUE or FALSE. Put a T in front of
the true statements and an F in front of the false ones. Correct the
false statements.
1, Respiration involves a single, simple chemical reaction.
2. Organisms which respire anaerobically can live in conditions where no
molecular oxygen exists.
3. Enzymes speed up the chemical reactions of respiration and this results
in the release of violent bursts of energy.
4. During aerobic respiration, glucose is oxydized completely to produce
carbon dioxide and water.
5. Anaerobic respiration releases far more energy than aerobic respiration.
6. Yeast can respire both aerobically and anaerobically.
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BOOK ONE
166
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
Digestion is both physical and chemical; the chemical process involves the
breakdown of larger molecules into smaller ones, while the physical process
involves the breakdown of large food particles into smaller ones. Foodstuffs
are mainly complicated, insoluble substances that must be converted into
simpler, soluble, more active ones before they can be used by the body. Not
all nutrients need digesting, however, for there are some such as water and
simple sugars (e.g. glucose) and many vitamins and mineral salts which do
not need to be broken down. Whether or not nutrients need to be broken
down by digestion they cannot be utilized by the body until they have passed
into the bloodstream in a process which is known as absorption. Once in the
bloodstream nutrients are distributed to all the cells of the body where they
sustain the complex processes of metabolism.
THE ROLE OF ENZYMES IN DIGESTION
The chemical processes involved in digestion are brought about by enzymes.
The chemical breakdown of food molecules, which in the absence of
enzymes would be very slow, is speeded up so that digestion is completed in
a matter of hours. Thus, in three or four hours a remarkable change in the
nature of the food has occurred. Substances such as starch, which may
contain as many as 150,000 atoms in a single molecule, have been converted
into molecules containing only 24 atoms (simple sugars such as glucose). An
average protein molecule is split up into about 500 amino acid molecules
during digestion. These two examples perhaps make clearer the magnitude of
the chemical task performed by the enzymes of the digestive system.
Each stage of digestion involves hydrolysis and is catalyzed by a hydrolysing
enzyme or hydrolase. The hydrolysis can be represented as
AB + H2O --------------->AOH + BH
The equation shows how water is involved in splitting up a molecule AB into
two smaller molecules AOH and BH. In some instances, e.g. sucrose, a single
step involving the breakdown of a molecule into two parts is sufficient to
produce a small soluble molecule that can be absorbed. In other instances,
e.g. proteins, a very large number of hydrolytic steps is required before
breakdown is complete.
When food is eaten, the size of the individual pieces is reduced and saliva is
secreted by the salivary glands. Saliva becomes well mixed with food during
mastication, lubricating it and so making it easier to swallow. Saliva is a dilute
aqueous solution having solid content of only about 1%. Its main constituent
is a slimy substance called mucin which assists lubrication. It also contains
the enzyme salivary amylase, and various inorganic salts, the most abundant
being sodium chloride which furnishes chloride ions that activate the enzyme.
The initial hydrolysis of cooked starchy food is catalyzed by salivary amylase
in the mouth, and this catalytic action is continued as the food moves down
the oesophagus and into the stomach. The enzyme soon becomes
inactivated in the stomach, however, because it cannot tolerate a strongly
acid environment.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
167
Food is carried down the oesophagus by gentle muscular action called
peristalsis. The muscles contract, producing a peristaltic wave and this moves
down the oesophagus, carrying the food with it.
DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH
The stomach may be regarded as a reservoir in which food is prepared for the
main stage of digestion in the small intestine. This does not mean that no
digestion takes place there, for the cells in the lining of the stomach produce a
fluid called gastric juice. The two essential constituents of this (gastric juice)
dilute aqueous solution are its enzymes and its acid content. The main
enzyme is pepsin which is secreted as the inactive pepsinogen and which
becomes activated when it comes into contact with the hydrochloric acid
constituent of the gastric juice.
Some twenty minutes after starting to eat a meal, vigorous muscular
movements begin in the lower region of the stomach. Muscular contraction
produces an inward pressure and this moves down the stomach wall as a
peristaltic wave, so moving food through the stomach and causing it to
become mixed with the gastric juice. In this way the acidity of the semi-fluid
food mixture called chyme increases, until the endopeptidase pepsin is able
to catalyze the conversion of part of the protein into slightly simpler molecules
called peptones.
The other enzyme in the gastric juice is rennin, which also acts in an acid
medium and brings about the coagulation or clotting of milk. The acidity of the
gastric juice also causes some bacteria, which enter with the food, to be
killed. A copious flow of gastric juice is necessary during a meal and its
production is stimulated both by psychological and chemical means. Certain
foodstuffs act as chemical stimulants to secretion. Meat extractives, for
instance, which are dissolved out of meat when it is put in boiling water, are
particularly potent in this respect. Soups and meat dishes in which the
extractives have been preserved are therefore valuable aids to digestion in
the stomach.
DIGESTION IN THE SMALL INTESTINE
The main stage of digestion occurs during the passage of chyme through the
long, small intestine. As soon as food enters the duodenum, digestive juices
pour forth. There are three sources: the liver secretes bile which is then
stored by the gall bladder, and the pancreas secretes pancreatic juice - these
two secretions enter the small intestine; the third is produced in the lining of
the small intestine and is called the intestinal juice. They are all produced at
the same time and as they are alkaline they neutralize the acidity of the
chyme.
Under these conditions the enzymes of the three secretions are able to exert
their catalytic influence.
The pancreatic juice contains enzymes which enable it to help in the digestion
of the three main types of nutrient. The endopeptidases, trypsin and
chymotrypsin among others, carry on the degradation of proteins begun by
pepsin in the stomach; they complete the breakdown of proteins into
peptones. Pancreatic amylase is another enzyme present in the pancreatic
juice; its capacity for catalyzing the hydrolysis of large amounts of starch and
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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168
converting it into maltose should be discussed separately. Pancreatic lipase
brings about the partial hydrolysis of some fat molecules converting them into
simpler substances which can be absorbed.
The bile has no enzyme action, but contains bile salts which convert fats
(which are liquefied by the warmth of the stomach) into a fine emulsion of tiny
oil droplets which may be then acted upon by the lipase of the pancreatic
juice.
The intestinal juice contains a number of enzymes which break down the
double sugars into simple sugars that can be absorbed. A group of
exopeptidases, called erepsin, continue the breakdown of proteins begun by
the endopeptidases pepsin, trypsin and chymotrypsin. They attack the ends
of the chain-like peptone molecules until they are broken down into small
units called dipeptides containing only two amino acids. Finally, another group
of enzymes called dipeptidases break down the dipeptides into free amino
acids which can be absorbed.
ABSORPTION IN THE SMALL INTESTINE
The digestive process is almost complete after the food material has been in
the small intestine for some time. The proteins have been converted by
stages into amino acids; all carbohydrates, except cellulose, have been
broken down into simple, soluble sugars, while fats have been emulsified and
partly split into simpler substances called fatty acids and glycerol.
However, all these nutrients can be utilized by the body only after they have
passed into the bloodstream, by the process of absorption. The absorptive
process in the small intestine is not a simple one, and it involves both
diffusion and active transport. The mechanism of diffusion is explained in
terms of osmotic forces, which depend upon a concentration gradient across
the membrane. Diffusion of dissolved substances takes place so as to reduce
the concentration gradient, that is from the more concentrated to the less
concentrated solution, provided that the membrane is permeable to the
dissolved materials. Diffusion of soluble nutrients from the small intestine to
the bloodstream depends therefore on the concentration gradient and the
permeability of the membrane.
The mechanism whereby nutrients are absorbed against the concentration
gradient is known as active transport.
