Download سیر مفهومی Resources در متون اقتصاد و مدیریت

‫اصطالح شناسی منابع )‪(Resources‬‬
‫در متون اقتصاد و مدیریت‬
‫علیرضا اسدی‬
‫مرکز اندیشه و پژوهش طرح هزاره‬
‫نام کارگروه‪ :‬توسعه و منابع ملي‬
‫رئیس کارگروه‪ :‬آقاي عبدالرسول دیوساالر‬
‫تاريخ‪1391/7/25 :‬‬
‫تهیه کننده‪ :‬دکتر علیرضا اسدی‬
‫همکاران (اعضای کارگروه)‪ :‬دکتر علی اسدي‪ ،‬مهندس فیروز بالكاني‪ ،‬دکتر غالمرضا حداد‪ ،‬عبدالرسول‬
‫ديوساالر‪ ،‬دكتر موس يپور‪ ،‬دکتر مهرداد ناظری‪ ،‬دکتر مهدي نوری‪ ،‬ابوالفضل نوري‬
‫عنوان‪ :‬واژه شناس ي منابع در متون اقتصاد و مديريت‬
‫كليدواژه‪ :‬منابع‪ ،‬منابع طبيعي‪ ،‬توسعه‬
Resource based Economics
Resource based Development
Literature :
• Viner, J. (1952), “International Trade and Economic
Development”, Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.
• Lewis, W. A. (1955), “The Theory of Economic Growth”,
Homewood, Ill., R. D. Irwin.
• Viner, J. (1952), “International Trade and Economic
Development”, Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.
• Innis, H. A. (1956), “Essays in Canadian Economic History”,
Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
• North, D. C. (1955), “Location Theory and Regional Economic
Growth”, Journal of Political Economy 63, April.
RESOURCE-BASED ECONOMIC GROWTH, PAST AND PRESENT
Gavin Wright and Jesse Czelusta
Stanford University, June 2002
• Recent literature argues that natural resource abundance is likely to
be bad for economic growth.
• This paper provides a counterargument by highlighting examples of
successful resource-based development.
• The first is historical: the United States from the mid-nineteenth
century to the mid-twentieth.
• The paper then considers whether resource-based development is
still feasible in the modern global economy.
• The American economy may have been resource abundant,
but Americans were not rentiers living passively off of their
mineral royalties. Clearly the American economy made
something of its abundant resources
• David and Wright identify the following elements in the rise of
the American minerals economy: (1) an accommodating legal
environment; (2) investment in the infrastructure of public
knowledge; (3) education in mining, minerals, and metallurgy.
How to Sustain Growth in a Resource Based Economy? The
Main Concepts and their Application to the Russian Case
Rudiger Ahrend, 2006
• Resource-based economies are often – although somewhat
arbitrarily – defined as economies where natural resources
account for more than 10 per cent of GDP and 40 per cent of
exports.
• While in the 1950s and 60s economists generally saw
abundant natural resource endowments as facilitating a
country’s rapid development, in the last two decades many
economists have come to see natural resources as an obstacle
to successful development.
• If suitable economic and political framework conditions can be
established, natural resource abundance does not have to
prevent successful economic development as e.g. the
examples of Australia, Canada and the Scandinavian countries
demonstrate
• We argue that resource-based development places a priority
on good macroeconomic management, in sound fiscal policy
in particular. Turning to the institutional side, it is stressed
that, for a number of reasons, the need for a non-corrupt and
efficient state apparatus is particularly strong in a resourcebased economy, and that achieving such an institutional
setting is facilitated by the presence of a strong civil society.
• diversifying a resource-based economy can also solve
potential problems of resource dependence. This paper
therefore also explores the possibilities for resource-based
economies to accelerate the diversification of their economic
structures.
RESOURCE-BASED GROWTH THEN AND NOW
Gavin Wright, Stanford University, June 2001
• The practical policy issue is whether countries with resource
potential should encourage investment, exploration, and
research for the purpose of developing that potential to its
maximum.
• Statistical analysis of such episodes may tell us much about
the pitfalls of resource management, but they do not justify a
conclusion that resource development itself is mistaken as a
national policy.
• ….‘‘The story of resource-based growth has been told before,
but there is no consensus as to the conclusions.’’
• …..the question what happens to the pattern of resourcebased development if there is no alternative to the main
resource-exploitation activity?
• Under favorable conditions, the Malthusian resource-based
economic system will lead to constant per capita income and
population. there are many examples in history where finding
and exploiting ‘‘a new source of supply of raw materials’’ has
been fundamental to the process of economic development.
In essence, that is what is meant by the term resource-based
development. Thus throughout history abundant natural
resources and favorable conditions in the world economy have
combined often to generate successful resource-based
development in many economies .However, other factors are
also important.
• a key paradox concerning the role of natural resources in
economic development: why is it that, despite the importance
of natural capital for sustainable economic development,
increasing economic dependence on natural resource
exploitation appears to be a hindrance to growth and
development in the majority of low and middle-income
economies of the world?
• Conventional explanations suggest that the comparatively
poor growth performance of low-income countries can be
attributed to failed policies and weak institutions across the
economy, including the lack of well-defined property rights,
insecurity of contracts, corruption and general social
instability (Keefer and Knack 1997; Mauro 1995; Murphy et al.
