Download Engineering and Technology in the Age of the Pharaohs

Faculty of Engineering
Cairo University
CHS program
Spring Semester 2010
Humanities and Engineering
Engineering and Technology in
the Age of the Pharaohs
Report
Name: Nourhan Abdel Azim
Group: A
Engineering and Technology in the Age of the Pharaohs 2010
Supervisor: Dr.Sayed Kaseb
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Engineering and Technology in the Age of the Pharaohs 2010
Contents
INTRODUCTION:
It wasn’t easy living back in ancient times. It was especially not like today. You wouldn’t
have very advanced machines to help you do work, no TV to entertain you, and no car to travel
around in. You would have to find something else to entertain yourself, you would probably walk
or take a ferry to get places, you would probably not have an education, and you would spend
your life coping with the annual flood of the Nile River. Not much of a life if you ask someone
today but to the Ancient Egyptians, who never played a video game, heard of a TV, or ever
dreamed of the machines that we have now, it was quite a life indeed.
Ancient Egyptians don’t seem very advanced compared to civilization in the 21 st century, but
you have to realize we are in a much more advanced time than they were. We have had a lot
more time to develop this far into computers, televisions, video games, and medical knowledge.
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They had a shorter amount of time to develop a water clock, sundial, pyramids and the tools to
build them, and a time system.
Egypt Inventions – Interesting Inventions of Ancient Egypt:
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When most people think of Ancient Egypt, the first things that come to mind are pyramids,
pharaohs, mummies, and curses.
Given that the Egyptians gave to us the wondrous pyramids, it should come as no surprise that
they also had a number of inventions that were no small feats. The Egyptian civilization spanned
thousands of years, and during that time they made numerous advances in the fields of agriculture,
academia, and astrology.
As simple as it may seem, the advent of black ink was very important. Ink and papyrus were
more convenient than having to carve something into stone, and as evidenced from the numerous
scrolls recovered; the Egyptians ink was extremely durable, lasting thousands of years.
Any society that thrives for an extended period of time must have at least a somewhat
advanced system of agriculture. Egypt was no different, inventing the first ox-drawn plow. These
were seen as early as 2500 BC. This relates to two other areas that most people don’t consider the
Egyptians experts in – blacksmithing (for making the plows) and husbandry.
As other ancient civilizations did, the Egyptians also had their own calendar system. What
differentiated theirs was that it happened to be 365 days long, and included leap years. 238 BC
was the year that the Egyptians derived that every fourth year would have 1 extra day.
Relating again to ink, Egyptian papyrus was the first paper of its kind. It was made by taking
fibers from the papyrus plant, and was the precursor to what we call paper.
Although the construction of the pyramids will likely remain a mystery, there is one obvious
fact that cannot be overlooked – it took a lot of people working together to build them. As such,
the Egyptians can be said to be the first people to employ a large scale, organized labor force.
Taking into account that constructing even a single pyramid can take several decades, it was truly
impressive how they were able to manage so many people for such an extended period of time.
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The Egyptians were one of the premier civilizations of ancient times – it should come as no
surprise that they had numerous inventions that we still see today.
GENIUS INVENTIONS:
The Egyptians had many amazing inventions, but here are just a few and how they worked.
First is the shaduf. This invention was definitely one of the most helpful, in my opinion. It was
used to draw water for irrigation for the Egyptians' crops. Without it, there wouldn't be much as
much farm land, which means more work, less food, and every single person would have to be a
farmer (that would be SO boring!), and the civilization wouldn't be as diverse and developed as it
was, and all the people would starve! You can see from the picture on the left, it was on the shore
of the Nile, and the Egyptians would dip the bucket of the end into the river, and the weight on the
end would balance the water's weight, and the farmer could pull it up, fill containers or use the
water for whatever you need it for, and you had water. Not as easy as a garden hose, but hey, it was
an ancient civilization!
Another useful invention was papyrus. This allowed a way for records and stories to be
recorded in scrolls. This invention also brought another job to Egypt: scribes! Just imagine how
their life would have been if they couldn't even record their history!!!!The water clock was an
invention that was very valuable to the religious leaders of Egypt. The citizens of Egypt weren't too
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concerned about clocks for their own time. So why would they need clocks? For their religious
ceremonies, of course! The religious leaders needed a better and more specific way to tell time
than how high the sun was in the sky. Why did they need to tell the time more precisely? Well, they
had certain ceremonies that they believed they had to do in order to please their gods. So they
invented the water clock. It was a large funnel that was marked into 12 sections for their hours, and
it dripped down. The leaders just measured the water to tell the time. (However, I still prefer a
watch. Well, at least the these clocks didn't need any batteries!)
