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COASTAL BIRDS
PENGUINS
There are 18 species of penguins in the world and all of them are found in the Southern
Hemisphere.
The penguins of our region travel on land by walking or hopping. They swim with great speed
and agility. The flippers—wings—are their sole means of propulsion in the water; the feet are
trailed behind or used in steering. Some species progress by ‘porpoising’, which involves
swimming underwater for some distance, then emerging in a graceful arc to take a fresh
breath, and submerging again.
Penguins do not have normal feathers, as do most birds, but are covered almost uniformly with
small, scale-like feathers. Penguins moult all of their feathers and, in some species, even shed
the shields from the beak within a short space of time. A moulting penguin has a dishevelled
appearance; losing its feathers in huge patches as new feathers appears. During the moulting
period, which may last several weeks, the penguin does not enter the water to feed.
Feeding
Penguins eat crustaceans, small fish and cephalopods. Their food is taken by pursuit diving
even to depths of 100m. They appear to stun their prey first from below with a blow from their
beak before swallowing it beneath the surface.
Social behaviour
Penguins have a number of social behaviours from head swaying, trumpeting, quivering, mutual
preening, stone carrying, aggressive behaviour, submissive and appeasing behaviours. They
also appear to find that fishing in groups is advantageous.
Bonding and breeding
The greatest concentrations of penguins are seen in rookeries, where the birds gather to breed.
Some penguin pair’s bonds are maintained in successive seasons, but frequent changes in pairs
have been noted even if both members are alive and present in a colony. Penguins vary in their
nesting methods such as a scrape in the ground lined with pebbles, burrows or in small crevices
caused by plant roots or rocks. They usually lay two eggs and normally only one chick survives.
Roughly about 65% of all eggs laid do hatch and most of the chicks survive, as the parents are
good guarders. In general, both sexes incubate the eggs and feed the young.
Most penguin chicks are covered with a sooty-grey down at hatching, although some have a
pattern of soft greys and whites. Chicks of certain species remain confined to the burrow or
nest throughout the entire nesting period, during which time their parents feed them. On their
parents' return from fishing, parents and chicks recognize each other in a group often
numbering thousands. In some cases there ensues a feeding chase in which the chick leaves
the nursery to chase one of its food-laden parents. The parent finally stops and regurgitates
partly digested food for the chick. After a young penguin has shed the last of its down and
acquires its first plumage, it enters the sea to fend for itself.
AFRICAN BLACKFOOTED PENGUIN (Spheniscus demersus)
ENDANGERED
This penguin is the only species that breeds in Africa mainly off southern Africa. They are also
endemic to this region. They were previously known as the Jackass penguin but are now
formally known as the African Blackfooted Penguin.
These penguins are now (June 2010) listed as an endangered species due to many factors. Up
until 1967 collecting penguin eggs (approx. 13 million) reduced their numbers dramatically and
that, coupled with smaller pilchard shoals, probably had the most major impact. Historically
African Blackfooted penguins nested in their guano deposits. This changed when the fertiliser
industry of the 1800’s boomed and guano deposits were scraped from their breeding grounds.
This practice is now illegal but the damage has certainly been done as natural nesting sites
have been lost.
In recent times heavy oil spills along the west coast of South Africa, despite large-scale
penguin capture and cleanup programmes, has resulted in further reduction in their numbers.
During the Treasure oil spill (June 2000) almost 19,000 birds were collected for rehabilitation.
Other reasons responsible for their decline are climate variation; shift in location of prey
(W>E); fisheries interactions (competition & entanglement); coastal and inshore mining;
disease; human disturbance.
Due to the increased tourist interest and new protected breeding areas being designated
along the coast (Boulders and Robben Island for example) efforts are being made to ensure
their survival. The situation for this species, however, remains dire.
In 1910 there were an estimated 1.5 million birds and, at last count, less than 60 000 birds
remain. Between the years 2005-2010 the African Blackfooted penguin population halved.
FACTS OF INTEREST FOR AFRICAN BLACK FOOTED PENGUINS (ABFP)
1. Camouflage – black on their backs so as to blend in with the depths of the ocean floor. White on
their bellies to blend in with the sun shining down from above.
2. ABFP are monogamous, they pick a partner for life.
3. Lay 2 eggs a few days apart and incubation is between 38 & 42 days with both parents being
involved. Chicks hatch weight is around 72g.
