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Molière
This article is about the French playwright. For other a spacious room appointed for theatrical performances.
uses, see Molière (disambiguation).
Later, Molière was granted the use of the theatre in the
Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, known by his stage name Palais-Royal. In both locations he found success among
Parisians with plays such as The Affected Ladies, The
School for Husbands and The School for Wives. This royal
favour brought a royal pension to his troupe and the title
Troupe du Roi (“The King’s Troupe”). Molière continued
as the official author of court entertainments.[4]
Though he received the adulation of the court and
Parisians, Molière’s satires attracted criticism from
moralists and the Catholic Church. Tartuffe and its attack on perceived religious hypocrisy roundly received
condemnations from the Church, while Don Juan was
banned from performance. Molière’s hard work in so
many theatrical capacities took its toll on his health and,
by 1667, he was forced to take a break from the stage. In
1673, during a production of his final play, The Imaginary Invalid, Molière, who suffered from pulmonary
tuberculosis, was seized by a coughing fit and a haemorrhage while playing the hypochondriac Argan. He finished the performance but collapsed again and died a few
hours later.[4]
1 Life
Molière was born in Paris, the son of Jean Poquelin and
Marie Cressé, the daughter of a prosperous bourgeois
family.[5] He lost his mother when he was ten and he did
not seem to have been particularly close to his father. After his mother’s death, he lived with his father above the
Pavillon des Singes on the rue Saint-Honoré, an affluent
area of Paris. It is likely that his education commenced
with studies in a Parisian elementary school; this was followed with his enrollment in the prestigious Jesuit Collège
de Clermont, where he completed his studies in a strict
academic environment and got a first taste of life on the
stage.[6]
Portrait of Molière by Nicolas Mignard
Molière (/moʊlˈjɛər/;[1] French: [mɔ.ljɛːʁ]; 15 January
1622 – 17 February 1673), was a French playwright and
actor who is considered to be one of the greatest masters of comedy in Western literature.[2] Among Molière’s
best known works are The Misanthrope, The School for
Wives, Tartuffe, The Miser, The Imaginary Invalid, and
The Bourgeois Gentleman.
Born into a prosperous family and having studied at
the Collège de Clermont (now Lycée Louis-le-Grand),
Molière was well suited to begin a life in the theatre.
Thirteen years as an itinerant actor helped him polish his comic abilities while he began writing, combining Commedia dell'arte elements with the more refined
French comedy.[3]
In 1631, Jean Poquelin purchased from the court of Louis
XIII the posts of "valet de chambre ordinaire et tapissier
du Roi" (“valet of the King’s chamber and keeper of carpets and upholstery”). His son assumed the same posts in
1641.[7] The title required only three months’ work and an
initial cost of 1,200 livres; the title paid 300 livres a year
and provided a number of lucrative contracts. Poquelin
also studied as a provincial lawyer some time around
1642, probably in Orléans, but it is not documented that
he ever qualified. So far he had followed his father’s plans,
which had served him well; he had mingled with nobility
Through the patronage of aristocrats including Philippe
I, Duke of Orléans—the brother of Louis XIV—Molière
procured a command performance before the King at the
Louvre. Performing a classic play by Pierre Corneille
and a farce of his own, The Doctor in Love, Molière was
granted the use of salle du Petit-Bourbon near the Louvre,
1
2
1
LIFE
at the Collège de Clermont and seemed destined for a ca- After his imprisonment, he and Madeleine began a thereer in office.
atrical circuit of the provinces with a new theatre troupe;
In June 1643, when Molière was 21, he decided to aban- this life was to last about twelve years, during which he
don his social class and pursue a career on the stage. Tak- initially played in the company of Charles Dufresne, and
ing leave of his father, he joined the actress Madeleine subsequently created a company of his own, which had
Béjart, with whom he had crossed paths before, and sufficient success and obtained the patronage of Philippe
founded the Illustre Théâtre with 630 livres. They were I, Duke of Orléans. Few plays survive from this period.
The most noteworthy are L'Étourdi, ou le Contretemps
later joined by Madeleine’s brother and sister.