The products of protein and carbohydrate digestion, namely amino acids and
simple sugars, are absorbed by diffusion and active transport, but the
mechanism of fat absorption is a subject of some controversy. It seems safe
to say that some fat is absorbed undigested in an emulsified form and that the
minute fat droplets pass directly through pores in the intestinal wall; also that
some fat is absorbed in a partially hydrolized state and some as fatty acids
and glycerol.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
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ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
169
THE LARGE INTESTINE
About four hours after a meal has been eaten any food that has not been
digested and absorbed in the small intestine, passes into the large intestine.
No new enzymes are produced by the body during this stage but the large
intestine is a rich source of bacteria. These may attack undigested
substances such as cellulose with their own enzymes and partially break
them down. In addition, vitamin K and certain vitamins of the B group are
synthesized, i.e. built up by the bacteria.
The main function of the large intestine is to remove water from the fluid
mass; this process continues as the fluid passes along, so that by the time it
reaches the end of the tube it is in a semi-solid form known as faeces. In a
day, between 100 and 200 grams of moist faeces may be produced
containing undigested food material, residues from digestive juices, large
numbers of both living and dead bacteria, and water. After having been in the
large intestine for about twenty hours these materials are passed out of the
body.
TRANSPORT IN THE BODY
Food, after digestion and absorption, provides nutrients that are the raw
materials of body metabolism. But this process is not complete without an
efficient transport system capable of carrying nutrients to the cells that require
them. The constant circulation of blood through the body system enables
these nutrients to be transported to where they are needed. Blood, which is
four-fifth water, contains many substances, such as nutrients and hormones,
in solution. Other substances, such as the red blood corpuscles which
transport oxygen are present as cells in the blood and are carried round with it
in suspension. The heart pumps blood through the arteries to the capillaries.
There, nutrients and oxygen from the blood diffuse into the blood. Blood
carrying the waste material passes into a network of veins, carbon dioxide is
removed by the lungs, while soluble substances are removed by the kidneys.
GLOSSARY - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
digestion, n.
foodstuffs, n.
utilize, v.
bloodstream, n.
sustain, v.
absence, n.
magnitude, n.
task, n.
require, v.
saliva, n.
secrete, v.
-
probava
hrana
koristiti
krvotok
održavati; hraniti
odsutnost
velićina, važnost
dužnost; uloga
trebati, tražiti. zahtijevati
slina
izlučivati
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
All rights reserved
ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
salivary gland, n.
mastication, n.
lubricate, v.
lubrication, n. lubricant, n.
swallow, v.
stomach, n.
dilute, v.
slimy, adj.
abundant, adj.
furnish, v.
muscle, n.
constituent, n.
aqueous, adj.
inactive, adj.
gastric juice
vigorous, adj. inward, adj.
clotting, n.
copious, adj.
small intestine
bile, n.
gall bladder
lining, n.
exert pressure
droplet, n.
act (up)on
permeable, adj.
permeability, n.
faeces, n.pl.
corpuscle, n.
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
pljuvačna žlijezda
žvakanje
podmazati
podmazivanje
mazivo
gutati
želudac
razrijediti
sluzav
obilan
osigurati, opskrbiti
mišić
sastavni dio (bitan)
voden, vodenast
neaktivan
želučani sok
snažan
unutarnji
grušanje
obilan
tanko crijevo
žuč
žučni mjehur
sluznica
vršiti pritisak
kapljica
djelovati na
propusan
propusnost
fekalije
tjelešce
medium, n. pl: media
sredstvo, medij
oesophagus, n. pl: oesophagi - jednjak
EXERCISES
A.
1. Number the paragraphs.
2. Give a key word or a key sentence for each paragraph.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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170
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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171
B.
1. Fill in the blanks.
Digestion is both _________________ and __________________ . The
_____________ process involves the ________________ of larger
_______________ into __________ ones, while the _______________
process ______________ the breakdown of large ________________
_________________ into smaller ones.
When food is eaten, the _________ of individual pieces is __________ and
saliva is _______________ by the _______________ glands. ____________
becomes well mixed with _____________ during _______________,
________________ it and so making it ______________ to
_________________ .
C. Give definitions for:
a) foodstuffs b) absorption c) enzymes d) saliva e) mucin f) gastric juice g) rennin h) pancreatic juice i) intestinal juice j) pancreatic amylase k) faeces D. Make a table of classification for:
a) digestion in the small intestine
b) digestion in the large intestine
E. Transport in the body
1. Find all the sentences in the passive form and copy them in the
space below.
2. Translate the passage.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
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ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
4. Name the main phases of digestion.
5. Describe the role of enzymes in digestion.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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BOOK ONE
173
DETERMINATION OF SUGARS
TOTAL SUGARS
The phenol/sulphuric method can be recommended for sugar estimation
since it is sensitive, rapid and accurate. It estimates all sugars whether
reducing, non-reducing, substituted or in polymeric form. In potatoes after
storage, sucrose, fructose, and glucose, together constitute the majority of
sugars.
Put 2 cm3 of a sugar solution containing between 0.01 and 0.1 mg cm-3 of
sugar into a test tube or colorimeter tube and add 1 cm3 of an aqueous
solution of phenol. Add 5 cm3 of concentrated sulphuric acid rapidly, directing
the stream of acid against the solution surface in order to obtain good mixing.
Let the tubes stand for 10 minutes, then shake them and place them in a
water bath for 10 to 20 minutes at 25 to 30oC before taking the readings. A
colour filter should be chosen which transmits the wavelength that is most
strongly absorbed by the solution. This will be around 4.80 10-7 m. The colour
is stable for several hours and readings may be made later if necessary.
A standard curve may be prepared for solutions containing 0.02, 0.04 and 0.1
mg cm-3 sugar. If no colorimeter is available then the solutions of unknown
concentration may be compared visually with those of unknown
concentrations.
For determination of the total sugars, a standard curve for the
phenol/sulphuric acid reaction may be prepared from a mixture containing
equal proportions of glucose, fructose, and sucrose over a total concentration
range of 0.01 to 1 mg cm-3.
EXERCISES
A. Paragraph 1. Translate precisely consulting your dictionaries:
sugar estimation sensitive rapid accurate (non-) reducing substituted B. Translate Paragraph 1:
C. Why can the phenol/sulphuric method be recommended? Find the
answer in the text.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
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ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
D. Translate the rest of the passage.
E. Describe an experiment that you have done yourself.
F. Underline the verbal forms in Paragraph 2 and discuss them.
G. Underline all the modal verbs in Paragraphs 3 and 4.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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174
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
175
VITAMINS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
More than 30 compounds are known to have the properties of vitamins. They
are needed in very small amounts. Vitamins are raw materials for the
production of a large number of coenzymes, substances vitally important to
the function of many enzymes. Consequently, the long absence of vitamins
from a cell impairs metabolic processes and produces unsteady or diseased
states.
In this connection, careful distinction should be made between the biological
and clinical effects of a deficiency. Most, and possibly all cells of an organism,
require most or all vitamins. If a vitamin deficiency exists, some metabolic
process in cells will be impaired. This is a biological effect.
The B vitamin riboflavin, for example, is a precursor of a coenzyme that
functions during respiration. If riboflavin is in deficient supply, respiratory
reactions in cells will be affected.
Superimposed on such biological effects are clinical ones. They become
evident when the cells of given tissues or organs are more sensitive to a
deficiency than other cells. Such sensitive cells will then exhibit symptoms of
disease sooner or more pronouncedly than others: For example, riboflavin
deficiency in mammals has long been known to lead to loss of hair, to growth
failure, and to eye disorders.
By themselves, clinical data alone would imply that riboflavin is required
specifically in hair, bones and eyes. Actually, however, clinical results
represent only the large-scale secondary consequences of the deeper
biological effects of deficiency, which influence most or all cells.
EXERCISES
A. 1. Consulting your dictionaries complete the glossary with Croatian
equivalents for the words listed.
