Download Door County Comprehensive Forest Plan

Door County Comprehensive Forest Plan
In conjunction with the Wisconsin Healthy Forest Pilot Project
NOTICE: In accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107, this material is distributed without profit to those who have expressed a
prior interest in receiving this information for research and educational purposes. The material is compiled from a number of sources
as noted in the bibliography at the end of this document.
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
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Table of Contents
Purpose and Overview………………………………………………………..3
Forest Management (Why Manage?)……………………………………….3
Early History of Door County and its People ……………………………..4
Early Forest History of Door County……………………………………...5
Regional Landscape Overview………………………………………………8
Door County Eco-Zones ……………………………………………………11
Forest Cover Types……………………. ……………………………………18
Forest Management Systems……………………………………………….28
Post Harvest Activities……………………………………………………...45
Wildlife Habitat Guidelines………………………………………………..47
Reforestation…………………………………………………………………58
Soils…………………………………………………………………………...68
Species Protection and Threatened/Endangered Species……………..73
Forest Management for the Protection of Cultural Resources……….86
Best Management Practices for Water Quality………………………..91
Invasive Species……………………………………………………………97
Forest Health and Pests………………………………………………….106
Natural Communities and Natural Areas……………………………..114
References…………………………………………………………………120
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
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PURPOSE & OVERVIEW
The Comprehensive Forestry Plan for Door County is intended to supplement the individualized forestry
plan/recommendations prepared for your property. Its ultimate goal is to provide you an understanding of
sustainable forestry and help you meet your land stewardship goals. The comprehensive plan provides a broad
overview of the regional history, landscape and ecology of the area as well as depth and detail on forestry topics
& issues relevant to Door County. It also provides further background information on forest descriptions and
management recommendations found in your forest management plan. In addition, the plan contains links to,
and sources of, further information for your reference.
You are to be congratulated for taking an interest in forest land management. Wisconsin's forests are a
tremendously valuable resource providing an array of ecological, social and economic benefits. Given the fact
that a small percentage of Wisconsin's populous owns forestland, it is indeed a privilege that should not be
taken for granted. In addition, landowners such as you, account for the majority (60+ %) of forest land in the
state, reinforcing the importance of sound stewardship of privately owned forests.
While considerable time and thought has been put into the comprehensive and individual plan preparation, their
success can best be measured by implementation. Whether your plan is simple or complex, following through
with recommendations will send you down the path of sustainable forestry. Enjoy the journey!!!!
FOREST MANAGEMENT
Forest landowners exercise many different levels of involvement with what happens in their forest. This
involvement can vary in degree from active “hands on” forest management to passive “hands off” forest
preservation.
Active forest management should be based on Sustainable Forestry principles. By definition, sustainable
forestry is the management of dynamic forest ecosystems to provide ecological, economic, social and cultural
benefits for present and future generations. It is a science based on a combined understanding of trees as
individual species, the forest as a biological community & the effects of manipulating forest vegetation.
Forest preservation, on the other hand, involves stepping back from the forest and letting “nature takes its
course”. In its purest form, preservation occurs without any intervention from man as natural processes take
place.
Passionate arguments for both forest management and forest preservation have been made for ages, are ongoing
today, and will likely continue into the future. What is important to recognize is regardless of degree of
management activity, forests are dynamic communities that are continuously changing and adapting to external
inputs and internal disturbances. Natural processes like forest succession, plant competition, wildlife and insect
activity, tree aging and decay, windstorms, fires, and climate change will cause changes in forest composition,
structure, and function over time. Forests cannot be maintained in a static, unchanging condition. Also, there are
no forest ecosystems undisturbed by human activities. Disturbance has occurred through impacts on climate,
atmospheric composition and inputs, fire control, management of wildlife populations (intentional and
unintentional), introduction of exotics, recreational use, other human uses, etc. Preserved forests will continue
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
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to change and will be subjected to human impacts, however, these changes and impacts often will be different
than in actively managed forests.
Understanding the effects of natural processes and the impacts of human activities (internal and external to the
forest) on the development of the forest will help determine the level of management activity needed to meet
your landowner objectives. Furthermore, it will minimize the chances of counterproductive results or
unintended consequences. In some situations, a blend of passive & active management may most effectively
achieve landowner goals.
EARLY HISTORY OF DOOR COUNTY & ITS PEOPLE
The Door Peninsula has been inhabited by humans for more than 11,000 years. The first inhabitants were
hunters and gatherers that were attracted to the peninsulas abundant fish and game. Tribes eventually settled in
small villages throughout the peninsula. Villages of Pottawatomie, Chippewa, Winnebago, Menominee, Cape
and a few other smaller tribes occupied the peninsula and its islands through the mid 1800s.
The first documented European to set foot on the peninsula was Jean Nicolet in August of 1634 when he landed
at Pottawatomie Island (later named Rock island). From 1634-1763, the French flag flew high over the
peninsula. In 1763 with the signing of the Treaty of Paris, the British were awarded the peninsula among other
lands east of the Mississippi river. This treaty would end the fight between the French and the British over
territory in North America. The British held control of the peninsula until 1783 when a second Treaty of Paris
was signed that would spell the end of the Revolutionary war. This signing changed ownership once again.
From 1783 until February 8th, 1831, a large area of the northeast part of the state including the peninsula
became known as Indian Territory. Any white man who moved into this territory to settle was illegally on
Indian land and could never obtain title to it. On February 8th, 1831, this changed when the United States
government bought the land from the tribes occupying the peninsula, namely the Menominee and Pottawatomie
tribes. Americans were free to purchase land in this area for $1.25 per acre. This spelled the beginning of the
end for Native Americans on the peninsula, as they were certain to be displaced in the coming years with the
new land deal.
In the spring of 1835, the Door Peninsula had its first American Settler when Increase Claflin purchased some
land near what is today Little Sturgeon Bay and moved his family there. Claflin moved his family from Green
Bay to Little Sturgeon using a huge sled pulled by two horses over the frozen waters of Green Bay.
After Wisconsin was declared a state in 1848, it was divided into counties and on February 11th 1851 the
Wisconsin Legislature gave the peninsula its county status at a time when more than 1000 people were living
here. It was officially named Door County after the legislature heard the story of how the waters between
Washington Island and the peninsula were known as “Deaths Door”.
The story goes that the Cape Indians occupied a large portion of the northern part of the peninsula and when the
Pottawatomie arrived in far greater numbers, they drove the Cape Indians off the peninsula to Detroit Island.
The Capes were upset about this and plotted to retake their land on the peninsula. The Indians sent 2 scouts
back to the mainland to find the enemies camp and assess their strength. When they completed this task they
were to build a signal fire at night when it was time for the Cape Indian warriors to come across and surprise the
mainland Indians. The plan failed when the two scouts were captured and tortured until they revealed their plan.
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Soon after this, the Pottawatomie built a fire high on the bluff on a night when a storm was building on the
horizon. The cape Indians saw the signal fire and set out to reclaim their homeland. About halfway to the
mainland, a squall overtook them and many of the warriors drowned. The few that did make it to the peninsula
were so exhausted that they became easy victims of the waiting Pottawatomie. And so the waters between the
mainland and the islands to the north became known as “Port Des Morts” or “Door of the Dead”.
EARLY FOREST HISTORY OF DOOR COUNTY
The history of the Door peninsulas fragmented landscape of forest and fields and how it has shaped the
landscape of today is due in large part to the land use that took place in the mid to late 19th century. The
peninsula of the mid 1800’s was a landscape almost unbroken of hardwood and conifer forests composed of
trees tall and straight. The county was largely pristine and still a wilderness with very little harvesting of trees or
farming. There were no roads, just trails and only a few hubs of human activity. Washington Island, Rock Island
and a few other small villages were active with fishing, Little Sturgeon was doing some ship building and
Sturgeon Bay was just beginning to establish a few small sawmills. Anybody living on the peninsula during this
period still had to get most of their goods and supplies in Green Bay or Marinette.
Even in the early to mid 1850’s, small villages were carved out of the tall trees that grew all around these
settlements. The surrounding forests were still largely an untapped resource. Travel from one settlement to
another was mainly by boat or over ice instead of by rough trails through the dense forest.
The first signs of commercial logging in the county began in the late 1850’s. Lumber was being produced for
new houses being built not only in Wisconsin, but across the Midwest. Beams were being produced for bridge
building and commercial buildings, cedar shingles for roofing, telephone poles for utility companies and ties for
the railroad industry. The need for these resources went beyond the supply available to market and forests were
being exhausted in the eastern United States at a rapid pace. The quest for more saw timber proceeded west and
took off in Door county in the late 1860’s through the early 1880’s.
A sizable number of permanent sawmills were located on the peninsula with most of the larger sawmills located
along the shoreline where they had direct access to loading docks.
Practically every bay or harbor had a settlement which included a
sawmill and a large loading dock Here, ships would load the
forest products and haul them to great lakes rail centers where they
could be loaded on trains and shipped to the various markets
across Wisconsin and the Midwest.
The other type of sawmill located in Door county was the portable
sawmill that traveled to the saw timber that was more isolated
from the areas that the permanent sawmills had easy access to.
These portable mills would move into an area for a month or so,
cut all the saw timber in that area and move to another location
when few trees were left in the area. It was these two types of
sawmill operations, both permanent and portable that allowed for
cutting across the entire county.
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The lumber business in Door County was highly competitive one. The trees seemed to provide an endless
supply of logs to the mills that were located throughout the county. The profit margin for these mills was so
small however that only the largest, straightest trees were cut. Anything smaller than 10 inches in diameter was
left on the landscape. Some sawmills even rejected any logs less than 16 inches in diameter. Loggers took the
best and left the rest. These wasteful practices were due to the economy of the times. The only lumber worth
anything was the lumber free of knots. The industry was so competitive that either the sawmill produced what
the market wanted or he went out of business.
By the mid 1880’s, the number of quality saw timber trees across the county had been greatly diminished. The
population of the county was decreasing as people continued westward to find employment in the logging
industry where the forests were yet to be cutover. A number of the smaller communities that flourished during
the logging boom were abandoned. The remaining communities shifted their economics away from lumber into
agriculture and cordwood.
Farming took off in areas that were cutover as a result of lumbering in the previous decade of which the best
farmland is still being worked today. Most of southern and central Door County which was once a vast forest is
today largely agriculture with smaller woodlots dotting the landscape. Many of the farms built in the 1800’s
were built in areas that were still wooded and required lots of back breaking work of pulling stumps and picking
rocks in order to have a field that grow a suitable crop. The wooded land also provided logs for building a
house, cordwood to heat it and lumber and cedar shakes that could be made in the winter and sold for extra
money to pay for goods.
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Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
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REGIONAL LANDSCAPE OVERVIEW
Niagara Escarpment shown in pink (UWGB website)
Before exploring opportunities for land management
on your own property it can be helpful to see how it
fits into the larger landscape. Wisconsin has been
divided into 17 major areas known as ecological
landscapes. Each of these areas is characterized by
their local ecology and opportunities for management.
Door County is part of the Northern Lake Michigan
Coastal Ecological Landscape. This ecological
landscape is located in northeastern Wisconsin, and
includes Green Bay and the northern part of the Door
Peninsula. Its landforms consist of the Niagara
escarpment, a prominent dolomite rock outcropping
along the east side of Green Bay, a glacial lake plain
along the west side of Green Bay and glacial ground moraine elsewhere. This ecological landscape has an
extensive shoreline along Green Bay, on the west coast of Lake Michigan.
Low sand dunes and beach ridges that support native Great Lakes vegetation including many rare species are
found along the Great Lakes shoreline. High quality areas of exposed alkaline bedrock beach occur on the
northern Door Peninsula, providing habitat for many
rare plants. Several islands lie off the Door
Peninsula and these also provide critical habitat for
rare species and colonially nesting birds. Past
glaciations formed numerous long narrow drainages
on the Door Peninsula oriented in a north/southerly
direction. In northern Door County, these wetlands
are drained by small rivers and creeks, most of which
empty into Lake Michigan. In southern Door
County, wetland drainages flow into Green Bay as
well as Lake Michigan. A total of 25 inland lakes are
located within Door County. They vary in size from
small ponds to larger inland lakes and support a
variety of native aquatic species. The predominant
water feature of the area is Lake Michigan. The
influence of Lake Michigan moderates extreme
temperatures resulting in cool spring and mild fall
temperatures. Precipitation averages 27 inches per
year. Soil types vary across Door County depending
on location and drainage. They include sand, sandy
loam, loam, silt loam and muck. Shallow soil depth
to underlying dolomite bedrock is a characteristic
feature of much of the county. Cliffs, sinkholes,
caves and dolomite ledges are associated with the
Niagara Escarpment.
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Historic vegetation of this area included maple-basswood-beech forest, hemlock-hardwood forest, northern
white cedar swamp, hardwood-conifer swamp, wet meadows, and coastal marshes. Conifer dominated upland
forests that resemble the boreal forest were present along Lake Michigan.
Population for Door County in 2004 was 29,114 with a population density of 62 people per square mile: about
two thirds of the statewide average. Recent population growth has averaged approximately 1% per year which
is similar to the rest of Wisconsin but trails the national average. The majority of land in Door County is in
private ownership (92%). Absentee landowners account for 45% of property ownership in Door County. Five
State Parks, 18 County Parks & 2 Wildlife Areas comprise the bulk of the public land ownership. Currently
37% (approximately 116,400 acres) of Door County is forested, 44% is in agriculture & the balance is in
grassland, wetland, shrub land, and urbanized areas. Today's woodlands are dominated by the maplebasswood-beech forest type, with smaller amounts of lowland hardwoods, aspen-birch, and lowland conifers.
Recreation is a major economic contributor to the Northern Lake Michigan Coastal Region, especially in Door
County. Area businesses are supported by the continued popularity of Door Co. as a premier tourist destination.
In addition to tourism, agriculture, manufacturing, marine, retail, service, education, government, transportation
& construction sectors round out a diversified local economy.
Northern Lake Michigan Coastal Ecological Management Opportunities
This Ecological Landscape has many rare and endemic natural communities along Lake Michigan.
· Protection of key stretches of the Niagara Escarpment that are important for rare species.
· Protection and management of coastal ridge and swale forest, and the beaches, dunes, and boreal forest in
Door County, which are unique to the Great Lakes shoreline.
· Reforestation of marginal lands on the Door Peninsula is desirable to reduce adverse edge effects and
accommodate rare area-sensitive animals.
· Forest interior species management is possible in the northern part of the Ecological Landscape.
· Within the interior of this Ecological Landscape there are opportunities for management of large conifer and
hardwood swamps.
· There are opportunities for the restoration and management of lakeshore marshes, sedge meadows, and wet
forests along the west shore of Green Bay.
· Lake Michigan shoreline endemic species require protection of alkaline rock shores, coastal estuaries, boreal
forests, and alvar, beach and dune communities.
· Most of the coastline in this Ecological Landscape is important for migratory birds.
· Protection of islands off the coast of this Ecological Landscape, which are important for colonial nesting birds
and are not significantly impacted by deer or human development.
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· Colonial water bird island rookeries occur along the Lake Michigan coast in Green Bay and the Grand
Traverse Islands. These rookeries will need protection, monitoring, and management. Improving the water
quality in lower Green Bay will reduce the negative impacts of pollutants.
· Maintenance of migratory corridors, resting, and feeding areas for migratory birds, including raptors,
songbirds, and waterfowl is important throughout the Ecological Landscape.
· The Menominee River corridor is located in this Ecological Landscape, affording management opportunities
for floodplain forests.
· Protection of the Wolf, Oconto, and Peshtigo rivers should be considered.
· Green Bay and reefs in the Bailey's Harbor area of Door County are significant fish spawning areas.
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Within the Northern Lake Michigan Coastal Ecological Landscape, Door County can be broken down into
general ecozones based on natural features, local culture and land use. These zones are described as follows
and locations identified on the map.
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Southern/Central Door Interior
LAND USE This area is characterized by Belgian, German & Irish heritage, "rural" quality and a farming
community. It is the agricultural land base of the county. Although livestock operations have declined over the
years, active dairy & beef farms remain as do cash cropping operations. Several large scale mega farms are
located within this area. The area is well suited to
agricultural use with the deepest and most productive
soil types in the county, particularly in the south of
Sturgeon Bay. Some rural development has occurred
in portions of the area as well as commercial
development along highway 42/57, the major
thoroughfare in the county. Current expansion of
Hwy 42/57 to 4 lanes is underway and set for
completion in 2008 to Sturgeon Bay. The highway
project is expected to be a catalyst for further land
fragmentation & development with potential to
change the "rural" character of the area over time.
Town zoning controls land use in most of the area
with the exception of Clay Banks Township which
Section 33. Gardner
adopted County Zoning ordinances.
FORESTS Interspersed with the farmland are various sized woodlots most of which range from 5 to 80 acres.
These forests are second growth that regenerated after turn of the century logging and land clearing. Although
many woodlots occur on the more marginally productive land, forest productivity for most part is high. Most of
the uplands are dominated by northern hardwoods (maple, beech, ash, basswood and red oak). Portions of this
area (Town of Union) have sandy soils (unusual for most of the county) and are dominated by oak, cherry,
aspen & red maple on these drier sites. A few species of trees typically associated with southern Wisconsin
occur only in this portion of the county (shagbark hickory, white oak & bur oak). Swamp hardwoods & conifer
forests occupy some of the wetland drainages in this area & contain various mixtures of green ash, silver maple,
red maple, elm, cottonwood & balsam poplar. Cedar & tamarack stands can also be found in some of the low
lying wetlands. This ecoregion has experienced the most reforestation activity in the county since the 1980's.
Incentive programs to retire marginal cropland from production have been the major driving force behind this.
This area has also harbored the highest deer density in Door County since 1990. Negative impacts on
reforestation efforts and natural forest reproduction are a direct result.
WATER Natural water features in this ecoregion are limited to numerous named & unnamed creeks and the
Ahnapee River. Some of these are relatively short and narrow and do not maintain year- round flow. These
waterways drain both to Lake Michigan as well as Green Bay. Many serve as important spawning areas and
habitat for native fish & other aquatic species as well as valuable riparian and wetland habitat . A dam at
Forestville creates an impoundment on the Ahnapee River known as the Forestville Millpond. Numerous
manmade ponds and shallow wetland restorations dot the area as well.
ECOLOGICALLY SIGNIFICANT LAND & WATER AREAS This area has the least amount of state Natural
Areas and documented threatened & endangered species in the county. Part of this is a function of land use and
another part due to less inventory & study than in other parts of the county. Links to detailed information on
ecologically important areas are as follows:
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
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COUNTY LOCATER MAP
Ahnapee River Corridor
Black Ash Swamp
Sand Hill Pinery & Fabry Creek complex
Renard Swamp
Stoney Creek Wetlands
Brussels Hill/Kayes Creek/Gardner Swamp
Hungry Settlement Marsh
Sawyer Harbor, Lost Creek, Larson Creek Watershed
Northern Door Interior
LAND USE This area is characterized by Scandinavian heritage, tourism, orchards, and rural residential land
use on former agricultural land. Due to favorable soils & climate, this area contains most of the fruit industry in
the county. Although only a fraction of the acreage it once was, active cherry and apple orchards are scattered
through out the area. Some active cropland occurs in the southern part of this region but, the shallow and
droughty soils have lead to a significant amount of fallow remnant farmland. Development and parcelization of
old farmland has occurred and despite its low agricultural productivity, land in the area commands a premium
price. A significant part of this area is under absentee ownership. All northern Door county townships have
adopted the Door County Zoning ordinances with the exception of Egg Harbor Township.
FORESTS Woodlots are interspersed throughout the region. Productivity of these second growth forests is
variable and heavily influenced by soil depth & drainage. The primary upland timber type is northern
hardwoods dominated by sugar maple, beech and ash. White pine, hemlock and white spruce are often
commingled with the hardwood forests especially nearer the tip of the peninsula. Birch was common
throughout much of the forest but has experienced significant decline due to age. Aspen is prevalent in some
stands based on past disturbance, much of it is over mature and also on the decline. White cedar is found
throughout the area. It occupies many of the lowland areas, sometimes in pure stands and also mixed with black
spruce, tamarack, balsam fir, ash, birch and balsam poplar. Cedar is well adapted to alkaline soils in the area
and occurs on dryer sites forming unique stands of upland cedar. Swamp hardwoods (black ash, green ash,
birch) can be found in low lying areas and occasionally red & silver maple as well. This area had the most
reforestation activity of anywhere in the county prior to the mid 1980's. Plantations of pine, spruce and cedar
were established in old fields and orchards scattered throughout the region. Growth and development of these
plantations is variable. Some exhibit average to good growth while others either entirely or in pockets, have
done poorly on the shallow alkaline soils. Other fallow fields and orchards have slowly seeded naturally to trees
dependent on nearby seed sources. Vacant fields and orchards have also converted to a variety of grasses
and/or forbs while others are vegetated with upland brush or dense stands of juniper.
WATER Natural water features in this ecoregion include headwaters of numerous named creeks & the Mink
River all of which flow to Lake Michigan. Most of these are important spawning areas and habitat for native
fish species as well as other aquatic & riparian wildlife. A number of inland lakes are also located within this
area. The larger lakes have varying degrees of developed shoreline with both year-round & seasonal residences
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as well as public access. Most of the smaller lakes are more isolated and undeveloped. These inland lakes have
viable fisheries and provide locals and visitors water sport recreation opportunity where access is available.
ECOLOGICALLY SIGNIFICANT LAND & WATER AREAS A number of unique habitats and associated
rare species occur in this ecoregion. Links to information on ecologically important areas are as follows:
COUNTY LOCATER MAP
Whitefish Bay Creek
Logan Creek Lost Lake Corridor
Bay to Lake Wildlife Corridor
Ephraim, Bailey's Harbor, North Bay Corridor
Mink River Rowley's Bay System
Lake Michigan Shore
LAND USE This area is characterized by a combination of highly developed and relatively pristine expanses of
the Lake Michigan shoreline as it exists today as well as remnant dunes and ancient shoreline found inland.
Next to the cobble, sand & exposed bedrock shoreline lays a wooded corridor that varies in width from a quarter
mile to a couple miles and runs the full length of the peninsula. Due to its scenic beauty and proximity to water,
this area has been for some time very valuable property. Shoreline development ranges from older modest
cottages to lavish permanent & seasonal homes. The villages of Jacksonport & Baileys Harbor are situated on
the shoreline as well. Protected areas of the shoreline include town, county & state owned parks and natural
areas as well as private ownerships by conservancy/sanctuary organizations. All townships in the Lake
Michigan shoreline area have adopted the Door County Zoning ordinance.
FORESTS The second growth forest type of this
corridor is variable and can change dramatically
within as little as 50 feet. This is especially true in
the well defined ridge/swale topography that
parallels the shoreline. Ridges can support a variety
of forest types; pure hemlock, mixtures of (beech,
red & sugar maple, hemlock, pine & birch) and
birch/aspen mixed with balsam fir. Swales will
typically be forested by white cedar, balsam poplar
or green and black ash. In some areas, the cool &
moist conditions of the "Lake Effect" support
growth of species associated with Boreal (far
northern) forests dominated by spruce, cedar &
Section 35. Jacksonport
balsam fir. Both yellow and white birches are
common in this area but due to advanced age, have suffered significant mortality and decline. Unique to this
area is the occasional occurrence of mountain ash found nowhere else naturally on the peninsula.
WATER The rivers and creeks referenced in the Northern Door Interior empty into Lake Michigan in this
corridor. Within some portions of the corridor are spring-fed seeps and small streams that are direct tributaries
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of the larger creeks flowing to the lake. Other spring-fed streams may feed small lakes or, in some cases, drain
directly into the ground through cracks in the bedrock.
ECOLOGICALLY SIGNIFICANT LAND & WATER AREAS The Lake Michigan shore corridor contains an
assemblage of unique communities and threatened and endangered species. Local & national conservation
organizations as well as local, state & federal government agencies have taken an active role in protection
measures of remaining undeveloped areas along the shoreline corridor. Links to information on ecologically
important areas are as follows:
COUNTY LOCATER MAP
Southern Lake Michigan Shoreline
Logan Creek Lost Lake Corridor
Bay to Lake Wildlife Corridor
Ephraim, Bailey's Harbor, North Bay Corridor
Mink River Rowley's Bay System
Europe Lake Forest Area
Escarpment/ Green Bay Shore
LAND USE This area is characterized by the high bluff and cliff face of the Niagara escarpment and the cobble
& sand beach of Green Bay. Like the Lake Michigan Shoreline, a wooded corridor of varying width extends
from the beach to the top of the bluff for the full length of the peninsula. Extensive shoreline development has
occurred on beachfront property with permanent
and seasonal residences. In addition,
development of condominiums and single family
residences continues along the bluff base as well
as sites on the top of the bluff offering a water
view. Real estate in this area is very valuable.
The city of Sturgeon Bay and villages of Egg
Harbor, Ephraim, Fish Creek, Sister Bay, Ellison
Bay and Gills Rock are all located along this
shoreline. Protected areas of the shoreline include
county & state owned parks and natural areas as
well as private ownerships by
conservancy/sanctuary organizations. The
townships in the southern half of this corridor are
governed by local town zoning. The northern
townships have adopted the Door County zoning
Section 33. Gardner
ordinance with the exception of Egg Harbor.
FORESTS A unique feature of the Green Bay shoreline area is an old growth forest occurring on the
escarpment face. Researchers have discovered a relatively undisturbed forest of small diameter, very slow
growing cedar that are centuries old. Small size trees and poor access kept this forest free from man's influence.
This forest in Door County is composed of white cedar with the oldest specimen discovered to date exceeding
600 years. Elsewhere, second growth forests are found. At the base of the bluff, a variety of forest stands occur
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including oak/northern hardwoods, cedar, balsam fir, birch and aspen. In lowland and seepage areas, balsam
poplar, green & black ash, silver maple, cottonwood & swamp white oak can be found with their occurrence
dependent on drainage. The predominant forest type at the top of the escarpment is a mixed forest of red oak,
birch, red maple, white pine and aspen.
Nowhere else in the county is oak as
prevalent and widespread. Another peculiar
feature of this area is the presence of small
pockets of red pine. They occur
sporadically on loam soils that are shallow
to bedrock. which is very unusual for a
species typically associated with sandy soils.
WATER There are relatively few creeks in
the northern Green Bay shoreline. Most
notable is Fish Creek. Creeks draining into
Green Bay are more numerous in the
southern portion of the county & like Fish
creek provide spawning areas for native fish
species of the bay. Valuable habitat for
Section 3. Egg Harbor
aquatic & terrestrial wildlife species occurs
within these creek corridors. Seeps can also be found in the face or base of the escarpment that support
wetland vegetation & wildlife habitat.
ECOLOGICALLY SIGNIFICANT LAND & WATER AREAS The remaining undeveloped Green Bay
shoreline as well as portions of the Niagara escarpment supports a variety of unique communities, threatened
and endangered species as well as state designated "Natural Areas". Local conservation organizations as well as
al government agencies have played a role in protection measures of portions of this corridor. Links to
information on ecologically important areas are as follows:
COUNTY LOCATER MAP
Bay to Lake Wildlife Corridor
Ephraim, Bailey's Harbor
Bayshore Blufflands
Sawyer Harbor, Lost Creek, Larson Creek Watershed
Brussels Hill/Kayes Creek/Gardner Swamp
Renard Swamp
Grand Traverse Islands
Washington Island
In 2003, a Forest Resource Assessment and Management plan was prepared for Washington Island by Clark
Forestry Consulting Services. This comprehensive reference should be consulted for information regarding the
culture, land use, forest resources & unique ecology of the island. This document is available from your local
DNR Forester.
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Chambers Island
LAND USE Chambers Island is located in Green Bay five miles off the Door Peninsula. The island is
approximately five square miles in size. The shoreline consists of cobble and sand beaches dotted with seasonal
cottages while the interior is mostly undeveloped. An airstrip & lighthouse are located on the island's north end
and a Catholic retreat facility on the east shore. The majority of the island is in forest cover. One main
unimproved town road transects the island with several logging/woods roads connecting to it. Permanent docks
are located on the north & east side of the island with the main island access being private boats. Nearly the
entire island is under private ownerships. The primary use of the island is seasonal recreation (vacation homes,
hiking, boating, swimming and fishing). Periodic timber harvesting has occurred on 15 year intervals since the
mid 1900's. Chambers Island falls under the Door County zoning ordinance adopted by the town of Gibraltar.
FORESTS Most of the island is covered by second growth hardwood forest with scattered pine and hemlock.
The island's forests grow in deep sandy soil with no exposed bedrock. As a result, the vegetation is more
typical of Marinette Co. than mainland Door Co. Mixed northern hardwood forests are the predominant forest
type. Sugar maple, red maple & birch occur in mixtures with beech on the south end of the island, hemlock in
the central portions and oak to the north. Periodic selection harvesting (every 15 years) has occurred for over
50 years with the logs transported by barge to the mainland. A unique feature of Chambers Island is the
absence of deer for over a decade. It provides a rare opportunity to observe a sizable area of natural vegetation
unaffected by deer browsing. A well developed layer of understory woody and herbaceous vegetation has
established itself. This is a stark contrast to the island in the 1940's to 1980's, when a prolific deer herd
decimated understory vegetation.
WATER Two lakes (Mud - 4 acres & Mackaysee - 347 acres) are located on the north side of the island with
little shoreline development. Both provide aquatic and riparian wildlife habitat with Mackaysee Lake supporting
a viable population of native fish species.
ECOLOGICALLY SIGNIFICANT LAND & WATER AREAS The shoreline areas of Chambers Island
include unique communities of the most ecological significance. Chambers Island was part of an ecological
study of the Grand Traverse Islands conducted in the late 1990's. Further interest in the unique island ecology
is ongoing with by local conservation organizations as well as WDNR- Bureau of Endangered Resources.
Links to information on ecologically important areas are as follows:
Grand Traverse Islands
Detroit Island
LAND USE Detroit Island is located off the tip of Door Co. and very near Washington Island. It is
approximately 2 miles long and varies from .1 to .8 mile wide. The north end of the island has seasonal
residences and unimproved roads. The south half of the island is relatively undeveloped.
The island is primarily in forest cover with rock outcrops. Bedrock & cobble beach make up the island
shoreline. Seasonal summer recreation associated with island residences is the primary land use. Detroit Island
falls under the Door County zoning ordinance adopted by the Town of Washington.
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
Page 17
FORESTS Most of the island consists of a mixed hardwood forest. Primary species include sugar maple, red
maple, white birch, basswood & red oak. Some stands have a significant amount of ironwood present.
Associated species include beech and balsam fir. White cedar is also present in shoreline areas. Timber quality
is poor to average. Selective harvesting of portions of the island took place in the late 1940's & 1980's. Deer
are prevalent on the island exhibiting high density in recent years.
WATER No inland streams or lakes occur on the island.