(The Bungler) and Le Docteur Amoureux (The Doctor
The new theatre troupe went bankrupt in 1645. Molière in Love); with these two plays, Molière moved away
had become head of the troupe, due in part, perhaps, to from the heavy influence of the Italian improvisational
his acting prowess and his legal training. However, the Commedia dell'arte, and displayed his talent for mocktroupe had acquired large debts, mostly for the rent of the ery. In the course of his travels he met Armand, Prince
theatre (a court for jeu de paume), for which they owed of Conti, the governor of Languedoc, who became his pa2000 livres. Historians differ as to whether his father or tron, and named his company after him. This friendship
the lover of a member of his troupe paid his debts; either later ended when Conti, having contracted syphilis from
way, after a 24-hour stint in prison he returned to the act- a courtesan, turned towards religion and joined Molière’s
ing circuit. It was at this time that he began to use the enemies in the Parti des Dévots and the Compagnie de
pseudonym Molière, possibly inspired by a small village Saint Sacrement.
of the same name in the Midi near Le Vigan. It was also
likely that he changed his name to spare his father the In Lyon, Mademoiselle Du Parc, known as Marquise,
shame of having an actor in the family (actors, although joined the company. Marquise was courted, in vain,
no longer vilified by the state under Louis XIV, were still by Pierre Corneille and later became the lover of Jean
Racine. Racine offered Molière his tragedy Théagène et
not allowed to be buried in sacred ground).
Chariclée (one of the first works he wrote after he had
abandoned his theology studies), but Molière would not
perform it, though he encouraged Racine to pursue his
artistic career. It is said that soon thereafter Molière became angry with Racine when he was told that he had secretly presented his tragedy to the company of the Hôtel
de Bourgogne as well.
1.1 Return to Paris
Molière was forced to reach Paris in stages, staying outside for a few weeks in order to promote himself with
society gentlemen and allow his reputation to feed in to
Paris. Molière reached Paris in 1658 and performed in
front of the King at the Louvre (then for rent as a theatre) in Corneille’s tragedy Nicomède and in the farce Le
Docteur Amoureux with some success. He was awarded
the title of Troupe de Monsieur (Monsieur being the
honorific for the king’s brother Philippe I, Duke of Orléans). With the help of Monsieur, his company was allowed to share the theatre in the large hall of the PetitBourbon with the famous Italian Commedia dell'arte
company of Tiberio Fiorillo, famous for his character
of Scaramouche. (The two companies performed in the
theatre on different nights.) The premiere of Molière’s
Les Précieuses Ridicules (The Affected Young Ladies) took
place at the Petit-Bourbon on 18 November 1659.
Les Précieuses Ridicules was the first of Molière’s many
attempts to satirize certain societal mannerisms and affectations then common in France. It is widely accepted
that the plot was based on Samuel Chappuzeau's Le Cercle
des Femmes of 1656. He primarily mocks the Académie
Illustration after Pierre Brissart for the printed text of 'L'Étourdi, Française, a group created by Richelieu under a royal
ou le Contretemps
patent to establish the rules of the fledgling French the-
1.2
Height of fame
ater. The Académie preached unity of time, action, and
styles of verse. Molière is often associated with the claim
that comedy castigat ridendo mores or “criticises customs
through humour” (a phrase in fact coined by his contemporary Jean de Santeuil and sometimes mistaken for a
classical Latin proverb).[8]
1.2
Height of fame
3
for the eastern expansion of the Louvre, but Molière’s
company was allowed to move into the abandoned theatre
in the east wing of the Palais-Royal. After a period of refurbishment they opened there on 20 January 1661. In order to please his patron, Monsieur, who was so enthralled
with entertainment and art that he was soon excluded
from state affairs, Molière wrote and played Dom Garcie de Navarre ou Le Prince jaloux (The Jealous Prince, 4
February 1661), a heroic comedy derived from a work of
Cicognini’s. Two other comedies of the same year were
the successful L'École des maris (The School for Husbands) and Les Fâcheux, subtitled Comédie faite pour les
divertissements du Roi (a comedy for the King’s amusements) because it was performed during a series of parties that Nicolas Fouquet gave in honor of the sovereign.