4. The chicks fledge anywhere between 55-130 days.
5. Eggs hatch a few days apart and the first hatched will generally always be the stronger of the
two. In the wild the weaker one will often die. (At Two Oceans Aquarium We weigh our chicks
regularly to ensure that they are gaining approximately 10% of their body weight daily. In this
way we know that the parents are doing a good job of looking after their offspring.)
6. Every bird moults (replaces all of their feathers) every year and grows a brand new black and
white “suite”. During the moult, which lasts about 3 weeks, they remain on land as they are not
waterproofed and cannot go to sea to feed. For this reason they gorge on fish just before the
moult period and can sometimes double their body weight. This ensures they have enough
reserves to keep them healthy until they are newly feathered and can once again venture to sea.
7. They swallow their fish whole with the aid of hook-like protrusions on their tongues and down
the back of their throats. As they swallow these hook into the fish and help it down
8. Penguins drink salt water and they are able to desalinate it in order to get their fresh water
requirements. This is done thru their nostrils and all sea birds are adapted this way.
9. Penguins have a very high metabolism and can eat many fish in a day. Generally they will eat 14, however in preparation for a moult they will gorge themselves and can eat anything up to 15
or more fish in a day. In the wild the birds remain on land for the moult period of about 3 weeks
and they have to have built up enough fat reserves to see them thru this period of not eating.
10. Their appetite increases dramatically during the rearing of offspring too.
11. They can swim at speeds of 30km/hr at very short bursts when hunting.
12. In South African regions they feed on sardines & anchovies; and in Namibian regions on goby,
mackerel.
13. They have been known to reach depths of up to 130m but generally hunt at depths less than
80m with up to 20m being most common. They forage within 30-35kms of their breeding
colonies.
14. In the wild eggs are laid Feb-Aug; chicks hatch April-Oct; moulting occurs Nov-Feb
15. Predators of the ABFP are: humans, ferel cats, gennets, seals, jackals, mongoose, dogs
ROCKHOPPER PENGUINS (Eudyptes chrysocome)
These are Antarctic or sub-Antarctic penguins and although they are not endangered at
present could easily become so. There is increasing pressure on the their land habitats for
human access (eco-tourism) and other human activities whilst large fishing fleets now in
those waters pose a threat as well. The mature Rockhoppers have short stubby red bills and
pale yellow stripes in front of the eyes forming a long drooping and laterally projecting crests
behind the eye. Immatures have shorter crest and smaller brown beaks. Males are generally
heavier than the female and the average weight is 2.8 to 3 kilograms for males and 2.3 to 2.7
kgs for a female. On land they can hop remarkably quickly with their feet together.
Distribution of these penguins is mainly the sub-Antarctic regions and in summer they breed
on about 16 islands including Marion and Prince Edward islands. Occasionally moulting
juveniles are found on South African beaches between January and February.
Predators
Eggs, chicks and sickly penguins are often taken from the land nests by skuas, northern giant
petrels or Norway rats. At sea, however seals hunt the adults.
AFRICAN BLACK oystercatcher (Haematopus moquini)
The oystercatcher's origins can be traced on the evolutionary scale to approximately 60-80
million years ago. They originated in the Southern Hemisphere and today they exist mostly in
the southern Hemisphere with 10 species in existence.
Avocets and stilts are the oystercatcher's closest relatives.
Various species of oystercatcher are found in New Zealand; South America and North
America.
In South Africa one species of oystercatcher exists.
Food options are limited because they live on a narrow tract of land. They specifically
choose limpets as well as mussels. Limpets are nocturnal animals and move around a lot
...this is when the oystercatcher does most of its feeding.
The oystercatcher is equipped with a dextrous and very strong beak. The oystercatcher is
territorial and will defend its territory from other oystercatchers.
They are faithful to their mates and can live 20-40 years.
Nests are not very obvious and often found in open ground. The eggs are well
camouflaged and approximately 2 eggs are laid. The eggs take a month to incubate and
are laid between October and November.
Chicks are covered in down and eyes open when they hatch but it is unable to feed itself
and parents bring food to the chicks often leaving a midden of empty shells near the nest.
It takes 40-50 days before the chick is fully fledged and at that stage is still unable to
open its own shells. The parent only rears 1 brood of chicks per year and they do not
breed in winter.
It has been discovered that some young juveniles spend time in Walvis Bay. 200 have
been counted there.
