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Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005
THE ATTACK OF AGENT ORANGE ON THE
ENVIRONMENT IN VIETNAM AND ITS
CONSEQUENCES
VO QUY
INTRODUCTION
The concept of “ecocide” was a product of the American War in Vietnam. In addition to
the human suffering it inflected, the destruction caused by the war to plants, animals and
their habitats was unprecedented in scale and intensity. Much of that destruction resulted
from the intentional targeting of ecosystems, especially forest ecosystems that were
thought to provide shelter and support to opposing forces.
The U.S military attacks on the environment, which were conducted on a massive scale
for many years, were highly systematic and led to the destruction of entire ecosystems in
large areas of Vietnam. Among the means employed were high-explosive munitions,
napalm, landmines, mechanical land clearing and especially chemical herbicides. They all
resulted in immediate and long-term impacts on the plants, animals, nutrient balance,
soil, hydrological regimes, and perhaps even the climate of Vietnam and the region.
The most profound ecological impact was on the dense tropical forest of Vietnam. During
the last war, from 1961 to 1971, more than 80 million liters of herbicides, mostly Agent
Orange that contains dioxin compounds, a highly toxic substance, were sprayed over
24.67% of the total area of Southern Vietnam. Of this amount, about 86 percent was
directed against forested areas; the remaining 14 percent was directed against
agricultural lands, primarily for the destruction of rice production.
The chemicals were sprayed from 5 to 10 km north of the 17th parallel to Cape Ca Mau at
the southern tip of the country. Most forest types of Southern Vietnam were affected.
These chemical herbicide attacks, the most extensive in history, substantially depleted
the forests that are so important to the sustainable development of Vietnam.
This huge volume of highly concentrated toxic chemicals repeatedly sprayed over a long
period caused the death of trees and animals, environmental pollution and the disturbance
of natural ecosystems, leaving behind highly destructive consequences on forest resources.
CONSEQUENCES OF TOXIC CHEMICALS
Immediate and long-term consequences of toxic chemicals on forest resources and the
environment are evident. During exposure to these substances, the leaves of hundreds of
species of trees and plants, particularly large woody trees of the Dipterocarpaceae and
Fabaceae within upper and dominant ecological layers, fell. A great number of rare and
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Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005
precious species of woody trees, such as Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Sindora siamensis,
Afzelia xylocarpa, Hopea odorata, Shorea cochinchinensis, Dipterocarpus obtusifolius, D.
dyeri and others within the upper layer, died, resulting in the scarcity of the genetic pool
of a number of precious species. There are some species of tree, such as Irvingia
malayana, Parinari annamensis, Anogeissus pierrei, Livistona and some species of
bamboo, that are tolerant of the toxins [6, 8]. As the result, forest canopies were
destroyed, the forest environment was rapidly altered, such species as bamboo in the
secondary forests and fast - growing trees of less economic value have appeared and
encroached on the indigenous species of woody trees.
Figure 1: Aerial herbicide spray missions in southern Vietnam, 1965-1971
(Source: US Department of the Army)
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Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005
Many large areas of forests were heavily destroyed due to long and repeated sprays of
toxic chemicals, in addition to the effects of napalm bombs and bulldozers that burned
out and uprooted naturally generative species under forest canopies. When forest trees
died, such species of wild weed as Pennisetum polystachyon, Imperata cylindrica, and
reeds encroached. The existence of a prolonged dry season in Vietnam certainly impedes
regeneration. In many areas natural regeneration has not occurred, making artificial
replanting essential. In some regions studied – the inland forest in the Ma Da area of
Dong Nai province (Military zone III), the Sa Thay area of Kontum province (Military zone
II), the A Luoi area of Thua Thien – Hue province (Military zone I) – regeneration has
proceeded very slowly over the last three decades, judging from satellite photographs
and on-the-ground studies. Available satellite and aerial images taken through different
periods in many regions reveal forests that are not yet being rehabilitated and many
toxic chemical-sprayed tracks that are still only grassland [6, 8].
