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Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005 THE ATTACK OF AGENT ORANGE ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN VIETNAM AND ITS CONSEQUENCES VO QUY INTRODUCTION The concept of “ecocide” was a product of the American War in Vietnam. In addition to the human suffering it inflected, the destruction caused by the war to plants, animals and their habitats was unprecedented in scale and intensity. Much of that destruction resulted from the intentional targeting of ecosystems, especially forest ecosystems that were thought to provide shelter and support to opposing forces. The U.S military attacks on the environment, which were conducted on a massive scale for many years, were highly systematic and led to the destruction of entire ecosystems in large areas of Vietnam. Among the means employed were high-explosive munitions, napalm, landmines, mechanical land clearing and especially chemical herbicides. They all resulted in immediate and long-term impacts on the plants, animals, nutrient balance, soil, hydrological regimes, and perhaps even the climate of Vietnam and the region. The most profound ecological impact was on the dense tropical forest of Vietnam. During the last war, from 1961 to 1971, more than 80 million liters of herbicides, mostly Agent Orange that contains dioxin compounds, a highly toxic substance, were sprayed over 24.67% of the total area of Southern Vietnam. Of this amount, about 86 percent was directed against forested areas; the remaining 14 percent was directed against agricultural lands, primarily for the destruction of rice production. The chemicals were sprayed from 5 to 10 km north of the 17th parallel to Cape Ca Mau at the southern tip of the country. Most forest types of Southern Vietnam were affected. These chemical herbicide attacks, the most extensive in history, substantially depleted the forests that are so important to the sustainable development of Vietnam. This huge volume of highly concentrated toxic chemicals repeatedly sprayed over a long period caused the death of trees and animals, environmental pollution and the disturbance of natural ecosystems, leaving behind highly destructive consequences on forest resources. CONSEQUENCES OF TOXIC CHEMICALS Immediate and long-term consequences of toxic chemicals on forest resources and the environment are evident. During exposure to these substances, the leaves of hundreds of species of trees and plants, particularly large woody trees of the Dipterocarpaceae and Fabaceae within upper and dominant ecological layers, fell. A great number of rare and France-Vietnam Friendship Association (AAFV) 1 Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005 precious species of woody trees, such as Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Sindora siamensis, Afzelia xylocarpa, Hopea odorata, Shorea cochinchinensis, Dipterocarpus obtusifolius, D. dyeri and others within the upper layer, died, resulting in the scarcity of the genetic pool of a number of precious species. There are some species of tree, such as Irvingia malayana, Parinari annamensis, Anogeissus pierrei, Livistona and some species of bamboo, that are tolerant of the toxins [6, 8]. As the result, forest canopies were destroyed, the forest environment was rapidly altered, such species as bamboo in the secondary forests and fast - growing trees of less economic value have appeared and encroached on the indigenous species of woody trees. Figure 1: Aerial herbicide spray missions in southern Vietnam, 1965-1971 (Source: US Department of the Army) 2 France-Vietnam Friendship Association (AAFV) Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005 Many large areas of forests were heavily destroyed due to long and repeated sprays of toxic chemicals, in addition to the effects of napalm bombs and bulldozers that burned out and uprooted naturally generative species under forest canopies. When forest trees died, such species of wild weed as Pennisetum polystachyon, Imperata cylindrica, and reeds encroached. The existence of a prolonged dry season in Vietnam certainly impedes regeneration. In many areas natural regeneration has not occurred, making artificial replanting essential. In some regions studied – the inland forest in the Ma Da area of Dong Nai province (Military zone III), the Sa Thay area of Kontum province (Military zone II), the A Luoi area of Thua Thien – Hue province (Military zone I) – regeneration has proceeded very slowly over the last three decades, judging from satellite photographs and on-the-ground studies. Available satellite and aerial images