ECOLOGICALLY SIGNIFICANT LAND & WATER AREAS The most notable ecological feature of the
island is the Great Lakes alkaline rock shoreline on the island's south side. Detroit Island was also part of the
ecological study of the Grand Traverse Islands.
Links to more information on ecologically important areas are as follows:
Grand Traverse Islands
FOREST COVER TYPES OF DOOR COUNTY
Door county is home to a number of different forest cover types. Forest trees in nature may be aggregated into
certain groupings or associations or may be pure stands consisting of only one species. These groupings or pure
stands are called forest cover types. Some forest cover types have occupied the area they are growing on for
long periods. Others are temporary occupants of disturbed sites and through ecological succession, gradually
give way to a more stable cover and ultimately, under stable conditions, to climax forest.
An example of this would be stand of pure aspen. Aspen is a short lived species (100 year old aspen is very old)
that requires full sunlight in order to become established and is considered a pioneer species. A pioneer species
is one that is first to occupy a site after a disturbance (i.e. a large fire or major wind storm). A recently disturbed
site that is initially occupied by aspen is usually pure aspen with very few other species represented on the site.
Over time, as ecological succession is progressing, the aspen are aging and approaching the end of their natural
life cycle. As individual aspen begin to die out, other longer lived species such as sugar maple and American
beech( can live 200 years or more) begin to take their place. These species can grow beneath the aspen tree
canopy in the dense shade and as the aspen die, the shade tolerant maple and beech fill in the holes left in the
tree canopy by the dying aspen. Over time, as all of the aspen die in the stand they are replaced with a more
stable cover of long lived tree species. The forest cover type that was once aspen is now northern hardwoods.
There are ten main forest cover types that are found in Door county that will be described in the following
pages. Other forest cover types may be found in the county but are not described in this plan due to them being
a very minor component in the overall landscape.
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
Page 18
Northern Hardwoods
The northern hardwood forest type is made up of any combination of sugar maple (Acer saccharum), beech
(Fagus grandifolia), basswood (Tilia americana), white ash (Fraxinus americana), and yellow birch (Betula
alleghaniensis) that comprises more than 50% of the basal area (a measure of stocking) in sawtimber and
poletimber stands or more than 50% of the stems in sapling and seedling stands.
Sugar maple typically is the dominant species in northern hardwood stands throughout Wisconsin and Door
county. Beech is the most common associate species in Door county whereas Basswood is the most common
associate in other parts of the state. White ash and yellow birch are common minor associates, but only rarely
dominate stands.
Within the northern hardwood cover
type, the predominant associates in
Wisconsin (including Door County)
currently are (1996 FIA): red maple
(Acer rubrum), red oak (Quercus rubra),
hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), white pine
(Pinus strobus), and balsam fir (Abies
balsamea). Many other tree species
occurring in Wisconsin can be found as
occasional associates in northern
hardwood stands.
The northern hardwood cover type
develops and grows best on nutrient rich
sites with well drained to moderately
well drained loamy soils; the very best
soils are deep, well drained, silt loams.
Section 4. Nasewaupee
However, it occurs on a wide range of
soil conditions, from well drained to somewhat poorly drained and from sands to clays. Dry, excessively
drained sands and wet, poorly drained soils generally do not support the development of northern hardwood
stands.
Extent in Door County
This forest type is the most common found in the county making up approximately 43% of the forests on the
peninsula. Southern doors northern hardwood stands are generally smaller in size due to the “patchwork” layout
of forests and agricultural fields, with the largest block being located on the Brussels hill. Northern door county
does have some larger blocks of this type due to less agricultural activity taking place.
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
Page 19
Aspen
The Aspen forest type is any forest stand that has more than 50% of the basal area (a measure of stocking) in
sawtimber and poletimber stands or more than 50% of the stems in sapling and seedling stands. Principal
species are bigtooth aspen (Populus grandidentata) and trembling aspen (P. tremuloides). Aspen will refer to
both trembling and bigtooth species. Balsam poplar (P. balsamifera) will also be discussed in this section.
Aspen grows with a variety of trees and shrubs over its
extensive range, either as a dominant or an associate.
Within the aspen cover type, the predominant
associates in Wisconsin currently are (1996 FIA): red
maple (Acer rubrum), paper birch (Betula papyrifera),
balsam fir (Abies balsamea), red oak (Quercus rubra),
and white pine (Pinus strobus). Most other major tree
species occurring in Wisconsin can be found as
occasional associates in aspen stands. In Wisconsin,
balsam poplar is found mainly in mixed stands where
other species dominate.
The aspen type occurs on a wide range of soil
conditions, from sand to clay and from dry to wet. Best
growth is demonstrated on dry-mesic and mesic sites
with well-drained loamy soils, but growth potential is
good for all sites, except dry, excessively drained sands,
poorly drained wet sites, and heavy clays. Although
both species can be found across the full range of site
conditions, bigtooth aspen occurs predominantly on
very dry to dry-mesic sites, whereas trembling aspen
occurs predominantly on dry-mesic to wet sites. Balsam
poplar generally occurs on wet sites, such as river
floodplains, stream and lake shores, moist depressions,
and swamps, but will also grow on drier sites.
Section 9 Clay Banks
Extent in Door County
Aspen stands are a minor component in the county making up less than 10% of the wooded land. Stand size is
typically 10 acres or less, with occasional larger stands.
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
Page 20
White Cedar
This forest cover type consists of any stand with more
that 50% basal area in swamp conifers with northern
white cedar as the predominant species. Associated
species may include black ash, red maple, green ash,
balsam fir, hemlock, white spruce, paper birch and
yellow birch as a minor component. White cedar
typically grows on poorly drained lands where the water
table is close to the surface, but in Door county it also
grows well on upland sites that are well drained.
Extent in Door County
The white cedar forest type makes up approximately 14%
of the forests of Door county. This type can be found
throughout the county from north to south.
Section 2. Forestville
White Cedar Variants
This forest cover type is one that is unique to Door County and not found statewide. This is most likely due to
our alkaline (high ph) soils of the county that allow the white cedar to thrive in upland stands that would not
otherwise support this species. These stands are typically composed of northern white cedar and aspen but may
have any number of associate species including balsam fir, red maple and paper birch mainly. This cover type
can be found on a number of different sites ranging from poorly drained low ground to well drained uplands.
Typically, these stands are associated with a ridge and
swale complex that are found along the Lake
Michigan shoreline but also may be found well
inland.
Extent in Door County
This unique forest type is limited in its extent in the
county. Most stands of this type are located in
association with the Niagara Escarpment along the
bay shore or in a narrow band that follows the Lake
Michigan shoreline. A few stands of this type are
located throughout the county that are not associated
with the shoreline or escarpment.
Section 9. Clay Banks
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
Page 21
Paper Birch
Paper birch (Betula papyrifera) also called
white birch) is a forest cover type comprising
more than 50 percent of the basal area in
sawtimber and pole timber stands, or more than
50 percent of the stems in sapling and seedling
stands. Mainly found where the climate has
short, cool summers and long cold winters and
where one-third to one-half of total precipitation
falls as snow. Large pure stands are uncommon.
Birch grows best on deep well-drained soils
with good fertility, especially sandy loams,
glacial tills and outwash. In Door county, this
species is most commonly found in association
with aspen (Populus spp.), balsam fir (Abies
balsamea), white cedar, red oak (Quercus
rubra), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), white
spruce (Picea glauca), yellow birch (B.
allegheniensis), and American beech (Fagus
grandifolia). Paper birch in Door County has
been on the decline in recent years due in large
part to trees dying of old age with very few
birch to take their place. Paper birch is a species
that did well in Door County after it was cut
over in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s. It
requires full sunlight in order to grow and
conditions were ideal as a result of the cutting.
Section 21. Egg Harbor
Today, most forests that once had a significant
component of paper birch are losing that species
due to the age of the birch. Other species in
these forest stands are longer lived species that fill in the gaps that the birch leave when they die. Without full
sunlight hitting the forest floor, the birch has no chance for regeneration in these stands.
Extent in Door County
Pure stands of paper birch are very rare in the county today. Mixed stands that include paper birch are found
throughout the county but are better represented in northern door county. This type will become increasingly
rare as the birch of Door County near the end of their life cycle.
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
Page 22
Swamp Conifers
This forest type is made up of more than 50
percent swamp conifers with balsam fir (Abies
balsamea) predominant. Other species that are
typically associated with type include northern
white cedar (Thuja occidentalis), black spruce
(Picea mariana), white spruce (P. glauca),
tamarack (Larix laricina), hemlock (Tsuga
canadensis), white pine (Pinus strobus), black
ash (Fraxinus nigra), paper birch (Betula
papyrifera), yellow birch (B. allegheniensis),
red maple (Acer rubrum), quaking aspen
(Populus tremuloides) and balsam poplar (P.
balsamifera). This forest type is found
exclusively on wet, poorly drained sites.
Section 10 Jacksonport
Extent in Door County
This forest type is not common on the peninsula and only makes up 3% of the forested cover in the county. The
largest contiguous block of this type in the county occurs north of Baileys Harbor in the Mud Lake Wildlife
Area, owned by the Wisconsin DNR.
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
Page 23
Swamp Hardwoods
The major components of this type
include black ash (Fraxinus nigra),
American elm (Ulmus americana), and
red maple (Acer rubrum). Sites are
typically wet and subject to
fluctuations in water table. When
evaluating site potential, the drainage
system within the stand should be
evaluated when site index
measurements are made. Swamp
hardwood species can tolerate semistagnant drainage conditions, but for
best growth it is important that the
water be moving so that the soil is
aerated even if saturated. Door county
swamp hardwood stands lack the
growth and vigor that this type
exhibits in other parts of the state. A
large number of the stands of this
Section 9 Clay Banks
cover type are showing signs of
dieback in the crowns. In contained systems with little or no water movement, partial or complete removal of
the overstory without advance regeneration often results in a lack of reproduction and loss of site. A rise in the
water table from decreased transpiration inhibits stump sprouting and seedling establishment.
Extent in Door County
This forest type makes up approximately 20% of the forests of Door County. This cover type is more common
in southern door but is still a common type north of Sturgeon Bay. The largest block of this type is located in
southeast door county, west of Forestville.
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
Page 24
Bottomland Hardwoods
The bottomland hardwood type is associated with flood plains and stream/river bottoms, primarily in the
southern two-thirds of Wisconsin. When the bottomland hardwood community is found further north, it can be
regionally significant and may provide important habitat for uncommon or rare species.
The major commercial tree species are eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), green ash (Fraxinus
pennsylvanica), river birch (Betula nigra), swamp white oak (Quercus bicolor), and silver maple (Acer
saccharinum). Unfortunately, Dutch elm disease has precluded management of American elm (Ulmus
americana).
Cottonwood is commonly found along
streams and bottomlands in the
southern two-thirds of Wisconsin. An
excellent pioneer of recently disturbed
sites, cottonwood requires a
continuous supply of moisture
throughout the growing season.
Cottonwood grows best on medium
textured soils with good internal
drainage; growth is poor on
excessively wet sites and areas of
impeded drainage.
Green ash is usually confined to
bottomland sites. However, it will
grow well when planted on moist
upland sites. In Wisconsin, it is most
commonly found on wet, rich alluvial
soils in the southern half of the state.
Section 36. Brussels
Swamp white oak commonly occurs on wet sites characterized by hardpan or areas subject to flooding. In
Wisconsin, it is most commonly found as a component of bottomland hardwoods.
Silver maple is characteristically a bottomland species, common within alluvial flood plains. It occurs on all
major soil types, but is more common on medium to fine textured soils.
American elm was an important component of bottomland forests, but Dutch elm disease has killed most large
elm. Elm seedlings and saplings may be locally abundant but are not generally favored by foresters due to
continuing disease problems.
Other tree species that commonly occur with bottomland hardwoods include: hackberry (Celtis occidentals), bur
oak (Quercus macrocarpa), black willow (Salix nigra), basswood (Tilia americana), black ash (Fraxinus
nigra), red maple (Acer rubrum), and red oak (Quercus rubra).
Soil Preference
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
Page 25
Bottomland hardwood forests are intricate and variable ecosystems due to species richness, flooding, ice
movement, internal drainage patterns and the pattern of deposition and development of soils is complex. Being
associated with waterways that periodically flood, the soils are stratified. Typical soil profiles have horizons of
distinctly different textural classes deposited by the stream. Soil textures are often a mixture of organic material,
sands, silts, and clays developing complex micro sites. The interaction of these variables precludes the
development of any single regeneration prescription which will function adequately on most bottomland sites.
Extent in Door County
This type is almost exclusively found in southern door, with very few stands of this type located north of
Sturgeon Bay.
Oak
The oak forest cover type includes upland sites with sandy
loam to silt loam soils where red oak, white pine (Pinus
strobus), aspen, paper birch, and red maple dominate. White
oak and many of the northern hardwood species (basswood,
ash, sugar maple, etc.) are also found on these sites.
The oak type also includes upland sites with loamy sands to
silt loams where red oak and most northern hardwood species,
especially sugar maple, dominate. White oak, American elm
(Ulmus americana), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), and
hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) are also common on many of
these sites.
Extent in Door County
The oak forest type is found in a few areas of the county.
Southern door county has the largest concentration of oak on
the landscape. The other area where oak is common is along
the Green Bay shoreline and the associated Niagara
Escarpment.
Section 32. Gardner
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
Page 26
Plantations
The plantation cover type consists of all
forest plantings that are occupying in most
cases, retired agricultural fields and
orchards. Plantations range from a single
species to any number of different species
mixed together. The most common tree
plantations are either all conifers
consisting of white pine, red pine, white
spruce or Norway spruce and white cedar,
or mixed plantations of hardwoods and
conifers. Common hardwood species used
are ash (green and white), oak (red and
white) and maple. Species
recommendations for a given site are
based on soil types and what tree species
grow best on that soil type.
Section 7. Clay Banks
Extent in Door County
Plantations are widespread throughout the county with
southern Door County having the most acreage in tree
plantings.
Section 27 Gardner
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
Page 27
Generally Accepted Silvicultural Methods by Forest Cover Type
Forest Cover Type
Northern Hardwood
Species
Removal
Intermediate
Thinning
X
X
Aspen
Coppice
Clearcut
Shelterwood
Single-tree
selection
Group
Selection
X
X
X
X
White Cedar
X
X
XX
X
White Cedar Variants
X
X
X
X
X
XX
X
XX
Paper Birch
Swamp Conifer
X
X
Swamp Hardwoods
X
X
Bottomland Hardwoods
X
X
Oak
Plantations
X ÆIndicates acceptable method.
X
XXX
X
X
XXÆStrip clearcutting generally recommended.
X
X
X
X
X
X
XXXÆWhen silver maple predominates.
FOREST MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Even-aged management systems are normally used to harvest, regenerate and tend sun-loving forest cover
types that grow poorly or will not regenerate in their own shade. The forest cover types adapted to these systems
are generally those accustomed to regeneration and rapid domination of a site following a catastrophic
disturbance, such as a fire or major windstorm. Stands normally consist of trees at or near the same age. Evenaged systems are also applied to cover types dominated by shade-tolerant species when the intent is to focus on
the less-tolerant component of the stand. Portions of even-aged management systems, specifically the
intermediate thinning regimes, may also be used in the early stages of young northern hardwood stands to
facilitate a long-term conversion to the uneven-aged system.
Uneven-aged management systems are normally used to harvest, regenerate and tend forest cover types that
will regenerate and grow under their own shade. Stands managed under uneven-aged systems are normally
comprised of three or more age classes. These cover types are adapted to regenerate under partial canopies
following minor disturbances like individual tree mortality, or a moderate disturbance such as a wind storm that
would damage up to one third of the stand. Uneven-aged systems are designed to mimic such disturbances.
Even shade-tolerant species grow most vigorously in relatively free-to-grow conditions with full sunlight,
assuming other growth requirements like soil moisture, are met. As a result, regeneration and most vigorous
growth typically occur in small- to medium-sized gaps (small openings). The number and size of gaps created
through uneven-aged management are dependent upon species composition, acreage regulation, and tree
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
Page 28
rotation age or size. Normally, these systems are used to manage stands containing mixed trees of all ages, from
seedlings to mature trees. They are also used to convert even-aged stands into an uneven-aged structure.
Even-Aged Silvicultural Systems
Light requirements, growth rates and reproductive characteristics of the species to be regenerated govern the
degree of overstory removal at the time of harvest. Competing vegetation and site characteristics are additional
factors. The following are the generally accepted even-aged regeneration methods used in Wisconsin.
EVEN-AGED REGENERATION METHODS USED TO PARTIALLY SIMULATE THE DEGREE OF
STAND MORTALITY THAT WOULD NORMALLY FOLLOW A MAJOR NATURAL
DISTURBANCE SUCH AS A FIRE OR MAJOR WINDSTORM
These methods are primarily used with intolerant species such as aspen, red pine or jack pine that require full
sunlight to ensure complete regeneration and optimum development.
• Coppice: A method designed to naturally regenerate a stand using vegetative reproduction. The overstory is
completely removed. Generally, there is no residual stand left as the residual can interfere with the regeneration,
and is not necessary to shelter the regenerated stand. This method differs from the other even-aged regeneration
systems (clearcut, seed-tree and shelterwood) in that the regenerated stand is derived from vegetative
reproduction rather than a seed source.
Aspen two years following coppice harvest. Section 11
Brussels
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
Aspen eight years following coppice harvest. Section 15
Brussels
Page 29
• Clearcut: A method used to regenerate a stand by
the removal of most or all woody vegetation during
the harvest creating a completely open area leading to
the establishment of an even-aged stand.
Regeneration can be from natural seed produced by
adjacent stands, trees cut in the harvesting operation,
direct seeding, or replanting.
This method differs from the seed-tree and
shelterwood methods in that no trees are left in the
cut area for seeding purposes. Rather, the seed source
is from outside the cut area or from felled tops of
harvested trees.
Clearcut seven years following cutting with oak,
• Seed-tree: A method designed to bring about
cherry, maple and aspen regeneration. Section 27 Union
natural reproduction on clearcut harvest areas by
leaving enough trees singly or in groups to naturally seed the area with adequate stocking of desired species in a
reasonable period of time before the site is captured by undesirable vegetation. In this method, only a few trees
(typically three to 10 per acre) are left and the residual stocking is not enough to sufficiently protect, modify or
shelter the site in any significant way. Seed-trees may be removed after establishment or left indefinitely. This
method differs from the coppice method in that regeneration comes primarily from seed rather than sprouts. It
differs from a clearcut in that the seed source for regeneration is from residual trees within the harvest area
rather than outside the cut area, or relying on seed existing on or in the ground. It differs from a shelterwood in
that the residual stocking is too sparse to modify the understory environment for seedling protection.
EVEN-AGED REGENERATION METHODS USED TO PARTIALLY MIMIC NATURAL
DETERIORATION OF THE OVERSTORY OVER TIME
These methods are tailored to more tolerant species that require partial shade and/or a seed source for optimum
regeneration, but once established need full sunlight for survival and full development (such as white pine and
oak).
• Shelterwood: A method used to regenerate a stand by manipulating the overstory and understory to create
conditions favorable for the establishment and survival of desirable tree species. This method normally involves
gradual removal (usually in two or three cuts) of the overstory. The overstory serves to modify understory
conditions to create a favorable environment for reproduction and provide a seed source. A secondary function
of the overstory is to allow further development of quality overstory stems during seedling establishment. The
most vigorous trees are normally left as the overstory, and the less vigorous trees removed.
A successful shelterwood harvest often requires the removal of intermediate or suppressed saplings and poles
(often of less desirable species such as elm, ironwood or red maple) because the smaller understory trees will
suppress development of vigorous seedlings of the preferred species. Initial shelterwood cuttings resemble
heavy thinnings. Natural reproduction starts under the protection of the older stand, and is finally released when
it becomes desirable to give the new stand full use of the growing space. At that point, the remaining overstory
is completely removed.
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
Page 30
This method differs from clearcutting and coppice methods in that the next stand is established on the site
before overstory removal. It differs from a seed-tree cutting in that the overstory serves to protect the understory
as well as distribute seed. Finally, an even-aged shelterwood harvest differs from uneven-aged selection
methods in that it promotes an even-aged stand structure.
• Overstory Removal: A method used to mimic the natural deterioration of the overstory but at an accelerated
rate in situations where adequate regeneration is already established. The entire stand overstory is removed in
one cut to provide the release of established seedlings and saplings. This method has been referred to as a
natural shelterwood or a one-cut shelterwood.
Overstory removal results in an even-aged stand structure as opposed to uneven-aged structure. It differs from
the clearcut and the coppice regeneration methods in that seedling and sapling regeneration is established prior
to the overstory removal. It differs from the shelterwood and seed-tree methods in that no manipulation of the
overstory is needed to establish regeneration.
Overstory removal can be applied to all forest stands being managed on an even-aged basis if desirable advance
regeneration is well-established. General considerations in the application of the overstory removal method are:
- Overstory health, condition and composition
- Potential risk of raising the water table on wet sites - Adequate stocking, distribution, vigor and desirability of
established, advanced regeneration
- Site capability
- Existing and potential competition, including exotic species
All the even-aged methods have variants with reserves involving scattered trees left throughout the harvest
area or in groups or clumps. Individual trees or groups of trees left uncut on a long-term basis will hamper the
growth of seedlings adjacent to them, but regeneration should be adequate as long as the reserves do not exceed
approximately 20 percent crown density. With such reserves, even-aged systems can be managed as two-aged
systems on a long-term basis. In most cases, the goal of an even-aged silvicultural system is to naturally
regenerate a species already present in the stand. Depending on the species involved, additional activities may
be required to ensure that its germination and growth requirements are met. These may involve the use of
prescribed fire, disking and other forms of scarification to expose a mineral soil seedbed to enhance seed
germination and survival. Where natural regeneration is insufficient or in cases where the desired species was
not present in the harvested stand, tree planting or direct seeding may be required.
Silvicultural Principles
Even-aged Harvest Considerations
Under even-aged silvicultural systems, entire stands are harvested all at once or over a relatively short period
when they reach a given age. The term rotation is used for the period of years required to grow timber stands to
a specified condition of maturity. The age of the stand at the end of the rotation period when it is normally
harvested is called the rotation age.
Traditional rotation ages are set at a point in time when average annual growth reaches its maximum. Beyond
that age, stands grow more slowly. Decay and tree mortality may begin to increase. This rotation age varies by
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
Page 31
species and site, and is normally established for each individual species reflecting prevailing regional or local
conditions. Eventually a stand will reach its pathological rotation age, at which time insect and disease activity
result in such extensive decay and mortality that harvesting of the stand is no longer economically viable. At the
stand level, natural mortality of the overstory becomes significant. Regeneration of the current overstory may
also become difficult due to natural succession and loss of seed sources. Rotation length will vary with a
number of factors:
• The average growth rate and life span of the species involved. A typical rotation age for a stand of aspen,
for example, is 45 to 60 years. A typical rotation age for an oak stand may be two to three times as long.
• The type and quality of product desired. Pulpwood takes a shorter time to produce than sawlogs, which
must be larger in diameter. High quality sawlogs and veneer logs require more time since they are typically
grown to still larger diameters and at higher density levels.
• Economic considerations. Changes in supply and demand in general, specific customer requirements, market
values, and internal infrastructure demands can all result in modified rotation ages.
• Site productivity. More productive sites support increased growth rates for a longer period of time. As a
result, the period of positive mean annual growth is also extended, increasing the optimum rotation age.
Different rotation lengths are typically employed across the range of site productivity.
• Insect and disease concerns. The level of mortality and decay caused by insects and disease is a prime factor
in net growth. Insect and disease outbreaks can significantly reduce stand growth, and in extreme cases, cause
such extensive mortality that they determine rotations. As stands age, the risk of sudden, extensive mortality
increases.
• Landowner goals. Rotation ages can be extended to enhance non-timber resources if a landowner is willing to
accept reduced growth rates and potentially forgo some timber revenues. In some cases, these extended
rotations can enhance the supply and value of some high quality timber products such as sawtimber and veneer.
Just as stands can be held for some time after the normal rotation age, they can also be harvested for a period
prior to the normal rotation age. This harvest period can be used to space harvests over time, divide or combine
stands to meet other landowner goals, manage the flow of timber income, or deal with other supply and demand
economic constraints.
Principles
Uneven-Aged Silvicultural Systems
Stand regeneration is achieved by periodically manipulating the overstory and understory to create conditions
favorable for the establishment and survival of desirable tree species capable of reproducing & growing in
partial shade. Thinning, regeneration and harvesting usually occurs simultaneously. The harvested trees are
essentially replaced by growth on the younger trees left in the stand. These silvicultural systems are designed to
maintain an uneven-aged stand condition, while manipulating the multi-age and multi-size structure of the
overstory to facilitate continual recruitment and development of quality growing stock.
With the uneven-aged silvicultural system, the tree selection decision (to cut or leave) considers a number of
factors including:
• Desired Age and Size Class Distribution
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•
•
Tree Quality
Species Desirability
Chapter 2 — Generally Accepted Silvicultural Principles
The following are generally accepted uneven-aged natural regeneration systems used in Wisconsin:
• Single-tree Selection: Individual trees of various size and age classes are periodically removed to provide
space for regeneration, and promote the growth of remaining trees. Each regeneration opening (gap) covers an
area equivalent to the crown spread of a single large tree that has been removed. Individual trees are selected for
removal from all size classes (to achieve desired residual density levels) following recognized order of removal
criteria based on tree risk, vigor, quality, and spacing. The goal, particularly in the northern hardwood cover
type, is to achieve an optimum distribution of size and age classes so each contains a sufficient number of
quality trees to replace those harvested in the next larger size class. Specific selection criteria vary slightly with
the particular species makeup of the stand involved.
• Group Selection: Trees are
periodically removed in small groups
to create conditions favorable for the
regeneration and establishment of
new age classes. In general, the
openings created may range in size
from fairly small 0.02 acre (30’
diameter circle) up to one-half acre
(166’ diameter circle or
approximately two tree lengths). In
northern hardwood management,
An un-even aged northern hardwood stand which has not been harvested in 15 years.
gaps are generally less than one-tenth
acre. Smaller openings favor
regeneration of more-tolerant species,
while larger openings favor midtolerant species. In general, stands
dominated by large crowned tolerant
species (such as sugar maple, beech
and hemlock) do not require the
creation of large openings to provide
sunlight for regeneration, and
individual trees are harvested as they
mature using the single-tree selection
The same stand following a single-tree selection harvest. Trees have been removed
method. However, some of the lessacross the range of age and size classes to maintain an uneven age structure.
tolerant species commonly associated
with sugar maple (such as basswood,
yellow birch and ash) benefit from the use of the group selection method to enhance recruitment and growth of
new seedlings. One-quarter to one-half acre gaps may also have potential application in the management of
uneven-aged stands of mid-tolerants like red oak and white pine on some sites. Potentially, most-tolerant to
mid-tolerant species can be managed by applying variations of the selection regeneration method, if appropriate
steps are taken to control competition. In general, stands managed under uneven-aged systems regenerate as a
result of manipulation of light levels during the harvest process. In some cases, non-commercial removal of
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additional cull trees or poorly formed saplings may be needed to further enhance regeneration in specific areas
which are not opened up through the normal selection process.
Chapter 2 — Generally Accepted Silvicultural Principles
Uneven-aged Harvest Considerations
Harvests in uneven-aged stands occur regularly. The normal cutting cycles range from eight to 20 years. The
interval is based on site quality, growth rates, removable volumes, and landowner goals relative to each stand.
Individual trees are removed from each size (or age) class as needed to achieve the desired level of stocking.
When selecting which trees to remove within each diameter class, the primary factors considered are risk, vigor,
quality, and spacing. In addition, an optimum maximum diameter class is determined for each stand based on
the following considerations:
• Site Productivity: Higher quality sites normally allow trees to be carried to a larger diameter before growth
rates decline significantly and degrade/decay becomes a major factor in tree value.
• Average Growth Rates and Life Spans of the Species Involved: Stands managed under uneven-aged
silvicultural systems normally contain a variety of different species, each having a different optimum maximum
diameter class.
• Type and Quality of Products Desired: A decision to focus on sawtimber, veneer or both will influence the
selection of an optimum maximum diameter class.
• Balancing Risk and Economic Value: As a
particular high quality crop tree gets larger, it becomes
more economically valuable. The value increase is due
to more than just the additional volume accumulated as
the tree grows. As a tree passes though a number of
threshold diameters, it increases in grade and value
dramatically. The values of sawlogs depend more on
grade than volume. Larger diameters are required for
the higher grades, which can bring two to three times
the value of lower grade logs. Attaining veneer size can
result in another major increase in tree value. The
decision to leave a particular large valuable tree uncut
must be weighed against the uncertainty of it still being
alive and healthy 10 to 15 years later, when the next
periodic harvest will be done. If it survives, it may
increase significantly in timber value; if it is damaged
or dies, that value could be lost. The evaluation of tree
risk and vigor is critical to the determination of
individual tree rotation.
When the uneven-age management system is used, an
optimum maximum tree diameter class (target
diameter) is used for each stand.
• Landowner Goals: Maximum diameter classes can be increased/decreased depending on specific landowner
goals. They can be extended to enhance non-timber resources (e.g., aesthetics, wildlife food and shelter, and old
growth characteristics) if the landowner is willing to accept reduced growth rates and forgo some timber
revenues. In the case of low risk, vigorous, high quality trees, the extended rotations can increase the supply of
sawtimber and veneer, therefore, the total value. Just as trees can be held longer, they can also be harvested
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earlier to respond to variable market conditions (supply and demand economics), manage the flow of certain
timber products or income, or divide/combine stands to meet other goals.
Reaching the optimum maximum diameter class is not the only criterion for tree selection. Other marking
criteria (risk, vigor, spacing, quality, and basal area stocking levels) take precedence, and may result in a
specific tree being retained longer. Vigorous, low risk, high quality trees may be retained well beyond the target
diameter, for example, if stocking in the maximum diameter class is too low or other poorer quality trees are
removed instead. Flexibility exists in the selection of an optimum maximum diameter class. The diameter class
chosen, however, is a key factor in the determination of the optimum number of trees needed in each of the
other various diameter classes – from the smallest to the largest – to ensure that quality trees are available to
replace those harvested.
Tending Methods in Even-age & Uneven-age Stands
Intermediate treatments including release, pruning, thinning and improvement cutting may be applicable in
tending both even and uneven age stands. Specific applications of intermediate treatments depend on
landowner goals and objectives, economic constraints and opportunities, site capability, stand development, and
the silvics/ecology of the desired species and their competitors. These treatments are discussed in detail in the
Intermediate Silvicultural Treatments chapter.
In most even-aged stands, intermediate treatments are generally applied relatively consistently across the stand.
These thinning practices can be modified (spatially) and temporarily applied in even-aged stands where the
long-term management objective is conversion to uneven-aged management. For example, in even-aged small
sawtimber-sized northern hardwood stands, even-aged thinning guides can be applied to most of the stand,
however, some regeneration gaps can be created to initiate the development of an uneven-aged structure.