Almost thirty years have passed, and despite changes brought about by economic
development, the vestiges of the war, including the defoliants, unaffected by human
activity during these years, can still be found in many large areas of Southern Vietnam,
which allow us the opportunity to observe, study and more correctly evaluate the longterm effects of Agent Orange/dioxin on the environment and on the various ecosystems,
especially tropical forest ecosystems, subjects that are still being discussed by scientists
[1, 2, 9, 15].
Our recent research outcomes identified 3.3 M ha of natural lands suffering the effects of
toxic substances, of which about 2 M. ha of inland forests have been badly affected at
different levels, causing a loss of more than 100 cubic meters of timber [4]. 50% of the
region Northeast of the Mekong was fiercely hit. The D and C war bases, the Boi Loi and
Cu Chi forests, were regions sprayed by millions of liters of toxic substances, and hit by
millions of tones of bombs, in which numerous forests, namely Ma Da of Dong Nai
province, and Phu Binh and Bu Gia Map of Binh Phuoc province, were completely
destroyed. Toxic chemicals were also sprayed over some focal regions such as the Mc
Namara electronic fence of the Quang Tri province, the A Luoi area of the Thua Thien Hue, Sa Thay in Kon Tum province, Can Gio (Duyen Hai) in Ho Chi Minh City and Ca Mau
in Minh Hai province.
Other impacts of US warfare include damage to the soil ecology (including the physical,
chemical, and biological properties of soil). In turn, these consequences will affect
agricultural and forest production and, ultimately, human health. The direct effects occur
when defoliants enter the soil and influence soil organic matter degradation processes
and soil microbiology [18]. Changes in soils were collected from A Luoi valley in Thua
Thien Hue province 30 years after they had been converted from tropical forest to
Imperata and Pennisetum grassland through spraying. This grass cover had been
maintained during this period through the influence of periodic fires of human origin.
Where the topography was steep, the changes in soil properties include lower organic
matter content, lower nitrogen content, less available phosphorus and lower calcium,
magnesium, and iron in the soil’s cation exchange complex, and further include increases
in acidity and aluminum content.
Herbicides removed thick forests, which serve as efficient soil stabilizers, making these
areas denuded of vegetation and thus prone to erosion or other deleterious
transformations. Numerous landslides are evident, resulting from soil erosion and
reduced soil stability. In addition, ten to fifteen million craters making up 1% of the
southern forest area have disturbed the land surface facilitating soil wash-off. As K.
Graham noted: “No war wreaked environmental damage quite like the Vietnam War that
was fought in the rain forests of Southeast Asia… Bombs incinerated trees and fouled
waterways. Herbicides killed forests. Other forms of war machinery inflicted still more
harm to ecosystems while searching out their human prey” [4].
These consequences have directly hindered the forests’ succession and rehabilitation in
many regions of the country, and badly affected watershed forests in 28 river basins in
the Central part of Vietnam, including 16 basins where 30% of the total area was
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Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005
sprayed with toxic chemicals, 10 basins where 30-50% was sprayed and two basins
where the total affected area is more than 50%. Most of these rivers are short and run
through slope and complicated terrain and directly affect the downstream areas.
Typically, fierce floods have caused severe damage to the Huong, Thach Han, Han, Thu
Bon, Tra Khuc, Con, Ve, Cau, Ba and other river basins in the past years [8].
The chemicals were sprayed in high concentrations and over large areas of forest,
damaging the forest environment and causing the death of countless animals. Many
animals, including mammals and birds, were killed directly or indirectly by the herbicides.
However, the most serious impact was the destruction of ecosystems, which had
provided habitat for many animals, including large ones such as the Asian Elephant
(Elephas maximus), Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus), Banteng (Bos javanicus),
Kouprey (Bos sauveli), Gaur (Bos gaurus), Tiger (Panthera tigris), Gibbon (Hylobates
concolor), Douc Langur (Pygatrix nemaeus), Sarus Crane (Grus antigone), Giant Ibis
(Pseudibis gigantea), White - Shouldered Ibis (Pseudibis davisoni), White-Winged Wood
Duck (Cairina scutulata), several Lophura pheasants such as Imperial Pheasant (Lophura
imperialis) and Edward’s Pheasant (L. edwardsi), Crested Argus (Rheinartia ocellata),
Crocodile (Crocodilus siamensis), and Python (Python molorus). Most of these species are
now rare and some are in danger of extinction [8, 12, 15].