taken through different periods in many regions reveal forests that are not yet being rehabilitated and many toxic chemical-sprayed tracks that are still only grassland [6, 8]. Almost thirty years have passed, and despite changes brought about by economic development, the vestiges of the war, including the defoliants, unaffected by human activity during these years, can still be found in many large areas of Southern Vietnam, which allow us the opportunity to observe, study and more correctly evaluate the longterm effects of Agent Orange/dioxin on the environment and on the various ecosystems, especially tropical forest ecosystems, subjects that are still being discussed by scientists [1, 2, 9, 15]. Our recent research outcomes identified 3.3 M ha of natural lands suffering the effects of toxic substances, of which about 2 M. ha of inland forests have been badly affected at different levels, causing a loss of more than 100 cubic meters of timber [4]. 50% of the region Northeast of the Mekong was fiercely hit. The D and C war bases, the Boi Loi and Cu Chi forests, were regions sprayed by millions of liters of toxic substances, and hit by millions of tones of bombs, in which numerous forests, namely Ma Da of Dong Nai province, and Phu Binh and Bu Gia Map of Binh Phuoc province, were completely destroyed. Toxic chemicals were also sprayed over some focal regions such as the Mc Namara electronic fence of the Quang Tri province, the A Luoi area of the Thua Thien Hue, Sa Thay in Kon Tum province, Can Gio (Duyen Hai) in Ho Chi Minh City and Ca Mau in Minh Hai province. Other impacts of US warfare include damage to the soil ecology (including the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil). In turn, these consequences will affect agricultural and forest production and, ultimately, human health. The direct effects occur when defoliants enter the soil and influence soil organic matter degradation processes and soil microbiology [18]. Changes in soils were collected from A Luoi valley in Thua Thien Hue province 30 years after they had been converted from tropical forest to Imperata and Pennisetum grassland through spraying. This grass cover had been maintained during this period through the influence of periodic fires of human origin. Where the topography was steep, the changes in soil properties include lower organic matter content, lower nitrogen content, less available phosphorus and lower calcium, magnesium, and iron in the soil’s cation exchange complex, and further include increases in acidity and aluminum content. Herbicides removed thick forests, which serve as efficient soil stabilizers, making these areas denuded of vegetation and thus prone to erosion or other deleterious transformations. Numerous landslides are evident, resulting from soil erosion and reduced soil stability. In addition, ten to fifteen million craters making up 1% of the southern forest area have disturbed the land surface facilitating soil wash-off. As K. Graham noted: “No war wreaked environmental damage quite like the Vietnam War that was fought in the rain forests of Southeast Asia… Bombs incinerated trees and fouled waterways. Herbicides killed forests. Other forms of war machinery inflicted still more harm to ecosystems while searching out their human prey” [4]. These consequences have directly hindered the forests’ succession and rehabilitation in many regions of the country, and badly affected watershed forests in 28 river basins in the Central part of Vietnam, including 16 basins where 30% of the total area was France-Vietnam Friendship Association (AAFV) 3 Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005 sprayed with toxic chemicals, 10 basins where 30-50% was sprayed and two basins where the total affected area is more than 50%. Most of these rivers are short and run through slope and complicated terrain and directly affect the downstream areas. Typically, fierce floods have caused severe damage to the Huong, Thach Han, Han, Thu Bon, Tra Khuc, Con, Ve, Cau, Ba and other river basins in the past years [8]. The chemicals were sprayed in high concentrations and over large areas of forest, damaging the forest environment and causing the death of countless animals. Many animals, including mammals and birds, were killed directly or indirectly by the herbicides. However, the most serious impact was the destruction of ecosystems, which had provided habitat for many animals, including large ones such as the Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus), Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus), Banteng (Bos javanicus), Kouprey (Bos sauveli), Gaur (Bos gaurus), Tiger (Panthera tigris), Gibbon (Hylobates concolor), Douc Langur (Pygatrix nemaeus), Sarus Crane (Grus antigone), Giant Ibis (Pseudibis gigantea), White - Shouldered Ibis (Pseudibis davisoni), White-Winged Wood Duck (Cairina scutulata), several Lophura pheasants such as Imperial Pheasant (Lophura imperialis) and Edward’s Pheasant (L. edwardsi), Crested Argus (Rheinartia ocellata), Crocodile (Crocodilus siamensis), and Python (Python molorus). Most of these species are now rare and some are in danger of extinction [8, 12, 15]. In workshops held in Vietnam and elsewhere in the world, Vietnamese and foreign scientists have presented most of the findings obtained from their frequent field trips in Ma Da (Dong Nai province), Phu Binh (Binh Phuoc province) and A Luoi valley (Thua Thien-Hue province). In our research, we want to reassess the effects of Agent Orange/dioxin on the dense tropical inland forest ecosystem in theses areas, and to test the accuracy of our conclusion at the workshop in Ho Chi Minh City in 1983 to the effect that “forest cannot recover naturally where toxic chemicals were repeatedly sprayed and where the forest ecosystem has been utterly destroyed” [12]. In the 1980’s, for lack of time-tested evidence, scientists tended to deduce the long-term effects of Agent Orange/dioxin on tropical forests from the succession patterns of forests following human perturbations. Vidal (1983) cited the example of Nam Ngum forest in Laos, claiming that slash-and-burn farming and leaving the land afterwards would lead eventually to an invasion of tall grass, wild banana and bamboo; next would come fastgrowing wood trees, which in turn would facilitate the growth of trees of the Dipterocarpaceae family and other species typical of the tropical rain forest [11]. However, forest affected by toxic chemicals is very different to forest affected by slash and burn agriculture. After repeated sprayings, very large forest areas were completely destroyed, completely changing ecological conditions. When forest cover disappeared, surface soil was eroded by rains. Favorable soil humidity, light, and temperature conditions for the growth of forest trees were lost. Saplings died on the spot, while seedlings and seeds of forest trees from other forests were too far to be transferred here. In addition, once weeds have invaded the area and grassfires sparked, during the dry season, it is very difficult for forest trees to regenerate naturally.About a generation after the war, the World Bank stated: "One of the least understood and potentially most detrimental aspects of the war is how the modification in species distribution that it caused may have permanently changed the biodiversity of Viet Nam" [20]. A healthy environment and ecosystem is a fundamental requirement for life and sustainable development. Biological resources, forests, wetlands and other lands support human livelihoods, and make it possible to adapt changing needs and environmental conditions. However the chemical war in Vietnam destroyed the environment and many ecosystems. As a result, the degradation of many ecosystems, biomass and habitats are leading to serious social strife, and the poorest local people and communities, who are directly dependent on natural resources, will suffer the most. We must understand that the degradation of environment and habitats, the irreversible nature of species’ extinction, the loss of genes and transformation of ecosystems through the devastation of Agent Orange/dioxin, all compromise options for present and future 4 France-Vietnam Friendship Association (AAFV) Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005 generations. The environment of Vietnam is struggling to recover from the effects of these military activities. To date, the Vietnamese people have made some progress in restoring the environmental damage from the war. But much more remains to be done, and available resources are very limited. The rehabilitation of forests badly affected by toxic chemicals is an urgent and difficult task and a costly and resource consuming process. The loss of a significant proportion of Southern Vietnam’s forest cover triggered a number of related effects. For example, loss of timber led to reduced sustainability of ecosystems, decrease in the diversity of plants and animals, poorer soil quality, increased water contamination, heavier flooding and erosion, increased leaching of nutrients and reduction in their availability, invasion of less desirable plant species and possible alteration of both macro- and microclimates. Chemical agents used during the war also had devastating impacts on the