Following one or more of these modified even-aged thinnings with canopy gaps, later operations are then based
on uneven-aged selection management guidelines (simultaneous thinning, harvest and regeneration).
In uneven-aged silvicultural systems, tending operations are not as clearly distinguished from harvest and
regeneration operations as in even-aged systems. Harvest and regeneration are perpetual operations, rather than
occurring once during a stand’s rotation, so tending and harvest operations occurs simultaneously. Thinning
release and improvement cutting may all occur in conjunction with periodic entries into the stand for selection
harvests.
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INTERMEDIATE SILVICULTURAL TREATMENTS
Intermediate treatments are forestry practices applied to forest stands that have not reached maturity. They
can begin as early as the establishment of young seedlings and continue to a point prior to final harvest. Primary
goals include improvement of stand composition, structure, growth, quality, health, and the production of
specific benefits desired by the landowner. Some intermediate treatments, often called timber stand
improvement (TSI), are non-commercial, requiring outright investment by the landowner. Other intermediate
treatments can generate revenue from forest products.
Release
Release is a treatment designed to free young trees (saplings and seedlings) from undesirable, usually
overtopping, competing vegetation. The purpose is to regulate species composition and to improve growth and
quality. Release treatments are designed to provide potential crop trees (trees you wish to favor long term) with
sufficient light and growing space, by freeing their crowns and controlling competition. The need for release
treatments are based on a number of considerations:
• An assessment of the relative growth rates (height growth in particular) of the competing and desired species.
• The degree of impact the competing species has on the health and vigor of the desired species.
• The relative cost/effectiveness of a partial versus complete release versus no action.
Complete release involves the release of an entire layer of vegetation. Examples would be the control of aspen
suckers and brush in a new pine plantation, or the control of competing red maple stump sprouts after the
establishment of red oak seedlings following a shelterwood harvest. In these situations, essentially all of a
particular species in the stand are considered crop trees. The objective is not necessarily to kill the competing
species, but to set back and/or retard their growth so as to allow the desired species to gain dominance. A
complete release normally occurs soon after a new stand is established, when competing vegetation begins to
interfere with the free growth of the desired species and/or individuals.
Partial release involves the release of only selected crop trees. A partial release is usually done before the main
stand is 15 years of age, and involves the following criteria:
• Crop trees are selected based on landowner objectives, species, tree vigor, and tree quality. The maximum
number of well-spaced crop trees per acre generally ranges from 50 to 200, depending on landowner objectives
and stand condition.
• Only the direct competitors are cut. Any plant that is not going to suppress, endanger, or hamper the growth of
desired individuals is left to grow. All trees with crowns that touch or interfere with each crop tree are removed.
• When sprout clumps are involved, all but the best one or two stems are cut. Healthy, low sprouts originating
less than six inches above the ground with a u-shaped stem attachment, of a relatively large size, well-shaped
and with a well-developed crown, are selected for retention.
There are three types of release treatments: weeding, cleaning, and liberation. They are differentiated based
on the type, age, and size of vegetation eliminated. Within a stand, they can be applied individually or in
concert, once or multiple times. Chapter 16 — Intermediate Silvicultural Treatments
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Chapter 16 — Intermediate Silvicultural Treatments
Release Methods
Physically Tear the Plant Out of the Soil
• A very effective but expensive method.
Cutting
• Effective against species that do not sprout, e.g., most
conifers.
• Species that sprout may require repeated treatments to
effectively control. Cutting in late spring and summer is
most effective.
• Relatively expensive, unless a product can be harvested.
Girdling
• Effective against species that do not sprout.
• Most effective when done in late-spring and summer.
• Generally applied only to trees greater than 4" in
diameter at chest height.
Fire
• Usually kills trees by girdling.
• Generally not used to release young trees.
Herbicides
• Very effective and often the most cost-effective.
• Methods of application for release operations include:
aerial spraying,
ground-level foliar spraying, basal spraying, stump
spraying, and bark incisions.
Girdling can be an effective way to
eliminate competition from large poor quality trees
without damaging reproduction.
Operational Considerations
Some general operational considerations relative to release treatments that remove large, overtopping trees are:
• Cutting may allow the realization of income, but protection of the young stand from felling and harvesting
operations is critical.
• Care should be taken that following the elimination of high shade, intense crown competition from sprouts or
the release of fast growing weed species does not develop.
• Reserve trees can provide benefits related to wildlife, aesthetics, water and soil quality, protection of special or
sensitive sites, landmarks, and, in certain cases, timber production. Where objectives include the retention of
reserve trees, residual crown closures of less than 20 percent generally will not significantly impair the
development of the young stand.
• In most cases, nearly full sunlight is preferred to promote optimum growth of young, established stands.
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Thinning
Thinning is done in stands past the sapling stage to reduce the stand density of trees primarily to improve
growth, enhance forest health, or recover potential mortality. Typically, it entails the removal of trees to
temporarily reduce stocking (density levels) to concentrate growth on the more desirable trees. Normal
thinning does not significantly alter the gross production of wood volume. Thinning impacts stand growth,
structure and development, and increases economic yields. Individual thinnings can be commercial or noncommercial (TSI), depending on landowner objectives and local markets for materials cut in the thinning
operation. How and when thinnings are applied depends on landowner objectives and the desired benefits. A
schedule of thinning for a stand should identify the thinning methods to be used, the intensity of application,
and when thinnings will occur. Ideally, a thinning schedule should be systematic, flexible, and consistently
followed throughout the life of the stand. In selecting trees for thinning, primary focus should be on the trees
that will remain, as opposed to those to be cut. There are five basic methods of thinning. Stand conditions
and thinning needs vary over time, often resulting in the application of more than one method over a stand’s life
cycle. The five methods of thinning are: low thinning, crown thinning, mechanical thinning, dominant thinning,
and free thinning
TChapte6 — Intermediate Silvicultural Treatments
Crown Classes
Trees will occupy different levels of dominance in their
position in the forest relative to other trees. These crown
classes are identified as follows and useful in describing
the different thinning methods.
Dominant (D)
Dominant trees have crowns extending above the general
level of the crown cover, and receive full light from
above and partly from the side. Dominant trees are larger
than the average trees in the stand, and have welldeveloped crowns that may be somewhat crowded from
the sides.
This illustration shows the relative positions of trees
in the different crown classes
Codominant (C)
Codominant trees have crowns forming the general level of the crown cover, and receive full light from above
but comparatively little from the sides. These trees usually have medium-sized crowns that are often crowded
on the sides.
Intermediate (I)
Intermediate trees are shorter than dominant and codominant, but have crowns extending into the crown cover
formed by codominant and dominant trees. Intermediate trees receive a little direct light from above, but none
from the sides. They usually have small crowns that are considerably crowded on the sides.
Overtopped (O)
Overtopped, also called suppressed, are trees with crowns entirely below the general level of the crown cover.
Overtopped trees receive no direct light either from above or from the sides.
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Thinning Methods
Low Thinning, or thinning from below, involves removal of trees from the lower crown classes to favor those
in the upper crown classes. This strategy of removing the smallest trees and retaining the largest trees
accelerates and simulates somewhat the natural elimination of the lower crown classes through competition.
• This type of thinning generally removes smaller diameter trees, and marketability can sometimes be difficult.
• Light- to medium-intensity low thinnings (removing suppressed and intermediate trees) are not recommended
except in specific cases. They facilitate utilization of trees that would otherwise die due to suppression
(competition), but the release of the remaining trees from competition is minimal.
• Heavy low thinnings are generally recommended. They involve the removal of some codominants in order to
create canopy openings and release the crowns of crop trees to stimulate their growth. Stocking guides are used
to help determine residual density levels.
Chapter 16 — Intermediate Silvicultural Treatments
How a stand might look before (A), and after (B), a low thinning. The letters on the trees
denote crown classification.
Crown Thinning, or thinning from above, involves removal of trees from the dominant and codominant crown
classes in order to favor the best trees of those same crown classes. Large intermediates that interfere with crop
trees also can be removed. The method stimulates the growth of selected, preferred trees (quality) without
sacrificing the production of quantity.
• Crown thinnings are normally used to develop quality sawtimber. They are usually commercial operations and
the trees removed are relatively large.
• Crop trees are selected based on landowner objectives, species, vigor, quality, strength, and health
• Crown thinnings are recommended as the primary method to develop and manage quality hardwood stands for
the production of high value sawtimber and veneer logs.
• 20 to 150 well-spaced dominant and codominant crop trees per acre are released. In fast growing young stands
with small crowned competitors, crop trees are released on four sides. In slower growing older stands with
larger crowned competitors, crop trees are released on one to three sides.
• To optimize growth, the remaining stand should also be thinned. Release the best dominant and codominant
trees by removing high risk, low vigor competitors. Stocking guides are used to determine residual stand
density.
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• To be most effective, crown thinning requires considerable skill in tree selection and density management.
The timing and intensity of a particular thinning is important in managing stem form and natural pruning.
Chapter 16 — Intermediate Silvicultural Treatments
The upper sketch (A) shows a coniferous stand
immediately before a crown thinning.
The crop
trees are indicated by blue circles marked "CT." The
lower sketch (B) shows the same stand about 20 years
later, which has reclosed to the point where a low
thinning would be desirable.
This crop tree, released on two to three sides by cutting
competing trees, is now free to grow.
Chapter 16 — Intermediate Silvicultural Treatments
Mechanical Thinning is the removal of trees in
rows, strips, or by using fixed spacing intervals.
Frequently, these are the first thinnings in
young stands that are densely crowded and/or
relatively uniform with little differentiation into
crown classes. This method becomes less
suitable as variation in the size and quality of
the trees increases.
• Row thinnings cut all trees in rows or
strips at fixed intervals throughout the stand.
They are often utilized for the first thinning(s)
in plantations where the rows are readily
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
A mechanical thinning in a pine plantation in which every third row
of trees has been removed. The opening in the canopy should close in
Page 40
a few years. Sec. 8 Sevastopol
apparent. The removal of every third row is the most common practice. They are also used to provide access for
harvesting equipment in dense, unthinned stands.
• Spacing thinnings involve selection of trees at fixed intervals for retention and cutting the rest. This
strategy is most applicable as the first thinning in very overcrowded young stands developed from dense natural
reproduction.
Dominant Thinning, or selection thinning, involves the removal of trees in the dominant crown class in order
to favor the lower crown classes. This method is suitable only for limited purposes.
• The most common dominant thinning applications are in the management of shade tolerant conifers, where the
objective is to grow as many trees as possible to medium-size for the production of pulpwood, poles, or other
small diameter wood products.
• This thinning system is not applicable to quality hardwood management.
Free Thinning is the removal of trees to control stand spacing (density) and favor desired crop trees, using a
combination of thinning criteria without strict regard to crown position. In application, this method is a free
combination of selected concepts and techniques garnered from any of the other four thinning methods.
Thinnings of this type are sometimes applied as the initial thinning in previously untreated natural stands in
preparation for a more systematic future program. Skillful employment of this system can be used to manage
and maintain stands of mixed composition, density, or age.
Operational Considerations
• The timing and intensity of each thinning depends on landowner objectives, stand composition and structure,
stand condition and health, and other past and planned management activities. A tentative schedule should be
developed, indicating the projected timing and intensity of each thinning.
• The intensity of thinning refers to the proportion of the stand removed in a particular thinning.
• As intensity increases, frequency usually decreases.
• Target stocking levels are determined based on optimizing stand growth and yield for a specific forest cover
type. Stocking guides developed for specific forest types are normally used to guide thinning applications.
• Initial thinnings normally begin when crowns begin to touch each other. Precommercial thinning (TSI)
requires an investment, but can increase net returns over the rotation. It is typical, however, to postpone the
initial thinning until an immediate profit can be produced.
• Normally, a thinning is indicated when:
1) the live crown ratios of crop trees begin to decline
2) the diameter growth of crop trees begins to decline
3) stand density increases to near or above specified upper limits delineated in stocking charts, and/or
4) sufficient timber volume accumulates to support a commercially viable thinning.
• The effects of thinning are temporary. After each thinning, the remaining trees grow taller, diameters increase,
crowns expand, and canopy gaps close.
• Thinning every 10 to 15 years, is a recommended general guideline for commercial thinnings.
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It is important to control logging damage when thinning.
Logging wounds can predispose the remaining trees to disease and decay. Thinnings are meant to increase
resistance to damage (insects, disease, wind, etc.); however, they can also temporarily predispose stands to
damage, especially where trees are not particularly vigorous or strong.
Chapter 16 — Intermediate Silvicultural Treatments
Improvement Cutting
Improvement cutting is the
removal of less desirable trees of
any species in a stand of poles or
larger trees, primarily to improve
composition and quality. Trees are
removed to encourage the growth
of
more desirable trees within or
below the main canopy. Trees
considered for removal include
inferior species, poorly formed
trees, over mature individuals, and
injured or unhealthy trees.
Potential crop trees should be a
preferred species and relatively
well-formed, vigorous, and
healthy. Improvement cuttings are
widely needed and commonly
An improvement cut in this upland hardwood stand removed poor quality
practiced. They usually are applied
to
poletimber and sawtimber. Section 27 Gardner
stands that have been unmanaged,
neglected, or poorly managed. The intent is to remove undesirable material, and set the stage for productive
management to accomplish landowner objectives. In most cases, stand improvement can be completed in one to
three operations. In cases where the current stand is of such poor quality that rehabilitation is questionable, the
preferred choice is to initiate regeneration to develop a vigorous, new stand.
Salvage cutting
Salvage cutting is done to remove dead, damaged, or dying trees resulting from injurious agents other than
competition. The goal is to recover economic value that would otherwise be lost. Salvage operations are done
for profit, with the intent of utilizing damaged trees and minimizing financial losses. Salvage should be
conducted as soon as possible following a damaging event. Dead trees deteriorate rapidly during the first
growing season after death. Severe stand damage will require the implementation of regeneration methods.
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Presalvage cutting
Presalvage cutting involves removal of valuable trees at high risk of injury or mortality from damaging agents.
The method attempts to anticipate damage by removing vulnerable trees that are in imminent danger of being
damaged or killed.
Sanitation cutting
Sanitation cutting removes trees that are a threat to stand health by stopping or reducing the actual or anticipated
spread of insects or disease. It is precautionary protection implemented to reduce the spread of damaging
organisms, or in anticipation of attacks to prevent or delay the establishment of damaging organisms. Sanitation
cuttings eliminate trees that are present or prospective sources of infection for insects or fungi that might attack
other trees. The removal of trees must actually interrupt the life cycle of the organisms sufficiently to reduce
their spread to other trees.
Chapter 16 — Intermediate Treatments
Pruning
Pruning trees can be a beneficial forest
management practice for a number of reasons
including; improving wood quality, encouraging
good tree form, reducing potential disease, fire
hazard reduction and improving accessibility.
In simple terms, pruning is the removal of
branches from the crown of the tree. It is a
natural process that occurs throughout the tree’s
life cycle. Natural pruning occurs when a lack
of sunlight causes a branch to die and
eventually fall off the tree. It normally occurs
on bottom most branches and works its way up
the tree as it grows and ages. The amount of
shade has the most influence on natural pruning.
Open grown trees will retain lower branches
longer since more light is available to produce
foliage, keeping the branch alive and growing.
Trees grown in closer proximity to each other
will tend to naturally self-prune, eventually
losing lower branches. Mechanical pruning is achieved by physically cutting branches from the tree to enhance
or accelerate natural pruning process to meet specific goals.
Improving Wood Quality. As long as a branch is present on the trunk of a tree, the trunk will grow in diameter
outward along the branch. If the tree is harvested to produce lumber, the boards cut from the trunk will contain
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knots where the branch occurred. Knots are categorized as defects in lumber. Knot-free lumber is considered
better quality and has higher value. Lateral pruning of side branches is done to start the production of knot-free
wood at an earlier age in the tree’s life. Realistically, lateral pruning for wood quality does not need to occur
until the tree approaches 6-8 inches in diameter. This allows time for the pruning wounds to close and start
creating clear wood at a diameter where boards would be cut from the logs. Another factor to keep in mind is
the smaller the diameter of the pruned branch; the sooner it will heal. Ideally, you want to lateral prune limbs
that are an inch or smaller in diameter. This may influence the time you begin lateral pruning. Pruning live
branches will produce sound knots while waiting until branches are dead will produce unsound knots that may
fall out of lumber that contains them. Since a large percentage of the tree’s value for lumber lies in the first log,
it is recommended to lateral prune at least 17 feet in height. This may need to be done in stages, spread out over
time, particularly on younger trees. You want to try and keep half of the trees total height in live branches and
time your pruning efforts accordingly. If dead branches have already appeared beyond half of the trees height it
is acceptable to prune to the level of live branches. Lateral pruning is time consuming and should concentrate
on trees with the best potential for producing logs. The number of trees to prune will be dictated by the
availability of time/money to spend pruning and the quality of your stand of trees. The most trees you would
prune per acre would likely be in a pine plantation and could total 150 trees per acre. In other stands there may
be as few as 10 to 20. Remember to only prune trees you intend to grow to sawtimber size. Pruning trees for
wood quality that will be thinned for pulpwood or firewood is a waste of time. Work with a qualified forester in
choosing trees to prune for best results.
Encouraging Good Tree Form. This form of pruning is known as corrective pruning and is applied to
misshapen, forked or multi-stemmed trees to develop a straight main trunk for eventual timber production.
Corrective pruning is most often done in hardwood plantings or natural stands. Hardwoods grow toward
available sunlight while evergreens grow against the force of gravity. Because of this, few evergreens will ever
need corrective pruning. Corrective pruning of hardwoods is as much art as it is science. It is best to get on site
advice from a professional forester for recommendations.
Reducing Potential Disease. The primary species in this area that can benefit from pruning for disease control is
white pine. A disease known as white pine blister rust alternates its life cycle between gooseberry and white
pine trees. The fungus usually infects lower branches of white pines and works its way to the main trunk
eventually killing the tree. Pruning lower branches of white pine can help reduce the risk of infection. In
addition, pruning out branches that are infected before the disease reaches the trunk can prevent mortality. The
most common incidences of blister rust occur in white pine plantations. There is no guarantee that pruned white
pine will not be infected, but the chances are less. Following the lateral pruning guidelines for wood quality are
applicable here with a couple exceptions. Pruning for blister rust prevention/control may be one of a few cases
where pruning every tree in a plantation may be justified. In addition, any branch infected with blister rust
should be pruned no matter where it occurs on the tree. If you are concerned about blister rust or suspect your
white pine may be infected, contact a professional forester.
Fire Hazard Reduction. Pruning to reduce the hazard of wildfire occurs primarily in pine or spruce plantations.
Since our local area is dominated by hardwood forests that are broken up by old fields, orchards and farmland,
it is less of a concern here than in other areas of the state. What pruning does in evergreen plantations is reduce
the potential for a ground fire to work its way up into the live crowns of evergreen trees. Crown fires can occur
in times of high fire danger and can be extremely volatile and dangerous to control. Pruning live lower limbs
eliminates a fuel ladder for fire to move vertically from ground level into the main tree canopy.
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Improving Accessibility. One of the most common places that pruning can benefit access is in evergreen
plantations, particularly spruce. These plantings usually have tightly spaced trees with dense branches that can
be almost impenetrable. Pruning out trails or woods roads for recreation or forestry work will make access
available to areas that most often are avoided.
Pruning can be done with a number of different tools including hand shears, lopping shears, pruning saws, pole
pruners and telescoping chainsaws. No matter what the tool used, keep it sharp, and prune branches at the right
spot to promote healing and avoid decay.
There is a natural growth collar around the base of branches where they meet the trunk. This collar can be used
as a cutting guide for pruning. Leave as little branch stub as possible but do not cut into the branch collar. If
you are pruning a large branch its sheer weight will often times peel bark from the tree before you can finish
your pruning cut. To avoid this, cut the branch off a foot from the tree to remove most of the weight and prune
the stub that’s left as you normally would. Another technique to avoid peeling bark is to undercut the branch
first and then make your normal pruning cut (see illustrations).
Timing of pruning can be summed up as follows: Prune hardwoods when they are dormant (fall & winter).
Prune evergreens in the dormant season if possible. Prune dead branches anytime.
16 — Intermediate Silvicultural Treatments
Post-Treatment Activities
• Rehabilitate landings, skid trails, and access roads to mitigate soil erosion, rutting, and compaction.
• Monitor and control any new infestations of non-native invasive species. Clean equipment before moving
from any infested site to an area that is free of invasives.
• Careful records should be kept of intermediate treatments in order to assess the growth response, economic
viability, and the need to refine future thinning schedules.
Seeding can be as easy as spreading grass seed by hand as the landowner is doing on his
freshly-graded woods road. Retaining slash on skid trails is an effective way of reducing
soil compaction and rutting from use of heavy logging equipment.
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WHAT NOT TO DO - UNSUSTAINABLE CUTTING MEHTODS
A healthy well cared for forest can easily be mistreated and left in a poor condition that will take generations to
recover from. Unfortunately there are examples of this across Wisconsin and it has happened in Door County
as well. Sound sustainable forestry includes a planned program of treatments over the life of a forest stand to
attain desired objectives. Other cutting methods exist primarily to maximize short-term economic gain, and are
not part of a long-term plan to ensure regeneration of a healthy, vigorous stand on a sustainable basis. To add
insult to injury, you may be taken advantage of economically in the process of degrading your forest.
The following examples of unsustainable cutting methods are not an all-inclusive list, but are some of the most
common. These methods may result in a new stand of trees, but due to the lack of consideration of specific
species requirements, they often lead to stand degradation and are not considered generally accepted
silvicultural practices that result in sustainable forestry. Beware of any contacts by timber buyers proposing
these methods. A follow up check with your local DNR or qualified consulting forester for advice is a good
idea prior to signing any timber sale agreement.
Diameter limit cutting is cutting all trees above a set
diameter regardless of the impact on stand structure, stand
quality, tree quality, species composition, or regeneration
needs. At times referred to as a “selective cut,” the only
consideration is diameter as opposed to specific criteria
employed in a true single-tree selection harvest under the
uneven-aged silvicultural system.
Economic clearcutting, where any tree of economic value
is cut with no consideration for site, silvics of the species
involved or regeneration needs. This practice differs from a
clearcut in the even-aged silvicultural system where all
trees are harvested, regardless of value, in order to ensure
residual shade and competition does not hamper the
regeneration and development of a new stand.
Before and after depiction of a typical "high grade.
Trees with the greatest economic value have been
removed leaving poor quality trees behind. No
consideration was given to the condition of the residual
stand or its future.
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
High grading, also referred to as “selective logging,” is the
practice of cutting only the largest, most valuable trees in a
stand and leaving low value and poor quality trees to
dominate. This practice is NOT the same as a single-tree
selection regeneration harvest described in the silvicultural
systems section. High grading is not designed to enhance
the quality and reproductive potential of the residual stand,
but maximize immediate revenue. The term “selective
logging” is sometimes used intentionally by unscrupulous
loggers to create false expectations on the part of
landowners. It is emphasized that economic gain and
sustainability ARE compatible. Using creativity and
imagination in the application of sound silviculture will
best achieve both goals in the long-run.
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WILDLIFE HABITAT GUIDELINES
Wisconsin contains a diverse natural heritage with more than 1,800 plant species and 650 vertebrate species
identified to date (WDNR 1995). In addition, thousands of fungi, invertebrates, and non-vascular plant species
also contribute to healthy ecosystem functioning. Wisconsin is located at the junction of three of North
America’s six biotic provinces thus generating a number of different habitats and niches for species to occupy.
Wisconsin’s forests lie within all three of these provinces and therefore are also quite diverse. The Society of
American Foresters (SAF) lists 19 forest types that occur within the state. Each forest type occurs along a
gradient of moisture, temperature, soil type, and climate, creating hundreds of different habitats and niches for
species to occupy. All told a significant percentage of Wisconsin’s native flora and fauna is associated with
forested habitats.
Each species associated with a forested habitat or niche contributes to ecosystem functioning and in turn larger
ecosystem processes. For example, studies have shown that insect eating birds reduce overall levels of foliage
loss from insect populations. As a result, bird populations can affect larger ecosystem processes such as carbon
storage or primary productivity. Therefore, loss of organisms or groups of organisms from an ecosystem can
have much larger consequences on forest health and larger ecological processes. The challenge is to conserve
all the working parts within a particular ecosystem in order to maintain ecosystem resilience when disturbances
occur. Simplified forest ecosystems suffer more damage from forest pests and are more likely to have problems
regenerating effectively.
The primary focus of this chapter is on forest-dependent terrestrial and amphibious forms of wildlife. The
intent is to provide practical, science-based guidelines to address a number of specific issues and projected
impacts relating to forestry and wildlife. The resource directory contains DNR and non-DNR contacts that
can provide additional information on management of all wildlife species.
Certainly, much more can be done to enhance wildlife habitat or individual species than the steps
recommended in these guidelines. Furthermore, each management practice, including the option to do nothing,
will favor some species and hinder other species. As a result, it’s not practical to provide a comprehensive set
of guidelines covering all possibilities for improving habitat in Wisconsin forests. Instead, these guidelines
cover the essentials for addressing site-level issues related to forestry practices. Those interested in pursuing
objectives that focus primarily on wildlife management are encouraged to consult a professional wildlife
manager for more information.
It should be remembered that it’s difficult to separate site-level and landscape-level issues. For wildlife, more
than for other forest resources, what occurs on a site influences the surrounding landscape and vice versa. While
the guidelines focus on the site level as much as possible, some of the more important “landscape implications”
will also be discussed. Landscape-level wildlife needs can best be addressed through professional planning for
individual properties and cooperation among landowners and agencies within a landscape.
Finally, many wildlife habitat guidelines can be applied simultaneously. For example, leave tree clumps in
clearcuts might also serve as rare species buffers, provide mast production and enhance vertical structure. These
overlapping benefits may extend to other forest resources as well, such as for cultural resource protection and
visual quality. In other cases, retention of various structural habitat components may create safety issues like the
reduction of visual quality or increase the potential for pest damage. Other chapters of the guide will address
some of the trade-offs that need to be considered relative to other resources.
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Specific Wildlife Habitat Guidelines
Leave Trees and Snags
Purpose
The purpose of this habitat aspect is to provide for wildlife requiring perches, tree cavities and bark-foraging
sites through retention of suitable leave trees and snags on a site during forest harvesting and timber stand
improvement. This guideline will also contribute to the continued presence of coarse woody debris on a site.
Rationale, Background and Benefits
In Wisconsin, up to 30 breeding birds, nearly 30 mammals, and several reptiles and amphibians use snags as
breeding sites. Different species have adapted to different ecological conditions. Saw-whet Owls utilize
cavities in and around lowland conifer swamps, while Red-headed Woodpeckers nest in cavities in open or
semi-forested conditions. The major issue for cavity-dependent wildlife and timber harvesting is whether
suitable trees and nest cavities remain for these species following logging or timber stand improvement.
Retention of leave trees and snags during timber harvesting provides habitat for wildlife that require perches,
tree cavities or bark-foraging sites as the surrounding forest regenerates. Leave trees and snags may also
provide unique niches and microsites for a variety of plants, especially within retained clumps. Leave trees or
snags that fall over and decay will also benefit soil conditions as well as wildlife that utilize coarse woody
debris.
The fundamental idea is to retain some structure for snag- and cavity-dependent species on a site or maintain the
potential to produce such structure as a stand grows and develops (see Chapter 11: Timber Harvesting, pages
142 and 143, for specific recommendations on leave tree and snag selection and distribution).
Eco-Region Applicability
Cavity and snag trees are important statewide. Wildlife species that use cavities range in size from small
mammals such as bats and mice up to black bears. A range of tree sizes is necessary on a landscape scale to
provide for the full use of this habitat feature.
Openland or brushland management may require felling of all stems to reproduce open conditions needed in
these habitats. However, some openland species also require cavities. For example, Eastern Bluebirds will
nest in single, scattered snags in an open landscape. Generally, dead standing stems do not detract from the
establishment or maintenance of openland/brushland habitat. However, they may provide structure for some
undesirable wildlife species in some situations. European Starlings will nest in cavity trees in open or semiforested landscapes if the site is adjacent or near to an agricultural or urban/suburban setting. Starlings will
out-compete other cavity nesting birds for this limited resource. In addition, if managing for openland
species that are under severe predation pressure from raptors, consider removing all standing stems.
Cavity/snag trees are equally important in forested stands. There are a number of cavity-dependent species that
require a larger forested acreage with sufficient canopy cover. Small mammals, bats and breeding birds that live
in heavily forested areas also nest in cavities and use snags for foraging sites. Black-capped Chickadees and
Tufted Titmice are only two of a number of charismatic forest bird species that nest in cavities. When
conducting a single-tree selection harvest consider leaving snag and cavity trees of varying diameters. Barred
Owls and Pileated Woodpeckers utilize large cavities and snag trees, while Downy Woodpeckers and
Chickadees utilize smaller trees. In addition, these trees will also eventually topple and contribute to coarse
woody debris on the forest floor.
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Landscape Implications
Although these guidelines address site-level recommendations for snags and leave trees, the contribution of an
individual site should be considered in the context of the surrounding landscape. Many of the cavity-dependent
species being addressed have home ranges larger than the typical harvest unit; so planning for their needs
requires a broader look, both spatially and temporally, at the larger forest community. Many other species have
smaller home ranges than the typical harvest unit.
If suitable habitat exists surrounding a given harvest site, then leave trees may not be as critical on that site.
However, if harvests are likely in the adjacent habitats, then the trees left on the initially harvested sites become
more important as the surrounding forest regenerates. Consideration must be given to the time it takes for a
regenerating stand to produce trees of adequate size and degree of decay to provide suitable structure.
Coordination among neighboring landowners may result in varying numbers of leave trees on a site if adjacent
lands exceed or fall short of the recommendations. Managers of larger land-holdings may be able to plan for
sufficient cavity-dependent wildlife habitat on portions of their property (such as riparian reserves) and reduce
leave tree/snag requirements on other portions.
Coarse Woody Debris and Slash
Purpose
The purpose of coarse woody debris and slash is to provide cover, food or growing sites for a diverse group
of organisms through the retention or creation of coarse woody debris and slash during forest management.
Rationale, Background and Benefits
A wide variety of organisms benefit directly or indirectly from retention of coarse woody debris and slash.
Small mammals dependent on slash and coarse woody debris in turn provide food for mammalian carnivores
and forest raptors (such as the pine marten and the Broad-winged Hawk). Amphibians such as Wood Frogs,
Four-toed Salamanders, and Red-backed Salamanders utilize the cool, moist microsites created by coarse
woody debris as resting/feeding areas.