Oystercatchers do not breed until they are between 6 and 12 years old.
At present, it is estimated that approx 5000 oystercatchers exist throughout the world.
Problems in conservation results from the oystercatcher breeding in the height of summer
when there is more likelihood of their nests and chicks being destroyed in the sand and
dunes by predators and man. Oystercatchers are devoted parents but chicks are subject
to predation/human disturbance. There is also the possibility of having infertile eggs in
the nest.
The only documented case of an oystercatcher chick being abandoned was due to the
habitat/beach being destroyed by a film set at Scarborough.
The young oystercatcher looks different from the adult in that it has pale legs, the beak
has a dusky brown tip to it and the eye ring is not as bright orange as the adult.
Another problem in oystercatcher conservation is that the birds are very long-lived; they
are territorial and they do not reproduce in sufficient numbers. In theory they need to
rear 1 chick every 3 years.
Natural predators include genets and the Cape foxes. In Namibia, the jackals are a threat.
Dangers to the oystercatcher include red tides that lead to starvation.
Avian cholera affected the oystercatcher population in the 1990's. Cormorants transport
this disease.
Conservation
The Oystercatcher Conservation Programme, launched in 1998, undertakes research on the
African black oystercatcher and aims to develop a conservation strategy for the African black
oystercatcher. In addition, this bird is listed on Appendix II of the African-Eurasian Waterbird
Agreement, which calls on parties to the agreement to engage in a wide range of conservation
actions.
OTHER BIRDS IN THE RIVER MEANDER
CAPE CANARIES (Serinus canicollis)
The Cape Canary is a small bird in the finch family. It is a resident breeder in eastern and
southern Africa. Its habitat is fynbos grassland and gardens, preferably in highland areas. It
builds a compact cup nest in a scrub.
The Cape Canary is 11–13 cm in length. The adult male has a green back with black edging to
the wing feathers wings and tail. The underparts, rump and tail sides are yellow, and the lower
belly is white. The rear head and neck are grey, and the face is cinnamon. The female is
similar, but with a less grey on the head. The juvenile has greenish-yellow underparts with
heavy brown streaking. This species is easily distinguished from the Yellow-Fronted Canary by
its lack of black face markings. The Cape Canary is a common and gregarious seedeater. Its call
is tsit-it-it, and the song is warbled Goldfinch-like trills and whistles given in display flight or
from a high perch.
CAPE WAGTAIL (Motacilla capensis)
The Cape Wagtail is a small bird in the same family which includes the wagtails, pipits and
longclaws. This species breeds in much of Africa. This is an insectivorous bird of open country,
often near habitation and water. It prefers bare areas or short grass for feeding, where it can
see and pursue its prey. In urban areas it has adapted to foraging in gardens or paved areas
such as car parks. Pairs make bulky nests in crevices in natural and man-made structures, and
lay up to seven eggs.
The Cape Wagtail is a slender bird, 19–20 cm in length, with the characteristic longish,
constantly wagging tail of its genus. The adult is plain grey-brown above, apart from pale wing
edges and a short white supercilium. It has off-white underparts, with a dark grey band across
the breast. Young birds are duller and have yellowish underparts. Cape Wagtail has a tsee chee
chee call and a trilled whistled song.
This wagtail forages energetically for insects on the ground, alone or in pairs, moving with a
characteristic bobbing motion that causes the tail to swing up and down. Feeding is often near
water, including garden ponds, and this bird will eat tadpoles or tiny fish if the opportunity
arises.
MOORHENS (Gallinula chloropus)
The Common Moorhen is of the Rail family with an almost worldwide distribution. It is often
called the "Common Waterhen", especially in the British Isles, and this is a more descriptive
name because the bird lives around well-vegetated marshes, ponds, canals, etc., and is usually
not found in moorland. Another name, popular in the USA, is Common Gallinule. The bird is
not found in the polar regions, or many tropical rainforests. But elsewhere the Common
Moorhen is likely the most commonly seen Rail species to most people.
This species will consume a wide variety of vegetable material and small aquatic creatures.
They forage beside or in the water, sometimes upending in the water to feed. It is often
secretive, but can become tame in some areas. Despite loss of habitat in parts of its range, the
Common Moorhen remains plentiful and widespread.
On a global scale – all subspecies taken together –, the Common Moorhen is as abundant as its
vernacular name implies. It is therefore considered a Species of Least Concern by the IUCN.