agricultural sector, especially rice cultivation, and on fisheries – in the later case, primarily through destruction of vital mangroves. In addition to that, all told, some 340 kilograms of dioxin were dispersed over the landscape, primary in rural South Vietnam. To this day, traces of dioxin can still be found in the soil of the most intensively affected areas, for example on the perimeters of some US military bases and at many sites where unintended emergency dumping of Agent Orange occurred. This dioxin heavily contaminates the environment, moves into the human food chain and then affects the life and development of the inhabitants of the sites. In some “hot spots” such as A So area, a former American military base, a Health and Environmental Impacts Mitigation Plan has been organized and implemented, with short-term, medium-term and long-term recommendations based on dioxin contamination and other environmental impact findings to date [5]. A LUOI VALLEY: AN EXAMPLE OF THE EFFECTS OF MASSIVE DEFOLIATION ON THE ENVIRONMENT A Luoi Valley is 65 km west of Hue, about 60 km long, 2-6 km wide, 600 m a.s.l, and 1.170 km2 in area. Before the war, there were about 1.071 km2 of typical tropical forest, with rich species of trees, especially hard wood and precious species, and a rich and typical fauna of Indochina tropical forest. There were many rare species such as the Elephant, Gaur, Tiger, Panther, Sun Bear, Douc Langur, Gibbon, and 4 specific species of pheasants, and the populations of sambars, barking deers, wild boars and monkeys once were large. Fish in rivers and streams were a big natural resource for local residents.During the war, the US Army established 3 military bases in this area: the A So, A Luoi and Ta Bat special Forces Bases. From 1966 to 1970 A Luoi Valley was heavily and repeatedly sprayed with Agent Orange, especially in 1966 and 1969 to prevent Vietnamese Forces soldiers from using dense jungle as a means of camouflage, and to destroy rice fields and other food plants in order to expose Vietnamese people to hunger. Bombs and land mines were laid everywhere in the area as well. Table 1 - Chemical warfare agents sprayed in A Luoi area from 1965-1970 (Heb Tape Map Book, USA) Agents O (Orange) B (Blue) W (White) Other Total Thua Thien-Hue Province Spray Gallons missions 459 906,765 115 83,336 54 107,636 53 25,772 681 1,128.458 France-Vietnam Friendship Association (AAFV) A Luoi District Spray Gallons missions 184 434,812 43 52,742 29 53,870 14 7,850 270 549,274 5 Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005 Large areas of forest in A Luoi valley were completely destroyed. A research team of the University of Hanoi interviewed a cross section of the inhabitants of ten villages in the valley who had witnessed the immediate results of the spraying. These people consistently reported that spraying was followed within a few days by the death of large numbers of both wild and domestic birds and mammals. Figure 2. Herbicide spray missions, A Luoi Valley, Vietnam (1965-1970) Source: Hatfield Consultants Ltd., 10-80 Committee, 2000. We can say that Agent Orange, the main compound of the herbicides used by the US Army during the war in Vietnam, has reversed the natural conditions, turned rich forest ecosystems with high biodiversity into exhausted ones. Favorable habitats for many specific animals of tropical forests, especially big and endemic species of Vietnam, were lost. Thirty years have passed, but no signs have indicated that indigenous forest trees are growing again naturally. The areas are still covered by wild weeds like many years ago. Fauna is very poor and different from the original [8]. A comparison between A Luoi valley and two control forest areas, regarding numbers of bird species and mammal species, showed that only 24 bird species and 5 mammal species were found in A Luoi valley, whereas 145 and 170 bird species and 30 and 55 mammal species were censured in these two control forests [12]. Research undertaken in A Luoi area from 1996-1999 showed that soil samples collected in the vicinity of Special Forces Bases had the highest TCDD and Total TEQ (T-TEQ) level (220 pg/g – 897.85 pg/g). Given the high TCDD concentration at A So, in particular, and to a lesser degree at Ta Bat, it is clear that Agent Orange application, storage and/or use at these bases did, in fact, occur. The continued occupation by military personnel of the A So base until March 1966, beyond the closure period of Ta Bat and A Luoi, undoubtedly contributed to the higher reading of TCDD [5]. 