GLOSSARY - VITAMINS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
consequently, adv.
unsteady
deficiency
affected
given (tissues)
fail
failure
large - scale impair
distinction
superimposed
pronouncedly
imply
-
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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B. SYNONYMS
impair
affect
consequenceconsequently
failure
pronounced
distinction
imply
secondary
impose
super
damage, harm
influence
effects, after-effect
therefore, accordingly, hence
omission of performance of and action or task
definite, decided
difference
suggest, indicate, point
subordinate, inferior
use, exploit
highly, exceptionally, very
C. ANTONYMS
Now give the antonyms (opposite meanings) for the words listed in exercise
B.
D. Identify the following:
1. produce coenzymes 2. absence impairs metabolic processes 3. vitamin deficiency, metabolic process impaired 4. the cells of given tissues more sensitive to a deficiency than others E. FACTUAL QUESTIONS
1. Why are vitamins raw materials?
2. What is the consequence of a prolonged absence of vitamins from
cells?
3. Explain the difference between biological and clinical effects of
vitamin deficiency in a cell.
4. Take the example of riboflavin and explain the difference between
biological and clinical effects.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
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ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
F. Write the adjective and then the adverb of the following nouns:
Example:
science
scientific
scientifically
NOUN
ADJECTIVE
ADVERB
problem
curiosity
truth
experiment
hypothesis
instrument
universe
G. Translate the passage into Croatian.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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178
VITAMINS
Until about 70 years ago it was supposed that a diet containing adequate
amounts of protein, carbohydrate, fat, mineral elements and water would be
sufficient for the maintenance of health. It was found, however, that animals
fed on an artificial diet containing only these nutrients did not thrive and it is
now known that small quantities of certain other nutrients called vitamins are
required in addition.
Vitamins are organic compounds found in small amounts in many foods; their
presence in the diet is essential because, with a few exceptions, the body is
unable to synthesize them from other nutrients. In the case of most vitamins a
deficiency will cause a check in the growth of children and this is usually
aggravated by a loss of appetite. Various diseases called deficiency diseases,
are also associated with shortages of specific vitamins. Deficiency diseases
have been the cause of much suffering and death for many centuries but
today they can be prevented and cured by ensuring that the diet contains a
sufficient quantity and variety of vitamins.
Most vitamins are very complex chemically; they do not belong to one
chemical family but are all quite different from each other. However, the
structures of all of them are known and, with one exception, they can be
prepared synthetically. Before their structures were determined the vitamins
were designated by letters as vitamin A, vitamin B and so on. They are now
known by names which give some indication of their chemical structure and in
general these names are used in preference to the letters.
Foods contain only very small quantities of vitamins, but these small amounts
carry out some of the most important tasks in the body. Members of the B
group of vitamins form part of several coenzyme molecules which are
absolutely necessary for the maintenance of good health. The other vitamins
are essential, though in some cases their exact job in the chemistry of the
body is not known.
Only small amounts of vitamins are needed by the body and the minute
quantities present in foods are usually sufficient for man's needs. They are,
however, distributed among many types of food, and to ensure that all the
vitamins are represented in the diet it is important that a variety of different
foods is eaten. The vitamin content of a food can vary quite considerably.
This is especially so with fruit and vegetables, where the vitamin content
depends, among other things, on the freshness and variety, and climatic
conditions during its growth. It is so important that sufficient quantities of
vitamins are consumed that in some cases extra vitamins are added to food.
Examples have already been encountered in connection with flour, to which
the vitamins thiamine and nicotinic acid are added to replace what has been
lost during milling, and margarine to which vitamins A and D are added. In
these cases synthetic vitamins are used and this demonstrates how useful a
knowledge of their structures is because otherwise synthesis would be
impossible.
All the known vitamins have now been isolated in a pure form and
international units can be precisely defined in terms of the weight of pure
vitamin. Vitamin C, for example, has been prepared in crystalline form and the
international unit defined as 0.05 mg of the pure vitamin.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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BOOK ONE
VITAMINS
NAME
MAIN SOURCES
FUNCTION IN THE BODY
AND THE EFFECT OF SHORTAGE
Vit.
A
Green vegetables, milk
dairy products, margarine,
fish liver oil
Necessary for healthy skin
and for normal growth and
development. Deficiency will
slow down growth and may
lead to disorders of the skin,
lowered resistance to infection
and disturbances of vision
such as night blindness.
Vit.
B
Bread and flour, meat,
milk, potatoes, yeast
extracts.
Function as co-enzymes in
many of the reactions
Involved in making use of food.
Shortage causes loss of appetite,
Slows growth and development and
impairs general health. Severe
deficiency may lead to a
deficiency disease such as
pellagra or beriberi.
Vit.
C
Green vegetables, fruits
potatoes, black current
syrup, rosehip syrup
Vit.
D
Margarine, butter milk,
fish liver oils, fat fish
Necessary for the proper
formation
of teeth, bones and blood
vessels.
Shortage causes a check in
the growth of children and if
prolonged may lead to the
disease scurvy.
Necessary for the formation
of strong bones and teeth.
A shortage may cause rickets
and possibly dental decay.
GLOSSARY
vitamin, n.
diet, n.
adequate, adj.
sufficient, adj.
maintenance, n.
health, n.
-
vitamin
hrana ishrana
odgovarajući
dovoljan
održavanje
zdravlje
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
nutrient, n.
nutrient, adj.
thrive, v.(throve, thriven)deficiency, n.
check, n.
check in the growth aggravate, v.
loss, n.
disease, n.
death, n.
ensure, v.
designate, v.
preference, n.
task, n.
distribute, v.
flour, n.
milling, n.
margarine, n.
demonstrate, v.
source, n.
dairy products, n. liver, n.
shortage, n.
slow down, v.
disorder, n.
vision, n.
yeast, n.
impairment, n.
severe, adj.
pellagra, n.
beriberi, n.
black currant, n.
rosehip, n.
blood vessel, n.
scurvy, n.
rickets, n.
-
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
hranjiva tvar
hranjiv
napredovati
nedostatak, pomanjkanje
zastoj
zastoj u rastu, razvoju
pogoršati, otežati
gubitak
bolest
smrt
osigurati
odrediti, označiti
prednost
zadatak
razdijeliti
brašno
meljava brašna
margarin
pokazati, dokazati
izvor
mliječni proizvodi
jetra
manjak, nestašica, nedostatak
usporiti
poremećaj
vid
kvasac
oštećenje
ozbiljan
pelagra
beriberi
crni ribiz
šipak
krvna žila
skorbut
rahitis
EXERCISES
A. Say whether these sentences are true or false. Use the table to
Justify your answers.
___1. Milk is poor in vitamins A and B
___2. An adequate supply of vitamin C can be obtained from milk.
___3. Fresh fruit contains a considerable amount of vitamin C.
___4. Shortage of vitamin A causes the disease scurvy.
___5. Vitamin C deficiency causes a check in the growth of children.
___6. Fish liver oil is rich in vitamin A.
___7. The B vitamins function as co-enzymes.
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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BOOK ONE
___8. An insufficient amount of vitamin D may cause rickets.
B. Complete the sentences using the following words:
skin, deficiency, severe, necessary, shortage.
1. Vitamin A is necessary for healthy ............... .
2. A ................ in vitamin A causes bad teeth.
3. Grow strong and healthy. ............... .
4. The state of having less than is needed. ................ .
5. That which is contained in something ................ .
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ASCORBIC ACID
Ascorbic acid, or vitamin C, is a white water-soluble solid of formula C6H8O6.
In spite of the name ascorbic acid the molecule does not contain a free
carboxyl group. It is really a lactone formed from the free acid by loss of water
between the carboxyl group on one carbon atom and the hydroxyl group on
another.
Lactones behave very like as acids and for many purposes can be regarded
as such. Ascorbic acid has the sharp taste optically active and is
dextrorotatory. Ascorbic acid is a good reducing agent and consequently it is
easily oxidized. The oxidation product dehydroascorbic acid is easily
reconverted into ascorbic acid by mild reducing agents and because this
reduction can be accomplished by the body it is as active as the ascorbic acid
and only small amounts are present in foods.