In workshops held in Vietnam and elsewhere in the world, Vietnamese and foreign
scientists have presented most of the findings obtained from their frequent field trips in
Ma Da (Dong Nai province), Phu Binh (Binh Phuoc province) and A Luoi valley (Thua
Thien-Hue province). In our research, we want to reassess the effects of Agent
Orange/dioxin on the dense tropical inland forest ecosystem in theses areas, and to test
the accuracy of our conclusion at the workshop in Ho Chi Minh City in 1983 to the effect
that “forest cannot recover naturally where toxic chemicals were repeatedly sprayed and
where the forest ecosystem has been utterly destroyed” [12].
In the 1980’s, for lack of time-tested evidence, scientists tended to deduce the long-term
effects of Agent Orange/dioxin on tropical forests from the succession patterns of forests
following human perturbations. Vidal (1983) cited the example of Nam Ngum forest in
Laos, claiming that slash-and-burn farming and leaving the land afterwards would lead
eventually to an invasion of tall grass, wild banana and bamboo; next would come fastgrowing wood trees, which in turn would facilitate the growth of trees of the
Dipterocarpaceae family and other species typical of the tropical rain forest [11].
However, forest affected by toxic chemicals is very different to forest affected by slash
and burn agriculture. After repeated sprayings, very large forest areas were completely
destroyed, completely changing ecological conditions. When forest cover disappeared,
surface soil was eroded by rains. Favorable soil humidity, light, and temperature
conditions for the growth of forest trees were lost. Saplings died on the spot, while
seedlings and seeds of forest trees from other forests were too far to be transferred here.
In addition, once weeds have invaded the area and grassfires sparked, during the dry
season, it is very difficult for forest trees to regenerate naturally.About a generation after
the war, the World Bank stated: "One of the least understood and potentially most
detrimental aspects of the war is how the modification in species distribution that it caused
may have permanently changed the biodiversity of Viet Nam" [20].
A healthy environment and ecosystem is a fundamental requirement for life and
sustainable development. Biological resources, forests, wetlands and other lands support
human livelihoods, and make it possible to adapt changing needs and environmental
conditions. However the chemical war in Vietnam destroyed the environment and many
ecosystems. As a result, the degradation of many ecosystems, biomass and habitats are
leading to serious social strife, and the poorest local people and communities, who are
directly dependent on natural resources, will suffer the most.
We must understand that the degradation of environment and habitats, the irreversible
nature of species’ extinction, the loss of genes and transformation of ecosystems through
the devastation of Agent Orange/dioxin, all compromise options for present and future
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Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005
generations.
The environment of Vietnam is struggling to recover from the effects of these military
activities. To date, the Vietnamese people have made some progress in restoring the
environmental damage from the war. But much more remains to be done, and available
resources are very limited.
The rehabilitation of forests badly affected by toxic chemicals is an urgent and difficult
task and a costly and resource consuming process.
The loss of a significant proportion of Southern Vietnam’s forest cover triggered a
number of related effects. For example, loss of timber led to reduced sustainability of
ecosystems, decrease in the diversity of plants and animals, poorer soil quality, increased
water contamination, heavier flooding and erosion, increased leaching of nutrients and
reduction in their availability, invasion of less desirable plant species and possible
alteration of both macro- and microclimates. Chemical agents used during the war also
had devastating impacts on the agricultural sector, especially rice cultivation, and on
fisheries – in the later case, primarily through destruction of vital mangroves.