These entertainments led Jean-Baptiste Colbert to demand the arrest of Fouquet for wasting public money, and
he was condemned to life imprisonment.
Despite his own preference for tragedy, which he had
tried to further with the Illustre Théâtre, Molière became
famous for his farces, which were generally in one act and
performed after the tragedy. Some of these farces were
only partly written, and were played in the style of Commedia dell'arte with improvisation over a canovaccio (a
vague plot outline). He also wrote two comedies in verse,
but these were less successful and are generally considered less significant. Later in life Molière concentrated
On 20 February 1662 Molière married Armande Béjart,
on writing musical comedies, in which the drama is interwhom he believed to be the sister of Madeleine. (She may
rupted by songs and/or dances.
instead have been her illegitimate daughter with the Duke
Les Précieuses Ridicules won Molière the attention and the of Modena.) The same year he premiered L'École des
criticism of many, but it was not a popular success. He femmes (The School for Wives), subsequently regarded
then asked Fiorillo to teach him the techniques of Com- as a masterpiece. It poked fun at the limited education
media dell'arte. His 1660 play Sganarelle, ou Le Cocu that was given to daughters of rich families, and reflected
imaginaire (The Imaginary Cuckold) seems to be a tribute Molière’s own marriage. Both this work and his marriage
both to Commedia dell'arte and to his teacher. Its theme attracted much criticism. The play sparked the protest
of marital relationships dramatizes Molière’s pessimistic called the “Quarrel of L'École des femmes”. On the artisviews on the falsity inherent in human relationships. This tic side he responded with two lesser-known works: La
view is also evident in his later works, and was a source Critique de “L'École des femmes”, in which he imagined
of inspiration for many later authors, including (in a dif- the spectators of his previous work attending it. The piece
ferent field and with different effect) Luigi Pirandello. It mocks the people who had criticised L'École des femmes
describes a kind of round dance where two couples be- by showing them at dinner after watching the play; it adlieve that each of their partners has been betrayed by the dresses all the criticism raised about the piece by presentother’s and is the first in Molière’s 'Jealousy series’ which ing the critics’ arguments and then dismissing them. This
includes Dom Garcie de Navarre, L'École des maris and was the so-called Guerre comique (War of Comedy), in
L'École des femmes.
which the opposite side was taken by writers like Donneau
de Visé, Edmé Boursault, and Montfleury.
But more serious opposition was brewing, focusing on
Molière’s politics and his personal life. A so-called
parti des Dévots arose in French high society, who
protested against Molière’s excessive "realism" and irreverence, which were causing some embarrassment. These
people accused Molière of having married his daughter. The Prince of Conti, once Molière’s friend, joined
them. Molière had other enemies, too, among them the
Jansenists and some traditional authors. However, the
king expressed support for the author, granting him a
pension and agreeing to be the godfather of Molière’s first
son. Boileau also supported him through statements that
he included in his Art poétique.
First volume of a 1739 translation into English of all of Molière’s
plays, printed by John Watts.
In 1660 the Petit-Bourbon was demolished to make way
Molière’s friendship with Jean-Baptiste Lully influenced
him towards writing his Le Mariage forcé and La
Princesse d'Élide (subtitled as Comédie galante mêlée de
musique et d'entrées de ballet), written for royal "divertissements" at the Palace of Versailles.
4
Tartuffe, ou L'Imposteur was also performed at Versailles,
in 1664, and created the greatest scandal of Molière’s
artistic career. Its depiction of the hypocrisy of the dominant classes was taken as an outrage and violently contested. It also aroused the wrath of the Jansenists and the
play was banned.