Of all the vitamins, ascorbic acid is the most easily destroyed by oxidation,
and in extracts, juices, and foods with cut surfaces, it may be oxidized by
exposure to air. The oxidation is catalysed by oxidases which are contained
within the cells of foodstuffs and are set free on cutting, chopping or crushing.
The rate of oxidation is greatly accelerated by heat, by alkalis and especially
by traces of copper which catalyses the oxidation. The rate of oxidation is
diminished in a weak acid solution and by storage in the cold.
Ascorbic acid occurs mainly in vegetable foods. Fruits are usually good
sources, but many popular eating apples, pears and plums supply negligible
amounts. Green vegetables and potatoes are the most important sources of
ascorbic acid in our diet.
GLOSSARY - ASCORBIC ACID
reducing agent, n.
ascorbic acid, n.
lactone, n.
dextrorotatory, adj.
consequently, adv.
convert, v.
accomplish, v.
exposure, n.
catalyse, v.
foodstuffs, n.
cutting, n.
chopping, n.
crushing, n.
trace, n.
diminish, v.
-
redukcijski agens
askorbinska kiselina
lakton
desnorotirajući
zbog toga, dosljedno tome
pretvoriti
postići
izloženost
katalizirati
prehrambeni proizvodi
rezanje
sjeckanje
drobljenje
trag
umanjiti
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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EXERCISES
A. Read the text carefully and suggest a suitable heading for each
paragraph.
Paragraph 1. ...............................
Paragraph 2. ...............................
Paragraph 3. ...............................
Paragraph 4. ...............................
B. Decide whether the following statements are true or not true
according to the text. Correct the false statements.
_____1. Vitamin C has all the characteristics of a true acid.
_____2. In spite of being a good reducing agent, ascorbic acid is easily
oxidized.
_____3. Vitamin C is so stable that it is not affected by exposure to air.
_____4. The best way of providing the necessary amount of vitamin C is
to eat as many apples as possible.
_____5. Food articles containing ascorbic acid should be stored in dark
and cold places.
C. Find the words in paragraphs 2 and 3 similar in meaning to:
consider
connect
quantity
inside
decrease
particularly
-
D. Find opposites in column B for the words in column A.
A
B
___ 1. major
___ 2. harmless
___ 3. palatable
___ 4. live
___ 5. desirable
___ 6. tough
___ 7. favourable
___ 8. active
___ 9. sufficient
a. unpalatable
b. dead
c. minor
d. harmful
e. insufficient
f. dormant
g. soft
h. unfavourable
i. undesirable
E. Before each word in list A write the letter that indicates the meaning
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from list B.
1. consequently
2. accomplish
3. associate with
4. regard
5. stable
6. accelerate
7. diminish
8. weak
9. convert
a. achieve
b. consider
c. change
d. as a result of
e. connect
f. not strong
g. make smaller
h. make faster
i. that does not change easily
F. Fill the blank beside each adverb with a related adjective and the
blank beside each verb with a related adverb.
adequately continue consequently simplify recently generalize steadily regularly understandably -
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
G. Choose the correct ending for each sentence:
1. In spite of the name ascorbic acid
a) does not contain a free carboxyl group
b) contains a free carboxyl group
2. Lactones behave much like
a) acids
b) dye
3. Ascorbic acid
a) is a good reducing agent
b) is not easily oxidised
4. Dehydroascorbic acid
a) is easily reconverted into ascorbic acid
b) cannot be reconverted into ascorbic acid
5. Of all the vitamins ascorbic acid
a) is the most easily destroyed by oxidation
b) cannot be oxidised by air
6. Ascorbic acid occurs
a) mainly in vegetables
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b) mainly in fruits
H. Complete the following sentences using:
in spite of; regarded as; consequently;
accomplish; contained; the rate of; set free; negligible;
1. __________________of oxidation is accelerated by heat.
2. The oxidation is catalyzed by oxidases which are ____________ within
the cells of foodstuffs.
3. The oxidases are _________________--on cutting, chopping, etc.
4. _____________of its name ascorbic acid molecule does not contain a
free carboxyl group.
5. Lactones can be ________________ as acids.
6. Ascorbic acid is a good reducing agent and _______________ it is
easily oxidised.
7. This reduction can be _______________by the body.
8. Fruits supply ascorbic acid in __________________ amounts.
I. Translate the following passage into Croatian.
GERMS MAY BLOCK ABSORPTION OF VITAMIN C
You've been stricken with the very latest bug. Maybe it's bronchitis or an ear
infection. At any rate, you probably feel miserable. What's your next step
besides bed rest? You may need extra vitamin C - researchers believe. They
have found that endotoxin, a natural product of the bacteria that are torturing
you in the first place, blocks the body's absorption of vitamin C. What this
means is that the amount of vitamin C that gets to your body tissues could be
a lot less than the amount in your diet. So the amount of vitamin C that keeps
you running when you're healthy probably isn't enough when you're sick.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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Additional Reading
SUPERNUTRITION
For the best (radiant) health, you must boost a good diet with vitamins and
minerals. But which ones? How much? What do they do for you? This
exhaustive report packs the latest, need-to-know nutritional bulletins.
What's the big news in the nutrition field today? It's that many experienced
physicians have finally come to recognize that vitamins in relatively high
dosages are extremely helpful in maintaining and restoring health. Fifteen
years ago, the same physicians said: " Go ahead and take vitamins - if you
want to throw your money away!"
Nowadays those same physicians routinely advise patients to use a highpotency vitamin-mineral supplement plus large extra amount of C and E. Like
thousands of others in this profession, they have changed from a
conservative, antivitamin position to a liberal, provitamin one.
Large segments of the medical establishment - The American Medical
Association (AMA), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and medical-school
faculties generally - continue, however, to more or less disparage the use of
nutritional supplements.
Judging from recent trends in medical practice and public opinion, the
conservatives appear to be losing a great deal of their support.
"These anti-vitamin people are antiquated individuals", say most nutritionists
and psychiatrists, "Where have they been? Haven't they read the research?"
(Dr. Berger's Immune Power Diet).
There is no doubt, for example, that vitamins A, C, and E profoundly affect
the quality of your immune system. The efficacy of certain vitamins on certain
systems is awesome. Vitamin C even causes interferon (a germ-fighting
substance) to be produced.
Among pro-vitamin physicians, the current approach is to advise a vitamin
intake far in excess of the official RDA (Recommended Dietary Allowance).
The RDA's are minimal doses, calculated to prevent outright deficiency in the
average healthy individual rather than to fully nourish the tissues, so the
dosage is considered inadequate. A further problem with the RDA is that
there is no such thing as a biochemically average person. Requirements for
specific nutrients can vary widely from one individual to another. In the days
of the early sailing ships, when scurvy (vitamin C deficiency) was a big
problem, some sailors become mildly ill, others severely ill, and still others
died. But many remained entirely free of symptoms! say conservatives. In
animal studies, researchers found rats that appeared to need forty times the
amount of vitamin A required by others and guinea pigs that required at least
twenty times the amount of vitamin C needed by their litter-mates.
What this means in practical terms is that it is not easy to predict anyone's
needs for vitamins and other essential nutrients. Some superhardy individuals
seem able to thrive on "inadequate" diets with no vitamin supplementation at
all. At the other end of the scale are those people who, because of genetic
defects or acquired deficiencies, are unable to function without extremely
heavy doses of certain nutrients, such as niacin, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), and
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folic acid. In between is the great majority, whose needs vary from modest to
large and do not conform to any pattern.
If you are taking a moderately potent multivitamin, a provitamin health expert
would probably tell you that you are getting more of some nutrient than you
need, the right amount of others, and not enough of still others. An antivitamin physician might comment that you don't need any of these nutrients in
tablet form as long as your diet is well balanced.