In addition to that, all told, some 340 kilograms of dioxin were dispersed over the
landscape, primary in rural South Vietnam. To this day, traces of dioxin can still be found
in the soil of the most intensively affected areas, for example on the perimeters of some
US military bases and at many sites where unintended emergency dumping of Agent
Orange occurred. This dioxin heavily contaminates the environment, moves into the
human food chain and then affects the life and development of the inhabitants of the
sites. In some “hot spots” such as A So area, a former American military base, a Health
and Environmental Impacts Mitigation Plan has been organized and implemented, with
short-term, medium-term and long-term recommendations based on dioxin
contamination and other environmental impact findings to date [5].
A LUOI VALLEY: AN EXAMPLE OF THE EFFECTS OF
MASSIVE DEFOLIATION ON THE ENVIRONMENT
A Luoi Valley is 65 km west of Hue, about 60 km long, 2-6 km wide, 600 m a.s.l, and
1.170 km2 in area. Before the war, there were about 1.071 km2 of typical tropical forest,
with rich species of trees, especially hard wood and precious species, and a rich and
typical fauna of Indochina tropical forest. There were many rare species such as the
Elephant, Gaur, Tiger, Panther, Sun Bear, Douc Langur, Gibbon, and 4 specific species of
pheasants, and the populations of sambars, barking deers, wild boars and monkeys once
were large. Fish in rivers and streams were a big natural resource for local
residents.During the war, the US Army established 3 military bases in this area: the A
So, A Luoi and Ta Bat special Forces Bases. From 1966 to 1970 A Luoi Valley was heavily
and repeatedly sprayed with Agent Orange, especially in 1966 and 1969 to prevent
Vietnamese Forces soldiers from using dense jungle as a means of camouflage, and to
destroy rice fields and other food plants in order to expose Vietnamese people to hunger.
Bombs and land mines were laid everywhere in the area as well.
Table 1 - Chemical warfare agents sprayed in A Luoi area from 1965-1970
(Heb Tape Map Book, USA)
Agents
O (Orange)
B (Blue)
W (White)
Other
Total
Thua Thien-Hue Province
Spray
Gallons
missions
459
906,765
115
83,336
54
107,636
53
25,772
681
1,128.458
France-Vietnam Friendship Association (AAFV)
A Luoi District
Spray
Gallons
missions
184
434,812
43
52,742
29
53,870
14
7,850
270
549,274
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Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005
Large areas of forest in A Luoi valley were completely destroyed. A research team of the
University of Hanoi interviewed a cross section of the inhabitants of ten villages in the
valley who had witnessed the immediate results of the spraying. These people
consistently reported that spraying was followed within a few days by the death of large
numbers of both wild and domestic birds and mammals.
Figure 2. Herbicide spray missions, A Luoi Valley, Vietnam (1965-1970)
Source: Hatfield Consultants Ltd., 10-80 Committee, 2000.
We can say that Agent Orange, the main compound of the herbicides used by the US
Army during the war in Vietnam, has reversed the natural conditions, turned rich forest
ecosystems with high biodiversity into exhausted ones. Favorable habitats for many
specific animals of tropical forests, especially big and endemic species of Vietnam, were
lost. Thirty years have passed, but no signs have indicated that indigenous forest trees
are growing again naturally. The areas are still covered by wild weeds like many years
ago. Fauna is very poor and different from the original [8]. A comparison between A Luoi
valley and two control forest areas, regarding numbers of bird species and mammal
species, showed that only 24 bird species and 5 mammal species were found in A Luoi
valley, whereas 145 and 170 bird species and 30 and 55 mammal species were censured
in these two control forests [12].
Research undertaken in A Luoi area from 1996-1999 showed that soil samples collected
in the vicinity of Special Forces Bases had the highest TCDD and Total TEQ (T-TEQ) level
(220 pg/g – 897.85 pg/g). Given the high TCDD concentration at A So, in particular, and
to a lesser degree at Ta Bat, it is clear that Agent Orange application, storage and/or use
at these bases did, in fact, occur. The continued occupation by military personnel of the A
So base until March 1966, beyond the closure period of Ta Bat and A Luoi, undoubtedly
contributed to the higher reading of TCDD [5].