Woody detritus reduces erosion and affects soil development, stores nutrients and water, is a major source of
energy and nutrients, serves as a seedbed for plants, and is a major habitat for microbes, invertebrates and
vertebrates. For example, yellow birch, white cedar and eastern hemlock regeneration is enhanced by coarse
woody debris. These tree species are important components of a diverse northern forest and provide habitat for
an untold number of vertebrate and invertebrate species. Bird researchers in northern Wisconsin found that
hemlock dominated natural areas contained higher species diversity and richness than the even-aged managed
hardwood sites that dominate this landscape.
The fundamental idea is to retain or enhance the amount of coarse woody debris in a stand in order to benefit
the organisms associated with coarse woody debris, and to support nutrient cycles that benefit healthy forests
(see Chapter 11: Timber Harvesting, page 144, for specific recommendations on coarse woody debris).
Eco-Region Applicability
Coarse woody debris is important to forests and forest organisms statewide. Each eco-region has a number of
species that utilize slash and coarse woody debris. In the north, birds such as Winter Wrens and Ruffed Grouse
utilize downed logs for nesting/feeding sites and for territorial displays. Blue-spotted or Northern Redback
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Salamanders enjoy the moist, cool microsites provided by rotting logs on the forest floor. In the south, birds
such as Hooded Warblers or Kentucky Warblers may be taking advantage of the arthropods that live in and
around coarse woody debris. Regardless of the location, coarse woody debris and slash is an important
component of the forest ecosystem.
Landscape Implications
Although these guidelines address site-level recommendations for snags and leave trees, the contribution of an
individual site should be considered in the context of the surrounding landscape. Coarse woody debris left on a
specific site may be benefiting reptiles and amphibians living there but breeding elsewhere. Thus, coarse woody
debris placement might be influenced by off-site factors. For example, when managing a pine plantation, coarse
woody debris may be important as a salamander migratory corridor between an adjacent hardwood forest and a
wetland breeding site. However, if the pine plantation is bordered by other dry or arid cover types and lacks
wetlands of any type, coarse woody debris may not be important to salamanders at this site.
The size and position of intensive timber management may also determine the importance of coarse woody
debris to associated organisms. For example, if a clearcut takes place surrounding a temporary wetland, coarse
woody debris left in the clearcut and in the wetland would be essential habitat for breeding salamanders.
Increased sunlight in the pond and harvested stand makes desiccation a problem for salamanders. More downed
logs would provide cool, moist microsites in order to avoid direct sunlight during the heat of the day. In
addition, leaving downed logs would also provide drumming sites for Ruffed Grouse. If however, the clearcut
was smaller and the wetland was bordered by older forest, coarse woody debris left in the clearcut would not be
as important for salamanders. However, it still may perform other ecological functions important to the forested
stand.
Conifer Retention and Regeneration
Purpose
The purpose of this aspect of habitat is to ensure diversity of wildlife habitat through the retention and
regeneration of conifers for food, nesting and cover in mixed deciduous/coniferous stands. Conifers should
continue to be a significant structural component in appropriate habitats and landscapes.
Rationale, Background and Benefits
Many wildlife species benefit from a mixture of conifer and deciduous trees and shrubs. Retaining young
conifers, including isolated trees and scattered clumps, can provide habitat and food needed for many wildlife
species, and can increase the probability that conifers will later regenerate on harvested areas.
Various animal species, including the Great Gray Owl, Bald Eagle, Pine Warbler, white-tailed deer, elk, pine
marten, lynx, snowshoe hare, and red-backed vole, depend on coniferous stands for structural attributes. Others
– including Spruce Grouse, Red-breasted Nuthatch, red squirrel, porcupine, and elk – depend on food that
coniferous stands provide. Deer and elk will often winter in conifer forests due to the reduced snow depths and
thermal cover that these stands provide. Many species associated with the boreal forests of Canada reach the
southern limits of their range in the coniferous and mixed coniferous forests of northern Wisconsin. Examples
of these include pine marten, fisher, gray wolf, Cape May Warbler, Boreal Chickadee, Great Gray Owl, Gray
Jay and Palm Warbler.
Historically, conifers often existed as scattered trees or clumps within hardwood stands. Many of these conifers
have been lost due to poor regeneration following early logging. A number of species are adapted to these
scattered overstory conifers or patches of conifer within a hardwood stand. Pine Warblers are often heard
singing from scattered overstory white pines that have persisted or regenerated within an oak or maple forest.
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Bald Eagles or Osprey often use these scattered superstory trees as nesting or roosting sites. Often aspen/birch
stands in northern Wisconsin contain patches of regenerating or mature white spruce or balsam fir. Birds such
as Cape May Warbler, Magnolia Warbler and Canada Warbler will locate territories in and around these
coniferous patches. These dense areas of conifer also provide thermal cover for grouse, deer and other northern
species during cold winters and warm summers.
When retaining conifers, clumps are preferable to scattered trees. Clumped conifers are more windfirm, are
better potential seed sources because of improved pollination, can withstand snow and ice loads more
successfully, and can provide better cover (see Table 3-1, page 52).
Landscape Implications
Although these guidelines address site-level recommendations for conifer retention and regeneration, the
contribution of an individual site should be considered in the context of the surrounding landscape. When
discussing conifer retention and its importance to wildlife, landscape scale management can be very important.
Many species that utilize coniferous or mixed/coniferous woods have much larger home ranges than the
particular stand being considered for management, therefore, it’s important to take into account neighboring
properties. In other situations, scattered leave trees or clumps of conifer regeneration will provide wildlife
benefits, even when isolated from similar conditions.
If the stand being considered for management is bordered by coniferous forest, or if the region contains a large
percentage of coniferous/mixed coniferous forest, then conifer retention or regeneration will have a greater
likelihood of benefiting those species with larger home range needs or area requirements. Species such as
Blackburnian Warblers, Connecticut Warblers or Cape May Warblers will use conifer retained in managed
areas if these landscape conditions are met. Often, small songbirds such as these will nest in loose colonies
where extra-pair matings are an important part of the breeding strategy. Larger patches of habitat will increase
the chances that this mating system will work.
If the stand being considered for management is isolated from appropriate coniferous or mixed coniferous
habitat, it will be of lesser value to those species needing large areas of this habitat. However, other species may
utilize smaller patches of coniferous regeneration. For example, small patches of thick fir or spruce may harbor
wintering Ruffed Grouse or Saw-whet Owls. Scattered white pine canopy trees can be important nesting areas
for Pine Warblers or Bald Eagles.
Mast
Purpose
The purpose of this habitat aspect is to provide for wildlife that utilizes mast production from trees and
shrubs.
Rationale, Background and Benefits
Many species of trees and shrubs have developed a seed dispersal system that benefits many species of
wildlife. Producing mast in the form of nuts or berries encourages mammals such as squirrels or birds to eat or
transport the seeds contained within the fruit to other areas. Oaks may produce thousands of acorns in the
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hopes that a Blue Jay or Turkey will accidentally scratch one into the forest soil. Dogwoods and juneberries
will produce fruit attractive to migrating birds, which will pass the seeds to neighboring areas during
migration. This complex reproductive strategy is essential to the inner workings of many ecological systems in
Wisconsin.
High levels of fat, protein and carbohydrates in mast contribute to energy stores critical for migration or
hibernation, and for survival of newly-independent young. Many birds that eat insects on breeding grounds will
consume berries during fall migration. Yearly variations in mast production may impact subsequent
reproductive success of many species. Often, plentiful mast production will lead to abundant small mammal
populations, which in turn benefits forest carnivores that prey on small mammals. During winter, some sources
of mast remain available to forest wildlife on trees and shrubs, under snow or stored in caches (see Table 3-2,
page 54).
Mast production is generally favored by increased crown exposure to light, crown size, maturity of trees or
shrubs, increased soil nutrients, tempered microclimates (especially during flowering) and adequate soil
moisture. Production on a site tends to vary considerably from year to year.
Other considerations with respect to mast include:
•
•
•
Mast-producing species often depend on animals for their dispersal and reproduction.
Riparian edges often contain a higher concentration and richness of mast-producing species.
Most shrub species will regenerate well and produce mast after cutting, burning or soil disturbance.
Although concerns for oak and other dominant tree species are particularly important, especially in relation to
game species (such as deer or gray squirrels), other mast species also provide important benefits.
Landscape Implications
Although these guidelines address site-level recommendations for mast production, the contribution of an
individual site should be considered in the context of the surrounding landscape. Land managers in regions with
low mast availability have opportunities to enhance wildlife habitat characteristics by careful management of
mast species on their land. Some wildlife species may travel significant distances to obtain mast. The black
bear, for example, may travel 10 miles to obtain mast. Breeding birds will often relocate family groups to
wetland edges or areas with increased levels of berries during late summer before migration. In areas with
sufficient mast production, mast production may not be as important.
Patterns of Cutting
Purpose
The purpose of this habitat aspect is to provide site- and landscape-level wildlife habitat requirements by using
a variety of sizes and shapes of harvest areas. Understanding the impact from site-level management on the
larger forested area will help land managers make better wildlife decisions.
Rationale, Background and Benefits
This management objective will involve making silvicultural decisions on a landscape basis. Ideally the
management regime should range from the very fine-scale management represented by selection cutting to the
coarse-scale management affected by sizable clearcuts. The size of clearcuts and other treatments should be
determined by considering issues such as size of the management unit, the home range requirements of large
animals, aesthetics, and natural disturbance regimes.
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Size and shape of both cut and uncut areas should mimic natural disturbance regimes that historically impacted
the forest type to be managed. This will then benefit the native species of plants and animals adapted to this
forest type and disturbance regime. Larger patch sizes historically occurred under natural disturbance regimes
on even-aged, fire-dependent types, such as jack pine. Large clearcuts in such types can function for a short
time as habitat for some area sensitive openland species such as Sharp-tailed Grouse and Upland Sandpipers.
These managed areas will be of even greater benefit to openland species if they are placed adjacent to more
permanent open barrens. Colonization of new openland habitat created by forest management is much more
likely to occur if it’s adjacent to existing populations of openland species. As the managed area ages, it will
become less attractive to openland species, but other early successional species such as Eastern Towhees and
Brown Thrashers will colonize the site.
Smaller patches are appropriate in more heterogeneous forest types, such as deciduous forests on moraines.
For example, northern mesic forests dominated by sugar maple, hemlock or beech were much more likely to
undergo disturbance from wind than from large fires. Most wind events created smaller patchy canopy gaps
within a larger forested matrix. Species like Black-throated Blue Warblers nest within the thick regeneration
generated by these disturbance events, and thus could benefit from a silvicultural treatment that mimics this
process.
The shape and size of the cutting area determines the total amount of ‘edge’ habitat created through
management. An edge is defined as the transition area from two different forest types or successional stages.
The amount of edge in a landscape will create conditions favorable for some species and detrimental to others.
Many game species such as white-tailed deer and Ruffed Grouse, along with Indigo Buntings and Chesnutsided Warblers, prefer the wide variety of cover and food resources found along forest edges, and tend to be
very good competitors for those resources. Landscapes with high amounts of natural or man-made edges tend to
favor these edge species. However, many species of birds, some mammals and herps prefer the interior of larger
(greater than 100 acres) blocks of forest. Cerulean Warblers, Acadian Flycatchers, Hooded Warblers, Blackthroated Blue Warblers, and many other interior species are listed as endangered, threatened or species of
special concern by the Bureau of Endangered Resources due to loss of appropriate habitat. A large increase in
the amount of edge, through forest management activities or a natural disturbance in large blocks of forest, will
increase edge species which will replace many interior species.
Landscape Implications
When employing large clearcuts, consider harvesting in segments over several years. This will provide both
early successional diversity and, over the long term, a large mature forest stand. Coordinate with adjacent
landowners when natural stand boundaries cross property lines.
Wetland Inclusions and Seasonal Ponds
Purpose
The purpose of wetland inclusions and seasonal ponds is to provide site-level wildlife habitat features for
terrestrial species associated with wetland inclusions and seasonal ponds within forests.
Rationale, Background and Benefits
Wisconsin has a variety and abundance of wetland inclusions and seasonal ponds. The mixture of land and
water features across the landscape provides an important dimension to the habitats of many wildlife species.
Wetland inclusions and seasonal ponds are different from puddles. Wetland inclusions and seasonal ponds
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retain water for longer periods and support populations of invertebrates that consume forest litter that falls into
the depressions. These invertebrates provide food for birds, mammals, amphibians, and other species. Redshouldered Hawks, a threatened species in Wisconsin, often choose forested areas that contain a number of
wetland inclusions to ensure an adequate supply of prey for rearing young. Seasonal ponds are also important
spring food sources for breeding waterfowl and migrating birds.
Seasonal ponds are best identified in spring when they are full of melt-water from the spring runoff. Frogs
calling in spring, vegetation type or topography might provide additional clues to their location.
Amphibians are an important component of many forest ecosystems and many are dependent on seasonal
wetlands for breeding habitat. These temporary or seasonal wetlands are important to amphibians because they
don’t contain fish populations, which prey on salamander eggs. Blue-spotted and spotted salamanders will enter
these ephemeral wetlands as soon as they loose their ice cover in spring. Pay attention to the roadsides during
the first warm rain of the spring and you will literally see the forest floor crawling with salamanders traveling to
breeding sites. Five species of frogs are also heavy users of wetland inclusions. Anyone who has walked along a
forest road at night can recall the croaking of wood frogs, the peeping of spring peepers the distinctive notes of
chorus frogs. Frog song can be so loud in these wetland inclusions that they block out all other sounds. Later in
the spring and early summer, Cope’s and eastern gray tree frogs use these wetland inclusions for breeding.
Because of the high biomass of amphibians in forested habitats, they are extremely important both as predators
of invertebrates and as prey for other forest wildlife species.
Applying guidelines for water quality, leave trees and snags, coarse woody debris and slash during forest
management activities can retain and create key habitat features (including woody debris, litter depth and plant
cover) in these areas, while preventing siltation, excessive warming or premature drying-up of wetland
inclusions and seasonal ponds.
The Need For Research and Monitoring
Even though the ecological importance of wetland inclusions and seasonal ponds is recognized, the total
number and location of all such water bodies in Wisconsin’s forests is unknown. Existing inventories, such as
the National Wetland Inventory, are incomplete with regard to wetland inclusions. Furthermore, seasonal ponds
are sometimes difficult to recognize in the field. Uncertainty regarding the abundance and location of wetland
inclusions and seasonal ponds indicates the need to document their occurrence, and further research their role in
forest ecology in Wisconsin.
Riparian Wildlife Habitat
Purpose
The purpose of riparian wildlife habitat is to provide site-level wildlife habitat features for species that utilize
riparian ecosystems.
Rationale, Background and Benefits
Riparian areas are among the most important parts of forest ecosystems. These areas have high plant diversity,
both horizontally and vertically from the water’s edge, which contributes to the high diversity of animals that
live in these areas. Up to 134 vertebrate species occur in riparian forests in this region, but many of these
species will also use non-riparian forest habitat. The species that are of most concern in riparian areas are
“obligate” species, which require both the water and surrounding forests as habitat. In Wisconsin, obligate
riparian species include amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Numerous plant and invertebrate species are
also strongly associated with these habitats. Different animals are associated with different stream sizes. In
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general, larger animals are associated with larger streams and smaller species with smaller streams. A reverse
pattern is found in some salamanders.
Although some degree of mature forest cover is desirable along many riparian areas, all habitat conditions are
valid, given long-term disturbance regimes. The greatest concern for riparian habitats is in those areas of the
state where uplands have been converted to agriculture, resulting in little additional forest of any kind in the
region. This situation occurs more in the southeastern and western portions of the state rather than in the
north, which affords more flexibility in age classes, structures and cover type.
Forest streams come in many sizes, growing from spring-fed trickles to large rivers as they move downhill and
converge with one another to drain larger and larger watersheds. Along this gradient, the ecological
characteristics of a riparian area change in a gradual continuum. Because of these characteristics, management
guidelines for riparian areas in general should be considered on a landscape level.
It’s important to keep in mind the following wildlife-related concerns for riparian habitats:
• Leave Trees and Snags
-Prothonotary Warblers, Tufted Titmice, Wood Ducks, and a number of other species are dependent on
existing cavities in riparian forests. Woodpeckers and chickadees select dying or diseased trees in which to
excavate cavities. It’s important to leave existing cavity trees and potential snags for use by the many
cavity nesters that utilize riparian forests.
-Some riparian species require large super-canopy trees (trees above the existing canopy) for hunting perches
and nesting sites. On larger rivers, Osprey will often perch in a large, dead white pine above a river to look
for prey.
- Shade is essential for maintaining microhabitat conditions for some riparian animals. Winter Wrens,
Northern Water thrushes and many salamanders like the cool, moist conditions created by a closed canopy
riparian forest. Yellow Warblers, Willow Flycatchers and some herps need more open riparian conditions.
Providing a range of seral stages where appropriate will benefit a number of riparian species.
• Coarse Woody Debris and Slash
- Many riparian animal species require downed logs for cover. Downed logs and slash in riparian areas
provides additional microsites for insects and the species that prey on these insects. Salamanders, frogs and
small mammals utilize these large logs as travel routes to avoid predation.
• Mast
- Riparian edges often contain a higher
concentration and richness of unique mast
species, especially shrubs, than adjacent
upland areas. It’s well-documented that riparian areas are critical migratory stopover locations for birds that
winter in the Neotropics. These areas often have more insect life in the spring before leaf out than associated
uplands. In the fall, dogwoods, nannyberry, wahoo, honeysuckle, elderberry, and other mast producing
shrubs and trees provide nourishment to birds migrating south and other species preparing for winter.
• ETS Species -Many ETS species are found in riparian areas. -Many of the bigger blocks of forest in the
southern half of Wisconsin occur in riparian zones along the larger rivers. These are important areas for
forest interior species such as Red-shouldered Hawks, Cerulean Warblers, Acadian Flycatchers, Yellowthroated Warblers, Yellow-crowned Night Heron, and a host of other species found in the southern half of
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the state.
- High-quality streams and rivers are important habitat for many rare dragonflies, fish, mussels and clams,
and other invertebrates. Often the presence of these species is used to evaluate stream health. The middle St.
Croix, middle and lower Chippewa and lower Wisconsin are good examples of riparian systems that host
many rare species.
• Natural Communities and Sensitive Sites
Many natural communities are associated with riparian ecosystems. Some, like floodplain forests, are
always associated with riparian areas. Others, such as northern edge meadow, emergent aquatic and alder
thicket are often associated with riparian areas, but can also be found in other situations.
Landscape Implications
In areas dominated by agricultural land use practices (southern Door county), where riparian forests represent
the majority of the forests in the area, consider using uneven-age management. Most rare species associated
with these forests require high-canopy closure and large blocks of forest.
Resources for Additional Information
Amphibians of Wisconsin, 2001, Bureau of Endangered Resources Publ. No. ER-105 2001, Wisconsin
Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. BER publication that gives an overview of amphibian
biology and conservation in Wisconsin. Has detailed life history and management information for each
species in Wisconsin.
Bureau of Endangered Resources Web Site. This web site provides a wealth of information on rare species and
natural communities, the State Natural Areas Program, Invasive Species, program information, and news and
events regarding the Bureau, www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/land/er/.
Natural Heritage Inventory On-line Database. This application provides users an opportunity to search the
Wisconsin Natural Heritage Inventory (NHI) Program’s database for the status and distribution of endangered
resources, or to learn what species or natural communities are known to exist within a particular area of interest.
The On-line Database is intended for information and general planning purposes rather than regulatory
decision-making,
www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/land/er/nhi/NHI_ims/ onlinedb.htm
Snakes of Wisconsin, 2000, Bureau of Endangered Resources Publ. No. ER-100-00, Department of Natural
Resources, Madison, WI. BER publication that gives an overview of snake biology and conservation in
Wisconsin. Has detailed life history and management information for each species in Wisconsin.
The Endangered and Threatened Vertebrates Species of Wisconsin, 1997, Bureau of Endangered Resources
Publ. No. ER-091.Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. BER publication that gives life
history, distribution and management information for all threatened and endangered vertebrates in Wisconsin. A
county by county listing of species occurrences is included, but is not up-to-date.
The Endangered and Threatened Plant Species of Wisconsin, 1993, Bureau of Endangered Resources Publ.
No. ER-067, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. BER publication gives basic
occurrence and habitat information for the listed plant species in Wisconsin. Species descriptions are separated
by general habitat type. Unfortunately, this document has not been updated since 1993, so not all information
is current.
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The Endangered and Threatened Invertebrates of Wisconsin, 1999, Bureau of Endangered Resources Publ. No.
ER-085-99, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. BER publication details life histories
and general conservation issues of each listed invertebrate species in Wisconsin. Also includes a county by
county listing of occurrences of these species at the end of the document.
Threatened and Endangered Species of Forests in Wisconsin: A Guide to Assist with Forestry Activities, 2000.
A joint publication of International Paper Company, US Fish and Wildlife Service and the Wisconsin
Department of Natural Resources is available from any of the sponsors. Gives a description, life history
information and forestry considerations for endangered and threatened species that utilize forested habitats.
Vogt, Richard C. 1981. Natural History of Amphibians and Reptiles of Wisconsin. Milwaukee Public Museum
and Friends of the Museum, Inc. 205 pp. Good source for general information of the natural history of herps in
Wisconsin.
Wild Turkey: Ecology and Management in Wisconsin, 2001. Bureau of Integrated Science Services,
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. This publication gives a complete account of
Wild Turkey re-introduction, management, and ecology in Wisconsin. Landowners interested in managing
their land for Wild Turkeys should consider this source as a definitive guide to Turkey biology in Wisconsin.
Wildlife and Your Land: A Series About Managing Your Land for Wildlife. Bureau of Wildlife Management,
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. This source served as the foundation for many of
the wildlife issues covered in the FMG handbook. This collaborative effort focuses on different management
issues land managers and owners should consider when managing their property. This series is available in
hardcopy form or on the web at www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/land/ wildlife/publ/wildland.htm.
Wisconsin Breeding Bird Atlas Web Site.
2002. University of Wisconsin-Green Bay, www.uwgb.edu/birds/wbba/. This web site displays the results of
the Wisconsin Breeding Bird Atlas performed from 1995 to 2000 on private and public lands across the state.
It’s a good source of information for the range and distribution of bird species within the state. The web site
will generate a species list by quad or county and also contains pictures of the species that could be used in
identification.
Wisconsin State Herbarium: University of Wisconsin – Madison Web Site. This web site contains on-line
herbarium records for all plants found within Wisconsin. You can search the herbarium by species, genus or
common name. Each species description contains information on location, habitat, photos, and a floristic
rating. Locations are only given to the county level.
Wisconsin’s Biodiversity as a Management Issue, 1995. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison,
WI. This report was written for Department of Natural Resources managers to provide them with a context for
their work. This report gives an overview on the issues and implications of Wisconsin’s rich biotic heritage. It
also gives an overview of the ecological, social and economic issues tied to each major community type in
Wisconsin. This is a good general source for information on the landscape surrounding a given property.
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REFORESTATION
Reforestation is the practice of regenerating and growing healthy trees on previously forested sites. Natural
regeneration occurs by means of root suckering, stump sprouting, or natural seeding. This occurs in existing
forest stands through the application of one of the silvicultural management systems as described in the
Management Systems Section. Artificial regeneration methods involve aerial or ground seeding, or planting
seedlings by hand or with a planting machine. These methods can occur in existing forest stands but are
primarily done on sites in Door County that currently have no trees.
This chapter provides an overview of the planning, design, site preparation, and planting methods needed to
successfully establish forest tree plantings. It will concentrate on artificial regeneration of non forested sites.
A successful reforestation project involves planning & commitment. A written reforestation plan will
increase the likelihood of success by addressing site preparation, planting & maintenance details. Landowners
should analyze their available budget, time constraints, and access to reforestation resources (e.g., nursery stock,
equipment, and labor) when considering a reforestation project. A realistic budget must account for the cost of
establishment and follow-up care, such as weed control treatments. It usually takes young trees 5 or more years
to become well established. For those early years it is critical that the proper steps are taken to get your planting
off to a good start. Like many things in life, putting in the effort to care for your planting early on will reap
rewards later.
Your Reforestation Goals
The first step in planning a reforestation project is to think about how it relates to both short- and longterm landowner goals. Such goals might include producing income from timber, improving habitat for specific
wildlife species, restoring a natural plant community, reducing soil erosion, improving water quality, or
enhancing the aesthetics of the land. Remember that many goals are compatible with each other, allowing a
single forest planting to serve multiple purposes. Generally speaking, reforestation efforts in the county fall
into one of the following categories.
Windbreaks & Screens These plantings consist of relatively narrow strips of evergreen species strategically
located to minimize the effects of prevailing winds or to create a visual barrier. They are usually one to five
rows wide with a 12 to 15 foot tree spacing between and within the rows. Spruce, pine and cedar are the most
commonly used species. At this spacing it will obviously take time for the windbreak/screen to be effective but
the trees need adequate room to grow and retain lateral branches. More closely spaced trees will grow into each
other sooner and will shade the bottom branches, which will eventually die due to a lack of light. If you choose
to plant at a closer spacing you will need to thin some of the trees over time to give adequate space for those
that remain. Windbreaks should be planted at least 65 feet from the area you want to protect on the west and
north side.
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Wildlife Plantings These plantings usually consist of a mixture of evergreens, hardwoods & shrubs planted in
clumps or strips with a primary purpose of providing wildlife habitat. Strip plantings usually have a row or two
of shrubs spaced 6 to 8 feet apart located on the strip’s west and/or north side. A 30 foot gap is left and several
rows of evergreens (spruce & pine) are planted at 10 to
15 foot spacing. A couple rows of taller hardwoods
come next followed by a row or two of shorter
hardwoods also planted at 10 to 15 foot spacing. A
couple rows of shrubs complete the planting spaced 20 to
30 feet away from the last row of short hardwoods with 6
to 8 feet between the shrubs. Clump plantings usually
consist of evergreens in the clump center with small
hardwoods and shrubs planted toward the edges at the
same spacing mentioned earlier. Variation in planting
design can be tailored to fit the layout of a particular
property.
Mixed hardwood & evergreen planting
Section 15 Brussels
Forest Plantings These larger scale plantings consist of
evergreens and/or hardwoods planted to create a forest habitat for wildlife and timber products. Approximately
800 to 1000 trees per acre are planted to fully utilize the site and encourage well formed trees. Once the
planting reaches 25-30 years of age it will need periodic thinning to give remaining trees adequate growing
space. At full maturity (80-150 years of age) there may only be room for 20 to 30 trees per acre. In the past,
forest plantings were primarily single species plantings of conifers and occasionally black walnut. In more
recent years mixed planting of conifer & hardwoods has taken place in various arrangements. Forest plantings
are generally planted in rows for ease of planting, maintenance and thinning. Rows are usually spaced about 8
feet apart with trees 6 to 7 feet apart within the row. Row width will depend somewhat on size of maintenance
equipment (i.e. mower). Rows may be curved or contoured to reduce the "row effect" and make a more natural
appearing forest. Fire lanes are incorporated into larger plantings to improve accessibility and reduce fire
hazard. The wildlife habitat benefits of these plantings will change over time as seedlings grow into mature
trees.
Enhancement Plantings These plantings are variable in size shape & density but in general are smaller in
scale. They are generally conducted to introduce species diversity onto a property and in many cases benefit
wildlife habitat and improve aesthetics as well. They are highly dependent on landowner objectives and current
cover on the property. The general goal is to augment naturally occurring vegetation on the property to meet
specific landowner objectives.
Preparing the Site
Site preparation is the creation of a favorable growing environment for tree seeds or seedlings. The biggest
obstacle facing seedling establishment is competition from other vegetation. Effective site preparation will
reduce competing vegetation, and create a sufficient number of suitable growing sites without causing excessive
soil disturbance.
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•Mechanical site preparation typically disturbs the soil and reduces competing vegetation by plowing,
disking, raking, chopping, scalping, and trenching, among other approaches. In some cases, mechanical site
preparation can be valuable, as exposing and disturbing mineral soil can have the added benefits of increasing
root zone temperatures, aerating the soil, and
improving drainage. However, when mechanical
site preparation is done incorrectly, it can result in
soil erosion, compaction and rutting. Also
consider the potential competing vegetation that
may develop from dormant seeds after the soil is
exposed. A combination of both mechanical and
chemical techniques can be used for added
control.
•Chemical site preparation can be an effective
method to control vegetation, and increase the
amount of sunlight and water available for plant
Chemical control of competing vegetation in
growth. Chemical methods may involve simple
bands/strips on a new tree planting. Section 27 Egg Harbor
equipment, can be less expensive, and provide
longer control than mechanical site preparation. However, chemical effectiveness depends on the appropriate
herbicide selection, the timing of application, application rate, and weather conditions. Herbicide applications
may need to be repeated for several years to ensure stand establishment. All herbicides must be applied in
accordance with label recommendations and their registered use. Updated detailed forestry herbicide
information is available through your local DNR or consulting forester.
•Prescribed burning, or controlled ground fires, can be an effective and inexpensive means of removing
or reducing vegetation, and preparing a suitable seedbed. Burning can also improve soil nutrient levels.
Prescribed burning, however, can reduce the effectiveness of pre-emergent herbicides and can increase solar
heating at the ground line, leading to seedling mortality. The use of fire as a vegetation management technique
is very appealing to many small landowners because it appears “natural” – but it can be dangerous. Effective
and safe use of prescribed fire requires appropriate equipment and training and is rarely used in Door County.
•Cover crops can be grown to prevent invasion by noxious weeds, non-native invasive species, or other
competing vegetation. Cover crops can also control soil erosion, improve soil condition, and increase waterholding capacity. It is important to select a cover crop species that will accomplish the site preparation
objectives, but not adversely impact tree growth. Legumes are sometimes selected as cover crops because they
can enhance soil nitrogen. Small grain crops, such as winter wheat and rye, can inhibit weed growth, and add
organic matter to the soil while providing limited competition for tree seedlings. Winter wheat can be spring
seeded to produce a less vigorous but effective cover crop.
Former agriculture fields present a unique set of site preparation challenges. Fields that were in row
crops the previous year, such as corn or soybeans, generally require a pre-emergent herbicide after planting
to control germination of stored weed seed. Cover crops may also be used to control invasive weeds.
Alfalfa, clover, or some perennial grasses provide fierce competition for tree seedlings and seeds. Alfalfa and
sod are easiest to control during the year prior to planting, with an early fall application of herbicide when the
plants are still actively growing. Alternatively, rotation into a row crop or other desirable cover crop, followed
by planting of seedlings, has been especially effective for hardwood plantings on heavy soils.
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Species Selection
The tree species selected for reforestation must be compatible with your management goals, and biologicallysuited to the planting site. A number of factors need to be considered in species selection and include the
following:
• Soils & drainage Soil properties affect the moisture and nutrients available for tree growth, therefore, a
careful analysis of soil characteristics and uniformity is a critical step in selecting trees species that are welladapted to the planting site. These factors include:
• Soil texture – is it too coarse or sandy?
• Depth of topsoil – what is the available rooting depth?
• Parent material – is high or low soil pH a potential problem?