Today, most pro-vitamin physicians and nutritionists believe in supernutrition,
in feeding people a better than natural diet. The vitamin dosages being
advocated nowadays are much higher than those recommended by nutrition
authorities twenty or thirty years ago.
The other big news in nutrition is that many new uses have been found for
vitamins and other nutrients. Since the essential nutrients (vitamins, minerals,
fatty acids, amino acids, and certain other food substances) are generally
harmless under toxic levels, nutritional research can be done at the clinical
level by experimenting with actual patients. This process is much more rapid
than traditional drug research, which requires that a new medication be
extensively tested on animals, then on human volunteers, before it is released
to the public. Here, in brief, are some of the recent discoveries.
Vitamin A to guard against cancer. A few years ago, the National Research
Council came out with a report stating that eating a diet low in fat and
abundant in fruits and vegetables may reduce the risk of cancer. The key
ingredient in fruits and vegetables is beta-carotene, the chemical origin of
vitamin A. In a study that examined the eating habits and health histories of
over 265,000 people, it was found that those who followed a diet rich in betacarotene had about half the normal risk of getting cancer. Beta-carotene is
the chemical responsible for the yellowish-orange color of such produce as
carrots, squash, cantaloupes, and apricots. It is also present in most green
leafy vegetables. If you eat these foods regularly - five times a week or more you probably have sufficient dietary protection against cancer. If not, it might
be wise to take a beta-carotene supplement. So called A-complex capsules,
which provide both vitamin A and beta-carotene, are now available.
Vitamin B6 for mental health. While it has long been known that lack of
certain B vitamins - in particular B1, niacin, and B12 (cobalamin) - can cause
mental-emotional problems, many researchers have turned their attention to
vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) in recent years. B6 is known to be a mood elevator,
especially for women who suffer anxiety or depression. Some researchers
have found a combination of B6, zinc, and manganese to be helpful in
treating certain forms of schizophrenia, and others studying the effects of
nutrition on behavior, say that B6, combined with magnesium and C, is
important in helping autistic children.
Vitamins C and E for the immune system. These two substances, say
nutritionists, are invaluable in maintaining health and prolonging longevity.
Vitamin C strengthens the body's capacity to fight illness and also raises the
level of interferon in the blood. Vitamin E is an antagonist of free radicals,
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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unstable chemicals produced when oxygen is used up by the cells. Because
free radicals react readily with other chemicals within the cells, they can
cause damage to cellular control mechanisms and are believed to be at the
root of the aging process. Since vitamin E is a potent antidote to free radicals,
some researchers have called it the youth vitamin.
So far we have been talking about the standard vitamins with which we are all
more or less familiar. Recent research also suggests that other nutrients fatty acids and amino acids - are extremely important in maintaining health.
GLA, the mother's milk fatty acid. Gamma-linolenic acid is the by-product of
an essential fatty acid called linoleic. In the normal human body, GLA is
manufactured from ordinary linolenic, a substance found in dietary fat and
oils. The body then uses GLA to make PGE1, a prostaglandin that may be
helpful in inhibiting blood clotting, dilating blood vessels, lowering cholesterol
levels, and reducing inflammation. Some people are unable to produce GLA
because of disease, stress, aging, a high-fat diet, and excessive use of
alcohol, among other reasons. Low levels of GLA may lead to PMS
(premenstrual syndrome), eczema, and arthritis.
There are only two natural sources of GLA: mother's milk and the oil of the
evening primrose, a flower used medicinally by American Indians and
exported by the early settlers back to England, where it has been used as an
herbal remedy for over two hundred years. it is only recently that the active
ingredient in evening primrose oil was found to be GLA.
Clinical research has found many uses for evening primrose oil. Canadian
endocrinologists have discovered that it produces dramatic improvement in
sufferers of PMS. British experiments have shown that evening primrose oil
causes significant improvement in many cases of chronic eczema. Another
British research group has reported significant improvement in hyperactive
children who were given evening primrose oil.
One of the most promising uses of GLA appears to be in treating alcoholism.
B.E. Leonard, professor of pharmacology at University College, Galway,
Ireland, has discovered in animal experiments that alcohol damages the brain
cells by interfering with the fat composition of the membranes surrounding the
cells. When the oil is administered, says Leonard, most of these damaging
effects are reversed. Supplements of evening primrose oil, together with B
complex vitamins (especially thiamin) might help some alcoholics. Ian Geln,
M.D., a Scottish psychiatrist, administered evening primrose oil to 120
alcoholics in withdrawal and noted that they recovered more quickly and had
fewer symptoms (hallucinations, nervousness) than would ordinarily be
expected. In informal experiments with primrose, a number of heavy drinkers
reported they were no longer able to get very drunk, had less desire for
alcohol than before, and experienced fewer hangovers.
Evening primrose oil contains forty-five milligrams of GLA per five-hundredmilligram capsule. The usual daily dose for PMS symptoms is six to eight
capsules. After two to three months, the dose can be reduced to two
capsules.
Glutamine, the antialcohol amino acid. This substance was mentioned in
1971 as a promising remedy for alcoholism. Today it is on the market in the 1MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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glutamine form. In experiments with drinkers, it appears to mitigate the effects
of alcohol and to prevent hangovers when taken before drinking and relieve
them when taken afterward in doses of two to four grams. Glutamine has the
capacity to directly nourish the brain. It cannot be obtained from dietary
protein.
Tryptophan, sleep aid and antidepressant. This is an essential amino acid,
supplied in the diet by such foods as milk, chicken, turkey, beef, peanuts,
yoghurt, and cheese. Because of either a low-protein diet or an amino-acid
imbalance, some people do not obtain enough of the substance. Tryptophan
is needed by the brain to produce serotonin, a vital neurotransmitter that
exerts a calming effect on the nervous system. When serotonin is
undersupplied, anxiety, depression, and insomnia may result. In many cases
the administration of tryptophan will relieve these symptoms. (Usual daily
dosage is one or two grams on an empty stomach.)
Phenylalanine for weight loss, Phenylalanine is an amino acid abundant in
cheddar cheese, beef, lamb, nuts, brewer's yeast, and wheat germ. Some
people may be deficient in phenylalanine, which is essential in creating
epinephrine, a hormone that mobilizes the body's energies and is important in
the burning up of fat reserves. According to Dr. Berger, phenylalanine is also
an appetite suppressant. Here is his recipe for a "diet cocktail": one thousand
milligrams vitamin C, five hundred milligrams phenylalanine, and one hundred
milligrams vitamin B6. Take before bed, on an empty stomach, and it will
lower your appetite the next day.
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WHAT VITAMINS CANNOT DO FOR YOU
Vitamins are not a cure-all. They cannot for instance:
1.Compensate for a mediocre diet. If you live on coffee, doughnuts, and fastfood dinners, no amount of vitamin-mineral supplementation is going to make
you healthy, though it may prevent extreme malnutrition. Trying to improve a
bad diet with vitamins is like trying to turn kerosene into high-octane fuel by
pouring in an additive - it won't work. To get the maximum benefit from
vitamins, you need to consume adequate amounts of meat, fowl, fish, nuts,
whole grains, dairy products, and vegetables.
2. Make up for lack of exercise. Nature and evolution have designed the
human body for exertion, not rest. If you lead a sedentary life, never standing
when you can sit, never walking when you can ride, and never lifting anything
heavier than a box of Kleenex, you can expect to suffer physically, no matter
how good your diet and nutritional supplements are. Women are luckier than
men in this respect - female hormones tend to prevent cardiovascular
deterioration in sedentary women until middle age or, in some cases, the
onset of the menopause. This merely postpones the inevitable, however.
