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GMO FOOD PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY TRANSGENIC PLANTS FEARS Worldwide GMO Moral and ethical issues in plant biotechnology and GMO food. What are the moral and ethical concerns? • Morality - refers to the concept of human ethics which pertains to matters of good and evil—also referred to as "right or wrong", used within three contexts: individual conscience; systems of principles and judgments—sometimes called moral values—shared within a cultural, religious, secular, humanist or philosophical community; and codes of behavior or conduct. Personal morality defines and distinguishes among right and wrong intentions, motivations or actions, as these have been learned, engendered, or otherwise developed within each individual. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morality • Ethics - (from the Ancient Greek "ethikos", meaning "arising from habit"), a major branch of philosophy, is the study of value or quality. It covers the analysis and employment of concepts such as right, wrong, good, evil, and responsibility. It is divided into three primary areas: meta-ethics (the study of the concept of ethics), normative ethics (the study of how to determine ethical values), and applied ethics (the study of the use of ethical values). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics What are the moral concerns? The moral concerns expressed about plant biotechnology can be divided into two basic categories: Intrinsic concerns Extrinsic concerns Biotechnology in general and plant biotechnology in particular can be thought to be intrinsically wrong in itself Biotechnology in general and plant biotechnology in particular can be thought to be extrinsically wrong because of its consequences Roger Straughan „Moral and ethical issues in plant biotechnology” Current opinion in Plant Biology 2000 Intrinsic concerns RELIGIOUS BASIS: – modern biotechnology as a blasphemy A classic conception of the Christian God: Detail of Sistine Chapel fresco Creation - God has created a perfect, natural of the Sun and Moon by 16th Century painter Michelangelo. order and scientists want to „improve” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God that order by manipulating DNA- the basic ingredient of all life - crossing species boundaries instituted by God is thought to be sinful, boundaries between species are sacred and immutable is often viewed as like a force of nature - modern biotechnology is trying to God or rather as a consciousness which can be displace the first Creator manifest as a natural aspect. Both illuminating light (pictured) and mysterious darkness are canonical symbols for representing God. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God Intrinsic concerns „INTERNAL FEELING” - biotechnology is in some sense „unnatural” What is „natural” and what is „unnatural”? „Natural” means: - Usual - Normal - Right - Fitting - Appropriate - Innate - Spontaneous http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature „Unnatural” means: - Artificial - Man-made - Breaching natural species boundaries http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence Does „natural” always mean good? many natural substances are harmfull, e.g. some alkaloids Opium smokers in an "opium den" in the East End of London, 1874. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opium Natural events such as eathquakes, hurricanes, floods ect. Natural tendencies and reactions such as jealousy and aggression http://quitsmoking.about.com http://www.nautilus.org.pl/ar ticle.php?articles Natural organisms that can cause pain, disease or even death http://fakty.interia.pl/galerie/ciekawos tki/rekin-ludojad,6039 Potential benefits of plant biotechnology • Feed a hungry world and to start to redress the balance between the food suplies available to rich and poor countries. • Nutrition Malnutrition is common in third world countries where impoverished peoples rely on a single crop such as rice for the main staple of their diet. However, rice does not contain adequate amounts of all necessary nutrients to prevent malnutrition. If rice could be genetically engineered to contain additional vitamins and minerals, nutrient deficiencies could be alleviated. • Pest resistance Crop losses from insect pests can be staggering, resulting in devastating financial loss for farmers and starvation in developing countries. Farmers typically use many tons of chemical pesticides annually. Consumers do not wish to eat food that has been treated with pesticides because of potential health hazards, and run-off of agricultural wastes from excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers can poison the water supply and cause harm to the environment. • Herbicide tolerance For some crops, it is not cost-effective to remove weeds by physical means such as tilling, so farmers will often spray large quantities of different herbicides (weed-killer) to destroy weeds, a timeconsuming and expensive process, that requires care so that the herbicide doesn't harm the crop plant or the environment. Potential benefits of plant biotechnology • Disease resistance There are many viruses, fungi and bacteria that cause plant diseases. • Cold tolerance Unexpected frost can destroy sensitive seedlings. • Drought tolerance/salinity tolerance As the world population grows and more land is utilized for housing instead of food production, farmers will