Molière was always careful not to attack the institution
of monarchy. He earned a position as one of the king’s
favourites and enjoyed his protection from the attacks
of the court. The king allegedly suggested that Molière
suspend performances of Tartuffe, and the author rapidly
wrote Dom Juan ou le Festin de Pierre to replace it. It was
a strange work, derived from a work by Tirso de Molina
and rendered in a prose that still seems modern today. It
describes the story of an atheist who becomes a religious
hypocrite and for this is punished by God. This work too
was quickly suspended. The king, demonstrating his protection once again, became the new official sponsor of
Molière’s troupe.
1
LIFE
banned the play. The King finally imposed respect for
Tartuffe a few years later, after he had gained more power
over the clergy.
Molière, now ill, wrote less. Le Sicilien ou L'Amour
peintre was written for festivities at the castle of
Saint-Germain-en-Laye, and was followed in 1668 by
Amphitryon, inspired both by Plautus' work of the same
name and Jean Rotrou’s successful reconfiguration of the
drama. With some conjecture, Molière’s play can be seen
to allude to the love affairs of Louis XIV, then king of
France. George Dandin, ou Le mari confondu (The Confounded Husband) was little appreciated, but success returned with L'Avare (The Miser), now very well known.
With Lully he again used music for Monsieur de
Pourceaugnac, for Les Amants magnifiques, and finally
for Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (The Middle Class Gentleman), another of his masterpieces. It is claimed to be particularly directed against Colbert, the minister who had
condemned his old patron Fouquet. The collaboration
With music by Lully, Molière presented L'Amour with Lully ended with a tragédie et ballet, Psyché, writmédecin (Love Doctor or Medical Love). Subtitles on this ten in collaboration with Pierre Corneille and Philippe
occasion reported that the work was given “par ordre du Quinault.
Roi” (by order of the king) and this work was received In 1672, Madeleine Béjart died, and Molière suffered
much more warmly than its predecessors.
from this loss and from the worsening of his own illness. Nevertheless, he wrote a successful Les Fourberies
de Scapin (“Scapin’s Deceits”), a farce and a comedy in
five acts. His following play, La Comtesse d'Escarbagnas,
is considered one of his lesser works.
Louis XIV invites Molière to share his supper—an unfounded
Romantic anecdote, illustrated in 1863 painting by Jean-Léon
Gérôme
In 1666, Le Misanthrope was produced. It is now widely
regarded as Molière’s most refined masterpiece, the one
with the highest moral content, but it was little appreciated at its time. It caused the “conversion” of Donneau
de Visé, who became fond of his theatre. But it was a
commercial flop, forcing Molière to immediately write Le
médecin malgré lui (The Doctor Despite Himself), a satire
against the official sciences. This was a success despite a
moral treatise by the Prince of Conti, criticizing the theater in general and Molière’s in particular. In several of
his plays, Molière depicted the physicians of his day as
pompous individuals who speak (poor) Latin to impress
others with false erudition, and know only clysters and
bleedings as (ineffective) remedies.
After the Mélicerte and the Pastorale comique, he tried
again to perform a revised Tartuffe in 1667, this time with
the name of Panulphe or L'Imposteur. As soon as the
King left Paris for a tour, Lamoignon and the archbishop
Les Femmes savantes (The Learned Ladies) of 1672 is
considered another of Molière’s masterpieces. It was
born from the termination of the legal use of music in
theater, since Lully had patented the opera in France (and
taken most of the best available singers for his own performances), so Molière had to go back to his traditional
genre. It was a great success, and it led to his last work
(see below), which is still held in high esteem.
In his 14 years in Paris, Molière singlehandedly wrote 31
of the 85 plays performed on his stage.
1.3 Les Comédies-Ballets
In 1661, Molière introduced the comédies-ballets in conjunction with Les Fâcheux. These ballets were a transitional form of dance performance between the court
ballets of Louis XIV and the art of professional theatre
which was developing in the advent of the use of the
proscenium stage.[9] The comédies-ballets developed accidentally when Molière was enlisted to mount both a play
and a ballet in the honor of Louis XIV and found that he
did not have a big enough cast to meet these demands.