Great achievements with simple tools:
Ancient Egyptians actually reached unmatched high levels in architectural design and
construction engineering. Even at present it is still hard to conceive how they could have all these
buildings and structures erected with such high level of perfection and precision, using only
primitive and naive tools far incomparable with modern machinery and equipment. Even a layman
would think that ancient Egyptians' knowledge of theoretical and applied sciences was as advanced
as ours today. However, their knowledge was purely experimental and their tools so simple. These
mainly consisted of a builder's thread to delineate vertical lines, an angle, a measuring arm (52cmlong) and a straight edge. With these primitive tools, however, they could make schematic
drawings, plans and cross-sections for their colossal but very fine structures that still astound the
world.
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Looking at the existing Pharaonic monuments, we should keep aside our conception of today's
technological advancement. At that early time in history, stone blocks were molded with solid
stones, copper or bronze tools. Courses of block work, column bodies and crowns, beams and
ceilings were hoisted to the required level over mud and earth ramps up to the top of sand heaps
adjacent to walls.
Lifting devices used consisted of wooden gliders, rollers, ropes and levers.
Well-trained teams of workers rowed stone-carrying boats across the Nile, then
huge boulders overland to their destination. The process demanded backbreaking
considerable endurance and patience on the part of huge numbers of workers and
working in harmony and unison. Undoubtedly this was a significant success factor
Egyptian architects.
pulling the
efforts and
other staff,
for ancient
How Egyptian Inventions Compare to Modern Day:
The inventions of ancient Egypt were practical and useful for their time. And although there
are some similarities, our lives are SO different than the Egyptians' were. I mean, come on, we
don't live in a desert (that would be MISERABLE!) or have big important pharaohs, or special
ceremonies for the sun setting. However, some of the things we use to get through the day are an
awful lot like what the Egyptians used.
For example: take papyrus. They used it as paper to write down history and events
on scrolls. Today, we use paper instead, which is easier to make, and more available. (It's
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not like you could go to a handy Wal-Mart in the middle of Egypt and ask for some
papyrus!)
Another similarity is their water clocks (on top left).The water clocks told time by
water dripping through the end of the funnel, but today we have clocks and watches
instead. Similar, but a bit more convenient, don't you think? They serve the same purpose,
but are a lot more portable and easier to use. (After all, it would be rather difficult for
people to carry around a water clock!)
One very close invention is the Egyptians' calendar. (I find it amazing that people
with nowhere near our resources and technology could put together an accurate 365 day
calendar, just by their floods each year and the stars. Their only fault was the 1/4 day for
leap year!) It is very similar to our 365 1/4 day calender we use today. (Of course, we have
different seasons than the Egyptians because of the location and weather. Egyptian weather
was generally the same all year round, but we have seasons based on weather and tilt of the
earth).
Although we are in a totally different time and life style than that of the Egyptians, some of
the needs we have and that they had are similar. So it is no surprise that we have inventions and
technology to do the same types of jobs that the ancient Egyptians did.
Navigation and ship building:
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The Ancient Egyptians had knowledge to some extent of sail construction. This is governed
by the science of aerodynamics. The earliest Egyptian sails were simply placed to catch the wind
and push a vessel. Later Egyptian sails dating to 2400 BCE were built with the recognition that
ships could sail against the wind using the side wind. Queen Hatshepsut oversaw the preparations
and funding of an expedition of five ships, each measuring seventy feet long, and with several
sails. Various others exist, also.
Stern-mounted steering oar of an Egyptian riverboat depicted in the Tomb of Menna (c.
1422–1411 B.C.)
Ancient Egyptians had experience with building a variety of ships. Some of them survive to
this day as Khufu Solar ship. The ships were found in many areas of Egypt as the Abydous Ship
and remnants of other ships were found near many of the pyramids.
Sneferu's ancient cedar wood ship Praise of the Two Lands is the first reference recorded to a
ship being referred to by name.