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In addition, till now much unexploded ordinance exists in the area, especially at the
former military bases. Many inhabitants of A Luoi have been the victims of exploding
ordinance. Death and injury caused by landmines and other UXO can have devastating
repercussions, especially when the victims are family breadwinners. Trauma, anxiety and
other disorders all combine to intensify the grip of poverty on individuals, families and
communities. The close relationship between poverty and ill health is well-established
[19].
The danger of chemical contamination, of landmines, and other UXO have effectively
removed large tracts of valuable land from production. Ecosystems damaged by military
activities are no longer able to support local communities, which have thereby become
impoverished.
FORESTS NEED TO BE REPLANTED
In order to regenerate the forest cover in large areas destroyed by Agent Orange, it is
necessary to replant, as we can not expect the natural evolution of the affected forests,
and we don’t know how long it will take. However, this will require a lot of time, labor
and money to achieve success.
After the war, Vietnamese scientists attempted to replant several species of indigenous
trees in areas that had been destroyed during the massive defoliant raids of the war and
around the former US military bases. These initial trials failed, largely because the young
saplings burnt in grass fires that were ignited by the intense tropical sun during the dry
season. However, we have now successfully replanted thousands of hectares of tropical
forests. To protect the seedlings from the burning rays of the tropical sun, scientists have
established a forest cover of fast-growing trees. When these trees gain sufficient height,
which takes about three years, they plant several species of forest trees underneath
them.
According to planting experiences from Ma Da area, heavily affected by military activities
during the war, people in many regions are cutting and burning pernicious grass in areas
affected by Agent Orange during the war, then planting fast-growing shade trees such as
Acacia. After three or four years, the seedlings of native forest trees, such as Dipterocarp
species, are planted underneath them. It is with hope that, in the future, good tropical
forests and beautiful fauna will replace the areas destroyed by military activities, and the
Vietnamese people will be able to erase the scar of the devastating war.
Of all the forests that were damaged during the war, the mangrove and Melaleuca forests
in the Mekong Delta were, perhaps, the most seriously damaged. Yet these two most
highly damaged forest ecosystems are in a more advanced state of recovery than the
inland tropical forests. After the war, the Vietnamese launched a program to replant the
mangrove forests in the areas destroyed by herbicides. Large areas were replanted with
Rhizophora apicauda seedlings. Today, some 70,000 hectares of mangrove forests have
been successfully replanted. The mangroves now yield a self-sustaining and profitmaking source for fuel and construction wood for the residents of this area. As a result of
reforestation, the fisheries are more plentiful and the shrimp catch is rising each year.
The colonies of wetland birds that had completely disappeared during the war have
returned. Over seven major bird colonies are now protected by reserves, new colonies
are appearing, and the bird populations are building up to their old levels again.
Can Gio District, located in the southeast of Ho Chi Minh City, covers an area of 75,740
ha. The extent of mangrove forestland accounts for 54.2% of the total natural area of
the district. During the last war, the mangroves in Can Gio were completely destroyed.
Through the great efforts of the local people, 22,000 ha of mangrove forests were
rehabilitated after the war.
Nowadays, the Can Gio forest has become the largest mangrove forest in Vietnam, which
has been rehabilitated with beautiful landscapes and diverse and abundant species of
fauna and flora. The local aquatic resources have been developed 10 to 20 fold compared
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Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005
to the past. Today, Can Gio is well known not only for the protection forests that provide
the functions of regulating the climate, controlling riverside and coastal soil erosion, and
nurturing wild species of fauna, but also as an attractive eco-tourism destination and a
research and educational center for national and international sylviculturists. It was
chosen to be included in the world network of Biosphere Reserves by MAB/UNESCO on
January 21, 2000.
Melaleuca forest is a unique type of semi-flooded forest in the Mekong Delta. It once
covered an area of 250,000 hectares in low-lying, seasonally inundated areas. But, at the
end of the war, only some 116,000 hectares remained. When the war ended, local people
made tremendous efforts to plant Melaleuca on thousands of hectares of acidic soil, since
it is the only tree species that can thrive in such conditions.