CAPE BULBULS (Pycnonotus capensis)
The Cape Bulbul is a member of the bulbul family of passerine birds. It is an endemic resident
breeder in coastal bush, open forest, gardens and fynbos in southern South Africa. This species
nests mainly in the southern spring from September to November. The nest is thick walled cup
concealed by foliage in a small tree or shrub.
This species is much darker than the other South African bulbuls.
The Cape Bulbul is a common and conspicuous bird, which tends to perch at the top of a bush.
It is active and noisy, usually seen in pairs or small groups foraging for fruit, nectar and insects.
GANNETS, CORMORANTS AND PELICANS
Gannets, cormorants and pelicans are closely related to darters, frigate birds and tropic birds.
Members of the last two groups occasionally visit southern African waters, but they do not
breed in the region, and darters are found only in inland waters. Southern Africa has one
species of breeding gannet, five of breeding cormorants and two of breeding pelicans. Together
with the darter, one of the cormorants (the Reed Cormorant) and one of the pelicans (the Pinkbacked Pelican) are restricted to inland waters; a second cormorant (the White-breasted
Cormorant) and the other pelican (the White Pelican) occur in both marine and inland waters.
The Cape gannet and the Cape, bank and crowned cormorants are restricted to the
marine environment. These species breed only in southern Africa and may therefore be
regarded as endemic to the region, although their migrations, when not breeding, sometimes
take them beyond the subcontinent. For instance, juvenile Cape gannets were regularly
recorded moving well up the West African coast in the 1950s. They ranged as far north as the
former Spanish Sahara in those years. Along the eastern coast of Africa the Cape gannet may
reach the mouth of the Limpopo River. Vagrants have been recorded as far a field as
Australasia, and similarly a few Australasian gannets have been seen at South African
gannetries.
Feeding methods
Gannets plunge from the air onto fish prey near the surface of the water and search for large
shoals of fish, such as those formed by pilchard. However, off central Namibia, for example,
pilchard have been replaced in the food chain by the smaller bearded gobies, fish which do not
congregate in such dense shoals as pilchard and which also live deeper in the water. Although
other seabirds have been able to adapt to feeding on the gobies, gannets have not done so to
any great extent.
Guano
Historically the Cape gannet and the Cape cormorant were of great importance as the main
producers of seabird guano, a manure much sought-after for agriculture. However, the advent
of artificial fertilizers and a fall in guano harvests brought about a decrease in the value of this
industry, although it nevertheless survives to the present day. For seabirds to produce
commercially exploitable quantities of guano, they have to be abundant. If there are a sufficient
number of birds, enough guano is deposited to make its collection worthwhile.
The African Penguin often nests under boulders or bushes where guano is difficult to collect, or
in burrows in sandy soil, where the guano is soon mixed with sand and is therefore of poor
quality. Cape gannets construct their nests from guano and mud, but once the guano has been
scraped from their breeding areas there is often not much material left for nest building. Moving
in sand from penguin breeding areas therefore provides gannets with guano-rich material for
nest construction.
Guano scraping has had disadvantages for birds. It has led to the areas where birds breed
being lower than surrounding terrain, and heavy rain can then cause periodic flooding, killing
both eggs and chicks. In 1985, Malgas Island became part of the West Coast National Park and
guano has not been scraped. Therefore, the breeding season is longer than when guano was
scraped.
The guano industry has undoubtedly also had some benefits for sea-birds. The construction of
guano platforms north of Walvis Bay provided alternative safe breeding places at a time when
the islands in nearby estuaries had become or were becoming joined to the mainland, thereby
allowing access to them by predators. At some islands the area available for birds to breed has
been increased by construction of wooden platforms overhanging the sea, or by the building of
large walls to keep out heavy seas. Guano yields at southern African islands decreased
substantially in the 1960s and 1970s, perhaps partly because artificial fertilizers were becoming
widely available, but mainly because the collapse of pilchard resources off South Africa and
Namibia led to less food being available for guano-producing birds.
GULLS AND TERNS
Two other families of seabirds breed in southern Africa - the gulls and the terns. As do some
cormorants and pelicans, a few gulls and terns also breed inland. Those breeding around the
coast are Kelp gull, Hartlaub’s gull, greyheaded gull, roseate tern, Damara Tern, swift tern and
Caspian tern. Of these, the Hartlaub's gull and Damara tern breed only in southern Africa. The
kelp gull and swift tern have wider distributions, but the particular forms found in southern
Africa are found nowhere else. Therefore, of southern Africa's 14 breeding seabirds, nine may
be regarded as endemic. This high proportion results from the isolation of suitable coastal
breeding sites off southern Africa, referred to earlier.