Although quarter rudders were the norm in Nile navigation, the Egyptians were the first to
use also stern-mounted rudders. And remnants of other ships were found near many of the
pyramids.
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Medicine:
The Edwin Smith papyrus is one of the first medical documents still extant, and perhaps the
earliest document which attempts to describe and analyze the brain: given this, it might be seen as
the very beginnings of neuroscience. However, medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian
pharmacology was largely ineffective. According to a paper published by Michael D. Parkins, 72%
of 260 medical prescriptions in the Hearst Papyrus had no curative elements. According to Michael
D. Parkins, sewage pharmacology first began in ancient Egypt and was continued through the
middle Ages, and while the use of animal dung can have curative properties, it is not without its
risk. Practices such as applying cow dung to wounds, ear piercing, tattooing, and chronic ear
infections were important factors in developing tetanus. Frank J. Snoek wrote that Egyptian
medicine used fly specks, lizard blood, swine teeth, and other such remedies which he believes
could have been harmful.
Mummification of the dead was not always practiced in Egypt. Once the practice began, an
individual was placed at a final resting place through a set of rituals and protocol. The Egyptian
funeral was a complex ceremony including various monuments, prayers, and rituals undertaken in
honor of the deceased. The poor, who could not afford expensive tombs, were buried in shallow
graves in the sand, and because of the arid environment they were often naturally mummified.
Claims have been made that precession of the equinoxes was known in Ancient Egypt prior
to the time of Hipparchus. Some buildings in the Karnak temple complex, for instance, were
oriented toward the point on the horizon where certain stars rose or set at key times of the year.
Because of the precession, the stars in one "constellation" or section of the sky would be seen to be
first in the nightly display each night until the precession moved along to the next section being
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first, with the previously-first constellation below the horizon until the arch was completed. A few
centuries later, when precession made the orientations of the buildings obsolete, the temples were
rebuilt.
Note however that the observation that a stellar alignment has grown wrong does not
necessarily mean that the Egyptians understood or even cared what was going on. For instance,
from the Middle Kingdom on they used a table with entries for each month to tell the time of night
from the passing of constellations: these went in error after a few centuries because of their
calendar and precession, but were copied (with scribal errors) for long after they lost their practical
usefulness or possibly the understanding of them.
Glass working:
Egyptian knowledge of glassmaking was advanced. The earliest known glass beads from
Egypt were made during the New Kingdom around 1500 BC and were produced in a variety of
colors. They were made by winding molten glass around a metal bar and were highly prized as a
trading commodity, especially blue beads, which were believed to have magical powers. The
Egyptians made small jars and bottles using the core-formed method. Glass threads were wound
around a bag of sand tied to a rod. The glass was continually reheated to fuse the threads together.
The glass-covered sand bag was kept in motion until the required shape and thickness was
achieved. The rod was allowed to cool, then finally the bag was punctured and the rod removed.
The Egyptians also created the first colored glass rods which they used to create colorful beads and
decorations. They also worked with cast glass, which was produced by pouring molten glass into a
mold, much like iron and the more modern crucible steel.
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I.
Pharaonic Creativity:
Using robust copper or bronze chisels, Ancient Egyptians not only carved out
limestone but also molded the hardest of rocks and stones and inscribed their fine
hieroglyphics on them. Long before circa 4000 BC, their ancestors of the Modern Stone
Age made beautiful utensils with only very simple tools. Before the Iron Age, Ancient
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Egyptians had no steel tools to use in consummating such works that can not be made
at present without special tools such as power drills.
In this context, anthropologists argue that although working methods used by
ancient Egyptians were slower and harder, they were no less effective than ours today.
Studies of remaining ancient tools and illustrations of sculptors at work show that their
working modalities were as follows: The overall design was made, using a globalshaped hammer of more solid stone, then cut with a saw and sanded out. Stone was
carved with pointed-end tools and drilled with a tool counterpoised with a bag of
pebbles. Cutting devices were made of hammered copper sharpened with an abrasive
material like modern sandpaper.
It is worth mentioning that, trying to imitate ancient Egyptians, a young French
artist attempted to use hammered copper in carving granite, but failed. However, he
succeeded in creating precisely imitated pieces by using flint tools in granite sculpture.
This may be the starting point to get more precise knowledge of the ancient Egyptian
sculpture and to revive the ways of the great ancient Egyptians who showed the whole
world how the art of sculpture and building should be.