Now that the wetland habitat of this area has been restored, the natural plants and
animals are gradually returning to the Plain of Reeds. Aside from fresh water fish, which
are a source of food for local people, turtles, snakes, and several birds have returned in
surprising numbers, including rare species such as the Sarus Crane, Painted Stork, and
Adjutant. In early 1986, with the help of researchers from Hanoi University, the people of
Tam Nong District delegated 9,000 hectares for Tram Chim Reserve for Cranes, where
they hoped that the cranes would breed once again. There are about 1,000 cranes in
Tram Chim today, and many other species of birds have also returned.
There is a Vietnamese saying: “Birds only stay in good lands”. Apparently, the
restoration efforts of the people in the Plain of Reeds and Tam Nong District have begun
to pay off. The Crane is a symbol of happiness and longevity, and its stylized image can
be found in most temples within Vietnam. The cranes have finally returned to Vietnam,
the beautiful land of peace where people who appreciate their beauty and benefit from
their presence welcome them.
RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
The environment of Vietnam is struggling to recover from the effects of these military
activities. Studies started only in early 1970’s of natural habitats and the wildlife they
support, both in areas that were subjected to military action and in other areas that were
not. This has made it possible to evaluate the impact of the war on inland forest and
mangrove forest. However, due to lack of capacity, including human capacity, facility
(infrastructure) capacity and financial capacity, the results of research are still very
limited. Research activities have been conducted relatively thoroughly only in several
areas, such as A Luoi valley, and Ma Da area (former tropical inland rain forest
ecosystem) and Can Gio (mangrove forest ecosystem).
Based on the comprehensive environmental work that has been carried out in A Luoi area
since 1981 and then seriously from 1996 to 1999, scientists have had the opportunity to
develop an environmental assessment and mitigation approach in that area that can be
widely applied in other war-affected areas of Vietnam. A Luoi area is a pilot area for
environmental improvement designed to alleviate war-related poverty through increasing
economic and social development opportunities [5].
Understanding that forest cover is very important for the development of Vietnam,
immediately following the war, the Vietnamese people began an ambitious tree-planting
program to green again the war-scarred land, starting with the mangrove forests and
then moving to the inland. These activities should be expanded in other areas of the
country. Community forestry projects and biodiversity programs should be integral to
these rehabilitation efforts in upland forests.
Following the recommendation of the Working group ‘Terrestrial Plant Ecology and
Forestry’, at the International Symposium on Herbicides and Defoliants in War: the LongTerm Effects on Man and Nature (Ho Chi Minh City, 13-20 January 1983), we selected Ma
Da area to start a pilot scheme for restoring the damaged forest resources. In the Ma Da
area it is possible to find: 1) areas of undamaged forest which could serve as a base of
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reference and as seed sources; 2) areas of herbicide-damaged forest needing to be
restored to full productivity by encouraging natural regeneration by conversion to
plantations of fast-growing trees; and 3) areas of shrub and grassland which might be
reforested [16].
Great efforts have also been made to select and establish a wide range of nature
reserves in order to protect most major types of wildlife habitat remaining in the country
after the war. There are now 126 conservation sites with a combined area of
approximately 2.5 million hectares, or around 2.6% of Vietnam’s total land area; these
include 27 national parks, and two UNESCO biosphere reserves. One of the last-named is
Can Gio mangrove forest; it was completely destroyed by herbicides during the war, but
has now been successfully rehabilitated.
CONCLUSION
Alteration of the Earth’s ecosphere is part of an ongoing process that is increasingly
influenced by human activities, of which warfare is among the most destructive. Its
negative impact is reflected at virtually all levels of evolution – from simple one-celled
organisms to higher plants and human beings.
Restoration of the war-ravaged environment is a matter of particular urgency, since wellfunctioning ecosystems are essential to human health and the reduction of poverty.
There is also a need for research in a number of areas to provide a solid base for suitable
programs of preservation and restoration. It is an enormous task that will require
substantial resources, long-term commitments and appropriate corrective measures.