6 France-Vietnam Friendship Association (AAFV) Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005 In addition, till now much unexploded ordinance exists in the area, especially at the former military bases. Many inhabitants of A Luoi have been the victims of exploding ordinance. Death and injury caused by landmines and other UXO can have devastating repercussions, especially when the victims are family breadwinners. Trauma, anxiety and other disorders all combine to intensify the grip of poverty on individuals, families and communities. The close relationship between poverty and ill health is well-established [19]. The danger of chemical contamination, of landmines, and other UXO have effectively removed large tracts of valuable land from production. Ecosystems damaged by military activities are no longer able to support local communities, which have thereby become impoverished. FORESTS NEED TO BE REPLANTED In order to regenerate the forest cover in large areas destroyed by Agent Orange, it is necessary to replant, as we can not expect the natural evolution of the affected forests, and we don’t know how long it will take. However, this will require a lot of time, labor and money to achieve success. After the war, Vietnamese scientists attempted to replant several species of indigenous trees in areas that had been destroyed during the massive defoliant raids of the war and around the former US military bases. These initial trials failed, largely because the young saplings burnt in grass fires that were ignited by the intense tropical sun during the dry season. However, we have now successfully replanted thousands of hectares of tropical forests. To protect the seedlings from the burning rays of the tropical sun, scientists have established a forest cover of fast-growing trees. When these trees gain sufficient height, which takes about three years, they plant several species of forest trees underneath them. According to planting experiences from Ma Da area, heavily affected by military activities during the war, people in many regions are cutting and burning pernicious grass in areas affected by Agent Orange during the war, then planting fast-growing shade trees such as Acacia. After three or four years, the seedlings of native forest trees, such as Dipterocarp species, are planted underneath them. It is with hope that, in the future, good tropical forests and beautiful fauna will replace the areas destroyed by military activities, and the Vietnamese people will be able to erase the scar of the devastating war. Of all the forests that were damaged during the war, the mangrove and Melaleuca forests in the Mekong Delta were, perhaps, the most seriously damaged. Yet these two most highly damaged forest ecosystems are in a more advanced state of recovery than the inland tropical forests. After the war, the Vietnamese launched a program to replant the mangrove forests in the areas destroyed by herbicides. Large areas were replanted with Rhizophora apicauda seedlings. Today, some 70,000 hectares of mangrove forests have been successfully replanted. The mangroves now yield a self-sustaining and profitmaking source for fuel and construction wood for the residents of this area. As a result of reforestation, the fisheries are more plentiful and the shrimp catch is rising each year. The colonies of wetland birds that had completely disappeared during the war have returned. Over seven major bird colonies are now protected by reserves, new colonies are appearing, and the bird populations are building up to their old levels again. Can Gio District, located in the southeast of Ho Chi Minh City, covers an area of 75,740 ha. The extent of mangrove forestland accounts for 54.2% of the total natural area of the district. During the last war, the mangroves in Can Gio were completely destroyed. Through the great efforts of the local people, 22,000 ha of mangrove forests were rehabilitated after the war. Nowadays, the Can Gio forest has become the largest mangrove forest in Vietnam, which has been rehabilitated with beautiful landscapes and diverse and abundant species of fauna and flora. The local aquatic resources have been developed 10 to 20 fold compared France-Vietnam Friendship Association (AAFV) 7 Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005 to the past. Today, Can Gio is well known not only for the protection forests that provide the functions of regulating the climate, controlling riverside and coastal soil erosion, and nurturing wild species of fauna, but also as an attractive eco-tourism destination and a research and educational center for national and international sylviculturists. It was chosen to be included in the world network of Biosphere