• Available moisture – is there adequate organic matter in the soil?
• Internal drainage – does water drain freely or puddle following rain?
• Nutrients – does current vegetation appear lush or chlorotic?
• Bulk density – is the soil compacted or have a hard pan due to past land use?
• Erosion patterns – has original topsoil been heavily eroded?
Site quality is almost impossible to change significantly once trees are planted, so assessment of soil and site
characteristics is essential. Soil uniformity can also be checked so that species recommendations can be
customized to fit the site. Methods of soil evaluation include the use of published soil surveys, and completion
of soil lab analysis. Soil survey reports and/or soil maps offer a general assessment of landscape soil features
while soil lab analysis provides information on selected soil properties, and can identify possible nutrient
deficiencies.
• Climatic suitability Tree species are adapted to a specific range of climatic conditions. Since Wisconsin has
a wide range of climates, our state hosts a wide variety of native tree species. Therefore, it is important to select
species that are adapted to the climatic conditions of the planting site. For example, several species reach the
northern limit of their range in Wisconsin. Species like black walnut are limited to the southern portion of the
state by climatic factors such as minimum winter temperature. Other climatic factors to consider when
initiating a plantation are timing and amounts of precipitation, the potential for ice storms and snow loads, and
risks associated with early or late frosts.
• Potential growth rate Site productivity is the capacity of a site to yield a given forest product in a specified
period of time, and has traditionally been measured as gross volume per acre per year. Evaluation of
productivity levels will help in the selection of species that will exhibit optimal growth on the planting site.
Productivity can be evaluated in several ways: 1) Site Index: Examining the growth rates of existing or adjacent
forest trees 2) Habitat Type Classification: Using other plant community information 3) Site Productivity
History: Examining the records of past yields or performance. Some of these measures are indirect, and provide
estimates of potential productivity rather than precise measurements. Keep in mind that productivity
generalizations from one species to the next vary greatly – what may be viewed as adequate productivity for one
species may prove to be inadequate for others.
• Potential competition problems Existing and potential vegetation will compete with young seedlings for
moisture, nutrients and light. Not all vegetation is alike in its ability to compete with young trees, and must be
evaluated in order to determine the timing and extent of appropriate control measures. Vegetation existing on
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the planting site is an obvious consideration, but other plants that regenerate readily from dormant seeds or from
well-established root systems also pose potential problems. The types and amounts of competing (or potentially
competing) vegetation must be considered when selecting appropriate planting stock, site preparation treatments
and maintenance activities.
• Potential for pest problems Forest pest problems need to be considered in you reforestation plans. Insect,
disease and animal (browse) damage can influence not only species selection but site preparation and
maintenance requirements as well. Many forest pests are more nuisance than they are a severe problem. It is
important to recognize the difference and account for problem forest pests in your reforestation plans. Well
documented pest problems can be minimized or avoided. In other cases, the new outbreaks of introduced pests
are less predictable and sometimes occur only after reforestation is complete. The bottom line is to plan
reforestation decisions with the most up-to date pest information available.
• Animal damage The main causes of animal damage in our area are mice/voles, rabbits & deer. Site
preparation and maintenance measures can reduce habitat that harbors rodent & rabbits and alleviate or
minimize some impacts. Negative impacts of high populations or concentrations of deer particularly in
southern Door County may prevent successful establishment of tree species (hardwoods in particular) that
would otherwise be well suited to your planting site. In these cases alternate species my need to be planted or
intensive protection measures taken.
Nursery Stock
Selection of the best nursery stock type for a given situation depends upon the identification of planting site
factors that influence seedling establishment and early growth.
Bare root stock is seeded and grown in nursery beds for one to three years, and may be moved to a transplant
bed to improve root development. Advantages of bare root stock include lower costs, ease of transportation and
storage, competitive advantage over weeds, less susceptibility to deer browse, and faster root regeneration. Bare
root stock, however, takes longer to grow, can dry out quickly due to exposed roots, is prone to root damage
and deformity during planting operations, and may require special planting considerations due to the larger
seedling size. Bare root stock is often sold using an
age class designation, such as 1-0, 2-0, 3-0 or 2-1.
The first numeral refers to the number of years
spent in a seedbed. For example, a 2-0 designation
means the tree spent two years in a seedbed. The
second numeral refers to the number of years spent
in a transplant bed. For example, a 2-1 designation
means the tree spent two years in a seedbed and
one year in a transplant bed (transplanting
improves root development).
Containerized stock is usually less than one-yearold and is grown, shipped and planted in a soil
“plug” of peat, perlite (or vermiculite) and sand.
Usage in the Lake States has been restricted
Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
Nursery stock in cold storage at the Peninsula Research Farm.
Section 22 Sevastopol
Page 62
primarily to conifer seedlings, but recent advances in pot sizes have allowed some production of containerized
hardwoods. The advantages of containerized stock include the fact that seedlings can be grown in six to 15
weeks, they have high survival rates, superior initial height growth, more uniform size, and good plantability,
especially on rocky sites where it may be difficult to open a large hole for bare root seedlings. In addition,
these seedlings are less likely to experience transplant shock since the tree is planted in the rooting medium, and
the process makes more efficient use of seed. Finally, containerized stock extends planting seasons, and
seedlings can perform well on adverse sites. Containerized seedlings also are more resistant to heat and drying
stress, so transportation and storage are less problematic. Containerized stock, however, is more expensive than
bare root stock, more bulky to transport and handle, less able to compete with weeds, susceptible to deer
browse, prone to frost heaving when planted on bare mineral soil, and often smaller in size.
Nursery stock can be purchased through both private and DNR nurseries. DNR nurseries sell nursery stock that
is ordered in the fall and planted in the spring. It is important to submit DNR tree orders as soon as they
become available (usually the end of September). Some species sell out within days. DNR stock is grown &
shipped as bare-root seedlings. Cost will vary by age, species & quantity ordered. DNR stock is sold at the cost
of production and is usually less expensive than private nursery stock. It cannot be resold or used for
landscaping, Christmas trees or ornamental planting. For most planting sites in Door County preferred ages to
order in DNR stock are 3-year-old evergreens and 2-year-old hardwoods. Listing of private nurseries can be
obtained from your local DNR forester. Private nurseries may offer tree species, quantities or ages unavailable
through DNR nurseries. Private nursery stock is not subject to planting restrictions.
Shipping & Storage
Reforestation surveys indicate that common problems facing seedling survival are due to poor shipping &
handling practices. From the time seedlings are lifted from the nursery bed, to the time they are planted, it is
critically important to keep the seedlings moist (relative humidity 90 to 95 percent) and cool (34ºF to 36ºF).
DNR nursery stock is direct shipped via refrigerated truck direct from the nursery to the Peninsular Research
Farm north of Sturgeon Bay. The Door County Soil & Water Conservation Department contracts the trucking
and bills people directly for shipping charges. Stock is shipped from mid April to early May. The Research
Farm provides one of the best storage facilities in the state. Stock is held in coolers just above freezing to keep
trees dormant & in good condition for planting. Smaller orders are distributed on the Saturday following
shipment. Larger orders are held until planting time. Once out of the cooler, trees should be kept cool and moist
and planted as soon as possible.
Private nursery stock is generally shipped via commercial shipper. Shipping dates are negotiated with the
nursery. Picking up nursery stock directly from DNR & private nurseries is also an option and dates need to be
arranged in advance.
Root Pruning & Culling
Root pruning may be necessary for seedlings with long fibrous root systems in order to facilitate proper
planting. Remember that the key to seedling establishment and survival is a vigorous root system, so approach
root pruning conservatively. If your planting equipment can adequately plant the entire root system of your
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stock, root pruning is not required. Severe root pruning can quickly lead to seedling mortality after planting
because seedlings will not have sufficient root area to absorb water. Recommendations for pruning 2-0 conifer
nursery stock are to clip the root system eight to 10 inches below the root collar. Larger conifer nursery stock,
such as 3-0 or transplants, requires a larger root system in order to maintain a proper shoot to root ratio. Most
hardwood nursery stock can be pruned to eight to 10 inches below the root collar, and the lateral roots can be
pruned at four inches from the main taproot. Remember that larger hardwood stock must be pruned more
conservatively, and may require specially designed planting equipment to prepare adequate planting holes. Root
pruning must be done in a cool environment where the seedlings will not be exposed to the drying effects of
wind and sun, therefore, the planting site is often the worst place to conduct root pruning.
If your nursery stock is not presorted or is ordered in bulk quantities, it will be necessary to separate trees and
cull weak seedlings at this time. In bulk orders often times roots are intertwined and need to be separated prior
to planting. Bulk orders also include extra seedlings to allow for (or offset losses from) culling. The nursery
often provides specifications on what should be culled from a bulk order. Eliminate the wilted, discolored,
damaged, or “scraggly” seedlings. Keep seedlings moist during the entire pruning and culling process. Place the
seedlings back into their packaging, remoisten, and reseal the packages tightly to keep in moisture.
Handling & Planting
Small-scale plantings can be hand planted using a
shovel, planting bar or auger. The average
inexperienced tree planter can hand plant about
500 seedlings per day, depending on site conditions
and stock type. A professional tree planter can often
hand plant 1,000 or more seedlings per day. When
planting by hand, remember to keep the
seedlings shaded, cool and moist at all times. Do not
leave packages of seedlings exposed to sunlight and
warm temperatures at the job site. Utilize a reflective
tarp, and consider delivering the stock in stages
during the workday. Carry seedlings in a planting bag
or bucket along with wet burlap to keep the root
One of five Door County Soil & Water Conservation
systems moist. Handle the roots as little as possible,
Department machine planters available for rent.
and do not carry the seedlings exposed to the air or
immersed in water. The roots should hang freely in
the planting hole and not be twisted or crooked. The new soil line should be slightly above the seedling’s root
collar. The soil should be packed firmly around the seedling to maintain good soil to root contact and eliminate
air pockets.
Larger scale plantings are planted with a mechanical tree planter pulled by a medium sized tractor.
Professional machine planting services are available for hire. For those who desire more hands on involvement,
the Door County Soil & Water Conservation Dept. (SWCD) owns five planting machines that can be rented by
landowners planting 2000 or more trees. The SWCD provides planter drop off and pick up service.
Landowners furnish the tractor and labor. The local DNR forester handles planter scheduling and trouble
shooting and hosts a preseason planting meeting for people renting planting machines. Machine planting rates
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are commonly 5000 or more trees per day. Stock handling is the same as for hand planting; keep the trees cool
and moist until they are in the ground.
Direct Seeding
Another option for tree establishment is direct seeding. Tree seed is planted directly into reforestation sites
instead of planting stock grown in a nursery. Recent direct seeding efforts in Door County have concentrated
on planting hardwood seed into former cropland. The components of direct seeding are similar to conventional
planting and include: securing seed, site preparation, planting seed and follow up control of competing
vegetation.
Ideally, local seed sources can be secured to obtain the species and amount of seed required. Obtaining seed
can be a challenge since good seed years vary among species and are often unpredictable. Seed can be collected
by the landowner or purchased through DNR or private nurseries. Seed sources should be from within 100
miles of the planting site. Seed collection should target trees that exhibit good growth characteristics (vigorous,
good form, little defect or disease). Timing seed collection and care of seed is critical to insure viable seed is
being planted. Most seed ripens in late
summer or early fall with the exception of a
few species which ripen in spring. If you
plan on doing your own seed collecting,
make sure you contact your local DNR
forester for advice. They will also have
sources for obtaining seed should you
decide to purchase it.
Early results from seeding trials suggest that
tilling the soil as you would for planting
crops is the best method for preparing your
seeding site. Herbicides may be needed in
advance of tillage if you are planting land
formerly in heavy sod or hay. Plowing
and/or disking are the common tillage
Direct seeding acorns with a seed drill. Section 13 Union
methods used. Timing a direct seeding after
a site was in a grain or row crop is ideal.
Site preparation usually occurs in late summer or early fall.
Planting seed can be done by use of a seed drill or by broadcasting the seed on the soil surface and covering it
by disking or dragging. There is currently an acorn planter available through your local DNR forester for
seeding a variety of large seeded species (oak, hickory, walnut, and butternut). The seeder attaches to a tractor
by way of a three-point hitch and can be rented for a nominal fee. Broadcasting seed can be done by hand or
with a mechanical spreader followed by light tillage. Most seed is planted in fall shortly after it is collected.
Many seeds need to go through a temperature change to break dormancy and trigger germination (process called
stratification). Planting seed directly into the planting site in fall will achieve stratification requirements for
spring germination. Seeding rates will vary by species.
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One of the main advantages of direct seeding is the reduced stress on seedlings. Seedlings germinate and grow
relatively undisturbed. A major disadvantage of direct seeding is that young seedlings will lack the fertilization,
irrigation and pest protection they would receive in a nursery setting. For this reason, control of competing
vegetation is critical to give the germinating trees a chance to grow & develop. This can be achieved by a
combination of herbicides, cover crops and or mowing. There is no standard recommendation for follow up
control of competing vegetation. Working with your forester for recommendations specific to your planting site
is important. The cost of direct seeding will vary by species and planting method, but in general, will be less
than conventional planting of nursery stock.
Maintenance
Vegetation Control
The success of a planting will often be determined by the control of competing vegetation before and after the
trees are planted. Good site preparation will get seedlings off to a fast start, but weed competition may need to
be controlled for at least three growing seasons, or until the trees are well-established. Herbicides are often the
most effective method for follow-up weed control. The proper choice of herbicide, timing and method of
application are critical to insure that planted trees are not damaged. Mechanical weed control may be suitable
for some post-planting situations. Shallow disking or rototilling between rows is effective if care is used to
avoid damaging the trees and their root systems. Mowing can reduce weed maturation and seed production, and
minimize rodent habitat Mowing can prevent the physical smothering of trees (i.e., lodging) as grasses and
broadleaf plants die and fall over the winter. Hand or mechanical cutting of woody vegetation may effectively
release young seedlings, but repeated treatments may be needed due to stump sprouting.
Monitoring
Some monitoring process should be used to evaluate plantation survival and assess maintenance needs. A
regular program of monitoring helps ensure the success of a reforestation project. At a minimum,
plantations should be evaluated during the first growing season, four to five months after planting (although
earlier evaluations may make problem diagnosis easier), and again during the third growing season to verify
survival and establishment. During the evaluation process make note of insect, disease, animal, and/or
competing vegetation problems.
Survival counts are a quick way to determine if replanting is necessary in order to meet management goals.
Estimating survival on random 1/100 acre plots throughout the plantation can assess seedling survival. This can
be accomplished in a few easy steps. First, attach an 11.8 foot length of cord to a stake to represent the radius of
a 1/100 acre plot. Then place the stake in the center of each plot, and use the cord to determine which trees fall
within the plot. Count the number of live and dead trees within each plot. Since each tree counted represents
100 trees per acre, multiply the number of live trees by 100 to determine the average number of live trees per
acre. The number of live trees per acre divided by the total number of both live and dead trees per acre equals
the survival percentage. Average the values from all the plots tallied to determine the survival for the whole
plantation. The number of plots required to obtain a reliable survival estimate depends on the size of the
plantation and the variability of survival within the plantation. A rule of thumb is to do one survival plot per
acre for the first 10 acres, and one additional plot for each additional five acres of plantation. An alternative
method (faster, but potentially less accurate) is to select a row and count the number of live and dead trees.
Switch rows periodically to sample across the entire plantation.
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Cost Sharing Incentive Programs
There may be an opportunity to offset planting expenses through state or federally funded reforestation
incentive programs. If interested contact your local DNR forester for eligibility requirements and available
funding. Also, you can currently take deductions and credits for reforestation expenses on your federal income
taxes.
Reforestation Aids
There are a wide variety of products available to aid in the survival of a plantation. Root dips and gels are
hydrating gels used to coat seedling roots prior to handling and planting operations. Their primary purpose is to
prevent drying of the seedling’s roots during the planting process. Mulches and vegetation mats are used to
suppress weed growth, retain soil moisture and reduce erosion. Mulches can include bark, sawdust, straw,
wood chips or other materials. Mulches must be applied to a depth adequate to suppress weed growth (i.e., two
to three inches), but should not be heaped or mounded immediately next to the seedling. Mulches are labor
intensive to apply and can attract rodents seeking nesting areas. Vegetation mats are typically made
from plastics or natural fibers. They suppress weed growth while still allowing water infiltration. The primary
disadvantage of mats is the high cost. Tree shelters protect trees from animal browse and improve initial
height growth by creating a greenhouse effect. They make seedlings easier to locate, and protect the trees from
herbicide damage. Tree shelters do not eliminate the need for vegetation control and require annual
maintenance. Shelters block a significant quantity of incoming light, so they should be used in full sun
conditions. Tree shelters are used primarily with high value hardwoods, and the cost may not be economically
justified for many landowners. Other problems associated with the use of shelters include stem dieback and
rodent nesting. After a few years, tree shelters may actually inhibit sapling growth, so they should be removed
once terminal shoots have emerged from the shelter top, and the sapling becomes rigid enough to stand on its
own. Tree barriers can be effective for controlling browse damage. They are usually home-made from
various types of fencing with anchor stakes. The goal is to create a barrier between the trees and whatever is
browsing it. For rodent protection, small mesh is needed. For deer browse, larger mesh to a height of at least 5
feet is necessary. Bud caps have been used to also protect from browse damage on terminal buds. A piece of
waterproof material (i.e. Tyvek) is wrapped around the terminal bud and stapled. They are installed in a fashion
that allows new growth to emerge the following spring.
Patience & Perseverance
One of the most limiting factors on new tree plantings is adequate rainfall. During dry conditions supplemental
watering may increase success on small-scale plantings. This is not very practical on larger plantings so they
will rely heavily on natural precipitation. Losses from severe drought may require replanting to reach your
planting objectives. Assuming you have done everything needed to get your planting started off correctly and
the weather cooperates; it will still take several years for most species to put on a significant amount of top
growth. Don’t be disappointed. Early in the plantings life, the trees and shrubs are busy growing underground
to establish a good root system. Once this occurs you will notice an increase in above ground growth that
should continue until maturity.
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SOILS
Soil is the fundamental resource of the forest. Without it, other resources of the forest would vanish over time.
Identifying and reducing impacts to the soil is an essential part of a strategy for sustainable forest management.
Primary considerations in maintaining soil productivity include the following:
• Soil Productivity is a major factor in determining the amount of timber harvesting that can be sustained over
time. It also affects other forest attributes, such as wildlife habitat and biodiversity.
• Soil productivity limit’s the kinds of tree species that will grow on a site as well as their rate of growth.
• Maintaining soil productivity keeps forest soils in a
condition that favors regeneration, survival and long
term growth of desired forest vegetation.
• Maintaining forest soil productivity is less costly than
correction or mitigation (after the fact).
• Maintaining the productivity and sustainability of
forest soils is key to meeting societies need for forest
products and other amenities of the forest.
Door County is unlike any other in terms of soil
composition. Most of the soils in the county originated
from glaciation and the weathering of bedrock. The
unique qualities of the soils of Door County result in
Section 4. Nasewaupee
many land use and water quality concerns. Many of the
soils of the county are very shallow, especially in the northern two-thirds of the peninsula; 22% of the soil in the
county is less than 18 inches in depth, and an additional 17% is between 18 to 36 inches in depth. The shallow
depth of soil to the underlying fractured bedrock presents many problems with suitability of septic system
absorption fields, forestry and agricultural practices, and construction development. Due to the calcareous
nature of the parent material that these soils originated, the soils of Door County are characteristically alkaline.
In some forestry plantings, particularly in northern door county, you may notice plantations where trees are
stunted in growth and off color. A number of the fields that were previously farmed and are today in trees have
areas where tilling the soil brought a highly calcareous subsoil that appears to be toxic to tree growth and either
kills or severely inhibits growth of seedlings and saplings.
There are 75 different soil types found throughout Door County. Soil types with similar characteristics have
been grouped into six different soil associations. A soil association is a geographic region that has a distinctive
pattern of soils in defined proportions. Soils that make up an association are similar in morphology. There are
minor soils in each association, which have different properties than the soils making up the association name.
These soils are usually found in the particular associations’ geographic boundary. Door County is made up of
six associations that will be described on the following pages. For a complete description of each soil, see the
Door County Soil Survey. These six soil associations can be used to determine the large-scale suitability for
certain types of land use, planning, and management. The six major soil associations found in Door County are:
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• Summerville-Longrie-Omena association
• Rousseau-Kiva-Markey association
• Deford-Yahara Variant-Carbondale association
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• Emmet-Solona-Angelica association
• Kewaunee-Kolberg-Manawa association
• Carbondale-Cathro association
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Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan
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(1) Summerville - Longrie - Omena Association –
Consists of nearly level to moderately steep soils on upland till plains and ridges where bedrock strongly
influences topography. This major association makes up approximately 48% of the county.
The Summerville series has approximately 24 percent of the association, Longrie - 24%; Omena - 20%; and
minor soils - 36%. Minor soils are Alpena, Bonduel, Bonduel Shallow Variant, Bonduel Wet Variant, Namur,
and Solona soils. Controlling erosion and maintaining organic matter content and fertility are the main concerns
of management for this association with regard to cultivation. The native vegetation associated with this soil
association is a strong component of sugar maple and beech, with a smaller component of white birch and red
oak.
The association is well drained having a sandy loam, or loam subsoil, over a sandy loam or fine sandy loam till
or dolomite bedrock. The moderately deep and deep soils are mainly utilized for cultivated crops such as corn,
small grains and legumes. The shallow soils are mainly used for pasture or remain wooded.
(2) Emmet - Solona - Angelica Association –
Consists of nearly level to sloping or upland till plains and broad ridges; approximately 23% of the county's
land is included in this association.
The Emmet series makes up a majority of the association at 44%, Solona - 16%; Angelica - 10% and minor
soils - 30%. Minor soils are Cathro, Omena, Longrie, Namur and Summerville. Controlling erosion and
maintaining organic matter content and fertility are the main management concerns with regard to cultivation.
The native vegetation within this association varies by soil series. The Emmet series native vegetation was
made up of sugar maple, red oak, American beech and some white pine. The Solona and Angelica series were
wetter soil composed of American elm, northern white cedar and a mix of green and white ash and tag alder.
The association is well to poorly drained having a loamy sand to silt loam subsoils over sandy loam or loam till.
Most well drained soils and artificially drained soils are well suited to crops commonly grown in the county.
Undrained wet areas are used mainly for pasture, woodland, and wildlife habitat.
(3) Rousseau - Kiva - Markey Association –
Consists of nearly level to sloping soils on out wash plains, stabilized dunes, beach ridges, and in depressions;
occupies approximately 6% of the county and is common to shorelines.
The Rousseau series makes up approximately 28% of the association; Kiva - 16%; Markey - 15%; and the
minor soils - 41%. Boyer, Duel, Sisson, Wainola are minor soils.
The native vegetation within this association varies by soil series. The Rousseau series native vegetation was
made up of sugar maple, red oak, Aspen and white birch. The Kiva series was mainly sugar maple, aspen and
some northern white cedar. The Markey series were wetter soils composed of northern white cedar, ash,
tagalder and dogwood.
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The soils in this association are generally unsuited to crops commonly grown in the county; therefore, they are
mainly used for pasture, woodland and wildlife habitat. Erosion can be controlled by planting a suitable tree
species.
(4) Kewaunee - Kolberg - Manawa Association –
Consists of nearly level to moderately steep soils on glacial till upland plains and ridges where, in some places,
bedrock (Dolomite) has a strong influence on topography. It occupies approximately 11% of the county.
The Kewaunee series makes up approximately 39% of this association; Kolberg - 15%; Manawa - 14%; and
minor soils - 32%. Minor soils are Manistee, Namur, Poygan, Suamico, and Kolberg Variant. This association is
well drained to somewhat poorly drained having dominant silty clay subsoil over a silty clay till or dolomite
bedrock.
The native vegetation within this association varies by soil series. The Kewaunee and Kolberg series native
vegetation was made up of sugar maple and red oak. The Manawa series was a wetter soil that is somewhat
poorly drained and was made up mainly of mainly of American elm, ash and willow.
Most of the association is used for cultivated crops such as corn, small grain and legumes. Steeper areas or
undrained wet areas are used for pasture, woodland, or wildlife habitat. Management concerns of this
association are; controlling erosion, maintaining organic-matter content and fertility.
(5) Deford - Yahara Variant - Carbondale Association –
Consists of nearly level soils in glacial lake basins and on outwash plains; occupies approximately 5% of the
county.
Deford, Yahara Variant and Carbondale soils each make up about 14% of the association. The minor soils,
Markey, Rousseau, Wainola and Yahara, make up about 58%. Most of the association is in woodland and
wildlife habitat.
The native vegetation within this association varies by soil series. The Deford and Yahara variant series native
vegetation was made up of American elm, white ash and northern white cedar. The Carbondale series was a
wetter soil that is very poorly drained and was made up mainly of mainly of northern white cedar, balsam fir,
ash, white birch and tag alder.
(6) Carbondale - Cathro Association –
Consists of nearly level organic soils in glacial lake basins and depressions; occupies about 7% of the county.
These are the wettest soils in the county and most are poorly drained. The Carbondale soils make up about 49%
of the association and Cathro soils, 23%. Minor soils, Allendale, Angelica, and Pinconning make up 28%.
The native vegetation of the Carbondale and Cathro series was made up of American elm, ash, northern white
cedar, tagalder and dogwood.
Most of this association is poorly suited to common crops of the county. Therefore, most is woodland or
wildlife habitat.
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THREATENED & ENDANGERED SPECIES PROTECTION
An important consideration for land management decisions is the impact they may have on plant and animal
species and the natural community in which they live. Many species and communities are common and the
impacts of time-tested management activities are well known. For others, their presence on the landscape may
be uncommon or rare and may require special consideration to insure their protection. In terms of unique
species and habitats, Door County is a special place. There are currently more state protected "Natural Areas"
here than any other county in Wisconsin. Those Natural Areas as well as other parts of the peninsula are home
to a significant number of species and communities that are threatened, endangered or of special concern. Door
County ranks near the top of the list in occurrences of these species.
Wisconsin is governed by both the federal and state endangered species acts whose purpose is to protect those
plants, animals and communities. The Federal Endangered Species Act (1973) protects plants & animals that
are in danger of disappearing from the face of the earth as well as the habitats on which they depend. Species
currently facing extinction are classified as "Endangered". Species that are declining and may disappear in the
near future are classified as "Threatened". A list of species in both categories is maintained by the federal
government. Animals on this list are protected on both public and private lands. Plants are protected primarily
on federal lands such as national forests, national wildlife refuges and military bases. The Wisconsin
Endangered Species Act (1978 amended 2001), uses similar definitions for the words "Endangered" and
"Threatened". It requires a list be maintained of plants and animals meeting those definitions. Animals on the
state list are protected on all lands in the state. Plants are protected on public property. Plants on private land
are protected (the current owner or leaser is exempt as are forestry or agricultural practices or maintenance of a
utility facility).
To maintain data on the locations and status of rare species, natural communities, and natural features,
Wisconsin's Natural Heritage Inventory (NHI) was established in 1985 by the Wisconsin Legislature. It is
maintained by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources' (WDNR) Bureau of Endangered Resources and
is part of an international network of inventory programs.
Information in the Natural Heritage Inventory is sensitive because rare species are very vulnerable to collection
as well as destruction. Publication of exact locations may threaten their continued existence. It is for this reason
that the NHI data are exempt from the Wisconsin Open Records Law. However, the Bureau of Endangered
Resources can and does share NHI data to facilitate protection, plan management, design preserves, and avoid
impacts to rare resources. Data are shared with care but with the customer's needs in mind.
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
What does it mean when rare species are found on my land? It means you have land that is quite
different than most properties in the state. Native species that have been eliminated elsewhere still find a
home on your land. This may have some legal obligations, but it may also yield some benefits.
What is the difference between threatened and endangered species? Endangered means the species is in
danger of becoming extinct. Threatened means the species is less vulnerable, but a chance exists that they
will soon be endangered.
What if the species are plants? The plants that are found on private property belong to the landowner.
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What becomes of them is the decision of the landowner. Of course, the Department of Natural Resources
wants to encourage and help the landowner protect and manage these valuable plants.
What if the rare species turn out to be birds or other animals? Because animals usually travel freely
from one property to another, they belong to everyone. Laws determine what anyone can do with these
species. For example, it is illegal to shoot a timber wolf in Wisconsin, although it is not illegal to shoot a
white tailed deer in season. Laws also protect nesting birds or turtles from being disturbed during the
nesting season. For example, it is illegal to disturb an active Bald Eagle nest. Sometimes habitats are
protected. Many of our State Natural Areas protect large pieces of rare habitats such as beach dunes, sedge
meadows, or old growth forest. These rare habitats often host a number of rare plants and animals.
If an endangered species is found, who will get this information? The information is shared with the
landowner or land manager, of course. Otherwise, it’s confidential. It is not dispensed to the media, and is
exempt from the open records law.
How does a landowner benefit from the knowledge that an endangered or threatened species occurs
on their property? You learn from biologists what makes your property special. You may get help with
managing the natural resources on your land. Several programs are in place that can provide tax advantages
or cost sharing for management. Knowledge of the occurrence or rare plants and animal is increasing every
year. The best information on occurrences of rare species is the Endangered Resources Programs Natural
Heritage Inventory. Information on publicly owned land is relatively good, however, private land is
inventoried only with permission of the landowner, and coverage is very patchy.
Protection and Management
The majority of forest management activities will not involve ETS species. Even when they are found, the
laws seldom totally prohibit activities. The landowner owns the plants found on the property. On public
land, endangered and threatened plant species are considered when developing a management plan or
conducting a timber sale. Endangered and threatened animal species are protected by law, but many can
be incidentally taken, if certain restrictions are followed. Special concern species have no legal
protection, but that does not abdicate the responsibility to consider them in planning actions.
When found, most ETS species tend to be found in specialized habitats. Seeps, ephemeral ponds, cliffs,
extensive bog areas, old-growth forest, and large blocks of southern Wisconsin forest harbor a vast majority
of the 245 forested ETS species. Many species are also localized in their distribution. Several species are
found in only a few locations in the state with the rarest species almost exclusively found on publiclyprotected land.
Most forestry- related activities do not negatively affect threatened or endangered species as long as
ecosystem based sustainable forestry practices are used. However situations may arise where there is a
conflict between land management (including forestry) and protection of these species. For many of these
situations there are workable solutions. Information on the impacts of forest management activities on
threatened & endangered species is available but is far from complete and continued research is ongoing.
Many studies on the relationship between timber harvest and vertebrates provide a basis for making
decisions regarding rare species. Relatively little is known about the impacts of timber harvest on rare
plants and especially invertebrates. Long-lived and slow-dispersing understory plants and invertebrates,
especially those that have their optimum habitat in late-successional or old growth forest, may be
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particularly affected by timber harvest.