Molière therefore decided to combine the ballet and the
play so that the his goal could be met while the performers
catch their breath and change costume.[9] The risky move
paid off and Molière was asked to produce twelve more
comédies-ballets before his death.[9] During the comédies-
5
ballets, Molière collaborated with Pierre Beauchamp.[9]
Beauchamp codified the five balletic positions of the feet
and arms and was partly responsible for the creation
of the Beauchamp-Feuillet dance notation.[10] Molière
also collaborated with Jean-Baptiste Lully.[9] Lully was a
dancer, choreographer, and composer, whose dominant
reign at the Paris Opéra lasted fifteen years. Under his
command, ballet and opera rightly became professional
arts unto themselves.[11] The comédies-ballets closely integrated dance with music and the action of the play and
the style of continuity distinctly separated these performances from the court ballets of the time;[12] additionally,
the comédies-ballets demanded that both the dancers and
the actors play an important role in advancing the story.
Similar to the court ballets, both professionally trained
dancers and courtiers socialized together at the comédiesballets - Louis XIV even played the part of an Egyptian
in Molière’s Le Mariage forcé (1664) and also appeared
as Neptune and Apollo in his retirement performance of
Les Amants magnifiques (1670).[12]
2
Under French law at the time, actors were not allowed
to be buried in the sacred ground of a cemetery. However, Molière’s widow, Armande, asked the King if her
spouse could be granted a normal funeral at night. The
King agreed and Molière’s body was buried in the part of
the cemetery reserved for unbaptised infants.
In 1792 his remains were brought to the museum of
French monuments and in 1817 transferred to Père
Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, close to those of La
Fontaine.
3 Reception of his works
Death
Molière’s tomb at the Père Lachaise Cemetery. La Fontaine's is
visible just beyond.
Molière suffered from pulmonary tuberculosis, possibly
contracted when he was imprisoned for debt as a young
man. One of the most famous moments in Molière’s life
was his last, which became legend: he collapsed on stage
in a fit of coughing and haemorrhaging while performing in the last play he'd written, which had lavish ballets performed to the music of Marc-Antoine Charpentier
and which ironically was entitled Le Malade imaginaire
(The Imaginary Invalid). Molière insisted on completing his performance. Afterwards he collapsed again with
another, larger haemorrhage before being taken home,
where he died a few hours later, without receiving the
last rites because two priests refused to visit him while a
third arrived too late. The superstition that green brings
bad luck to actors is said to originate from the colour of
the clothing he was wearing at the time of his death.
Molière statue on the Fontaine Molière, corner of Rue de Richelieu and Rue Molière in Paris
Though conventional thinkers, religious leaders, and
medical professionals in Molière’s time criticised his
work, their ideas did not really diminish his widespread
success with the public. Other playwrights and companies began to emulate his dramatic style in England and
in France. Molière’s works continued to garner positive
feedback in 18th century England, but they were not so
warmly welcomed in France at this time. However, during the French Restoration of the 19th century, Molière’s
comedies became popular with both the French public
and the critics. Romanticists admired his plays for the unconventional individualism they portrayed. 20th century
scholars have carried on this interest in Molière and his
plays and have continued to study a wide array of issues
6
6 LIST OF MAJOR WORKS
relating to this playwright. Many critics now are shifting their attention from the philosophical, religious, and
moral implications in his comedies to the more objective
study of his comic technique.[13]
Molière’s works were translated into English prose by
John Ozell in 1714,[14] but the first complete version in
English, by Baker and Miller in 1739, remained “influential” and was long reprinted.[15] The first to offer full
translations of Molière’s verse plays such as Tartuffe into
English verse was Curtis Hidden Page, who produced
blank verse versions of three of the plays in his 1908
translation.[16] Since then, notable translations have been
made by Richard Wilbur, Donald M. Frame, and many
others.