Most of southern Africa's seabirds breed in colonies. The Damara Tern is the least colonial of all,
and the only one of the 14 that breeds entirely on the mainland. It is a small tern with a total
population of 1 000 - 2 000 pairs, the majority of which breed in summer in Namibia, north of
Swakopmund. Blackbacked jackal and other predators prowl that region, and it is to the birds'
advantage for their colonies to be inconspicuous. Therefore, the nests are well dispersed.
The southern African population of swift terns numbers about 5 000 breeding pairs. Many nest
in mixed colonies with Hartlaub's gulls, of which there are about 13000 pairs. Off western South
Africa, the swift tern feeds mainly on anchovy, which it picks from surface waters. As shown on
this page, the number attempting to breed in different years may vary considerably, probably
because of variations in the quantity of food available. The greatly reduced breeding off
western South Africa in the autumns of 1990 and 1991 was at a time when anchovy was
scarce.
All three species of gull are opportunists and can often be seen scavenging from man's wasteful
activities, for instance at rubbish dumps or behind fishing trawlers. All three have also found
new safe places to breed or roost - on the tops of tall buildings, sewage-works and salt-works,
and guano platforms. It is the result of such adaptability that some species of gull elsewhere
have been able to increase numbers.
SEABIRD BREEDING STRATEGIES
Seabirds of southern Africa employ variety of breeding strategies. Some lay their eggs in spring,
others in autumn and still others virtually throughout most of the year. Eggs produced in spring
will normally have hatched by summer, when day length is longest. Because most seabirds hunt
in daylight, there is more time in summer for parents to obtain food for their chicks. The
Hartlaub's gull is more nocturnal than the other species. For example, after dark it has been
known to catch insects attracted to streetlights near Cape Town's docks.
Many of the fish preyed on by seabirds are only seasonally available in certain areas, and this
fact too is an important consideration in selecting a time to breed. Bank cormorants often nest
in the most precarious places, and their entire nest can be washed away by heavy seas. For
species subject to such hazards, it is obviously important to be able to lay another clutch of
eggs should the necessity arise, and the breeding season is then often prolonged. Of course,
with an extended breeding season it is possible for parents to raise more than one brood of
chicks in a year.
Clutch size also varies. Cape gannets and swift terns generally lay a single egg, African
penguins normally two, and cormorants and kelp gulls often three eggs or even as many as
five. Obviously, the larger the clutch, the greater the number of mouths to feed, but the faster
the potential of the population to increase. With a single chick, it is easier for the parents to
ensure that it is adequately fed. Rarely do gannet chicks starve, but Cape cormorants have
frequently deserted their nests if food is scarce nearby. When the nests have eggs or small
chicks, one parent has to remain at the nest to incubate the egg, to shelter the young chicks
from intense heat or cold, or to guard both from attack by kelp gulls, which frequently make a
meal of an unprotected egg or chick. Therefore, if one parent is absent too long, the attendant
parent is forced to leave to feed itself.
Colonial Breeding and why it protects the species
We already know that some species are more colonial than others. Cape gannets breed in
massive colonies, whereas nests of Damara terns are often so well separated that they are difficult to locate.
A number of reasons for colonial breeding have been postulated. One is that it has been forced
upon seabirds by the lack of suitable nesting space at islands. Certainly this is true at islands
such as Mercury, which in recent years has been decolonised by South African fur seals. The
seals displaced many birds from areas where they formerly bred, including about 15% of the
world's population of bank cormorants, many African penguins and many Cape cormorants.
However, at some large islands there is plenty of breeding space and seabirds still breed in
colonies Possession and Dassen islands are examples.
Another possible advantage of colonial breeding is that the risk of eggs or chicks being taken by
predators is reduced. Birds nesting close to each other tend to provide group protection against
such natural predators. Nests near the centre of the colony may be especially safe, and
experienced birds often take these sites
A third possible advantage of colonial breeding is the gaining of information about the location
of good feeding areas. A nesting swift tern may, for example, observe that birds returning from
a particular direction are all carrying fish whereas those flying in from another direction are
doing so empty-billed.