The following section provides information on documented sightings of threatened & endangered species in
Door County. It is not a complete list of all species in the county, but those that are most likely to be affected
by logging or other forestry operations. This information is based on the best knowledge currently available.
This information will be improved upon or expanded as research continues and/or new species are located. You
are encouraged to contact your local DNR forester or endangered resource specialist for updated information on
threatened, endangered or special concern species relative to land management activities.
Federal and State Listed Species in Door County likely to be affected by
logging or other forestry practices:
MAMMALS
TIMBER WOLF
(Canis lupus)
State Status: Endangered
Description: The timber wolf, or gray wolf, looks somewhat like a large dog but has a arrow chest, longer legs,
and larger feet than most dogs. Its coat is colored a mixture of gray, brown, tan, and black, with a light cream
color on the underside. Wolves in Wisconsin normally weigh 50-100 pounds, about two or more times the size
of a coyote. Wolf and coyote tracks normally follow in straight lines, with the
hind foot stepping into the track of the front foot. Dog tracks normally do not overlap and
have a more zigzag pattern. Wolf tracks are usually 3 1/2 to 4 1/2 inches compared to less than 2.7 inches for
coyotes.
Habitat: Wolf packs occur in heavily forested areas where few people live and where there are few roads. Such
conditions occur most commonly in the mixed deciduous and
coniferous forests of northern Wisconsin. Wolves also are expanding their range into
parts of west central Wisconsin.
Forestry Considerations: Maintaining low, active road densities (including logging roads)of less than 1 mile
of road per square mile of land, benefits wolves. Gating logging roads after the timber harvest, or using winteronly roads, would reduce disturbance. Harvesting activities should be avoided
within 1/2 mile of an active den from March through July, and no tree cutting
should occur within110 yards (5 chains)of active dens.
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BIRDS
BALD EAGLE
(Haliaeetus leucocephalus)
Federal Status: Threatened
State Status : De-listed
Description: Adult bald eagles have dark brown bodies and wings contrasting with the
familiar white head, neck, and tail feathers. The adult female (34-43 inches long) is larger than the male (30-35
inches long). The eagle’s wingspan is 7 feet, with adults weighing 8-14pounds. Immature eagles are dark brown
with spatterings of white on the under wings and tail. Their head and tail feathers turn white as they approach 4
to 5 years old.
Habitat: In Wisconsin, eagles are found along rivers and lakes where they catch and eat fish and other prey.
They will also eat dead animals along lake and river shores as well as in agricultural fields and on roadsides.
Bald eagles nest in large trees, usually near water. These nests usually are located near the tops of the tallest
trees and are added to and reused year after year.
Forestry Considerations: Eagles are very sensitive to disturbance by human beings,
especially during the breeding and nesting season (February 15 to August 15).Within 330 feet of a nest, major
habitat changes should be avoided including timber harvest,
land clearing, building and road or trail construction. Mature live and dead trees should
be maintained for perches and protection from the wind. Human activity should be avoided from March 15 to
July 15, and kept to a minimum from July 16 to August 15.
Within 330 to 660 feet of a nest, human activity should be kept to a minimum from March 15 to July 15. From
July 16 to August 15, moderately disturbing activities, such as hunting, fishing, and hiking, are possible.
Heavier disturbance, including harvest and road building, should be conducted during the remainder of the year.
Within 660 feet to 1/4 mile of a nest, bald eagle roosts or feeding sites should be protected. If timber cutting
occurs, it is suggested that several super canopy pine trees be left for future nest tree replacement. Ideally,
activities that are within sight of eagles on their nest should be conducted outside of the breeding and nesting
season. Land within 90 feet of the shoreline of rivers and lakes should be managed to promote large white
pines. As many large dead trees as possible should be left standing, especially trees with a diameter of >12
inches, for use as perch trees.
CERULEAN WARBLER
(Dendroica cerulea)
Federal Status: Not Listed
State Status: Threatened
Description: The male cerulean warbler's breeding
plumage is
sky-blue with faint, dark streaks above; below it is white with a narrow black breast band and blue-gray
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streaking on the sides. The adult female is greenish above with a pale yellowish stripe over the eye and pale
below with dull streaked sides. Both sexes have two white wing bars.
Habitat: Throughout its breeding range the cerulean warbler is found in a variety of
moderately moist habitats, containing tall, mature, deciduous trees. It is found both in
floodplain and upland forests of medium to large size (greater than 40 acres). Important
breeding habitat features include a closed canopy forest with some smaller (< 2.5 inches
dbh) trees and a few smaller dead trees. Habitat loss and fragmentation of mature forests are key factors limiting
breeding populations. In Wisconsin, it is estimated that a 200-acre, unfragmented woodlot would have a
50%chance of supporting a breeding population of this warbler. In addition to reducing the acres of suitable
habitat, forest fragmentation enhances the conditions for nest parasitism by brownheaded cowbirds and nest
predation by other animals.
Forestry Considerations: In areas with cerulean warblers, favor the use of single-tree or
group-selection silviculture. Groups should be less than 1/4 acre in size to maintain a relatively closed canopy to
avoid cowbird parasitism of cerulean warbler nests. Employ Wisconsin’s Forestry Best Management Practices
for Water Quality,
providing buffers along riparian corridors. Avoid harvest during the April 15 to July 15
nesting season in areas with known active nests.
HOODED WARBLER
(Wilsonia citrina)
Federal Status: Not Listed
State Status: Threatened
Description:
The hooded warbler, about51/2 inches long at maturity, has a black hood surrounding
a bright yellow face, and a tail with large white spots. Female and young are similar
in appearance to the male, but are duller in color and have no black hood. Their nests are usually made of
leaves, bark strips, and spider webs, placed between 1 and 5feet above the ground.
Habitat: The hooded warbler inhabits shrubby openings (1/4 to 2 1/2 acres in size) in moist to wet deciduous
woods in large tracts (>200acres) of mature (>50 years old) forest in
southern Wisconsin. Nesting occurs during mid-May to mid-July, with nests in hardwood
saplings (like sugar maple) 1 to 6 feet in height. The nest is made of grape vine, tree bark, leaves and grass, all
interwoven with spider webs. This warbler is an “area sensitive” species that is likely to experience poor nesting
success—and hence declining populations—in smaller or fragmented forests. A mature forest of 240 acres is
believed to have at least a 50% chance of supporting a breeding population.
Forestry Considerations: Utilize single-tree selection or small group-selection silviculture since it mimics
natural wind throw, maintaining the small canopy gaps that benefit this species. These openings within a mature
forest will provide interior edge conditions for foraging and nesting. Minimize disturbance (including tree
harvest) during
the nesting season where this species is known to occur.
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OSPREY
(Pandion haliaetus)
Federal Status: Not Listed
State Status: Threatened
Description: The osprey is a large bird of prey (body length 23 inches, wingspan 5
feet) that plunges into water to capture fish. The bird is black-brown above and
mostly white below. Its white head has a broad black cheek patch and its tail is
barred with brown. The osprey’s long, narrow wings are angled back at the wrist
when it flies. A black wrist patch contrasts with the white under wings. Ospreys
weigh 3 to 3 1/2pounds.
Habitat: The osprey is a bird of waterways: rivers, lakes and shore lands. In northern Wisconsin, breeding
habitat is generally mature second-growth hardwood and pine forests. Primary nest sites are super canopy snags
and dead-topped pines located along lake and stream shorelines. Additionally, nests may be located in recent
clearcuts adjacent to water, on snags in marshes or bogs and in swamp conifer stands. These nests are highly
vulnerable to being toppled by wind. Ospreys also nest on power line poles or other human-made structures.
The osprey nest is made of sticks admeasures more than 3 feet in diameter. Nests are often repaired and reused
year after year.
Forestry Considerations: Since osprey usually nest directly over or near water, following Wisconsin's Forestry
Best Management Practices for Water Quality will protect their streamside or lakeside habitat. BMP's will also
protect waterquality, which enhances survival of the fish upon which osprey feed. Avoid disturbances such as
timber-cutting and road-building within 660 feet of an active osprey nest during the May 1 to August15 nesting
season.
RED-SHOULDERED HAWK
(Buteo lineatus)
Federal Status: Not Listed
State Status: Threatened
Description: The red-shouldered hawk is a medium-sized raptor of the Buteo
group. Adult males(17 to 23 inches long) are slightly smaller than adult females
(19 to 24inches long). It has a rusty-red shoulder marking and barred, rusty to
reddish under parts. Its flight feathers have distinct black and white bars above.
When viewed from below, the spread wings display a translucent, crescentshaped patch. The hawk’s grayish tail is marked by several wide dark bars alternating with narrow white bars
and a white tip.
Habitat: In central Wisconsin, red-shouldered hawks use large (>200 acres), unfragmented tracts of mature
(>50 years old), moderately moist forest. Preferred habitat contains numerous large trees. The majority of nests
are found in red oaks. Nest tree diameters range from 18 to 35inches. Nests are usually placed near the main
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trunk in a crotch 40 to 60 feet above ground. Often the same nest tree is used year after year. Along the
Mississippi River, red-shouldered hawks use medium to mature floodplain or riparian
forests as nesting habitat. These forests are often dominated by 45- to 70-year-old silver maples and/or
cottonwoods. Red-shouldered hawk nest sites along the Mississippi are usually associated with still water,
backwater pools, open marshes, temporary waterways or the confluence of two streams. These wetlands provide
important foraging habitat where frogs and crayfish occur.
Forestry Considerations: Forestry practices that maintain an average canopy closure of 70% or more would be
beneficial to red-shouldered hawks. An aspen component (1- to 5-acre patches on a 55-year rotation) also would
be beneficial. Cutting should not isolate an active nest tree and disturbance (including road construction and
logging) should be minimized within 300 feet of a nest from March through July 15. Use of Wisconsin’s
Forestry Best Management Practices for Water Quality should be followed, especially
the provision of a buffer zone along riparian corridors.
MUSSELS AND SNAILS
CHERRYSTONE DROP SNAIL
(Hendersonia occulta)
Federal Status: Not Listed
State Status: Threatened
Description:
The shell is thick, wider than high, reddish or yellowish in color, marked by fine spiral lines across the surface
of the whorls, and about 0.25 inches (5-8 mm) in diameter. The domed shaped spire (top part of shell above the
aperture) has 6½ whorls with the sutures (seams between the whorls) unimpressed. The base is rounded and
without an opening, the umbilical area covered by a callous pad. In adults, the outer lip is greatly thickened
forming a heavy projecting ridge.
Habitat: Occurs in Brown, Door, Kewaunee, Manitowoc, Sheboygan, Ozaukee, Milwaukee, Sauk, Crawford,
Iron, Vernon and Grant Counties of Wisconsin. Inhabits of small areas of algific habitat or the similar cool,
moist, shaded sites of cliffs where algific conditions occur without substantial talus or ice. The species is most
often found on wooded alluvial-soil banks and bluffs along the Lake Michigan shore. Driftless Area sites are on
north-facing slopes supporting oak-maple woodland. This snail is found in the soil and leaf litter along cliffs,
soil-covered ledges on cliff faces, and on talus and soil and leaf litter near the cliff base.
Forestry Considerations: Maintain a buffer from the top and bottom edges of the bluff for 50 feet where no
vegetation can be removed. Forestry operations in watersheds where rare mollusks (mussels and snails) occur
should be conducted in a manner to avoid soil erosion and prevent sediments and other pollutants from entering
the waterways. Refer to Wisconsin’s Forestry Best Management Practices for Water Quality by the Wisconsin
Bureau of Forestry.
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MIDWEST PLEISTOCENE VERTIGO SNAIL
[HUBRICHT’S VERTIGO SNAIL]
(Vertigo hubrichtii)
Federal Status: Not Listed
State Status: Endangered
Description: Aid to ID: Vertigo snails have pupa-shaped shells that are tan, brown, or orange with an
indentation in the outer lip and distinctive folds within the aperture. The shell is more globose than that of other
snails that have folds within the aperture. Shape, number, and location of the aperture folds are used by
specialists to distinguish V. hubrichti from similar species. The shell of V. hubrichti is orange and small (2.1
mm) with usually 6 whorls.
Habitat: Occurs in Brown, Door, Fond du Lac, Manitowoc, Dodge, Sauk, and Grant Counties of Wisconsin.
Inhabits cold, undisturbed, and well-forested algific sites occurring characteristically in small patches of
decaying deciduous tree leaves (most often paper birch or mountain maple) on or in front of open vents in areas
otherwise dominated by bryophytes. Primary habitat is the soil and fern covered ledges of limestone cliffs along
the upper Great Lakes.
Forestry Considerations: Maintain a buffer from the top and bottom edges of the bluff for 50 feet where no
vegetation can be removed. Forestry operations in watersheds where these rare mollusks (mussels and snails)
occur should be conducted in a manner to avoid soil erosion and prevent sediments and other pollutants from
entering the waterways. Refer to Wisconsin’s Forestry Best Management Practices for Water Quality by the
Wisconsin Bureau of Forestry.
PLANTS
CALYPSO ORCHID
(Calypso bulbosa)
Federal Status: Not Listed
State Status: Threatened
Description: The calypso orchid is a delicate flower that grows about8 inches tall. Its blossom is shaped
somewhat like a slipper, with purple side petals and a white or
yellow lip. A solitary broad, pointed, evergreen leaf emerges in late August and
remains through winter. The calypso orchid blossoms from late May through early July.
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Habitat: The calypso orchid is found mainly immature conifer forests, especially in mossy swamps dominated
by white cedar. In Wisconsin, it has been seen only in the
northern counties of the state.
Forestry Considerations: The calypso orchid is intolerant of canopy loss. Therefore, single-tree selection
would be the preferred forestry technique in areas where this orchid grows.
DROOPING SEDGE
(Carex prasina)
Federal Status: Not Listed
State Status: Threatened
Description: Sedges at first glance resemble grasses, but upon closer
examination prove to have some significant differences. For example, their
stems are solid, have no joints and often are markedly triangular. Drooping
sedge grows in tufts or dense tussocks about 10 to 24 inches tall. Each stem has several long clusters of minute
flowers, the terminal (topmost) spike usually has only male flowers with stamens. The flowers are so small that
a hand lens is necessary to see the identifying characteristics.
Habitat: Drooping sedge grows in wet, marshy wooded areas and along stream banks. These sites sometimes
remain constantly wet due to springs and seeps. Yellow birch, black ash and skunk cabbage are frequent
associates.
Forestry Considerations: Single-tree selection silviculture is the most compatible harvest technique where this
sedge grows. Forestry activities that would change the water
table in areas where the drooping sedge grows should be avoided, and Wisconsin's Forestry
Best Management Practices for Water Quality should be followed.
DWARF LAKE IRIS
(Iris lacustris)
Federal Status: Threatened
State Status: Threatened
Description: The dwarf lake iris blossoms from early May through the beginning of June. The large flowers of
this iris, 3 inches in diameter, are dark blue to purple, with bright yellow crests that decorate the three main
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petals. The flat, parallel-veined leaves are arranged in fans and grow to about 6 inches in height. This plant
often grows in colonies.
Habitat: This beautiful, diminutive iris may be found along the northern shores of the Great Lakes. The dwarf
lake iris thrives in the cool, moist air blowing off the Great Lakes. It prefers the thin, moist, sandy or rocky soil
near the shores, and the partial shade of the northern forests. It is often associated with white cedar, paper birch
and balsam fir.
Forestry Considerations: Care should be taken not to destroy colonies of the dwarf lake iris because it
reproduces primarily vegetatively. Although the plant readily flowers and
occasionally sets seed, it rarely sprouts from seed. Because the iris needs just the right
combination of sun and shade to grow, major habitat modification should be avoided.
Selective harvest techniques that create a mixture of sunny and shady areas are ideal. Wintertime logging is
preferred. The use of insecticides and herbicides should be
restricted within 100feet of iris colonies.
FOAMFLOWER
(Tiarella cordifolia)
Federal Status: Not Listed
State Status: Endangered
Description: Foamflower is well-named. Where the plants grow in large groups, the
clusters of tiny white flowers look like foam floating across the forest floor. Each
plant grows4 to 6 inches tall, with broad, heart-shaped, coarsely toothed leaves
arising from the base. Dozens of tiny five-petaled flowers form an oval cluster at the
top of the plant. It blooms from April to mid-July. Foamflower spreads by means of
stolons (horizontal stems) creeping along the soil surface.
Habitat: The shady floor of mixed hardwood forests in northeastern Wisconsin is
foamflower's preferred habitat. It grows where the soil is evenly moist, and where
abundant fallen leaves and twigs decompose, producing soil that is rich in organic matter.
Forestry Considerations: In woodlands where foamflower grows, logging should be minimized. Removal of
the shading canopy overhead would result in reduced humidity, desiccation of the soil and loss of this rare
wildflower. Therefore, winter harvest along with
single-tree selection silviculture is favored.
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HANDSOME SEDGE
(Carex formosa)
Federal Status: Not Listed
State Status: Threatened
Description: Handsome sedge grows in tufts or clumps 1 to 2 feet tall, its
stems purple at their bases. The main leaves are slender, 1/8 to 1/4 inch wide
and hairy on their underside. From the center of the clump of leaves arises a
stem on which the small greenish flowers are borne. The seeds that ripen
from female flowers are about 1/4inch long and 1/8 inch wide, with three
sharp lengthwise ridges. A good hand lens or dissecting microscope helps
when identifying sedges.
Habitat: Handsome sedge grows in moist calcareous soil in deciduous woods and thickets. Also, it is
sometimes found in meadows.
Forestry Considerations: Handsome sedge prefers sites with light, dappled shade. Selective tree harvest that
maintains this level of shade is compatible with the continued existence of this rare sedge.
HAWTHORN-LEAVED
GOOSEBERRY
(Ribes oxyacanthoides)
Federal Status: Not Listed
State Status: Threatened
Description: In spring the hawthorn-leaved gooseberry shrub bears small, white,
tubular, bell-shaped flowers singly or in groups of two or three. Spines occur
where the flower stem meets the branch. Young branches are yellow-gray and
slightly hairy; older branches are reddish-brown and smooth with peeling strips of
gray bark. Arching branches may take root when they touch the ground,
producing new plants. The leaves of this shrub resemble miniature maple leaves.
Habitat: Hawthorn-leaved gooseberry is a shrub of cool, rocky sites. In Wisconsin it grows in four
northwestern counties on “shattered-rock" slopes and at low sites where cold air collects.
Forestry Considerations: Trees growing near hawthorn-leaved gooseberry plants may be lightly thinned, as
long as the forest canopy remains relatively intact. This rare shrub is adapted to light shade and the cool air of
shady sites. Farther from the site, selective harvest would be compatible with the continued survival of the
hawthorn-leaved gooseberry.
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MOONWORT
(Botrychium lunaria)
Federal Status: Not Listed
State Status: Endangered
Description:
Moonwort is a tiny, rubbery, almost-white fern that grows from1 to 6 inches tall. About
halfway up the stem the plant splits into two branches, one containing three to five pairs of
fan shaped leaflets, and the other bearing rust-colored spore cases.
Habitat: In Wisconsin, moonwort is found in cool northern hardwood forests. It also grows
on the edges of shrub stands or red cedar woodlands, near native prairies, in open prairies
and dunes.
Forestry Considerations: Moonwort is fragile and especially susceptible to trampling. Where moonwort has
been found, care should be taken to avoid disturbing the habitat, especially during the growing season. Selective
harvest of trees during the winter can be compatible with the continued existence of moonwort.
NORTHERN COMANDRA
(Geocaulon lividum)
Federal Status: Not Listed
State Status: Endangered
Description: Northern comandra has branched stems up to afoot tall with
smallish, green flowers growing in groups of 3from stem/leaf axils. Its brilliant
scarlet fruits attract birds which readily eat them and scatter the seeds. Northern
comandra grows in large colonies.
Habitat: This rare wildflower grows on sandy beach ridges and old dunes, partly
shaded by conifer woods. In Wisconsin, northern comandra has been found only
in Door County.
In other states, northern comandra is also found in moist woods, cedar-spruce swamps and heath bogs. It is a
harmless parasite on roots of pine trees.
Forestry Considerations: Forests where northern comandra occurs may be thinned
selectively. This might, in fact, encourage the wildflower, which prefers partial shade.
Such thinning should be done in midwinter when the ground is frozen solidly and the
plant is dormant.
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PINE-DROPS
(Pterospora andromedea)
Federal Status: Not Listed
State Status: Endangered
Description: Pine-drops have a sturdy, hairy, fleshy pink stem which grows up to 3 feet tall.
From June to August, nodding, bowl shaped, white to reddish flowers droop from the
upper half of the stem. The flowers mature into fruiting capsules, each of which can produce
4,800minute, winged, wind spread seeds. This means a single plant can produce as
many as 600,000 seeds! The lower part of the stem bears numerous short, tan to pink scales.
This plant has no green leaves.
Habitat: Usually this plant is found in humus-rich forests under white pine
trees in eastern Wisconsin. In parts of its range, pine-drops can be found in hardwood forests.
It does not produce any chlorophyll, relying instead on dead organic matter for food.
Underground, it has a massive snarl of branching roots which, in partnership with
various soil fungi, absorb nutrients from decaying plant and animal matter.
Forestry Considerations: It is important to maintain the shaded character of the mixed
woods where pine-drops live, along with the humus-rich, loose soil found there. Therefore, single-tree selection
silviculture is advisable, along with the use of equipment that does not compact the soil. Spring and summer
harvest of trees will disturb or
crush growing, flowering and fruiting plants. Winter harvest, when the soil is solidly frozen and the plant is
dormant, is best.
RAM’S-HEAD
LADY’S-SLIPPER
(Cypripedium arietinum)
Federal Status: Not Listed
State Status: Threatened
Description: The ram's head lady's slipper has broad shiny leaves with conspicuous
Lengthwise folds. It flowers in late May or early June, and may reach 6 to12 inches
tall.
Each blossom consists of three separate, petal-like sepals and true petals on the side,
all greenish-brown, and a pinkish inflated petal below.
Habitat: This rare Wisconsin orchid is usually found in cool coniferous swamps and bogs, as well as in white
cedar swales, all in the northern and northeastern parts of the state. In addition, it is found, rarely, in the
pine/aspen/spruce uplands of Ashland County.
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Forestry Considerations: Ram’s-head lady’s slipper is intolerant of disturbance, especially erosion and
trampling. Single-tree or group selection silviculture
in wintertime would be preferred in areas where this native orchid occurs.
SMALL ROUND-LEAVED
ORCHIS
(Amerorchis rotundifolia)
Federal Status: Not Listed
State Status: Threatened
Description: The small round-leaved orchis is identified by the single, round basal
leaf, 1 1/2 to4 inches long, and an erect flower stalk (6 to 17inches tall) with five or
more pinkish, orchid like flowers with dark purple spots on the lip. These flowers
appear in early to mid-summer.
Habitat: This wild orchid occurs mainly in swamps, or forests bordering swamps,
and bogs. These conifer swamps are characterized by tamarack, cedar, balsam fir
and spruce.
Forestry Considerations: This rare, beautiful wildflower is especially intolerant of canopy removal and soil
compaction. Care should be taken to avoid habitat modification and to limit disturbance where the plant is
known to occur.
Links to further information:
Endangered Resources - WDNR
WDNR-Forestry - Threatened and Endangered Species in Forests of Wisconsin
PROTECTION OF CULTURAL RESOURCES
One aspect of land management today that needs consideration is protection of potential cultural resources on
your property. Cultural resources include historic structures, archaeological sites, cemeteries, and traditionaluse areas. Together, they represent roughly 13,000 years of human occupation in Wisconsin – from the end of
the last ice age to the present day. Prehistoric cultural resources reflect the activities of Indian people prior to
initial French contact in 1634. Since the first written records of Wisconsin began at that time, 1634 marks the
beginning of the historic period. To be considered important, a cultural resource has to be at least 50 years old.
Cultural resources represent parts of an inheritance shared by all people. This heritage is of fundamental value
to modern-day societies. These resources often possess spiritual, scientific and other values that are weighed
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differently by different cultures. Today the management of cultural resources is a necessary component of land
stewardship.
Chapter 6 — Cultural Resources
Types of cultural resources include:
• Historic Structures
- Houses, barns and outbuildings
- Lime kilns
- Bridges and railroad trestles
- Schools and churches
- Stores and office buildings
- Mills and factories
• Cemeteries
- Platted cemeteries
- Family cemeteries and individual graves
- Burial mounds
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• Traditional-use Areas
- Sugar bushes
- Medicine gathering areas
- Sacred springs
- Ceremonial sites
• Archaeological Sites
- Campsites and villages
- Caves and rock shelters
- Quarries and flint knapping workshops
- Large animal kill and butchering stations
- Ridged fields and other types of garden beds
- Enclosures and earthworks
- Fish weirs
- Rock art sites
- Ruins of trading posts and homesteads
- Shipwrecks
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Economics of Cultural Resource Management (CRM)
Economically, CRM will not usually pay for itself, but some forest landowners will discover that reserved and
protected cultural resources can be financial assets.
• Cultural resource conservations often contribute to soil, water and wildlife habitat conservation measures.
• The return on investment in the preservation, rehabilitation and adaptive reuse of above-ground cultural
resources is often reflected in increased resale values, and may be used as an effective tool for developing a
sense of corporate or community identity that encourages new investment.
• A growing number of federal and state laws provide financial incentives for preserving and protecting cultural
resources. For example, through conservation easements, landowners may qualify for a federal income tax
deduction or property tax credits. Chapter 6 — Cultural Resources
Potential Impacts
In general, cultural resources are fragile. Many archaeological deposits lie within a few inches of the ground
surface. Hence, even very shallow ground disturbance can destroy the context of artifacts or features such as the
dirt floors of ancient houses. Threats range from natural forces (e.g., erosion, flooding, weathering, and fire) to
human action (e.g., logging, agriculture, mining, land development, and vandalism). Potentially damaging
effects to cultural resources resulting from forestland management activities include:
• Soil disturbance and/or compaction
• A change in the vegetation that is part of a traditional-use area
• Damage to above-ground features
Cultural Resource Management (CRM) and the Law
The legal basis for CRM is rooted in federal and state legislation concerned with natural resource conservation
and environmental protection going back to the early 1900s. The National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of
1966, as amended, is the centerpiece of the national historic preservation program. It established the National
Register of Historic Places and provides for State and Tribal Historic Preservation Officers to implement the
national preservation program. Section 106 of NHPA requires that federal agencies consider the effects of their
activities on cultural resources. Federal law applies
whenever activity takes place on federal land, will use federal funds, or will require a federal permit. The
Wisconsin Field Archeology Act requires state agencies to contact the Wisconsin Historical Society if the
agency’s actions may impact an archaeological site, burial site or historic structure listed in cultural resource
inventories. State law applies whenever the activity is on state-owned land, will use state funds, or requires a
state permit. However, timber harvesting is exempt from review unless new logging roads are to be constructed.
State law affords special protection to burial sites,
regardless of age or land ownership (including private lands). All human burials are afforded the same legal
protection as platted cemeteries.
Chapter 6 — Cultural Resources
Cultural Resource Inventories
The Wisconsin Historical Society maintains an inventory of archaeological and burial sites as well as historic
structures reported to their office. However, since most of the state has never been formally surveyed,
unreported cultural resources likely outnumber those listed in their inventories. Archaeological sites are more
apt to be inventoried if they have been plowed; exposing artifacts on the field surface, or if they have aboveground features such as burial mounds or piles of logging camp refuse. Access to archaeological and burial site
inventories is restricted to protect sites from looting,
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discourage trespass, and show respect for sites that some regard as sacred. The statewide inventory of known
historic structures is openly available through the Wisconsin Historical Society’s web site
WDNR - Facilities Management - Archaeological and Historic Sites of Wisconsin
Assessing Cultural Resources
If a forest management site has not been previously surveyed for cultural resources, individuals may conduct
their own assessment of the area’s potential. One might
begin by checking existing maps, air photos and printed historical information, and then assess the landscape.
The following have high potential for cultural resources:
• Current shorelines or terraces adjacent to lakes, rivers or streams, and shorelines of ancient lakes and old river
channels
• Junctions of water bodies, including river junctions, and lake inlets and outlets
• Peninsulas or points of land along a shoreline, including islands
• Good places to camp, including areas
where people camp now
• Areas adjacent to fish spawning beds,
good fishing spots and wild rice beds
• Transportation routes (e.g., old trails,
roads or portages)
Chapter 6 — Cultural Resources
Field Identification of Cultural
Resources
During a walk-over inspection of the
management area, in preparation for a
timber sale, forest managers and
landowners may discover unrecorded
cultural resources.
Some things to look for are:
• High spots offering a panoramic view
• Unusual natural features
• Surface artifacts (check bare spots, tree
tip-ups and cut banks)
• Surface features
- Cellar and well holes
- Cement or asphalt slabs
- Fieldstone foundations
- Miscellaneous building materials (bricks,
roofing materials, plaster, and stucco)
- Metal well pipes
- Earthen berms and trenches
- Shallow depressions (such as graves or
ricing pits)
• Milled lumber (such as boards suitable
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for burial crosses, spirit houses or building construction)
• Domestic or exotic plants (including lilac bushes, fruit trees and daylilies)
• Old roads, trails and portages (especially where two come together)
• Trash dumps containing antique items or jumbo-sized tin cans
• Standing structures and buildings
Assessing Management Alternatives
• Protection by law. If the pre-field review indicates the project area contains a site protected by law (such as a
burial site), further action will be determined by statute or regulations.
• Identification as a low-sensitivity site. If no cultural resources have been recorded and the pre-field review
and walk-over inspection yielded no indications of important cultural resources, the site would have low
sensitivity. Proceed with the management activity.
• Identification as a high-sensitivity site. If cultural resources are known to exist or if the pre-field review and
walk-over inspection indicate their presence, the site has high sensitivity. In this case, it is recommended that
the forest manager avoid the sensitive area or bring in a cultural resource management professional to conduct a
survey.
When Accidental Discovery Occurs
Unrecorded cultural resources may be discovered during operations. Guidelines for proceeding depend on the
nature of the discovery.
• In the case of human burials, if such discovery occurs, temporary suspension of operations in the vicinity of
the discovery is required. If a human burial site
is accidentally discovered, contact the Burial Sites Preservation Office at the Wisconsin Historical
Society.
• For other types of cultural resources, such as archaeological artifacts, temporary suspension is not required,
but is recommended. Suspending operations in the immediate vicinity of the cultural resource will provide time
to contact a cultural resource professional, or develop plans to apply appropriate guidelines to avoid or mitigate
potential effects.
• Documentation of cultural resources discovered during forest management activities is not required. However,
landowners and operators are encouraged to make a written record of their discoveries, and share that
information with the Office of the State Archaeologist at the Wisconsin Historical Society.
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BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WATER QUALITY
One of the biggest threats to water quality in the United States is nonpoint source pollution. Nonpoint source
pollution occurs when surface water runoff from rainfall or snowmelt moves across or into the ground, picking
up or carrying pollutants into streams, lakes, wetlands, or groundwater. Soil becomes a nonpoint source
pollutant when water runoff carries large amounts of soil into a waterbody.