1993; Pack 1994; World Bank 1992).
• One explanation is the resource curse hypothesis, i.e. the poor
potential for resource-based development in inducing the
economy-wide innovation necessary to sustain growth in a
small open economy, particularly under the ‘‘Dutch disease’’
effects of resource-price booms (Auty 1993, 1994, 1997 and
2001a; Gelb 1986b and 1988; Gylfason 2001a and 2001b;
Gylfason et al. 1999; Matsuyama 1992; Rodrı´guez and Sachs
1999; Ross 1999; Sachs and Warner 1995b and 2001; Stevens
2003).
• Other theories have suggested an open access exploitation
hypothesis, i.e. trade liberalization for a developing economy
dependent on open access resource exploitation or poorly
defined resource rights may actually reduce welfare in that
economy (Brander and Taylor 1997 and 1998a; Chichilnisky
1994; Hotte et al. 2000; Southey 1978)
…some economists have proposed a factor endowment
hypothesis. The abundant natural resources relative to labor
(especially skilled labor), plus other environmental conditions, in
many developing regions have led to lower economic growth,
either directly because relatively resource-abundant economies
remain specialized for long periods in primary-product exports
(Wood and Berge 1997; Wood and Mayer 2001; Wood and
Ridao- Cano 1999) or indirectly because some factor
endowments generate conditions of inequality in wealth and
political power that generate legal and economic institutions
inimical to growth and development (Easterly and Levine 2003;
Engerman 2003; Engerman and Sokoloff 1997; Sokoloff and
Engerman 2000).
• Table 1.1 shows that between 1960 and 1990 the per capita
incomes of the resource-poor countries grew at rates two to
three times faster than those of the resource-abundant
countries and that the gap in the growth rates widened
significantly since the 1970s.
‫مفهوم منابع در متون مدیریتی (تئوری سازمانها)‬
resource-based view
• The resource-based view is a way of viewing the firm and in
turn of approaching strategy. The resource-based view was
popularized by Hamel and Prahalad in their book “Competing
for the Future” (1994).
• Where the resource-based view tends to focus on the
types of resources and the characteristics of these resources
that make them strategically important, the dynamic
capability perspective focuses on how these resources need to
change over time to maintain their market relevance
key characteristics for a resource to be strategically important:
• Valuable – There is no point having a resource if it does not
deliver value to the firm.
• Rare – Resources that are owned by a large number of firms
cannot confer competitive
advantage, as they can not deliver a unique strategy vis-à-vis
competing firms.
• Inimitable – Resources can only be sources of sustained
competitive advantage if firms
that do not possess these resources cannot obtain them.
• Non-substitutable – There must be no strategically equivalent
valuable resources that are
themselves neither rare nor inimitable
A resource-based view of organizational strategy has two key
assertions: resource heterogeneity and resource immobility
(Mata, Fuerst, & Barney, 1995). An organization is said to have
sustained competitive advantages if it possesses unique
resources (resource heterogeneity), and places competitors at a
significant cost disadvantage when they attempt to obtain,
develop, and use the same resources (resource immobility).
‫مفهوم منابع در متون اقتصادی‬
Economics: Principles and Applications
• Dr. Robert E. Hall is a
prominent applied
economist. He is the
Robert and Carole
McNeil Joint Professor of
Economics at Stanford
University
• Dr. Marc Lieberman is
Clinical Professor of
Economics at New York
University
“Now let’s think about scarcity and choice from society’s point of view.
What are the goals of our society? We want a high standard of living
for our citizens, clean air, safe streets, good schools, and more. What is
holding us back from accomplishing all of these goals in a way that
would satisfy everyone? You already know the answer: scarcity.
In society’s case, the problem is a scarcity of resources—the things we
use to make goods and services that help us achieve our goals.
Economists classify resources into three categories:
1. Labor is the time human beings spend producing goods and
services.
2. Capital consists of the long-lasting tools people use to produce
goods and services. This includes physical capital, such as buildings,
machinery, and equipment, as well as human capital—the skills and
training that workers possess.
3. Land is the physical space on which production takes place, as well
as the natural resources found under it or on it, such as oil, iron, coal,
and lumber.”
• Typically, economists consider a tool to be capital only if it
lasts for a few years or longer.
• In fact, all of the raw materials needed to produce [every
things]…. —come, ultimately, from society’s three resources.
• As a society, our resources—land, labor, and capital—are
insufficient to produce all the goods and services we might
desire. In other words, society faces a scarcity of resources.
• The scarcity of resources—and the choices it forces us to
make—is the source of all of the problems you will study in
economics.
Economists call this process aggregation—combining a group of
distinct things into a single whole. How broadly or narrowly we
define a good or service is one of the choices that distinguishes
macroeconomics from microeconomics. In macroeconomics,
goods and services are aggregated to the highest levels. Macro
models even lump all consumer goods—dishwashers, cell
phones, blue jeans, and so forth—into the single category
“consumption goods” and view them as if they are traded in a
single, broadly defined market, “the market for consumption
goods.” Similarly, instead of recognizing different markets for
shovels, bulldozers, computers, and factory buildings, macro
models analyze the market for “capital goods.” Defining goods in
this very broad way allows macroeconomists to take an overall
view of the economy without getting bogged down in the
details.