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II.
Irrigation and agriculture:
Irrigation as the artificial application of water to the soil was used to some extent in
Ancient Egypt, a hydraulic civilization (which entails hydraulic engineering). In crop
production it is mainly used to replace missing rainfall in periods of drought, as
opposed to reliance on direct rainfall (referred to as dry land farming or as rain fed
farming). There is evidence of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh Amenemhet III in the
twelfth dynasty (about 1800 BCE) using the natural lake of the Fayûm as a reservoir to
store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons, as the lake swelled annually as
caused by the annual flooding of the Nile.
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Faiene (glass):
Even before the Old Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had developed a glassy material known
as faience, which they treated as a type of artificial semi-precious stone. Faience is a non-clay
ceramic made of silica, small amounts of lime and soda, and a colorant, typically copper. The
material was used to make beads, tiles, figurines, and small wares. Several methods can be used to
create faience, but typically production involved application of the powdered materials in the form
of a paste over a clay core, which was then fired. By a related technique, the ancient Egyptians
produced a pigment known as Egyptian Blue, also called blue frit, which is produced by fusing (or
sintering) silica, copper, lime, and an alkali such as natron. The product can be ground up and used
as a pigment.
The ancient Egyptians could fabricate a wide variety of objects from glass with great skill, but
it is not clear whether they developed the process independently. It is also unclear whether they
made their own raw glass or merely imported pre-made ingots, which they melted and finished.
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However, they did have technical expertise in making objects, as well as adding trace elements to
control the color of the finished glass. A range of colors could be produced, including yellow, red,
green, blue, purple, and white, and the glass could be made either transparent or opaque.
The Giza pyramid complex:
The Giza Necropolis stands on the Giza Plateau, on the outskirts of Cairo, Egypt. This complex
of ancient monuments is located some 8 kilometres (5 mi) inland into the desert from the old town
of Giza on the Nile, some 20 kilometers (12 mi) southwest of Cairo city center. This Ancient
Egyptian necropolis consists of the Pyramid of Khufu (also known as the Great Pyramid and the
Pyramid of Cheops), the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Kephren), and the relatively
modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinus), along with a number of smaller satellite
edifices, known as "queens" pyramids, and the Great Sphinx.
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The pyramids, which were built in the Fourth Dynasty, testify to the power of the
pharaonic religion and state. The Great Pyramid, which was probably completed c. 2580 BC, is the
oldest and largest of the pyramids, and is the only surviving monument of the Seven Wonders of
the Ancient World. The pyramid of Khafre is believed to have been completed around 2532 BC, at
the end of Khafre's reign. The date of construction of Menkaure's pyramid is unknown, because
Menkaure's reign has not been accurately defined, but it was probably completed sometime during
the 26th century BC.
With few openings, the pyramids had complex mazes of tunnels and rooms all hidden by
the massive hunks of stone. Nevertheless, grave robbers stubbornly stole from the pyramids, thus
forcing the ancient Egyptians to halt construction on these massive structures and build their tombs
in the Valley of the Kings instead. In a canyon far from any ancient Egyptian town, the Egyptians
began to build inconspicuous tombs dug into the ground, thinking the tombs would go unnoticed
by grave robbers.
So, what was one of the most important things to the Egyptians? Take one guess. The Nile, of
course! Why? Well, its floods gave them fertile soil, which was the only thing that gave them food
and livable conditions (I mean, they were in a desert!). The Egyptians needed a way to schedule
and predict the time of the floods. I mean, you didn't want to be caught by surprise. And so the
Egyptian solar calendar was made! It was 365 long, with 3 seasons. And by the way; those seasons
were not Spring, summer, autumn, and winter. Of course, you can expect that living in a desert has
pretty much the same weather year round, but they had Flood, Planting, and Harvest seasons. That
way, they knew about when to expect the flood.
So obviously, the Egyptians were very intelligent people who invented tools and gadgets to
help them meet their needs. That's kind of like what we still do today, right?
Monuments:
Main articles: Egyptian pyramids and Egyptian pyramid construction techniques
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The Nile valley has been the site of one of the most influential civilizations in the world with
its architectural monuments, which include the pyramids of Giza and the Great Sphinx—among
the largest and most famous buildings in the world.