Another reason could be that the birds huddled together can keep each other warm. This is
unlikely to apply to southern Africa, though for one species of penguin breeding in Antarctica, it
could be an advantage. Perhaps, however, it is just that colonies form simply because they are
good places to breed and unlikely, for example, to be flooded.
MIGRANT SEABIRDS
Large numbers of seabirds that breed elsewhere visit the region each year. They come from
inland, from the tropics, and from the cold portions of both the northern and southern
hemispheres. To date 78 species of migrant seabirds from 12 families have been recorded in
southern African waters, and two others may occur at sea.
Three penguin species occasionally visit southern Africa. Travelling from Sub-Antarctic or
Antarctic islands. Their scarcity can be attributed to their having to swim the entire distance,
whereas other birds can fly.
Other birds that have been recorded include the blacknecked grebe. Nine species of albatross,
petrels, Antarctic fulmar, prions, shearwaters and the Pintado petrel with its spectacularly
coloured plumage. The whitechinned petrel and the abundant sooty shearwater are particularly
common. Five species of storm petrel visit southern Africa.
Migrant seabirds visit southern Africa for a number of reasons. Some of the rarer ones probably
arrive unintentionally - perhaps being swept off course by strong winds or currents. Other
species merely pass through on their way between breeding and non-breeding areas, examples
being the blackbellied storm petrel and the Arctic tern. The former breeds in the Southern
Ocean and winters in the tropical Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans.
Around southern Africa there is a plentiful supply of food and many of the migrant birds visit
the region during their non-breeding season to feed. They employ a variety of techniques to
catch prey. Some locate it from the air and plunge onto it - boobies, terns and tropic birds are
examples. Others, such as albatrosses, phalaropes. petrels and gulls, may seize prey while
sitting on the surface. Smaller birds, for example storm petrels, prions and terns, often snatch
prey from the surface while running along it or flying. Penguins, grebes and some shearwaters
chase prey underwater, attaining rapid speeds. The various species are not necessarily
restricted to one method of feeding. For example, albatrosses, petrels and some storm petrels
can also dive beneath the surface.
Many birds benefit from man's fishing activities, which are by nature wasteful. Fish spill from
purse-seine nets or escape from bottom or mid water trawls from the trawl fisheries. Also,
unwanted fish may be discarded together with unwanted portions of sought-after fish such as
hake heads and viscera. Such discarding provides a ready supply of food at the surface of the
ocean for birds able to take advantage of it. Blackbrowed and shy albatrosses are abundant at
trawlers, as are white-chinned and pintado petrels, but other albatrosses and petrels, skuas,
shear-waters. storm petrels, prions. terns and gulls may also feed at trawlers.
Two seabirds which breed locally - Cape gannets and kelp gulls, often join the flocks of birds
feeding behind trawlers. In sealing operations, it is often only the pelt of the animal that is
sought and the rest of the carcass is sometimes thrown into the sea. Northern and southern
giant petrels use their powerful bills to feed on seal carcasses and they also used to gather at
whaling stations at Langebaan and Durban Bluff when South Africa caught whales.
Skuas and frigate birds obtain their food by chasing other birds and forcing them to regurgitate,
a practice termed klepto-parasitism (kleptes = thief). Terns are often victims of such a practice
although larger birds such as gannets may also be harassed.
REFERENCES
Attwood, C. September: 2000. Coast Care Fact Sheet. Estuaries and Lagoons series 1A
Branch, M. Fact Sheet Birds 1 - Jackass Penguins.
Branch, M. July 1996. Fact Sheet Mammals 1 – Cape Fur Seal.
Hockey, P. The Black oystercatcher - Notes from a lecture on Riverine Ecosystem : Juta
Major, N. May 2000. Rockhopper Penguins Fact Sheet.
Matthews, S. September: 2000. Coast Care Fact Sheet Dune Vegetation series 1A
Pamphlet : Environmental Focus 3, Rivers as Ecosystems.
Payne A.I.L. & Crawford R.J.M. Secrets of the Seas - Illustrated guide to marine life off
Southern Africa
Professor Peter Barham is a Professorial Teaching Fellow in Physics at the University of
Bristol, UK and visiting Professor of Molecular Gastronomy at the Royal Veterinary University in
Copenhagen, Denmark. He is involved in African Blackfooted Penguin research in South Africa