Look around you and you will see hundreds of inactive women in their fifties
and sixties who suffer from high blood pressure diabetes, and other ailments
or are so weak they barely have the strength to open a door, get up from a
chair, or climb a flight of stairs. You don't have to be a super jock to maintain
physical fitness - just exert yourself regularly. Spend fifteen to thirty minutes a
day jogging, walking briskly, dancing, playing Ping-Pong or racketball,
skipping rope - anything that will elevate your pulse, get you slightly out of
breath, and cause you to break out in a mild sweat. Carefully lift a heavy
object - forty to seventy pounds - for thirty seconds. Do a few minutes of
callisthenics, stretching exercises, or yoga in which you move all the joints of
your body as far as they will go in every direction. This simple daily regimen
should be enough to keep you in reasonably good shape.
3. Redeem you from an unhappy, frustrated, stressful life. Some of the most
unhealthy-looking people of your age who look skinny, sallow, tense, may be
nutrition fanatics. They haunt health-stores, take double doses of every
known nutritional supplement, eat only "approved" foods such as granola,
wheat germ, yoghurt, beef liver, tofu, and organically grown vegetables.
Nevertheless, they may suffer from depression, anxiety, insomnia, skin
problems, and indigestion, to name only a few of their problems. They may
have problems at home or at work. Despite all this unpleasantness they
blame only poor nutrition, not their life-style, for whatever problems they
encounter. Are they despondent? Is it because there is too much copper or
not enough selenium in their diet. Angry and discontent? Maybe their body
has become unable to absorb calcium, etc.
These people believe in magic rather than the actuality of nutrition. What they
really need is counselling, the gumption to turn their lives around, or both.
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4. Substitute the traditional therapy in cases of serious or life-threatening
disease.
Though vitamin therapy may help or relieve many serious complaints, not one
of the provitamin experts believes that a patient should self-medicate with
nutrients instead of seeking medical advice. Vitamin therapy is something you
should try in addition to medical treatment.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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CAN VITAMINS BE BAD FOR YOU?
In general, vitamins are harmless to adult users except when administered in
absurdly high doses. Even then, the bad effects are temporary and will be
reversed when dosages are lowered. This is not the case with infants and
small children, who are much more susceptible to nutrient overdose. Do not
give vitamins to an infant without the consent of a doctor.
For a grown-up, the fat-soluble vitamins A and D are potentially the most
troublesome. Since these vitamins are stored in the body, they can reach
toxic levels when oversupplied. You should not take more than twenty-five
thousand international units (I.U.) of A or one thousand I.U. of D daily except
on the advice of your physician.
The B vitamins are water-soluble and do not build up in the body. Any excess
of a B vitamin is usually excreted harmlessly. Nevertheless, there are
precautions you should take. B is a group of vitamins that work together as a
complex. Do not use large doses of one B vitamin without supplying moderate
doses of all the others, because this will aggravate any existing deficiencies.
Be careful of vitamin B6: Recent reports show that B6 in megadoses above
five hundred milligrams can produce temporary nerve damage. Do not take
more than two hundred milligrams of B6 per day except under the careful
supervision of a doctor.
Vitamin C is safe in doses up to five grams (five thousand milligrams) or
more. Some people, however, suffer indigestion or diarrhea when taking
ascorbic acid in gram quantities. If this should happen, switch to sodium
ascorbate ( a non-acid form of C).
Vitamin E can be dangerous in high dosages (more than four hundred I.U. per
day), especially to patients with arterial disease, who may react badly
because E causes the heart to beat more vigorously. If you suffer from
hardening of the arteries, do not take E without consulting your physician.
Minerals are potentially much more dangerous than vitamins. Of the minerals
recommended in this article, iron, magnesium, and selenium can be
extremely toxic in large amounts. Do not take them in dosages larger than
advised.
WHICH VITAMINS DO YOU NEED - AND IN WHAT AMOUNTS?
The following chart is based on the recommendations of provitamin
physicians who believe in supernutrition - taking nutrients in a quantity
sufficient to ensure full nutrition of all the cells. The basic dosages given are
for the average, more-or-less healthy individual. If you are free of major
diseases and do not suffer much from colds, headaches, allergies, and other
minor complaints, this is the dosage you should start with.
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Someone moderately unhealthy - subject to insomnia, nervousness,
respiratory infections, weakness, fatigue, skin trouble, and frequent minor
infections - may require a higher dosage.
If you are seriously ill with a debilitating or life-threatening disease or a
mental/emotional complaint, such as acute depression, the topmost dosages
are probably indicated. (In addition, you should put yourself in the care of a
nutritionally trained physician.)
Other factors are also important in deciding your dosage. You will need extragenerous amounts of vitamins if you:
smoke
drink alcohol
exercise strenuously
take the Pill
get inadequate sleep
drink a lot of coffee or tea
take antibiotics or strong medication
take illicit drugs like marijuana or cocaine
are on a reducing diet
are under physical or emotional stress
VITAMINS
BASIC DOSAGE
Vitamin A (retinol)
HIGHER DOSAGE
10,000 I.U.
25,000 I.U.
BASIC DOSAGE
HIGHER
Helps resist infection,
builds healthy skin and
organ tissue, promotes
healthy eyes and vision.
VITAMINS
DOSAGE
Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
Essential for normal functioning if nervous system,
muscles, and heart.
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
10 to 25 mgs.
10 to 15 mgs.
50 to 200 mgs.
50 to
200 mgs.
Essential for healthy eyes,
skin, nails, and hair. Promotes growth and general
health. Helps prevent cataracts.
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Niacin
194
50 mgs.
100 to 200 mgs.
200 mgs.
400 to 500 mgs.
VITAMINS
DOSAGE
BASIC DOSAGE
HIGHER
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)
10 mgs.
50 to 200 mgs.
100 to 200 mgs.
400 to 500 mgs.
100 to 200 mgs.
400 to 500 mgs.
Essential for nervous and
circulatory systems. Maintains
proper protein and carbohydrate metabolism. May
prevent headaches and
insomnia.
Pantothenic acid
Important for the release
of energy from carbohydrates, fats, and protein.
Vital to the proper functioning of the adrenal glands.
Protects against physical
and mental stress.
Essential for protein and
fat metabolism and in
formation of antibodies.
Aids nervous system and
brain functioning. Can relieve symptoms of epilepsy, cerebral palsy, and
certain types of anaemia.
Choline
Important for the metabolism
of fats. Helps regulate liver
and gall bladder functioning.
Useful in treating high blood
pressure and kidney disease.
Inositol
Vital for hair growth and
formation of lecithin.
Useful against high blood
cholesterol and hair loss.
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Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
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BOOK ONE
Folic acid
400 mcgs.
600 to 800 mcgs.
100 mgs.
500 to 1,000 mgs.
195
Necessary (with vitamin B12)
for production of red blood
cells. Aids cellular growth and
production of RNA and DNA.
Helps prevent anaemia and
gastrointestinal disorders.
PABA (para-aminobenzoic
acid)
Prevents premature aging
of hair. Useful against sunburn and in treating certain
skin disorders.
VITAMINS
DOSAGE
BASIC DOSAGE
HIGHER
Biotin
150 t0 300 mcgs
200 t0 500 mcgs.
100 mcgs.
300 to 500 mcgs.
Needed for protein, carbohydrate, and fat metabolism.
Helps prevent skin disorders,
muscle pains, and depression.
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin)
Necessary (with folic acid)
for producing red blood cells.
Protects against anaemia and
nervousness.
Vitamin C
(ascorbic acid)
1,000 to 2,000 mgs.
3,000 to 5,000 mgs.
Essential for wound healing,
production of red blood cells,
and the formation of connective tissue. Protects against
infection.
Vitamin D
400 I.U.
600 t0 1,000 I.U.
Aids the absorption of
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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BOOK ONE
196
calcium and other minerals.
Helps maintain healthy bones
and teeth. Guards against
muscular weakness.
Necessary for a stable nervous
system and normal heart
action.
Vitamin E (tocopherol)
200 t0 400 I.U.
600 to 1,200 I.U.
Protects red blood cells
and prevents blood clots.
Vital in cellular respiration.
May be essential for health
of reproductive organs.