Giza Plateau, Cairo. Khafre's pyramid in the background.
The most famous pyramids are the Egyptian pyramids—huge structures built of brick or
stone, some of which are among the largest constructions by humans.
Pyramids functioned as tombs for pharaohs. In Ancient Egypt, a pyramid was referred to as
mer, literally "place of ascendance." The Great Pyramid of Giza is the largest in Egypt and one of
the largest in the world. The base is over thirteen acres in area. It is one of the Seven Wonders of
the World, and the only one of the seven to survive into modern times. The Ancient Egyptians
capped the peaks of their pyramids with gold and covered their faces with polished white
limestone, although many of the stones used for the finishing purpose have fallen or been removed
for use on other structures over the millennia.
The Red Pyramid of Egypt (c.26th century BC), named for the light crimson hue of its
exposed granite surfaces, is the third largest of Egyptian pyramids. Menkaure's Pyramid, likely
dating to the same era, was constructed of limestone and granite blocks. The Great Pyramid of
Giza (c. 2580 BC) contains a huge granite sarcophagus fashioned of "Red Aswan Granite." The
mostly ruined Black Pyramid dating from the reign of Amenemhat III once had a polished granite
pyramidion or capstone, now on display in the main hall of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (see
Dahshur). Other uses in Ancient Egypt,[8] include columns, door lintels, sills, jambs, and wall and
floor veneer.
The ancient Egyptians had some of the first monumental stone building (such as in
Sakkhara). How the Egyptians worked the solid granite is still a matter of debate. Dr. Patrick
Hunt[9] has postulated that the Egyptians used emery shown to have higher hardness on the Mohs
scale. Regarding construction, of the various methods possibly used by builders, the lever moved
and uplifted obelisks weighing more than 100 tons.
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Obelisks and pillars:
Obelisks were a prominent part of the architecture of the ancient Egyptians, who placed them
in pairs at the entrances of temples. In 1911, Encyclopedia Britannica wrote, "The earliest temple
obelisk still in position is that of Senwosri I. of the XIIth Dynasty at Heliopolis (68 feet high)". The
word "obelisk" is of Greek rather than Egyptian origin because Herodotus, the great traveler, was
the first writer to describe the objects. Twenty-seven ancient Egyptian obelisks are known to have
survived, plus the unfinished obelisk being built by Hatshepsut to celebrate her sixteenth year as
pharaoh. It broke while being carved out of the quarry and was abandoned when another one was
begun to replace it. The broken one was found at Aswan and provides the only insight into the
methods of how they were hewn. The obelisk symbolized the sun deity Ra and during the brief
religious reformation of Akhenaten, was said to be a petrified ray of the Aten, the sun disk. It is
hypothesized by New York University Egyptologist Patricia Blackwell Gary and Astronomy senior
editor Richard Talcott that the shapes of the ancient Egyptian pyramid and Obelisk were derived
from natural phenomena associated with the sun (the sun-god Ra being the Egyptians' greatest
deity).[10] It was also thought that the deity existed within the structure. The Egyptians also used
pillars extensively.
It is unknown whether the Ancient Egyptians had kites, but a team lead by Mory Gharib
raised a 6,900-pound, 15-foot (4.6 m) obelisk into vertical position with a kite, a system of pulleys,
and a support frame.[11] Maureen Clemmons developed the idea that the ancient Egyptian used
kites for work.[11] Ramps have been reported as being widely used in Ancient Egypt. A ramp is
inclined plane, or a plane surface set at an angle (other than a right angle) against a horizontal
surface. The inclined plane permits one to overcome a large resistance by applying a relatively
small force through a longer distance than the load is to be raised. In civil engineering the slope
(ratio of rise/run) is often referred to as a grade or gradient. An inclined plane is one of the
commonly-recognized simple machines.
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Buildings:
Many temples from Ancient Egypt are still standing today. Some are in ruin from wear and
tear, while others have been lost entirely. The Egyptian structures are among the largest
constructions ever conceived and built by humans. They constitute one of the most potent and
enduring symbols of Ancient Egyptian civilization. Temples and tombs built by a pharaoh famous
for her projects, Hatshepsut, were massive and included many colossal statues of her. Pharaoh
Tutankamun's rock-cut tomb in the Valley of the Kings was full of jewellery and antiques. In some
late myths, Ptah was identified as the primordial mound and had called creation into being; he was
considered the deity of craftsmen, and in particular, of stone-based crafts. Imhotep, who was
included in the Egyptian pantheon, was the first documented engineer.