need to grow crops in locations previously unsuited for plant cultivation. • Pharmaceuticals Medicines and vaccines often are costly to produce and sometimes require special storage conditions not readily available in third world countries. • Phytoremediation Not all GM plants are grown as crops. Soil and groundwater pollution continues to be a problem in all parts of the world. Extrinsic concerns “I DON’T WANT TO EAT GENES!” http://images.scotsman.com/ 2005/03/22/2203gmb.jpg SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONCERNS UNDESIRABLE CONSEQUENCES: HUMAN HEALTH RISKS ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS http://www.mosnews.com/files/1511/food.jpg Extrinsic concerns SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECTS - Economic gap between the „developing” and the „developed” countries can widen further http://www.signsofthelastday.com/pic/poverty.jpg http://www.wirednewyork.com/manhattan/skyline/new_york_skyline1.jpg Extrinsic concerns UNDESIRABLE CONSEQUENCES HUMAN HEALTH RISKS - Unknown effects on human health - Allergenicity - Transfer of antibiotic resistance to intestine bacterial flora or pathogenic bacteria http://www.rps.psu.edu/probing/graphics/food.gif http://www.non-gm-farmers.com/images/ uploads/natural.JPG GMO’s and human health Consumers need assurance that their food is safe and nutritious Risk analysis is a process consisting of three components: 1. Risk assessment - hazard identification - hazard characterization - exposure assessment - risk characterization http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/NCBE/GMFOOD/issues.html 2. Risk menagement- the process of weighing policy alternatives in consultation with all interested parties, considering risk assessment and other factors relevant for the protection of consumers’ health and for the promotion of fair trade practices as well as selection appropriate prevention and control options. 3. Risk communication- interactive exchange of information and opinions among assessors, risk menagers, consumers, industry, academic community and other interested parties. Foods are complex mixtures of compounds characterized by a wide variation in composition and nutritional value so it is difficult to analyse all components Substantial equivalence - the goal is not to establish absolute safety but to consider whether the GM food is as safe as its traditional counterpart. GMOs and allergens ! Genetic modification offers the opportunity to decrease or eliminate the protein allergens that occur naturally in specific food. But greater attension has been given to the potential risks of genetic modification that may add allergens to the food supply. „Brazil nut allergens” The possibility of transfering allergens with genetic engineering came to light when the metionine producing gene from Brazil nut was incorporated into soybean to enhance its nutrient content. The consumption of transgenic soybean could trigger an allergic response the same as those triggered by Brazil nuts. Pioneer Hi-bred company decided not to release the transgenic soybean for sale. http://www.ifr.ac.uk/Public/FoodInfoSheets/EDPbrazil.html Allergenecity of food derived from transgenic plants • Traditional agriculture: – allergenecity is not tested systematically • Transgenic plants: – source of the transgene is checked: • allergenic – allergenecity of gene product is tested • non-allergenic: – comparison of amino acid sequence with known allergens – testing the protein resistance to degradation by digestive enzymes – testing the protein for its thermal stability and stability in acidic environment James et al., Monographs in Allergy, 1996 Antibiotic resistance genes in transgenic plants • Methods for elimination of selection markers: – elimination of marker genes by cotransformation – elimination of marker genes by site-specific recombinase: • Cre-lox system of E.coli P1 bacteriophage recombinase marker transgene transgene marker – elimination of marker genes by transposases: • Ac/Ds system from maize transposase marker transgene transgene marker Hohn et al., Cur. Opinion Biotechnol., 2001 Extrinsic concerns UNDESIRABLE CONSEQUENCES ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS http://environment.unr.edu/images/1.jpg • Exclusion of natural species by better adapted varieties of transgenic plants • Elimination of profitable insects by non-selective action of toxins • Disturbance in the alimentary (feeding) chain in an ecosystem • Uncontrolled rise of new varieties (viruses) • Transgene escape, superweeds GMO’s and the environment Impact of introduced GMOs on the environment can be either ecological or genetic: http://environment.unr.edu/images/1.jpg 1. Unintended effects on the dynamics of populations in the receiving environment as a result of impacts on nontarget species (predation or competition, changes in land use or farming practices) 2. Unintended effects on biogeochemistryimpacts on soil microbial populations that regulate the flow of essential elements http://www.rothamsted.ac.uk/aen/smbweb1/ images/Furrow200x280.jpg 3. Transfer of inserted genetic material to other domesticated or native populations - „gene flow” http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v422/n6928/images/422103b-i1.0.jpg 2. GMO’s and the environment According to data provided by FAO, losses in the crop plants caused by pests (European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalis, southwestern corn borer, tobacco budworm, cotton bollworm, pink bollworm and the Colorado potato beetle) are estimated to be 20-30% Chemical pesticides: - Expensive - Contaminate environment http://www.oisat.org/pests/insect_pests - Toxic /caterpillars_grubs/cotton_bollworm.html - Wide spectrum of action- may act on many other organisms, also those useful - Quick formation of resistance http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/bt_history.html http://cotton.crc.org.au/Publicat/Pest/transgen.htm How does Bt-toxin work? 1. Insect eats Bt crystals and spores. 