MINERALS
Calcium
400 to 600 mgs.
800 to 1,200 mgs.
Builds bones and teeth.
Normalizes metabolism.
Aids in muscle action and
in maintaining normal heart
function. Acts as a natural
tranquilliser and sleepinducer.
Magnesium
200 to 300 mgs.
400 to 600 mgs.
Aids in the utilization of fats,
carbohydrates, calcium, and
other minerals. Essential for
healthy muscles, heart, and
bones, and for the synthesis
of proteins.
Iron
10 to 18 mgs.
20 to 25 mgs.
Needed to make hemoglobin, which carries oxygen
throughout the body. Helps
in protein metabolism.
Prevents anaemia.
Zinc
30 to 50 mgs.
75 to 100 mgs.
Promotes healing of wounds.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
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ISBN 953-188-219-3
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
Helps synthesize body protein.
Necessary for production of
male hormones.
Selenium
75 to 100 mcgs.
150 to 300 mcgs.
Antioxidant. Acts to make
vitamin E more efficient
in the body.
EXERCISES
A. After you have carefully read the text consulting your dictionaries
make a list of the most important words in the text. (key words) giving
the Croatian equivalent as well.
B.
1. Composition of the text. Number the paragraphs in the passage. Give
a key sentence for each paragraph.
2. Which are the two opposite opinions considering vitamin and mineral
supplementation to our diet mentioned in the passage. Give your
opinion on the subject.
3. Make a list of food supplements discussed in the passage.
4. Name food supplements (if any) in the passage you have not heard
of before.
5. Write a list of cases where vitamins or minerals cannot help:
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
6. Write a short list of cases when vitamins and minerals can be
dangerous to our health.
7. What are the absolute musts or must nots in case of vitamin and
mineral use we must keep in mind all the time?
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198
A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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199
NEW DISCOVERIES IN MINERAL NUTRITION
MAGNESIUM
Much of the Western world does not get enough magnesium, and the result
could be a higher incidence of heart disease and hypertension. That is
because many areas are served by a soft-water drinking supply, which lacks
the magnesium content of hard water. Magnesium plays a part in keeping
your heart muscle beating rhythmically. People living in hard-water areas may
complain that their soap will not lather as readily. On the other hand, the
incidence of heart disease related deaths is 10.1 percent lower than in softwater regions, according to the journal Magnesium.
Additionally, studies show a relationship between low magnesium levels and
high blood pressure and stroke.
Your muscles, bones, nerves and teeth also need this multipurpose mineral.
At the University of California at Davis, rats fed a magnesium-deficient diet
ran out of gas faster than their brother rats, who consumed a normal diet.
This research suggests that the rats' exercise capacity declined along with the
magnesium in their diet. People who attempt suicide may have low levels of
magnesium in cerebrospinal fluid, according to a research in Hungary.
Magnesium is thought to be necessary for the release of serotonin, a
neurotransmitter that strikes a balance between manic depressed behaviour.
The Recommended Daily Allowance for magnesium is from 300 milligrams for
women to 350 milligrams for men. Nuts and whole-grain cereals are good
food sources of magnesium.
CALCIUM
Calcium helps build up your bones and helps prevent osteoporosis. Exercise
helps speed the calcium along on its way to your skeleton. When you are
inactive, your body decides you do not need as much calcium, and the
mineral is flushed out of your bones, a little at a time. Of all the minerals in
your body, calcium is the king. There is more of it than of any other mineral.
Without it, your blood could not clot, your teeth would turn to mush and your
heart would not beat properly. We also know that men consume more
calcium-bearing foods than women do. It is thought to be one of the reason
women are more at risk from osteoporosis.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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BOOK ONE
200
SELENIUM
Scientists first became interested in selenium because of its toxic effects.
Livestock grazing on selenium-laden soil developed corroded hooves. In the
course of subsequent research, scientists came across evidence that
selenium might reduce the incidence or tumours.
That marked the beginning of cancer research with selenium.
To track the relationship of selenium to cancer in humans, researchers have
collected blood samples and followed up to see who developed cancer. So
far, a majority of studies have linked higher selenium levels with a lower risk
of cancer.
Because the line between "safe" and "dangerous" levels of selenium is small,
other researchers are working to develop man-made selenium-containing
compounds, that have fewer toxic effects, but can still suppress tumours. The
compounds they developed are promising. Even at a higher dose levels,
these compounds are not toxic to lab animals.
GLOSSARY - NEW DISCOVERIES IN MINERAL NUTRITION
incidence, n.
hypertension, n.
serve, v.
supply, n.
-
lack, v.
-
content, n.
hard water
soft water
heart muscle
rhythmically, adv. lather, v.
readily, adv.
according to, adv. high blood pressurestroke, n.
feed, fed, fed, irr,v. capacity, n.
decline, v.
attempt, v.
suicide, n.
cerebrospinal fluid to strike a balance nuts, n.
whole-grain cerealsbuild up, v.
prevent, v.
-
pojavljivanje; rasprostranjenost
povišen krvni pritisak, hipertenzija
poslužiti; opskrbiti;
opskrbljivanje; snabdijevanje; opskrba vodom;
vodovod
nedostajati; manjkati; oskudijevati; biti u
pomanjkanju
sadržaj;
tvrda voda
meka voda
srčani mišić
ritmički
sapunati (se), pjeniti (se)
spremno
prema
visoki krvni pritisak
moždani udar; kap
hraniti
sposobnost
gubiti se; opadati; nestajati; nazadovati
pokušati
samoubojstvo
moždana tekućina
staviti u ravnotežu
orašasto voće
žitarice od cjelovitog zrnja
izgraditi
spriječiti
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
flush out, v.
a little at a time
clot, v.
mush, n.
hoof, n. pl: hooves
livestock, n.
graze, v.
blood sample
suppress, v.
AN ENGLISH READER
FOR FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOOK ONE
-
isprati; otplaviti
malo pomalo
zgrušavati se
kaša
kopito
stoka
kretati se, dotaknuti u prolazu
uzorak krvi
spriječiti, obuzdati, zaustaviti
beat, beat, beaten, irr. v. - lupati, kucati, udarati,
magnesium-deficient diet - prehrana s nedostatkom magnezija
run out of gas - ostati bez daha, snage, sape; iscrpiti se; istrošiti se
manic and depressed behavior - manično-depresivno stanje
calcium-bearing foodshrana koja sadrži kalcij
EXERCISES
A. After you have read the text read it again and try to find the
answers to the following questions:
1. What is the problem with magnesium in the Western world?
2. What can a lack of magnesium result in?
3. Which has a higher level of magnesium content, soft water or hard
water?
4. What is the reason soap does not to lather readily?
5. Why is magnesium important for our health?
6. What happened to rats at the University of California at Davis?
7. What psychological effects can low levels of magnesium have on
people and why?
8. What is the daily Recommended Dietary Allowance for magnesium?
9. Which are good food sources of magnesium?
B. After answering the questions in exercise A. read carefully the texts on
Calcium and Selenium and write as many questions you can think of.
Then ask your colleagues to answer them. Work in pairs.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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202
THE STORY OF MERCURY AND MAN
The world-wide alarm at the threat to human health presented by undue
concentrations of mercury in the environment is an example of the
consequence of interfering with the balance of nature.
Mercury, and some other rare metals, are present in all forms of life, in small
but necessary amounts. They become dangerous only when concentrated by
man's activities.
While mercury has been present in the environment for as long as man has
inhabited the earth, it has only recently caused concern.
All forms of life carry traces of mercury derived from their ancestry in the sea and man, at the top of the food chain, carries more than most. We may thus
have developed not only the tolerance for, but a dependence upon, 30 to 50
parts per billion of mercury found in the body. The hazardous factor today is
any variation in the amount or type of mercury that the body absorbs.
Man's greatest exposure to mercury is in food; studies since the 1930s show
small but definite traces in many staples. While world-wide levels have
changed little in 30 years, dangerously high concentrations have developed in
some areas.