Nonpoint source pollution is the source for about half of all pollutants entering our nation’s waters. Nationally,
three to nine percent of all nonpoint source pollution comes from forestry practices. Because Wisconsin is
relatively flat, only about three percent of the state’s nonpoint source pollution comes from forestry practices.
While three percent sounds small, localized nonpoint source pollution can be significant, and the cumulative
effects of all sources can seriously degrade water quality in a drainage system.
Forest management activities can generate the following forms of nonpoint source pollution:
SEDIMENT
Forest floor vegetation and organic debris protect the soil from the erosive actions of falling raindrops and
runoff. Forestry management activities such as road building can remove this protection, and lead to erosion of
the soil creating sediment. When sediment is carried away in runoff and deposited elsewhere, sedimentation
occurs. Without using appropriate BMP's on exposed and sloping land, the soil will likely erode and may wash
into a body of water. Sediment is the primary pollutant associated with forestry activities, especially at
stream crossings for forest roads and skid trails.
In the world of nature, sedimentation is a slow, naturally
occurring process – however, human activities often speed it up.
The result can be large amounts of sediment accumulating in
lakes, streams and wetlands that speed up the aging of lakes, and
bury fish spawning grounds and aquatic plants. These plants are
a source of food and habitat for fish and other aquatic organisms.
Accumulating sediment also constricts naturally flowing
channels, leading to increased stream bank erosion and possible
flooding. Suspended sediment can cloud the water, reducing the
hunting success of sight-feeding fish, and can also damage the
gills of some fish species, causing them to suffocate.
ORGANIC DEBRIS
Leaves and large woody debris (usually large fallen logs, at least
12 inches in diameter, with an attached root ball) that naturally
fall into streams can greatly benefit aquatic ecosystems.
However, too much organic debris deposited in a short time can
harm water quality. This can occur during logging when treetops
and branches fall or wash into streams. Too much decomposing
matter in streams can decrease dissolved oxygen in the water,
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which fish need to thrive and reproduce.
INVASIVE PLANTS
A number of non-native invasive species are impacting forested riparian areas and wetlands. Reed canary grass
can rapidly overtake a site where the forest canopy is opened up by harvesting or wind damage. It is extremely
difficult to regenerate bottomland forests once reed canary grass is established. Another non-native invasive
species, glossy buckthorn, can form a dense shrub layer that also limits regeneration.
CHEMICALS
Pesticides (herbicides, insecticides and fungicides) help control forest pests and undesirable plant species. But
when applied improperly, pesticides can be toxic to aquatic organisms. Fuel, oil and coolants used in
harvesting and road-building equipment must also be handled carefully to avoid water pollution.
TEMPERATURE
Some sunlight filtering through trees is healthy for many streams. It can promote plant growth (food) in the
water, and foster healthy ground vegetation along shorelines. However, when trees and the shade they provide
are removed along most small streams, peak mid-summer water temperatures climb as a result of increased
solar radiation. This can eliminate cold water fish, reduce dissolved oxygen, and affect the metabolism and
development of fish.
NUTRIENTS
Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus exist
naturally in forest soil, and can enter waterbodies if the
soil erodes into water. Also, if fertilizers are used in
forest management, they can wash into waterbodies in
runoff. Excessive amounts of nutrients may cause algal
blooms in lakes and streams, which can reduce levels of
dissolved oxygen in the water to below what fish and
other aquatic species need to survive.
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STREAMFLOW
Timber harvesting can increase peak streamflow which increases chances for flooding, stream bank erosion,
and sedimentation. If timber harvesting equipment compacts a large area of the forest soil, water infiltration into
the soil is reduced, and surface runoff into streams increases. This also reduces water percolation through the
soil to recharge groundwater which provides cool, clean water to lakes and streams – helping to maintain steady
streamflows and lake levels throughout the summer.
Harvesting can also contribute to an increase in peak streamflow. In basins where 60 percent or more of the
trees are less than 15 years old, snow can melt several times faster than in older stands.
Protecting Riparian Functions and Values
Clean water is essential to Wisconsin’s economy and rich quality
of life. Lakes and streams provide habitat for wildlife, fish and
other aquatic species. Our forests play a vital role in purifying
and maintaining clean water for streams, lakes and groundwater.
The most practical and cost-effective method to assure that
forestry operations do not adversely affect water quality in
Wisconsin is through the use of the voluntary Best Management
Practices (BMPs). These BMPs are voluntary in the sense that
they are not legally mandated. However, the Wisconsin
Department of Natural Resources (DNR) strongly encourages
their use by all Wisconsin forest landowners, land managers and
forestry professionals. Several categories of public and private
landowners in Wisconsin already use forestry water quality
BMPs to guide their management activities. For example,
compliance is required on DNR properties such as State Forests,
and lands enrolled in the Managed Forest Law Program since
1995. In addition, the forestry water quality BMPs have been
adopted by all 29 counties enrolled in Wisconsin’s County Forest
Law program. The majority of Wisconsin’s industrial forestland
is enrolled in the American Forest and Paper Association’s
Sustainable Forestry Initiative, which requires water quality
BMP compliance and logger training as a condition of
membership.
Vernal pools, or casual water, provide habitat
for certain wildlife species. Forestry operations
should be conducted at the proper time to
avoid disruptions to these small ecosystems.
It is the policy of the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest
Service to promote and apply approved BMPs for the control of nonpoint sources of water pollution.
Currently, BMPs developed by the Wisconsin DNR for nonpoint sources of water pollution support the
Chequamegon and Nicolet National Forests.
In addition to the BMPs described in this manual, you should be aware of existing municipal, county, state, and
federal regulations relating to forest management and water quality This guide can help you when making
decisions about management activities on your land. Applications of BMPs may be modified for specific site
conditions with guidance from a natural resource professional, if modifications provide equal or greater water
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quality protection, or if the modification has no impact on water quality. Seek professional advice on BMPs and
all forest management activities from natural resource professionals such as:
•
•
•
•
•
Consulting foresters
Industrial foresters
Wisconsin DNR foresters, fish managers, and water quality staff
USDA Natural Resources and Conservation Service staff
County Land Conservation Department staff
Careful planning for forest management activities, such as road construction, timber harvesting and site
preparation will minimize nonpoint source pollution. A well thought-out plan will lead to harvest operations
that use BMPs, remove forest products efficiently and profitably, and promote sustainable forest growth and
water quality protection.
A comprehensive forest management plan should include forestry BMPs for water quality. The level of
formality and detail should be appropriate to the project size, cost and environmental risk. The plan should also
be flexible and adaptable to changing conditions.
Landowners and land managers should select the best forest management strategy to protect water quality
specific to the site. A contractor (e.g., logger or road developer) working with the landowner and land
manager, is usually responsible for implementing forestry BMPs. Wisconsin DNR foresters and consulting or
industrial foresters can work with you to develop a list of BMPs to include in your forest management plan.
Cost-sharing assistance may be available for plans written by a consulting forester.
RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONES
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Forestry BMPs in wetlands protect water quality from erosion, and minimize changes to the surface and belowsurface water movement that can occur from rutting and road building. Changing the surface and below-surface
water movement can affect the health of the wetland ecosystem and its flood protection function.
Activities in wetlands are often subject to municipal, county, state, and federal permit and regulatory
requirements. Some of these regulations are listed in Appendix E: Regulations (see Section 404, Chapter NR
103, and Chapter NR 117). When you suspect your project involves a wetland and want to know what
regulations apply, the sequence of contacts include 1) your county zoning office, 2) a Wisconsin DNR water
management specialist, and 3) the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Maps from the Wisconsin Wetland Inventory can help you make a preliminary determination as to whether
your project will affect wetlands. These maps may be reviewed at DNR offices and county or municipal
zoning offices, or purchased from the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Fisheries
Management and Habitat Protection, PO Box 7921, Madison, WI 53707-7921.
INVASIVE SPECIES
An "invasive species" is defined as a species that is 1) non-native (or alien) to the ecosystem under normal
undisturbed condition and 2) whose introduction causes or is likely to cause an adverse impact to economic,
environmental human health. Human actions are the primary means of invasive species introductions.
These species tend to grow aggressively in agricultural lands, home gardens, roadsides, and other disturbed
sites. Some also possess noxious properties that cause allergic reactions or poisoning upon contact or
consumption. The majority of invasive species have their origins in other countries, such as Europe or Asia.
Their introduction to North America dates from the arrivals of the earliest explorers and settlers. The
immigrants brought a variety of common agricultural weeds embedded in natural packing materials, as fodder
for livestock, within bags of seeds, and in the ballast of ships transporting them to the New World. Even some
of the herbs brought for cooking, medicines, garden ornamentals, have become troublesome pests. This invasion
of exotics has continued to the present time, and is exacerbated by population growth and over time human
disturbances.
It is invasive plants that are of greatest concern, due to their impact on biological diversity and the natural
functioning of ecosystems. The majority of invasives are exotics, but only a small proportion of all exotics are
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invasive. Economic impact of invasive species has been felt since the early days of agriculture in North
America. The fact that invasive plants and animals are having a dramatic impact on natural ecosystems has only
been recognized in recent years.
Invasive plants grow rapidly under a wide range of climate and soil conditions. Some, such as the biennial
garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), over winter as rosettes and begin to flower and seed early in the spring
before many of the native plants begin to grow. Most produce abundant seeds and may also have other
adaptations that allow them to out-compete native plants.
The topic of invasive species in Door County has recently
been brought to the forefront with the creation of a Door
County Invasive Species Team. The Door County Invasive
Species Team (DCIST) is a voluntary alliance of businesses,
nonprofit groups, federal, state and public agencies,
educational institutions, organizations, private landowners
and other interested parties. The Team is committed to
educate, prevent, minimize, and eradicate non-native plant
species, in order to avoid monocultures and sustain diverse
ecosystems within the Door County peninsula lakeshore
basin, and ensure economic viability and human welfare.
The partnership promotes an open information exchange,
public and private sector coordination, citizen involvement,
and a comprehensive local resource management guide that
is intended to maintain and protect biodiversity. The DCIST
team maintains an Invasive Species Home Page (available at
http://map.co.door.wi.us/swcd/Invasive/index.htm)that contains useful information for landowners in dealing
with invasive species on their property. The Wisconsin DNR also maintains a website at:
http://dnr.wi.gov/invasives/ that deals statewide with the topic of invasive species.
While there are a number of different invasives present in the county, not all affect the forested landscape. Four
imparticular species have affected and will continue to affect the landscape in a negative way and should be
controlled at the landscape level and eliminated on individual properties where possible. These species include:
Garlic Mustard, Phragmites, Buckthorn and Reed Canary Grass.
Garlic Mustard
Garlic mustard is a cool-season biennial herb that ranges from 12 to 48 inches in height as an adult flowering
plant. Leaves and stems emit the distinctive odor of onion or garlic when crushed (particularly in spring and
early summer), and help distinguish the plant from all other woodland mustard plants. First year plants consist
of a cluster of 3 or 4 round, scallop edged leaves rising 2 to 4 inches in a rosette. Second-year plants generally
produce one or two flowering stems with numerous white flowers that have four separate petals. Garlic mustard
is the only plant of this height in our woods with white flowers in May. Fruits are slender capsules 1 to 2.5
inches long that produce a single row of oblong black seeds with ridged seed coats. Stem leaves are alternate
and triangular in shape, have large teeth, and can be 2 to 3 inches across in fruiting plants. Petioles are longer on
the leaves towards the base. Garlic mustard can also be distinguished by its uproot, which is slender, white, and
"s"-shaped at the top of the root.
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Garlic mustard is an exotic species introduced from Europe presumably by
early settlers for its supposed medicinal properties and for use in cooking. It is
widely distributed throughout the northeastern and Midwestern U.S. from
Canada to South Carolina and west to Kansas, North Dakota, and as far as
Colorado and Utah. In Wisconsin, the plant is currently concentrated in the
southeastern and northeastern counties, although distribution records indicate
its presence is nearly statewide
Garlic mustard grows in upland and floodplain forests, savannas, yards, and
along roadsides, occasionally in full sun. It is shade-tolerant, and generally
requires some shade; it is not commonly found in sunny habitats. It cannot
tolerate acidic soils. The invasion of forests usually begins along the wood's
edge, and progresses via streams, campgrounds, and trails.
This species is a biennial that produces hundreds of seeds per plant. The seeds
are believed to be dispersed on the fur of large animals such as deer, horses,
and squirrels, by flowing water and by human activities. In our areas, seeds lie
dormant for 20 months prior to germination, and may remain viable for five
years. Seeds germinate in early April. First-year plants appear as basal rosettes
in the summer season. First-year plants remain green through the following
Garlic Mustard
winter, making it possible to check for the presence of this plant in your
woods throughout the year. Garlic mustard begins vegetative growth early in
the spring, and blooms in southern Wisconsin from May through early June. Fruits begin to ripen in mid-July,
and are disseminated through August. Viable seeds are produced within days of initial flowering.
Garlic Mustard is a rapidly spreading woodland weed that is displacing native woodland wildflowers in
Wisconsin. It dominates the forest floor and can displace most native herbaceous species within ten years. This
plant is a major threat to the survival of Wisconsin's woodland herbaceous flora and the wildlife that depend on
it. There are two modes of spread: an advancing front, and satellite population expansion possibly facilitated by
small animals. Unlike other plants that invade disturbed habitats, garlic mustard readily spreads into high
quality forests.
Controlling Garlic Mustard
Mechanical Control: Minor infestations can be eradicated by hand pulling at or before the onset of flowering,
or by cutting the flower stalk as close to the soil surface as possible just as flowering begins (cutting a couple
inches above ground level is not quite as effective). Cutting prior to this time may promote resprouting. Cutting
flowering plants at the ground level has resulted in 99% mortality and eliminates seed production. A scythe,
monofilament weed whip, or power brush cutter may be helpful if the infestation covers a large area. When
pulling, the upper half of the root must be removed in order to stop buds at the root crown from sending up new
flower stalks. Pulling is very labor intensive, and can result in soil disturbance, damaging desirable species, and
bringing up seeds from the seed bank. These results can be partially prevented by thoroughly tamping soil after
pulling. If, however, seed bank depletion is desired, leave the soil in a disturbed state to encourage further
germination, and return annually to remove the plants. In general, cutting is less destructive than pulling as a
control method, but can be done only during flower stalk elongation. Pulling can be done at any time when the
soil is not frozen. If flowering has progressed to the point that viable seed exists, remove the cut or pulled plants
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from the area. Because seeds remain viable for five years, it is essential that an area be monitored and plants
removed for at least five years after the initial control effort.
For larger infestations, fall or early spring burning may be effective. First year plants are killed by fire, if the
fire is hot enough to remove all leaf litter. However, the bare soil enhances survival of seedlings that germinate
after the fire, and the total population may increase after the fire. Dense populations may be controlled more
effectively by fall burning, when leaf litter provides adequate fuel. Spring burns should be conducted early
enough to minimize possible injury to spring wildflowers. Three to five years of burning are required, and
should be followed by hand-pulling or cutting of small populations produced from the seed bank. Garlic
mustard plants hit by fire are generally killed. Because most woodland fires are patchy, flame torches may be
useful in areas not burned in entirety.
Chemical Control: Several infestations can be controlled by applying 1-2% active ingredient (a.i.) solution of
glyphosate to the foliage of individual plants and dense patches during late fall or early spring. At these times,
most native plants are dormant, but garlic mustard is green and vulnerable. Glyphosate is a nonselective
herbicide that will kill non-target plants if it comes into contact with them. Managers should exercise caution
during application, and not spray so heavily that herbicide drips off the target species. Herbicide use is safest for
native plants if done during the dormant season, as garlic mustard will grow as long as there is no snow cover
and the temperature is greater than 35oF. An early spring application of tricolopyr at a 1% a.i. concentration in
solution with water has been used, resulting in a 92% rosette mortality rate.
More Information on the Web
Garlic Mustard - Wisconsin State Herbarium
Garlic Mustard - Invasives on the Web
Common Reed Grass (Phragmites)
Description: Phragmites is an herbaceous,
perennial grass that can grow up to 15 feet (4.5
meters) in height. It has stout stems, long leaves
(up to 2 feet(.6 meters)), and large feathery
plumes of flowers that change from a purple
brown
color in July to tan or grey by late in the
season. Phragmites may spread by seed,
although
a number of populations do not produce viable
seeds. Stands of Phragmites are also
established by the spread of underground
rhizomes (a thickened underground stem).
Habitat: Phragmites thrives in sunny wetland
habitats and prefers fresh or brackish water
(tidal and nontidal marshes). Although it can
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tolerate salt water, growth is usually stunted. In Wisconsin, it is known to grow on lake shores and in marshes,
bogs, fens, wet meadows, roadside ditches, spoil piles resulting from dredging, and even seepage areas on
highway embankments. It grows in soils with a pH range of 3.7 to 9.0 and in saturated soils or those that are
seasonally, regularly, or permanently inundated up to two feet. It cannot withstand strong wave action or
running water because the vertical stems break easily. Phragmites especially takes advantage of situations
where there are numerous human disturbances to the landscape. Examples include dredging, water pollution,
alteration of the natural hydrological regime and increases in nutrients, soil salinity, or sedimentation.
Threats: Phragmites spreads rapidly by rhizomes in disturbed areas that have moist to wet soils. It will quickly
dominate in these areas, displacing the natural, diverse community with a monoculture. A Phragmites rhizome
can extend 30 feet (9 meters) in a year. Monocultures as large as 7,000 acres have been documented.
Giant or Common Reed Control:
Prior to specific removal techniques, it is essential to minimize land disturbances and other
human alterations in the area of restoration so that the factors that favor the spread and establishment
of Phragmites are no longer present. Healthy, stable, natural plant communities are the best
defense against the invasion and spread of Phragmites.
A number of control methods have been tried on Phragmites. Cutting has worked to control it
although it is important to cut at the right time and to do so for a number of years. The plants should
be cut just before the end of July when most of the food reserves are in the aerial portion of the
plant. Doing this for several years has contained and significantly reduced common reed stands in a
number of sites in the northeast.
Glyphosate herbicide has been used on a number of reed stands along the East Coast. The chemical
must be applied after the tasseling stage when the plant is supplying nutrients to the rhizome and
will translocate the herbicide as well. Burning will not control stands unless there is a root burn, which
is difficult to achieve because the rhizomes are often under soil, mud, or water Recent efforts using black plastic
have also had some success. In any case, there is no easy solution for control of this aggressive species.
Buckthorn (Common and Glossy)
Both common and glossy buckthorns are tall shrubs or small
trees reaching 20-25 feet in height and 10 inches in diameter.
Most often they grow in a large shrub growth form, having a few
to several stems from the base. The shrubs have spreading,
loosely-branched crowns. Their bark is gray to brown with
prominent, often elongate, lighter-colored lenticels. The
buckthorns share a very distinctive winter appearance having
naked, hairy terminal buds and gracefully curving, or arched,
twigs with closely-spaced, prominent leaf scars that give the
twigs a warty or bumpy silhouette. Cutting a branch of either
species exposes a yellow sapwood and a pinkish to orange
heartwood. Both species of buckthorn are distinctive enough from other native species to be identified at all
times of the year once their characteristics have been learned.
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The dioecious common buckthorn may be somewhat easier to spot when the female plants are in fruit. The
columnar variety of glossy buckthorn has a very narrow upright form and is commonly used for wind or visual
screening. Common buckthorn has dull green, ovate-elliptic leaves which are smooth on both surfaces and have
minute teeth on the margins. They vary from rounded to pointed on the tip. Twigs of common buckthorn often
end in thorns. Glossy buckthorn has thin, glossy, ovate or elliptic leaves. The upper leaf surface is shiny; the
lower surface can be hairy or smooth and their margins are entire (not toothed). There are several ornamental
cultivars of Rhamnus frangula including "columnaris" and "asplenifolia." It is believe that the seeds from these
plants can disperse and produce weedy plants.
Similar Species: Alder buckthorn (Rhamnus alnifolia) is a small native shrub of less than 3 feet in height with
twigs that are hairless and dark scales on the buds in winter. Lance-leafed buckthorn (Rhamnus lanceolata),
found in bogs and swamps, is a small native shrub of less than 6 feet in height. Its leaves are 2-6 inches which
gradually taper to a point at the tip that are alternate and has bud scales in the winter. Its leaves are 2-6 inches in
length, alternately arranged, and gradually taper to a point at the tip. Branches bears bud scales in the winter.
Distribution and Habitat: Common buckthorn and glossy buckthorn are two closely related species
originating in Eurasia and were introduced to North America as ornamentals. They were planted in hedgerows
in Wisconsin as early as 1849. They have become naturalized from Nova Scotia to Saskatchewan, south to
Missouri, and east to New England. They are well established and rapidly spreading in Wisconsin. Although
their aggressively invasive growth patterns have created problems in many areas, exotic buckthorns are still
legally sold and planted as ornamentals.
Glossy buckthorn is an aggressive invader of wet soils. It has become a problem in wetlands as varied as acidic
bogs, calcareous fens, and sedge meadows. It is capable of growing both in full sun and in heavily shaded
habitats. The species is not confined to wetlands, however, and grows well in a wide variety of upland habitats,
including old fields and roadsides. Neither species is adversely affected by nutrient-poor soils.
Distribution in Wisconsin
Distribution in USA]
Life History and Effects of Invasion: Both buckthorns are characterized by long distance dispersal ability,
prolific reproduction by seed, wide habitat tolerance, and high levels of phenotypic plasticity (adjusting physical
appearance to maximize environmental conditions). Under full sun conditions, they can begin to produce seed a
few years after establishment. Fruit production may be delayed for 10 to 20 years in shaded habitats. Common
buckthorn flowers from May through June and fruit ripens August through September; glossy buckthorn blooms
from late May until the first frost and produces fruit from early July through September. The abundant fruits are
eaten birds, thus encouraging the long-distance dispersal of horticultural plantings. Seedlings establish best in
high light conditions, but can also germinate and grow in the shade. The exotic buckthorns have very rapid
growth rates and resprout vigorously after they have been cut. Typical of several non-native understory shrub
species, buckthorns leaf out very early and retain their leaves late in the growing season, thereby shading out
native wildflowers.
The first few individuals established in a natural area are usually from seeds transported by birds. Once these
individuals begin to produce seed, the buckthorns can rapidly form dense thickets. The vigor of buckthorns is
positively correlated to light availability.
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Once established, both buckthorn species have the potential to spread very aggressively in large numbers
because they thrive in habitats ranging from full sun to shaded understory. Both species cast a dense shade as
they mature into tall shrubs. This shading has a particularly destructive effect on herbaceous and low shrub
communities, and may prevent the establishments of tree seedling.
Controlling the Exotic Buckthorn: As with all invasive species, buckthorns in natural areas are most
effectively controlled by recognizing their appearance early and removing isolated plants before they begin to
produce seed. With large infestations, the largest seed-producing plants should be removed first.
Mechanical Control: Prescribed burns in early spring and fall may kill seedlings (especially in the first year of
growth), larger stems, and top-killed mature buckthorns, although this method has met with mixed results.
Burning is preferable for fire-shaped communities, but should not be used if it adversely affects the community.
Burning annually or biannually to control buckthorns may have to be continued for several years depending on
the extent of establishment and the seed bank, which general lasts two to three years. It is generally difficult to
burn in dense buckthorn stands as the understory is typically well-shaded, allowing little fuel build-up.
In high quality natural areas where the use of chemicals is a concern, small patches of plants up to 0.4 inch
diameter can be pulled when the soil is moist. Larger plants 0.5 inch to 1.5 inch diameters can be dug or pulled
using a weed wrench. Disturbed soil will result from these techniques, and should be tamped down to minimize
seeding.
Girding (removed phloem connection of roots to shoots while retaining the xylem connection of shoots to roots)
or cutting stems between December and March may not be very effective unless followed by an application of
glyphosate herbicide.
Chemical Control: Chemical control methods are best done during the fall when most native plants are
dormant yet buckthorns are still actively growing. This lessens the risk of affecting nontarget plants. The
buckthorns' green leaves will provide easy recognition and allow for a thorough treatment at this time. Control
methods are also effective in the growing season, but there is more risk of affecting non-target plants, and the
effectiveness of the treatment is generally lower. Winter application of chemicals has proven to be successful as
well, and further lessens the risk of damaging non-target species.
During the growing season, cutting stems off near ground level and treating them with glyphosate successfully
curbs sprouting. Immediately after cutting, a 20%-25% active ingredient (a.i.) glyphosate should be applied to
the stumps. Resprouts should be cut and treated again, or sprayed with a hand sprayer of 1.5% a.i. glyphosate
(approved for use over water) solution to the foliage. Foliar application of glyphosate herbicide using a
backpack sprayer is effective, but less selective.
In wetlands with artificially lowered water tables, restoring the water to its historical levels will often kill glossy
buckthorns. Standard formulations of glyphosate cannot be used in standing water. Glyphosate formulated for
use over water must be used.
More Information on the Web
Buckthorns - Invasives on the Web
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Reed Canary Grass
Description: Reed canary grass is a large, coarse grass that reaches 2 to 9 feet in height. It has an erect, hairless
stem with gradually tapering leaf blades 3 1/2 to 10 inches long and 1/4 to 3/4 inch in width. Blades are flat and
have a rough texture on both surfaces. Single flowers occur in dense clusters in May to mid-June. They are
green to purple at first and change to beige over time. This grass is one of the first to sprout in spring, and forms
a thick rhizome system that dominates the subsurface soil. Seeds are shiny
brown in color. Both Eurasian and native ecotypes of reed canary grass are
thought to exist in the U.S. The Eurasian variety is considered more
aggressive, but no reliable method exists to tell the ecotypes apart. It is
believed that the vast majority of our reed canary grass is derived from the
Eurasian ecotype. Agricultural cultivars of the grass are widely planted.
Distribution and Habitat: Reed canary grass is a cool-season, sod-forming,
perennial wetland grass native to temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and
North America. The Eurasian ecotype has been selected for its vigor and has
been planted throughout the U.S. since the 1800's for forage and erosion
control. It has become naturalized in much of the northern half of the U.S.,
and is still being planted on steep slopes and banks of ponds and created
wetlands.
Reed canary grass can grow on dry soils in upland habitats and in the partial
shade of oak woodlands, but does best on fertile, moist organic soils in full sun. This species can invade most
types of wetlands, including marshes, wet prairies, sedge meadows, fens, stream banks, and seasonally wet
areas; it also grows in disturbed areas such as bergs and spoil piles.
Life History and Effects of Invasion: Reed canary grass reproduces by seed or creeping rhizomes. It spreads
aggressively. The plant produces leaves and flower stalks for 5 to 7 weeks after germination in early spring, and
then spreads laterally. Growth peaks in mid-June and declines in mid-August. A second growth spurt occurs in
the fall. The shoots collapse in mid to late summer, forming a dense, impenetrable mat of stems and leaves. The
seeds ripen in late June and shatter when ripe. Seeds may be dispersed from one wetland to another by
waterways, animals, humans, or machines.
This species prefers disturbed areas, but can easily move into native wetlands and openings in lowland forests.
Reed canary grass can invade a disturbed wetland in less than twelve years. Invasion is associated with
disturbances including ditching of wetlands, stream channelization, deforestation of swamp forests,
sedimentation, and intentional planting. The difficulty of selective control makes reed canary grass invasion of
particular concern. Over time, it forms large, monotypic stands that harbor few other plant species and are
subsequently of little use to wildlife. Forest regeneration can be greatly inhibited or eliminated if the reed
canary grass becomes established. Once established, reed canary grass dominates an area by building up a
tremendous seed bank that can eventually erupt, germinate, and recolonize treated sites.
Controlling Reed Canary Grass:
Reed canary grass is difficult to eradicate; no single control method is universally applicable. In natural
communities, mechanical control practices are recommended. In buffer areas and in severely disturbed sites,
chemical and mechanical controls may be used. If herbicide is used, care should be taken to prevent contact
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with non-target species. Any control technique to reduce or eliminate reed canary grass should be followed by
planting native species adapted to the site.
As reed canary grass can enter a wetland area from eroding hill slopes, erosion control and catch-basins around
preserved wetlands are appropriate preventative measures.
Mechanical Control: Small, discrete patches may be covered by black plastic for at least one growing season;
the bare spot can then be reseeded with native species. This method is not always effective and must be
monitored because rhizomes can spread beyond the edge of the plastic.
Prescribed burns in late spring or late fall may help reduce the reed canary grass population if repeated annually
for 5 to 6 years. However, these fires are difficult to conduct due to water levels and/or the greenness of the
grass at the time of burning. The application of 1.5% active ingredient solution of glyphosate will "brown off"
reed canary grass enough to conduct prescribed burns. Burning is also ineffective in dense stands of reed canary
grass that lack competition from native, fire-adapted species in the seed bank. A late-spring burn followed by
mowing or wick-applying glyphosate to the emerging flowering shoots will eliminate reed canary grass seed
production for that year. The earliest
Mowing twice yearly (early to mid-June and again in early October) may help control reed canary grass by
removing seed heads before the seed matures and exposing the ground to light, which promotes the growth of
native wetland species. Discing the soil in combination with a mowing or burning regime may help by opening
the soil to other species. Hand-pulling or digging may work on small stands in the early stages of invasion.
Grazing can enhance diversity, although it will not control reed canary grass. A bulldozer can be used to remove
reed canary grass and rhizomes (12-18" deep), after which native species should be seeded. Discing or plowing
can also be employed in this manner.
In small areas with few natives, another method involves repeated cultivation for one full growing season
followed by dormant seeding near the first-frost date. Disrupting the plant roots every two to three weeks
weakens the remaining plants and depletes the seed bank. When combined with spot herbicide application in
sections too wet for early or late cultivation, results after two years have been good. Frequent and continued
cultivation is important since one or two cultivations would simply cut the roots up and increase the number of
individual plants.
Chemical Control: Small, scattered clones (2 feet in diameter) can be controlled by tying the stems together
just before flowering, cutting them, and applying glyphosate in a 33% active ingredient (a.i.) solution to cut
stems.
A formulation of glyphosate designed for use in wetlands will kill reed canary grass (especially young plants)
when applied to foliage. Apply in early spring when most native plant species are dormant. Any herbicide
application should be done only after removing dead leaves from the previous year in order to maximize
growing shoot exposure and to minimize herbicide use.
A 5% a.i. solution of glyphosate formulated for use over water applied as a foliar spray will kill reed canary
grass. Two herbicidal applications may be necessary to ensure complete coverage. Herbicide applied with a
wick applicator attached to a tractor affects taller stands of reed canary grass without impacting the shorter
vegetation.
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A late mowing in mid-September, followed by the application of 5% glyphosate a.i. in October (after big
bluestem is dormant) can help to control reed canary grass.
Because reed canary grass productivity is reduced by shade, planting native shrubs or wetland trees in areas of
chemically-treated grass may be effective.