2. The toxin binds to specific receptors in the gut and the insects stops eating. 3. The crystals cause the gut wall to break down, allowing spores and normal gut bacteria to enter the body. 4. The insect dies as spores and gut bacteria proliferate in the body. http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/how_bt_work.html Bt-crops: safe or harmful? • - Bt-plants are found to secrete Bt toxins into soil root zones what may affect populations of soil insects that do not eat crops. • BUT: • Bt breaks down readily in the environment. Bt poses no threat to groundwater. Bt also breaks down under the ultraviolet (UV) light of the sun. http://www.rothamsted.ac.uk/aen/smbweb1/images/Furrow200x280.jpg Bt-crops: safe or harmful? - Monarch butterfly caterpillars have been reported to be susceptible to the Cry1Ab protein found in Bt-corn pollen. Hypothesis: pollen-covered milkweeds found growing naturally next to Btcrops could be poisonous for Monarchs. BUT: • Bt can be toxic to Monarch larvae when http://fohn.net/monarch-butterfly-pictures/monarchlaboratory exposure levels are high. butterfly800x600.jpg • Levels of Bt pollen measured on milkweed leaves are well below effect levels. • In practice, Bt pollen does move beyond a few meters from a corn field. • Some (<10%) of milkweed plants could be in a location where pollen is present. • Monarch larvae hatch and feed on the underside of milkweed leaves. • Monarch egg laying and pollen shed do not http://www.kidzone.ws/animals/monarch_butterfly.htm appear to have a tight overlap. Bt-crops: safe or harmful? Impact of Bt-crops on human health: Humans are not susceptible to Cry1Ab proteins because of lack of specific receptors for these proteins. Lack of acute oral toxicity in mice: use of different types of exposures. The results of the tests showed that the use of Bt does not cause any negative effects. Lack of sequence similarities of Cry1Ab protein to known protein toxins. Bt does not persist in the digestive systems of mammals: rapid degradation with loss of insecticidal activity under conditions that stimulate mammalian digestion. Lack of homology of Cry1Ab protein to known allergens. ”Transgene escape” • Reduction of the potential for release: – isolation distances • depend on the pollination method (self, wind, insect) – sexual incompatibility – isolation in time (flowering season) – male sterility • Transgene monitoring: – phenotype, e.g. flower color – herbicide tolerance, antibiotic resistance – molecular tests: enzymatic, Southern blotting, Northern blotting, in situ hybridization, PCR Rogers & Parkers, J. Exp. Bot., 1995 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v422/n6928/images/422103b-i1.0.jpg Buffer zones for GMO crops http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/crop_refuge.html Transgenic plants – source of profits or dangers? AGRICULTURE ? ENVIRONMENT DANGERS PROFITS HEALTH CARE ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION Questionnaire on GMO 1. Would you buy food product if you know that it contains genetically modified compounds? ?: 7.9% definitely YES: 4.0% 2. Do you think that farmers should have the possibility to grow genetically modified plants? rather YES: 13.5% ?: 13% definitely NOT: 42.7% rather NOT: 32.3% No: 28% Yes: 59% Source: Polish Federation of Biotechnology GMO cartoons http://images.indymedia.org/imc/ontario/gmo.jpg http://www.cartoonstock.com/directory/g/g_m_o_.asp http://www.cartoonstock.com/directory/g/g_m_o_.asp http://www.non-gm-farmers.com/images/ uploads/natural.JPG http://santostrading.com.au/images/foodmart.jpg GMO seriously • Raise public awareness Education and information Involvement in local, national and international debates about GMO http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/NCBE/GMFOOD/archive.html http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/NCBE/GMFOOD/publications.html References: • • • • • • • • • • Roger Straughan „Moral and ethical issues in plant biotechnology.” Current Opinion in Plant Biotechnology 2000, 3:163-165 Richard B Flavell „Plant Biotechnology Moral dilemmas” Current Opinion in Plant Biotechnolgy 2000, 3: 143-146 Safety Assasment of YieldGard® Insect-Protected Corn Event MON810 Maria Klein, Małgorzata Madej „Rośliny i żywność genetycznie modyfikowane” „Is the battle over genetically modified foods finally over?” 2005, Biotechnology Advances 23: 93-96 FAO ETHICS SERIES 1: Ethical issues in food and agriculture. Food and agriculture organization of the united nations. Rome 2001 FAO ETHICS SERIES 2: Genetically modified organisms, consumers, food safety and the environment. Food and agriculture organization of the united nations. Rome 2001 http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/gmfood/overview.php http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/NCBE/GMFOOD http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/bt_history.html