Reserves by MAB/UNESCO on January 21, 2000. Melaleuca forest is a unique type of semi-flooded forest in the Mekong Delta. It once covered an area of 250,000 hectares in low-lying, seasonally inundated areas. But, at the end of the war, only some 116,000 hectares remained. When the war ended, local people made tremendous efforts to plant Melaleuca on thousands of hectares of acidic soil, since it is the only tree species that can thrive in such conditions. Now that the wetland habitat of this area has been restored, the natural plants and animals are gradually returning to the Plain of Reeds. Aside from fresh water fish, which are a source of food for local people, turtles, snakes, and several birds have returned in surprising numbers, including rare species such as the Sarus Crane, Painted Stork, and Adjutant. In early 1986, with the help of researchers from Hanoi University, the people of Tam Nong District delegated 9,000 hectares for Tram Chim Reserve for Cranes, where they hoped that the cranes would breed once again. There are about 1,000 cranes in Tram Chim today, and many other species of birds have also returned. There is a Vietnamese saying: “Birds only stay in good lands”. Apparently, the restoration efforts of the people in the Plain of Reeds and Tam Nong District have begun to pay off. The Crane is a symbol of happiness and longevity, and its stylized image can be found in most temples within Vietnam. The cranes have finally returned to Vietnam, the beautiful land of peace where people who appreciate their beauty and benefit from their presence welcome them. RESEARCH ACTIVITIES The environment of Vietnam is struggling to recover from the effects of these military activities. Studies started only in early 1970’s of natural habitats and the wildlife they support, both in areas that were subjected to military action and in other areas that were not. This has made it possible to evaluate the impact of the war on inland forest and mangrove forest. However, due to lack of capacity, including human capacity, facility (infrastructure) capacity and financial capacity, the results of research are still very limited. Research activities have been conducted relatively thoroughly only in several areas, such as A Luoi valley, and Ma Da area (former tropical inland rain forest ecosystem) and Can Gio (mangrove forest ecosystem). Based on the comprehensive environmental work that has been carried out in A Luoi area since 1981 and then seriously from 1996 to 1999, scientists have had the opportunity to develop an environmental assessment and mitigation approach in that area that can be widely applied in other war-affected areas of Vietnam. A Luoi area is a pilot area for environmental improvement designed to alleviate war-related poverty through increasing economic and social development opportunities [5]. Understanding that forest cover is very important for the development of Vietnam, immediately following the war, the Vietnamese people began an ambitious tree-planting program to green again the war-scarred land, starting with the mangrove forests and then moving to the inland. These activities should be expanded in other areas of the country. Community forestry projects and biodiversity programs should be integral to these rehabilitation efforts in upland forests. Following the recommendation of the Working group ‘Terrestrial Plant Ecology and Forestry’, at the International Symposium on Herbicides and Defoliants in War: the LongTerm Effects on Man and Nature (Ho Chi Minh City, 13-20 January 1983), we selected Ma Da area to start a pilot scheme for restoring the damaged forest resources. In the Ma Da area it is possible to find: 1) areas of undamaged forest which could serve as a base of 8 France-Vietnam Friendship Association (AAFV) Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005 reference and as seed sources; 2) areas of herbicide-damaged forest needing to be restored to full productivity by encouraging natural regeneration by conversion to plantations of fast-growing trees; and 3) areas of shrub and grassland which might be reforested [16]. Great efforts have also been made to select and establish a wide range of nature reserves in order to protect most major types of wildlife habitat remaining in the country after the war. There are now 126 conservation sites with a combined area of approximately 2.5 million hectares, or around 2.6% of Vietnam’s total land area; these include 27 national parks, and two UNESCO biosphere reserves. One of the last-named is Can Gio mangrove forest; it was completely destroyed by herbicides during the war, but has now been successfully