Mercury is used in making antiseptics, floor waxes, paint preservatives, paper,
and fungicides - and some goes to waste. It was once thought that such
waste mercury sank harmlessly into the soil - but it is now known that this is
not the end of it. Although it is relatively harmless as a pure metal, it forms
extremely poisonous organic compounds. When concentrated in a river bed,
for example, it is attacked by bacteria and converted into deadly methyl
mercury. This substance is taken up by algae and then by fish; in the
Minimata Bay disaster in Japan, the victims were eating fish with 100 times
the "safe" level of mercury. So far, no one has suggested how to prevent
mercury wastes from being methylated by bacteria, and then entering the
food chain. A particularly dangerous form of mercury is ethyl mercury, widely
used in fungicides to prevent deterioration of seed grains and growing crops.
If such grains are eaten, or get into the food chain through domestic birds,
illness and death may occur. Studies in Sweden also show chromosome
damage from high mercury levels suggesting long-term genetic effects. Many
countries have consequently banned the use of methyl and ethyl mercury
compounds from use on food crops.
GLOSSARY THE STORY OF MERCURY AND MAN
world - wide
širom svijeta
alarm, n.
uzbuna
threat, n.
prijetnja; strah, panika
undue, adj.
prekomjeran; nerazmjeran
mercury, n.
živa
interfere, v.
kositi se, djelovati u obratnom smjeru
uplitati se; (u)miješati se, štetno djelovati
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
Copyright © by Andrea Šupih-Kvaternik, Durieux, 2005
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
concern, n.
trace, n.
ancestry, n.
tolerance, n.
odstupanje
dependence, n.
hazardous, adj.
staple, n.
wax, n.
paint, n.
preservative, n.
fungicide, n.
waste, n.
sink, sank, sunk, irr. v.river bed
seed, n.
grain, n.
growing crops
domestic birds
ban, v.
-
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zabrinutost; nemir, briga
trag
porijeklo; preci
snošljivost; podnošljivost; tolerancija; dopušteno
ovisnost
opasan
(glavni) proizvod, roba, sirovina, sastojina
vosak
boja, ličilo
konzervans
fungicid
otpaci; otpadne vode; kanalizacija
potonuti; sleći se; taložiti se
riječno korito
sjeme; sjemenka
zrno
usjev u rastu
domaće ptice
zabraniti; izbaciti
EXERCISES
A. Give Croatian equivalents for the following words:
methyl mercury methylated ethyl mercury B. Answer the following questions:
1. What are the consequences of interfering with the balance of
nature?
2. To what extent is mercury necessary in our life?
3. Is mercury always dangerous? Give an example.
4. How long has mercury been present in the environment?
5. How is mercury distributed in all forms of life?
6. What amount of mercury is tolerable in our bodies?
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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A. Šupih-Kvaternik
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7. What is the greatest danger in man's exposure to mercury?
8. How do we use mercury?
9. Is mercury dangerous as a pure metal?
10. When is mercury poisonous?
11. What happens to mercury after it is concentrated in a river bed?
12. What happened in Minimata Bay?
13. How can seed grains and growing crops become polluted by
mercury compounds?
C. Paragraph 1.
In the sentence: "The world-wide alarm at the threat to human
health presented by undue concentrations of mercury in the
environment is an example ... ."
a) The word presented is a ________________________ (verbal form)
b) It actually presents a short form of a ________________ clause.
c) Rewrite the whole sentence in its longer form.
d) Now you have got a true ___________________ sentence.
e) Now try and write this sentence in active form.
_____________________________________________________________
2. Paragraph 2
Sentence 1: "While mercury has been present in the
environment for as long as man "has inhabited the earth, ......
a) The underlined verbal forms are ________________________
b) Find more of these verbal forms in Paragraph 2 and copy them
in the space below.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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BOOK ONE
c) What other verbal forms can you find in Paragraph 2? Make a list
of these forms in the space below.
d) Analyse and discuss in the same way the various verbal forms in
Paragraph 4. First find out how many different verbal forms you
can find in Paragraph 2. Then make your lists.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Raymond Chang: Chemistry, McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1991, New York
2. William L. Jolly: Modern Inorganic Chemistry, McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1991, New York
3. R. Parry, Ph. Dietz, R. Tellefsen, L. Steiner: Chemistry, Prentice Hall, 1985, New Jersey
4. Morrison and Boyd: Organic Chemistry, 1973, Allyn and Bacon, Inc., USA
5. Guy Waller. Teach Yourself Chemistry, 1987, Hodder and Stoughton, London
6. J. Carter, P. Bajema, R. Heck, P. Lucero: Physical Science, 1979, Ginn and
Company, Lexington, Mass.
7. Ch. Bickel, N. Eigenfeld, J. Hogg: Physical Science Investigation, 1989, Houghton
Miffin Company, USA
8. W. Keeton and J. Gould, Biological Science, 1986, W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.,
New York
9. J. Postlethwait and J. Hopson: The Nature of Life, 1989, McGraw-Hill, New YorkB.S.
10. Beckett: Biology, 1976, Oxford University Press, Oxford
11. J. Hassall: Biology, 1988, Charles Letts & Co Ltd, London
12. J. Mclaren, J. Stasik, D. Levering: Life Science, 1981, Houghton Miffin Company, USA
13. N. Rothwell: Understanding Genetics, 1983, Oxford University Press, Oxford
14. R. Tamarin: Principles of Genetics,
15. K. Talaro and A. Talaro: Foundations in Microbiology,
16. R. Scott Stricoff and D. Walters: Laboratory Health and Safety Book, 1990, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.,New York
17. D. Clarke and E. Herbert: Food Facts, The British Council, 1994
18.. K. Hartvig and N. Rowley: You Are What You Eat, 1996, Piatkus Publishers Limited,
London
19. E. Coulson: Food Science, 1974, Longman Group Limited, London
20. B. Fox and A. Cameron: Food Science, 1978, Hodder and Stoughton, London
21. S. Prescott and B. Proctor: Food Technology, 1987, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York
22. P. Bostick Reed: Nutrition. An Applied Science, 1980, West Publishing Company, St.
Paul, Minnesota.
23. W. Root: Food, 1980, Simon and Schuster, New York
24. J. Mariani: American Food & Drink, 1983, Ticknor & Fields, New Haven and New
York
25. J. Kirschmann and L. Dunne: Nutrition Almanac, 1984, McGraw-Hill, New York
26. D. Chiras: Environmental Science, 1991, The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Comp.
Calif.
27. Ch. Kupchella and M. Hyland: Environmental Science, 1989, Allyn and Bacon,
Boston
29. B. Bucholz: Principles of Environmental Management, 1993, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New
Jersey
30. I. Pearson: English in Biological Science, 1985, Oxford University Press, Oxford
31. Bill Mascull: Key Words in Science & Technology, Harper Collins Publishers, 1997
32. F. Zimmerman: English For Science, 1989, Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey
33. A. Sonka: Skilfull Reading, 1981, Prentice-hall, Inc., New Yersey
34. D. Curry: Short Readings in Science, 1984, English Language Programs Division,
Washington D.C.
35. L. Trimble: English for Science and Technology, 1985, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge
36. K. Croft and B. Brown: Science Reading, 1986, Educational Services, Washington,
D.C.
37. V. Booth: Communicating in Science, 1993, Cambridge University Press
38. M. Baudoin, E. Bober, M. Clarke, B. Dobson, S.Silberstein: Reader's Choice, 1988,
The University of Michigan Press, USA
39. The Cassel Dictionary of Science, Cassell 1997, London
40. Dictionary of Science and Technology, Larousse, 1995, New York
41. Some of the articles have been adapted from various newspapers, magazines and
periodicals, such as:
Scientific American, New Scientist, Prevention, Health, Time, Newsweek and National
Geographic.
MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
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