Among the highest priorities for further research and measures to deal with the
continuing aftermath of the war are:
• The collection and assessment of ecological data from the wartime period;
comprehensive surveys the flora and fauna in relatively untouched areas and
comparable surveys in chemical-impacted areas, with a particular focus on areas that
were also bombed or otherwise disrupted, in order to produce the documentation
required for land-use planning.
• Further research on the ecological impact of Agent Orange/dioxin on forest animals
through ecological and zoological studies, especially in order to quantitatively
document differences in animal species’ richness and abundance in unsprayed and
sprayed areas, for different forest types. Further assessments of populations of
animals, especially endangered, economically and scientifically important vertebrates,
requiring well-developed forest with a high level of diversity of plant species, in order
to collect the data needed for its restoration.
• Further assessments of dioxin contamination are required in the vicinity of all former
US military bases/facilities in Southern Vietnam, where the use/storage of Agent
Orange during the war likely occurred, and other geographical areas in Vietnam over
which heavy Agent Orange spraying occurred (including land-based applications);
these assessments would determine the level of dioxin contamination related to Agent
Orange, and the relationship between environmental contamination and effects on
human health.
• Environmental restoration in areas that have been affected by military activities:
reforestation alternatives; agricultural assistance; studies of watersheds, flooding and
erosion; fisheries enhancement; and reversal of the chemical contamination of food
resources which may be linked to specific Agent Orange “hot spots”, such as those
associated with some former U.S military installations, emergency dump sites and
spray-plane crash sites.
• Cleaning of “hot spots” contaminated by Agent Orange/dioxin, especially at some
former US military bases in the South of Vietnam; new, cost-effective technologies are
needed
to
decontaminate
large
volumes
of
dioxin-contaminated
soils
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Agent Orange and Dioxin in Vietnam, 35 years later. Proceedings of the Paris Conference (Senate, March, 11-12th, 2005
(ecological/biological technologies for example). High temperature incineration or
chemical technology is not a practical and economical mitigation approach, due to the
large volume of contaminated soil requiring treatment.
• Helping minority groups living in areas affected by military activities to improve their
living standards in order to reduce the pressure they now exert on forests and
endangered species.
• Training of young scientists in habitat restoration and in the conservation of
ecosystems, flora and fauna.
• Clearing of landmines and other UXO, especially in areas occupied by minority groups.
Needless to say, such research priorities must be meaningfully related to corrective
measures for habitat rehabilitation, clearing of landmines and other UXO, improvements
in the living standards of local populations, reforestation, soil stabilization, and the
restoration of aquatic habitats with their associated organisms.
Finally, it is essential that those who are most directly affected by the long-term
consequences of the war be provided with sufficient resources to understand and
implement programs for healing and restoring the ravaged environment. Only in this way
will it be possible to overcome the terrible legacy of the war.
REFERENCES
1 Ashton P. S., 1983, "Régénération de la forêt tropicale constamment verte". Symposium
international sur "Les Herbicides et Défoliants employés dans la guerre: les Effets à
long-terme sur l’homme et la nature". Ho Chi Minh Ville, 13-20 Janvier 1983, Vol II.
2 Brunig E. F., 1983, "La guerre chimique et les dynamiques et la gestion des
écosystèmes forestiers tropicaux", Symposium international sur "Les Herbicides et
Défoliants employés dans la guerre: les Effets à long-terme sur l’homme et la nature".
Ho Chi Minh Ville, 13-20 Janvier 1983, Vol II.
3 Duong Hong Dat, 1983, "Conséquences écologiques dans l’agriculture de la guerre
chimique au Sud du Vietnam". Symposium international sur "Les Herbicides et
Défoliants employés dans la guerre: les Effets à long-terme sur l’homme et la nature".
Ho Chi Minh Ville, 13-20 Janvier 1983, Vol II.
4 Graham K., 1996, Contemporary Environmentalists. Global Profiles, Facts\On File, Inc.,
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5 Hatfield Consultants Ltd., 10-80 Committee, 2000, Development of Impact mitigation
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