rehabilitated. CONCLUSION Alteration of the Earth’s ecosphere is part of an ongoing process that is increasingly influenced by human activities, of which warfare is among the most destructive. Its negative impact is reflected at virtually all levels of evolution – from simple one-celled organisms to higher plants and human beings. Restoration of the war-ravaged environment is a matter of particular urgency, since wellfunctioning ecosystems are essential to human health and the reduction of poverty. There is also a need for research in a number of areas to provide a solid base for suitable programs of preservation and restoration. It is an enormous task that will require substantial resources, long-term commitments and appropriate corrective measures. Among the highest priorities for further research and measures to deal with the continuing aftermath of the war are: • The collection and assessment of ecological data from the wartime period; comprehensive surveys the flora and fauna in relatively untouched areas and comparable surveys in chemical-impacted areas, with a particular focus on areas that were also bombed or otherwise disrupted, in order to produce the documentation required for land-use planning. • Further research on the ecological impact of Agent Orange/dioxin on forest animals through ecological and zoological studies, especially in order to quantitatively document differences in animal species’ richness and abundance in unsprayed and sprayed areas, for different forest types. Further assessments of populations of animals, especially endangered, economically and scientifically important vertebrates, requiring well-developed forest with a high level of diversity of plant species, in order to collect the data needed for its restoration. • Further assessments of dioxin contamination are required in the vicinity of all former US military bases/facilities in Southern Vietnam, where the use/storage of Agent Orange during the war likely occurred, and other geographical areas in Vietnam over which heavy Agent Orange spraying occurred (including land-based applications); these assessments would determine the level of dioxin contamination related to Agent Orange, and the relationship between environmental contamination and effects on human health. • Environmental restoration in areas that have been affected by military activities: reforestation alternatives; agricultural assistance; studies of watersheds, flooding and erosion; fisheries enhancement; and reversal of the chemical contamination of food resources which may be linked to specific Agent Orange “hot spots”, such as those associated with some former U.S military installations, emergency dump sites and spray-plane crash sites. • Cleaning of “hot spots” contaminated by Agent Orange/dioxin, especially at some former US military bases in the South of Vietnam; new, cost-effective technologies are needed to decontaminate large volumes of dioxin-contaminated soils France-Vietnam Friendship Association (AAFV) 9 Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005 (ecological/biological technologies for example). High temperature incineration or chemical technology is not a practical and economical mitigation approach, due to the large volume of contaminated soil requiring treatment. • Helping minority groups living in areas affected by military activities to improve their living standards in order to reduce the pressure they now exert on forests and endangered species. • Training of young scientists in habitat restoration and in the conservation of ecosystems, flora and fauna. • Clearing of landmines and other UXO, especially in areas occupied by minority groups. Needless to say, such research priorities must be meaningfully related to corrective measures for habitat rehabilitation, clearing of landmines and other UXO, improvements in the living standards of local populations, reforestation, soil stabilization, and the restoration of aquatic habitats with their associated organisms. Finally, it is essential that those who are most directly affected by the long-term consequences of the war be provided with sufficient resources to understand and implement programs for healing and restoring the ravaged environment. Only in this way will it be possible to overcome the terrible legacy of the war. REFERENCES 1 Ashton P. S., 1983, "Régénération de la forêt tropicale constamment verte". Symposium international sur "Les Herbicides et Défoliants employés dans la guerre: les Effets à long-terme sur l’homme et la nature". Ho Chi Minh Ville, 13-20 Janvier 1983, Vol II. 2 Brunig E. F., 1983, "La guerre chimique et les dynamiques et