While herbicide kills reed canary grass, the seed bank may germinate and recolonize the site. Several herbicidal
applications may be necessary to inhibit seed bank recolonization. After the first application of herbicide has
killed living plants, disturbance of the soil can encourage seed bank germination. When this occurs, the site can
again be treated with herbicide to deplete the seed bank.
An alternative method involves wick application of glyphosate in the first to third weeks of June, followed by a
late June to mid-July burn. This technique reduces reed canary grass cover, depletes the seed bank, and
stimulates native seed banks.
More Information on the Web
Reed Canary Grass - Wisconsin State Herbarium
Reed Canary Grass - Invasives on the Web
FOREST HEALTH & PESTS
A healthy forest is not necessarily free of insects and diseases. The insects that eat the foliage from trees also
provide food for many birds species. Some of the fungi that cause root rot in trees also convert stumps into
organic matter that provides fertilizer to young trees. The brush species that interfere with young trees also
provide food and shelter for birds and other wildlife.
The health of a forest stand depends on the point of view or (in formal terms) the management goals of the
owner. The following example will explain what we mean by a healthy forest:
A 90 year-old 100-acre woodlot of black oak, white oak and hickory in the Central Sands contains occasional
dead and dying oaks, many trees with cavities and dead limbs, occasional large white oaks with spreading
crowns, a few large white pines that rise above the oak canopy and a 5-acre oak wilt pocket. The young trees
growing up through the canopy are mostly white pine and a few red maples. No harvest or thinnings have been
done in the last 50 years.
If the management goal is to grow and harvest high-quality oak saw logs now and in the future, this is a very
unhealthy forest; most of the larger oaks are crooked, limby or hollow and there is little or no oak reproduction
(baby trees).
If the management goal is to provide wildlife habitat for the next 5 years, this is a healthy forest. The oaks
provide abundant acorns for many wildlife species and many cavities for shelter. The oaks support an abundant
supply of leaf feeding insects (including gypsy moth) that provide food for many birds. The dead and dying
oaks provide abundant food for woodpeckers. The oak wilt pocket is filling in with young oak, white pine and
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mixed brush which increases the age and species diversity of the woodlot. Many deer trails and several
permanent hunting stands attest to the value of the woodlot for hunting.
This is also a very interesting and pleasant woodlot to view in all seasons because of the varying colors of oaks
during the growing season and the presence of large and small white pines and the occasional dead tree.
Problem: The owner expects to use the woodlot for turkey and deer hunting for the foreseeable future and pass
it on to his children who expect to use it for hunting as it is used now. He is unaware that a major change in his
woodlot has already started that will greatly reduce the quality of wildlife habitat within 20 years. Gypsy moth
defoliation and drought will start a chain reaction that will end with the death of most of the old oaks. In 20
years, a few, remnant white oaks will remain along with a few large white pine. A thicket of white pine and red
maple saplings will be growing amid the trunks of the dead oaks. The acorn crop will be greatly reduced as will
the quality of hunting and the visual beauty.
What can the landowner do? First, he needs to recognize the 2 indicators that a major change is underway:
•
•
the old age and poor health of the dominant oaks
the lack of oak reproduction
Once the landowner recognizes these signs, he can decide what, if any, action to take. One option is to let the
change occur and accept a long-term reduction in hunting quality of the land. A second option is to conduct a
thinning to remove the young red maple and some of the oaks. This will allow the healthier trees more sunlight
(which will help them produce an acorn crop) and allow a young oak forest to grow. The best way for the
landowner to make this decision is to enlist the help of a professional forester.
A forest is always changing. Landowners need to be aware of the changes occurring in their forest in order to
help it meet their immediate and long term goals by recognizing the beginnings of change and making change
work for them.
The Wisconsin DNR maintains a forest health website that contains a wealth of information in regards to
Wisconsin, including Door County. The site can be reached at: http://dnr.wi.gov/org/land/forestry/FH/. There
are a number of forest health issues that either affect or have the potential to affect Door counties forested
landscape. The greatest threats locally are Emerald Ash Borer, Gypsy Moth, White tailed Deer, Oak wilt and
Ash yellows. Emerald Ash Borer and Oak Wilt have not been found in Door county but are serious threats that
need to be considered.
Emerald Ash Borer
The Emerald Ash Borer (Agrilus planipennis) is an exotic insect pest, native to Asia, which is currently
threatening the ash (Fraxinus spp.) tree resource in the Great Lakes region.
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Emerald ash borer belongs to a group of insects known as metallic wood-boring beetles (Buprestidae). Since its
discovery in southeastern Michigan during 2002 it has continued to spread throughout Michigan's Lower
Peninsula and into nearby Ohio, Indiana and Ontario, Canada. An additional outlier infestation has been
detected (6/13/06) near Dekalb, Illinois, located just 60 miles from the Wisconsin border. This is the first find in
Illinois and the closest to Wisconsin. The insect may already be
in Wisconsin and we just don’t know it yet.
The emerald ash borer has killed an estimated 15 million ash
trees throughout the infested areas. The natural dispersal rate of
emerald ash borer is just 1/2 - 2 miles per year, however the
transmission of this pest has accelerated beyond its natural rate
by the inadvertent transportation of its larvae in logs, firewood
and nursery stock.
The beneath the bark feeding habits of emerald ash borer larvae
cause extensive damage to an ash tree's vascular system,
depriving the crown of water and nutrients. Research conducted
by Michigan State university and USDA Forest Service has
shown that the emerald ash borer attacks both stressed and
healthy ash trees, typically killing its host in 1-3 years, and will attack all ash species including white, green and
black ash. Therefore, the health of Wisconsin's forests is threatened by the potential arrival of emerald ash
borer.
Forest inventory and analysis data shows that Wisconsin has approximately 717 million ash trees in its forests.
As of May 2006 the emerald ash borer has not been found in Wisconsin, but it may already be here. We need
you to help us look for this pest. Early detection, isolation and eradication are our best defenses against the
emerald ash borer. Additional information on the Emerald Ash Borer can be found at:
http://dnr.wi.gov/org/land/Forestry/FH/Ash/index.htm
Gypsy Moth
Since its introduction into the United States in 1869, the gypsy moth has defoliated thousands of acres of trees
in both forest and urban settings across the northeast United States. Originally introduced into Massachusetts,
gypsy moth has spread north to Maine, west to Wisconsin, and south to North Carolina, infesting 19 states and
Washington, DC. Despite numerous state and local control efforts, the
infestation continues to move south and west.
The gypsy moth was first detected in Wisconsin in the mid-1970s in the
eastern part of the state. In 1989, the gypsy moth had established
populations along Wisconsin's eastern shore from Milwaukee to Green
Bay. Since then, moths have been found in nearly every county and the
eastern half of the state is recognized as infested. Quarantines have been
placed on wood product exports from those counties and many
participate in an annual suppression program to keep potential defoliation at a minimum.
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In high populations, the gypsy moth can be very destructive. Trees can be defoliated at an alarming pace,
leaving them weak and susceptible to disease. At outbreak levels, gypsy moth caterpillars can be seen crawling
on any surface in your yard or neighborhood and their waste can rain down from branches above.
But with a few common items and a little effort, you can get a gypsy moth population under control, or prevent
one from getting out of control. How you go about that depends on whether you have just a few trees in your
backyard or have hundreds over acres of land.
More Information
•
•
Homeowners
o Few trees / small property (Exit DNR)
Woodlot Owners
o Gypsy Moth Silvicultural Guidelines for Wisconsin (PDF 77KB) or HTML
o Forest Management Strategies to Minimize Impact of the Gypsy Moth (PDF 113KB) or HTML
Oak Wilt
Currently, Door County has no documented cases of Oak Wilt, but Brown County
just to the south does so there is a strong possibility that it could affect oaks in our
area in the near future. The areas of highest risk are in the southern half of the
county due to having a larger oak resource. Oak wilt has probably been a part of our
forests in Wisconsin for 100 years. Oak wilt is widespread throughout the southern
Wisconsin oak resource.
Oak wilt is caused by a fungus. The fungus invades water-conducting vessels and induces
wilt distribution
in Wisconsin.
water
movement
within
the formation of balloon-like projections called tyloses which also plug the vessels. AsOak
the tree is slowed, the leaves wilt and drop off the tree.
Oaks in the red oak group (black, northern red, northern pin
and others with pointed leaf edges) are most susceptible.
Oaks in the white oak group (white, swamp white, burr and
others with rounded leaf edges) are less susceptible.
The symptoms of Oak wilt vary between the Red oak group
and the white oak group. Within the Red oak group the
trees drop their leaves rapidly (usually within a 3-week period) most often in late June and throughout July and
August. Some lose a portion of their leaves in September then rapidly lose all their leaves just after they come
out in the spring. Within the white oak group, these trees drop their leaves on 1 to several branches several years
in a row. Trees in the white oak group do not always die; they may survive an infection.
The disease spreads in two ways, underground and overland. Underground, oak wilt moves from diseased trees
to healthy trees through roots that have become interconnected (root grafts). Most root grafts form between oaks
of the same species; red oak roots graft more commonly than do white oak roots, and grafts between red and
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white oaks are very rare. Overland spread is mainly via sap-feeding beetles. In the spring, fungal mats (small
masses of Ceratocystis fagacearum) develop under the bark of some trees that have died from oak wilt the year
before. These mats force the bark to crack open. The fungus produces a sweet odor that attracts sap-feeding
beetles on the mats. The beetles then fly to healthier oaks to feed on sap flowing from fresh wounds, thus
infecting healthy trees. Overland spread can also occur when firewood or logs from infected trees harboring
fungal mats are moved.
Oak trees are most susceptible to overland spread in the springtime, from bud swelling until 2 to 3 weeks past
full leaf development:
April 15 to July 15. During this period, do not prune, cut or injure oaks! If an oak is wounded during this
time, cover the wound immediately with tree wound paint.
Tree wound paint can actually slow the natural wound closure process; limit the use of wound paint to the
situation described above.
Observations and unpublished research have shown that overland infection can occur after July 1, yet these
mid-summer through early fall infections are not common. To take a very cautious approach, do not prune or
otherwise wound oaks from April 15 to October 1.
Two methods of wood treatment are effective in preventing overland spread via firewood.
1. Debarking (removing the bark form the wood) the wood will prevent the fungus mats from forming.
Debarking must be conducted before fungal mats form, thus it should occur in the late summer, fall or
winter following tree death.
2. Cutting, splitting, stacking and covering the wood with a 4mm or thicker plastic will also prevent
overland spread. All sharp edges or stubs should be cut to eliminate the possibility of puncturing the
plastic. The entire pile must be sealed all around. Seal the bottom by covering it with dirt and logs or
other heavy objects. If the wood is not burned over the winter following tree death, leave the tarp on
through the next growing season (October 1) or until the bark is loose.
If Oak wilt is found in Door County and the disease is allowed to progress, it will spread to healthy oaks that are
grafted through roots to the diseased trees. In stands where oak is common and root grafting prevalent, an everwidening pocket of dead oaks will form. In forests where oak is mixed with other species and is a minor
component, spread will be slower and may actually stop from a lack of root grafting. New pockets may also be
formed via overland spread by sap-feeding beetles.
Dead oak trees can serve as excellent den trees for wildlife. Oaks do not decay as quickly as aspen, birch and
red maple, thus will provide shelter for wildlife for many years. Also, as oaks die, the site often becomes brushy
for about 10 years. Warblers, grosbeaks, cuckoos, cardinals, grouse, rabbits, deer and shrews will be attracted to
the brushy area. Brown creepers may nest under the sloughing bark on dead trees. Dead trees will also furnish
insects for birds, and large specimens may provide perches for raptors.
Read these publications for further information about oak wilt:
"Oak Wilt Management: What are the options?" (exit DNR)
"Are you thinking of building on a wooded lot? Protect your trees from oak wilt"
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Ash Yellows
Ash yellows is a recently discovered disease that causes slow growth and decline of ash (Fraxinus) species. Ash
yellows went undetected until the 1980's because its symptoms were not differentiated from those of decline
caused by adverse environmental factors such as drought, shallow soils, flooding, or parasitism by opportunistic
fungi. Current knowledge supports the theory that ash decline can result from various causes, and ash yellows
can be, but is not always, a causal factor.
The impact of ash yellows on ash populations is not well documented. Individual trees in which the disease is
discovered are likely to show declining growth, dieback and often death. The disease occurs in woodlots and
forests, home landscapes, and urban plantings.
Distribution and Host Range
Ash yellows has been reported only in North America. The main range of the disease includes parts of 16
northeastern and midwestern states and the southernmost portions of the Canadian provinces of Ontario and
Quebec (Figure 2). Ash yellows has also been found in two southwestern
locations. In addition to white ash (F. americana) and green ash (F.
pennsylvanica), ten other ash species including blue ash (F.
quadrangulata), black ash (F. nigra), and velvet ash (F. velutina) are also
reported hosts.
Symptoms
Symptoms of ash yellows vary with ash species. White ash sustains
permanent and often rapid decline in tree growth. Slow twig growth and
short internodes can cause foliage to appear tufted at tips of twigs and the
crown to appear more transparent than normal (Cover photo and Figure 3).
Eventually a progressive dieback of branches begins and witches’-brooms
may develop at the trunk base. Witches’-brooms are clusters of upright
spindly shoots. Vertical cracks and cankers are common on the trunk near
the ground
Witches’-brooms usually develop near the soil line but occasionally are
Figure 3. Tufted foliage at tips of
found several feet up the trunk. Brooms may produce simple leaves or
twigs and crown thinning.
dwarfed compound leaves with fewer than the normal 5 to 9 leaflets .
Yellowing is common on foliage of brooms. On white ash, brooms occur
most often on trees with severe dieback, on suppressed saplings, and on stumps of diseased trees. Green ash
exhibit symptoms similar to white ash but appear to sustain less dieback and sometimes produce witches’brooms without other distinctive symptoms. Radial growth loss associated with MLO infection has been
detected in green ash.
Field diagnosis of ash yellows is sometimes difficult. Reduced growth and progressive decline are typical
symptoms of ash yellows but can also result from other factors such as poor site conditions, drought stress,
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freezing and flooding damage, mechanical or chemical injuries, insect attack, and parasitism by opportunistic
fungi.
If numerous ash in a stand have ash yellows, the disease typically interferes with stand productivity. It is not
critical to learn which individual trees are infected, however, because ash yellows commonly occurs in
conjunction with slow growth and decline caused by adverse environments.
Site Relationships
Ecological and vegetation studies have provided information about white ash stands affected by yellows and
indicate the following:
•
•
•
•
Ash yellows is more common in areas of mixed land use than in heavily forested areas and is often
associated with understory plant species characteristic of exposed sites.
Ash yellows symptoms in trees larger than saplings are most prominent in hedgerows and near the edges
of woodlots. Ash saplings in the understory of stands affected by ash yellows often have brooms.
Ash yellows can cause significant loss of volume growth in young stands. After tree crowns close in a
young stand, the growth of trees with ash yellows diminishes markedly, and those with crowns in
intermediate and suppressed positions eventually die.
Ash yellows and drought may interact to amplify growth decline.
Many ash affected by yellows continue moderate growth until they come under stress from other factors such as
drought and competition with neighboring trees.
Management
There is no known way to prevent or cure ash yellows. White ash that become infected when young do not
grow to merchantable size. Most merchantable sized diseased ash trees live for at least 5-10 years. Management
prescriptions which promote species diversity or stand conversion to species other than ash and reduce plant
stresses from water shortage and competition should minimize growth losses associated with ash yellows.
Forests
Management of stands where ash yellows occurs should be aimed at gradual replacement of white ash with
other species. Where ash yellows occurs in merchantable white ash stands, trees of this species that exhibit slow
growth and dieback should be removed during regular harvests as follows:
•
•
Harvest trees with greater than 50% crown dieback within 5 years.
Remove other affected ash during subsequent harvests.
Home Landscapes
Managers of shade and ornamental trees should consider management strategies which:
•
•
•
Remove trees with severe dieback, because they can not be rehabilitated.
Promote species diversity in tree planting programs, and avoid monocultures of ash along city streets.
Select tree species suitable to planting sites, and avoid planting ash in drought-prone sites.
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•
Encourage tree care practices that reduce plant stresses. Watering during drought and periodic
fertilization to promote general tree health may be useful.
In the future, ash cultivars or rootstocks resistant to or tolerant of ash yellows may become available.
White-tailed Deer.
Door counties white tailed deer population is
significantly higher than in other portions of the
state. The WDNR states that for the deer
management units that include Door County
(Units 80A, 80B and 81), the 2005-2006 over
winter deer density estimates are between 26-54
deer per square mile. Using recommendations
from the public, the WDNR set an over-winter
population goal of 15-20 deer per square mile
between the 3 deer management units. This overwinter goal is the population at which wildlife
managers wish to keep the deer herd. This goal
should “produce a healthy herd, a healthy
ecosystem, few complaints and hunting
opportunities (WDNR)”.
The WDNR lists several harmful ecological
effects of large deer populations: Herbaceous
plants may be reduced in abundance and diversity
as deer numbers rise above 12-15 per square mile;
tree and shrub species composition can change
with reduced regeneration as deer numbers rise
above 20-25 per square mile; large numbers of
deer may affect rare insects that are dependent on
one or a few plant species that are also preferred
for food by deer; and the number and diversity of
bird populations may be reduced as deer populations rise from 15 to over 35 per square mile due to impacts on
ground level vegetation, the shrub layer and tree species composition.
There is a general consensus among many different resource professionals that white-tailed deer have
overpopulated much of the state including Door County which in turn has had profound negative consequences
for humans as well as plants and animals on the landscape. Areas that once held large populations of American
Trillium and Canada Yew, today are absent from the landscape. Forest regeneration in Door County has in large
part been turned upside down. Species such as sugar maple and white cedar are virtually impossible to
regenerate in the county due in large part to an overpopulation of deer. The problem with deer herbivory is also
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evident in the browse line that can be observed in a
number of areas in the county. This problem is becoming
critical now because many of our forests are approaching
maturity and will need to be regenerated in the near
future. If regeneration cannot be accomplished , the
future value of the area to all forest uses will be greatly
diminished.
These problems associated with the white-tailed deer will
cause a change in the forest cover types and how these
forest cover types are managed over time if deer numbers
stay as high as recent years. There are a number of
different methods that have been tested to reduce or
eliminate deer browsing on a forested landscape. They
Browse line in the town of Nasewaupee, Section 5.
range from chemical repellants and fencing to the use of
different cutting methods and encouraging hunting in severely browsed areas. Many of these control measures
are very cost prohibitive on the landscape level. In the long run, the most effective measure is going to be
population control of the white tailed deer. Bringing the deer herd into balance with its surrounding
environment is going to be the key. This means that deer harvests must be increased in a number of areas to
reduce the population to levels that are compatible with the environment.
NATURAL COMMUNITIES & NATURAL AREAS IN DOOR COUNTY
Natural Communities
The purpose of this habitat aspect is to increase awareness of protected state natural areas and rare (including
geographically restricted) natural community types. Generally, natural areas are tracts of land or water
harboring natural features, which have experienced the least intrusive degrees of human disturbance, and which
represent the diversity of Wisconsin’s native landscape. They contain outstanding examples of native biotic
communities, and are often the last refuges in the state for ETS species. Natural areas may also include
exceptional geological features. State Natural Areas are officially recognized parcels that can be visited to better
understand the ecology of forests with little past disturbance. Natural areas and rare natural community types
represent only a small portion of the total forested area of the state. A statewide, county by county, inventory for
the presence of natural areas was completed by the State Natural Areas Program in the period of 1969 through
1983. Each site was evaluated for landscape characteristics, natural community site values and species viability.
Since 1985, this data and subsequent natural areas data is housed in the Natural Heritage Inventory (NHI)
database. This program tracks rare natural communities plus many others that are geographically restricted,
contain older seral stages, or harbor diverse concentrations of species. Among the rare natural communities
such as oak openings, mesic prairies and algific talus slopes nearly all occurrences are tracked. For relatively
common natural communities, such as northern mesic forests, the tracked occurrences represent those examples
least disturbed by human activities (e.g., older successional stages) as well as areas that support exceptional
biotic diversity. The significance of a given natural community occurrence is therefore related to not only its
quality and condition, but also its size, context, and relative condition to more degraded examples. The presence
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of natural areas or sensitive natural communities can provide many benefits for the landowner and citizens of
the state:
A Natural community is a group of plants and animals, in a particular place at a particular time, interacting with
one another and the environment around them. These communities are primarily subject to natural disturbances.
When these groups are repeated across a landscape in an observable pattern, they are considered a community
type.
Of the more 70 different Natural communities that have been identified in the state, 37 have been documented
in Door county. Some of these communities are forested communities that will be addressed in this plan as well
as the forest cover types that may be found in the natural communities. Among these 37 natural communities
there are also a number of non-forested communities that while may not directly relate to forest management,
are equally as important on the landscape. The following is a list of the 37 Natural Communities present in Door
County as Recognized by the Natural Heritage Inventory. The descriptions were prepared by Eric Epstein,
Emmett Judziewicz and Elizabeth Spencer. For more information you may access the Natural Heritage
Inventory website at: http://intranet.dnr.state.wi.us/int/land/er/nhi/nhi_pages/NHI_links.htm
Natural Areas of Door County
A natural area is a site largely unaltered by modern human activity, where native vegetation is distributed in
naturally occurring patterns. These patterns change over time under the influences of natural processes such as
windstorms, drought, flooding cycles, and wildfires, as well as interactions between plants and wildlife that
inhabit or periodically use a site. A natural area may be host to one or more natural community types such as
boreal forest, open bog, talus forest or calcareous fen, the existence and extent of which are determined by
factors such as climate, soil composition, and a site's unique history. Many natural areas do include some
evidence of modern human activity, such as small areas of former croplands in a site largely dominated by
native prairie, or occasional decayed stumps in a forest that was logged long ago. However, natural areas are
characterized by being primarily in a natural state, with only minor evidence of disturbance from modern
human activity.
Natural areas occur on private as well as public land, and across political jurisdictions. They may be found in
designated preserves, within existing parks, or may be interspersed throughout developed and managed
environments such as farms, ranches, commercial and industrial areas, and residential communities.
Of course, today's landscape looks very different from the way it looked 150 years ago. Many natural processes,
such as large-scale fires and the presence of large herds of bison, are no longer present on most of the
landscape. Natural areas today, ranging in size from a few acres to several thousand acres, are generally within
larger landscapes that have been highly altered. Because all natural areas are an integral part of the larger
landscape in which they exist, it is important to pay careful attention to wise stewardship of adjacent and nearby
lands.
All natural areas may be considered "open space", but many types of open space are not natural areas.
Golf courses, baseball fields, pine plantations, parks with maintained lawns that are landscaped with
exotic species, all could be described as open space, but are places where natural features have been
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partially to totally displaced. While some such areas offer a degree of habitat to native plants and wildlife,
others have been highly altered, leading to dramatic declines in diversity of species.
In many parts of the state, it is often not practical or even possible to protect natural areas large enough to
include the natural patterns that once existed on the landscape. Nevertheless, even small natural areas are
important, and sometimes represent the only opportunity to protect natural communities or rare species in an
area. For example, a ten-acre prairie in western Wisconsin that is surrounded by croplands bears little
resemblance to the huge expanse of prairie that once existed on the landscape. However, if it were of good
quality, it would still be considered a natural area.
The surrounding land could be planted to native prairie using seeds from the natural area, or could be kept in
other kinds of open space that might help buffer the land from activities that could lessen the integrity of the
site. Similarly, a forty-acre old-growth forest is a natural area, even if it is surrounded by recent clearcuts.
Allowing the clearcut forest to regenerate naturally would be one alternative that would help buffer the natural
area and eventually add to its size.
Wisconsin’s State Natural Areas Program
Wisconsin's landscape has experienced dramatic changes in the 150 years since intensive settlement began.
Little remains of the natural plant and animal communities which occupied our lands and waters in the
settlement era and which set the stage for what Wisconsin has become. Their scattered remnants, which escaped
the saw, the plow, and other development, are called natural areas. These exceptional sites are often the last
refuges for rare plants and animals. We owe much to Wisconsin's early conservationists, who in 1951
recognized the loss of natural communities and their importance, and fostered the first state program in the
United States to preserve them.
State Natural Areas (SNAs) are formally designated sites devoted to scientific research, the teaching of
conservation biology, and especially to the preservation of their natural values and genetic diversity for future
generations. They are not intended for intensive recreational uses like picnicking or camping. Wisconsin's
Natural Areas Program (NAP) holds to its original mission: to locate and preserve a system of State Natural
Areas harboring all types of biotic communities, rare species, and other significant natural features native to
Wisconsin. However, significant changes have come into the program since its inception.
Wisconsin's NAP is housed in the Bureau of Endangered Resources (BER), within the Department of Natural
Resources. Staff of BER oversees all aspects of the NAP in consultation with the Natural Areas Preservation
Council (NAPC). The Council, formerly called the State Board for the Preservation of Scientific Areas, was
established by the state legislature in 1951. This group serves as an advisory body to the Natural Areas
Program. Its eleven members, drawn from the scientific and educational community of the state, guides the
NAP staff in their mission to identify, manage and protect natural areas.
The natural area preservation process begins with identification and selection of the highest quality sites.
Identification of sites is accomplished largely through the continuing Natural Heritage Inventory (NHI); a
section within the BER. The NHI maintains a comprehensive register of the state's natural features and rare
species. This information, contained in an integrated system of maps and computer databases, is the result of 25
years of ongoing biological inventories.
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Protection is accomplished using a variety of tools, including fee acquisition, donations, and conservation
easements. Sites on state-owned lands, especially parks, forests, and fish and wildlife areas, can simply be
designated as State Natural Areas by cooperative agreements and management plans between the NAP and the
cooperator. Similarly, areas controlled by universities, federal agencies, and private groups, such as The Nature
Conservancy, are brought into the natural areas system by a "memorandum of understanding" — a long-term,
but not legally-binding, commitment to maintain the sites as natural areas. Sites not owned by the state are
purchased from willing sellers using funds from the Stewardship Program. Established in 1989, the program
provides money for state land acquisition, including $1.5 million a year for natural area projects. An additional
$500,000 a year from Stewardship supplements the Natural [Heritage] Area Match Grant Program, which
matches, dollar-for-dollar, private donations of land or funds to the Natural Areas Program. In addition to
donations and outright fee acquisition, the NAP also purchases conservation easements on natural lands. Once
secured by purchase or agreement, sites are formally "designated" as State Natural Areas, becoming part of the
natural area system. Designation confers a significant level of protection as guaranteed by DNR Administrative
Rules, Management Plans, and Memoranda of Understanding, in compliance with state statutes.
A higher level of protection is accomplished by Articles of Dedication, a kind of conservation easement, which
provides the strongest long-term legal protection for land in the state. Legally "dedicated" sites are protected in
perpetuity for natural area use and may not be taken for other functions without a finding of urgent and greater
public need by the governor and the legislature.
As of September 2002, 353 sites covering more than 125,000 acres have been designated as State Natural
Areas. In addition to protecting biotic communities, these areas provide refuge for many species of plants and
animals on Wisconsin's Endangered and Threatened Species List.
Management of State Natural Areas is based on specific plans agreed to by the land managing agency. In most
instances, the best management for natural areas is to do nothing except protect them from human disturbance.
For many sites, however, invasive exotic species and encroaching woody plants are a real problem, requiring
hands-on management. Prescribed burning and removal of trees and shrubs are used as management tools on
prairies, fens, savannas, and sedge meadows. Whether managing natural areas or the person using them, much
of the work is made possible through donations to the Endangered Resources Fund. The fund was established in
1984 as a means for direct public support of endangered resources protection projects, including management of
designated natural areas.
Since its inception, in 1952, more than 350 areas in the state have been identified and established as “state
natural areas” or “wildlife areas”. Twenty-four (24) of these natural areas are located in Door County. For
additional information in regards to Natural areas in Door county, pleas refer to “A Guide to Significant
Wildlife Habitat and Natural Areas of Door County, Wisconsin”. This document may be accessed at: Natural
Areas Guide, or you may access the Wisconsin DNR State Natural Areas website at:WDNR - State Natural
Areas Program
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Door County’s State Natural Areas
Peninsula Park Beech Forest
The Ridges Sanctuary
Toft Point
Jackson Harbor Ridges
Whitefish Dunes
Mink River Estuary
Baileys Harbor Boreal Forest & Wetlands
Kangaroo Lake
Europe Bay Woods
Ellison Bluff
Rock Islands Woods
Detroit Island
Peninsula Park White Cedar Forest
Sister Islands
Newport Conifer-Hardwoods
Mud Lake
Marshall’s Point
Moonlight Bay Bedrock Beach
Coffey Swamp
Bay Shore Bluff Lands
North Bay
White Cliff Fen & Forest
Big & Little Marsh
Thorp Pond
* Detroit Island and Thorp Pond State Natural Area are not shown on map on page 90*
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References
Threatened and Endangered Species in Forests of Wisconsin 2000 compiled by David A. Kopiztke
Wisconsin Lakes 1995 Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources
Wisconsin Forest Management Guidelines 2003 Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources
Wisconsin Manual of Control Recommendations for Ecologically Invasive Plants 1997 Wisconsin Dept. of
Natural Resources
Wisconsin Natural Resources Magazine -Vertically Inclined Dec. 2005 Kathyrn A. Kahler
Wisconsin Forest Statistics, 1996 1997 Thomas L. Schmidt United States Dept. of Agriculture
Door County Summary of Assessment 2006 Door Co. Real Property Listing Office
A Guide to Significant Wildlife Habitat & Natural Areas of Door County, Wisconsin 2003 Collaborative
Community Project
Ecosystem Management Planning Handbook 2000 Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources
Natural Heritage Inventory Portal website 2006 Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources
Official Directory 2005-2006 Door Co. Clerk
Soil Survey of Door County Wisconsin. 1978
An Economic Development Adjustment Plan for Door County, Wisconsin 2005 Grant Thorton
Door County Land & Water Resource Management Plan 2005 Door County Soil & Water Conservation
Department
Door County Land Guide 1999 Multiple Contributors
Discovering Door County’s Past 1994, Marvin M Lotz
Door County, Wisconsins Peninsular Jewel. 1993. Bruce Thomas
Identify and Manage Ash Yellows in Forest Stands and Home Landscape, NA-FR-03-94 USDA Forest Service
The Impact of Deer on Forest Vegetation in Pennsylvania, 1981 David Marquis, Ronnie Brenneman USDA
Forest Service
Vermont Invasive Exotic Plant Sheet Giant or Common Reed Grass (Phragmites)
Internet Resources
Wisonsin Department of Natural Resources (multiple sites)
http://dnr.wi.gov/org/land/forestry
http://dnr.wi.gov/org/land/er/
http://dnr.wi.gov/org/land/wildlife/
Door County Invasives Species Team, http://map.co.door.wi.us/swcd/invasive/index.htm
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