The Lighthouse of Alexandria on the island of Pharos. In Hellenistic Egypt, lighthouse
technology was developed, the most famous example being the Lighthouse of Alexandria.
Alexandria was a port for the ships that traded the goods manufactured in Egypt or imported into
Egypt. A giant cantilevered hoist lifted cargo to and from ships. The lighthouse itself was designed
by So stratus of Cnidus and built in the third century B.C. (between 285 and 247 B.C.) on the
island of Pharos in Alexandria, Egypt, which has since become a peninsula. This lighthouse was
renowned in its time and knowledge of it was never lost. A 2006 drawing of it created from the
study of many references.
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Summary
From all the previous, we can say that the pharaohs made many achievements in all fields
generally and in the field of engineering in particular. They left us an extremely huge heritage that
made us proud to be their descendents in order to complete what they have done. The past
examples are just a small part of what they actually were capable of. They could make a huge
technology that could support them during their times. They made obelisks, pillars, ships,
temples, huge pyramids that are from the marvels of the world and everyone who sees these
monuments gets astonished and extremely admires them and can imagine how our ancestors
were. Ancient Egyptians used their minds and the simple tools they had to solve many of their
problems. They solved the agriculture and irrigation problems, they had the ability to recover of
many diseases by their technology in the field of medicine. All these inventions and many more
made every Egyptian anywhere in the world proud of himself and of the pharaohs.
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Conclusion
In my previous points, I tried to cover some aspects of the amazing life of the pharaohs.
They managed to overcome the hard circumstances of their living by creative & brilliant
inventions. Though they had no previous experience or history to invent & create, they
succeeded in getting through with simple tools & instruments.
The human need proved to be a powerful motive; it was actually the only motive they’ve
got. Back then, it wasn’t a priority to take a progressed place between the stronger countries, they
didn’t carry responsibilities of millions of people on their shoulders. Pharaohs lived to make life
easier for themselves & that was the only aim they set their eyes on.
No wonder the pharaohs are a mystery book still unread!! How they developed & changed
their style of life was & still impressible. Even when they fulfilled their daily needs, they didn’t
just stop there. They had already set themselves on the road to eternity, implementing their tools
& applying assumptions & theories,,, they made a major breakthrough & built the pyramids, one
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of the 7 wonders of the world that compete against the most modern beautiful buildings of the
whole world.
The goal of this research is to excavate the world of our ancestors to find about their potion
of success, the one that made them lead the world in all fields not minding the hard
circumstances where they lived. Our past is one that you look back with pride. But it’s time to
carry Egypt from counting on the past to relying on the future, from looking back to moving
ahead. To do that we must gather the main components of success: natural resources, effort & a
strong will to move ahead…
References:
*Leslie C. Kaplan, "Technology of Ancient Egypt. 2004, 24 pages. ISBN 0823967859
*Denys Allen Stocks "Experiments in Egyptian Archaeology: Stoneworking Technology in
Ancient Egypt". Routledge, 2003. 336 pages. ISBN 0415306647
*Katheryn A. Bard" Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt By Katheryn A. Bard".
Routledge, 1999. 968 pages. ISBN 0415185890
*R. J. Forbes, "Studies in Ancient Technology". 1966.
*Örjan Wikander, "Handbook of Ancient Water Technology". 2000.
*Patricia Blackwell Gary and Richard Talcott, "Stargazing in Ancient Egypt," Astronomy, June
2006, pp. 62–67.
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*Evans, James. The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1998.
*Pannekoek, A. A History of Astronomy. New York: Dover, 1961.
*Parker, Richard A. "Egyptian Astronomy, Astrology, and Calendrical Reckoning." Dictionary of
Scientific Biography 15:706-727.
*Tomkins, Peter. Secrets of the Great Pyramid. With an appendix by Livio Catullo Stecchini. New
York: Harper Colophon Books, 1971.
*Budge, E. A. Wallis. Egyptian Religion. Kessinger Publishing, 1900.
*Budge, E. A. Wallis. The Gods of the Egyptians Volume 1 of 2. New York: Dover Publications,
1969 (original in 1904).
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