la gestion des écosystèmes forestiers tropicaux", Symposium international sur "Les Herbicides et Défoliants employés dans la guerre: les Effets à long-terme sur l’homme et la nature". Ho Chi Minh Ville, 13-20 Janvier 1983, Vol II. 3 Duong Hong Dat, 1983, "Conséquences écologiques dans l’agriculture de la guerre chimique au Sud du Vietnam". Symposium international sur "Les Herbicides et Défoliants employés dans la guerre: les Effets à long-terme sur l’homme et la nature". Ho Chi Minh Ville, 13-20 Janvier 1983, Vol II. 4 Graham K., 1996, Contemporary Environmentalists. Global Profiles, Facts\On File, Inc., New York, USA. 5 Hatfield Consultants Ltd., 10-80 Committee, 2000, Development of Impact mitigation strategies related to the use of agent orange herbicide in the A Luoi valley, Vietnam. 6 Le Trong Cuc, 1983. "Les effets durables de la guerre chimique sur l’environnement du district A Luoi, province Binh Tri Thien". Symposium international sur "Les Herbicides et Défoliants employés dans la guerre: les Effets à long-terme sur l’homme et la nature". Ho Chi Minh Ville, 13-20 Janvier 1983, Vol II. 7 Le Quy An, 1997, Vietnamese Policy on the Environment and Sustainable Development in Environmental Policy and Management in Vietnam, German Foundation for International Development (DSE), Berlin. 8 Phung Tuu Boi, Tran Quoc Dung, Le Van Cham, 2002, "Impact of chemical warfare (1961-1971) on forest resources of Vietnam", Vienam-United States Scientific Conference on Human Health and Environmental Effects of Agent Orange/Dioxin, Hanoi, March 3-6, 2002. 9 Sokolov V. Y. E., Puzacheko Y. G., 1983. "Résistance des systèmes écologiques forestiers tropicaux contre les impacts ecocides", Symposium international sur "Les Herbicides et Défoliants employés dans la guerre: les Effets à long-terme sur l’homme et la nature". Ho Chi Minh Ville, 13-20 Janvier 1983, Vol II. 10 France-Vietnam Friendship Association (AAFV) Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005 10 UNDP, Government of Vietnam, 1994, Biodiversity Action Plan for Vietnam, Hanoi. 11 Vidal J. E., 1983, "Effets phyto-écologiques à long terme de la guerre chimique au Vietnam comparés à ceux d’autres activités humaines perturbatrices des écosystèmes naturels". Symposium international sur "Les Herbicides et Défoliants employés dans la guerre: les Effets à long-terme sur l’homme et la nature". Ho Chi Minh Ville, 13-20 Janvier 1983, Vol II. 12 Vo Quy, 1983. "Effets des herbicides largués par les Américains au Sud du Vietnam sur le système animal". Symposium international sur "Les Herbicides et Défoliants employés dans la guerre: les Effets à long-terme sur l’homme et la nature". Ho Chi Minh Ville, 1320 Janvier 1983, Vol II. 13 Vo Quy, 1992, "The wound of war, Vietnam struggles to erase the scars of 30 violent years", CERES, The FAO Review, Roma, N° 134, March-April 1992. 14 Vo Quy, 1997, Environmental Issues in Vietnam: an Overview. in Environmental Policy and Management in Vietnam, German Foundation for International Development (DSE), Berlin. 15 Vo Quy, Dang Huy Huynh, Mai Dinh Yen, Phung Tuu Boi., 2002. "An Attempt at evaluating the Effects of US chemical spraying in A Luoi almost 30 years after the war" Vietnam-United States Scientific Conference on Human Health and Environmental Effects of Agent Orange/Dioxin, Hanoi, March 3-6, 2002. 16 Westing A. H, 1983, "Summary report of working group E1, terrestrial plant ecology and forestry". Symposium international sur "Les Herbicides et Défoliants employés dans la guerre: les Effets à long-terme sur l’homme et la nature". Ho Chi Minh Ville, 13-20 Janvier 1983, Vol II. 17 Westing A. H, 1983, "Summary report of working group E2, terrestrial animal ecology". Symposium international sur "Les Herbicides et Défoliants employés dans la guerre: les Effets à long-terme sur l’homme et la nature". Ho Chi Minh Ville, 13-20 Janvier 1983, Vol II. 18 Westing A. H, 1983, "Summary report of working group E3, soil ecology". Symposium international sur "Les Herbicides et Défoliants employés dans la guerre: les Effets à long-terme sur l’homme et la nature". Ho Chi Minh Ville, 13-20 Janvier 1983, Vol II. 19 Westing A. H., Vo Quy, Phung Tuu Boi, Bui Thi Lang, Dwernychuk L. W., 2002, "Longterm Consequences of the Vietnam War, Ecosystems. Report to the Environmental Conference on Cambodia – Laos – Vietnam. Stockholm July 2002". 20 World Bank, 1995, Viet Nam – Environment program and policy priorities for a socialist economy in transition. Vol. II. The Supporting Annexes (annex 4 – Viet Nam War Damages and the Environment). World Bank Report No. 13200-VN. 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