In his memoir A Terrible Liar, actor Hume Cronyn writes
that, in 1962, celebrated actor Laurence Olivier criticized Molière in a conversation with him. According
to Cronyn, he mentioned to Olivier that he (Cronyn)
was about to play the title role in The Miser, and that
Olivier then responded, “Molière? Funny as a baby’s
open grave.” Cronyn comments on the incident: “You
may imagine how that made me feel. Fortunately, he was
dead wrong.”[17]
Author Martha Bellinger points out that:
[Molière] has been accused of not having a
consistent, organic style, of using faulty grammar, of mixing his metaphors, and of using unnecessary words for the purpose of filling out
his lines. All these things are occasionally true,
but they are trifles in comparison to the wealth
of character he portrayed, to his brilliancy of
wit, and to the resourcefulness of his technique. He was wary of sensibility or pathos;
but in place of pathos he had “melancholy—
a puissant and searching melancholy, which
strangely sustains his inexhaustible mirth and
his triumphant gaiety”.[18]
4
Influence on French culture
Molière is considered the creator of modern French comedy. Many words or phrases used in Molière’s plays are
still used in current French:
• A tartuffe is a hypocrite, especially a hypocrite displaying affected morality or religious piety.
• A harpagon, named after the main character of The
Miser, is an obsessively greedy and cheap man.
• The statue of the Commander (statue du Commandeur) from Don Juan is used as a model of implacable rigidity (raide comme la statue du Commandeur).
• In Les Fourberies de Scapin, Act II, scene 7, Géronte
is asked for ransom money for his son, allegedly held
in a galley. He repeats, “What the deuce did he want
to go in that galley for?" (“Que diable allait-il faire
dans cette galère?") The phrase “to go on that galley”
is used to describe unnecessary difficulties a person
has sought.
• In Le médecin malgré lui, forced to impersonate
a doctor, the chancer Sganarelle examines a young
woman who is faking muteness in order to delay an
arranged marriage. He then delivers to her father a
"diagnosis" which consists of strings of gobbledygook, dog latin and recursive explanations which
conclude with an authoritative “and so that is why
your daughter is mute” (“Et voilà pourquoi votre fille
est muette”). The phrase is used wholesale to mock
an unsatisfactory explanation.
5 Portrayals of Molière
Molière plays a small part in Alexandre Dumas's novel
The Vicomte of Bragelonne, in which he is seen taking inspiration from the muskeeter Porthos for his central character in Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme.
Russian writer Mikhail Bulgakov wrote a semi-fictitious
biography-tribute to Molière, titled Life of Mr. de
Molière. Written 1932-1933, first published 1962.
The 2000 film Le Roi Danse (The King Dances), in which
Molière is played by Tchéky Karyo, shows his collaborations with Jean-Baptiste Lully, as well as his illness and
on-stage death.
The French 1978 film titled Molière directed by Ariane
Mnouchkine, presents his complete biography. It was in
competition for the Palme d'Or at Cannes in 1978.[19]
The 2007 French film Molière was more loosely based
on the life of Molière, starring Romain Duris, Fabrice
Luchini and Ludivine Sagnier.
6 List of major works
• Le Médecin volant (1645)—The Flying Doctor
• La Jalousie du barbouillé (1650)
• L'Étourdi ou Les Contretemps (1655)—The Blunderer
• Le Dépit amoureux (16 December 1656)
• Le Docteur amoureux (1658), the first play performed by Molière’s troupe for Louis XIV (now
lost)—The Doctor in Love
• Les Précieuses ridicules (18 November 1659)—The
Affected Young Ladies
• Sganarelle ou Le Cocu imaginaire (28 May 1660)—
Sganarelle, or the Imaginary Cuckold
7
• Dom Garcie de Navarre ou Le Prince jaloux (4
February 1661)—Don Garcia of Navarre or the
Jealous Prince
• L'École des maris (24 June 1661)—The School for
Husbands
• La Comtesse d'Escarbagnas (2 December 1671)
• Les Femmes savantes (11 March 1672)—The
Learned Ladies
• Le Malade imaginaire (10 February 1673)—The
Imaginary Invalid
• Les Fâcheux (17 August 1661)—The Mad
• L'École des femmes (26 December 1662; adapted
into The Amorous Flea, 1964)—The School for
Wives
• La Jalousie du Gros-René (15 April 1663)
• La Critique de l'école des femmes (1 June 1663)—
Critique of the School for Wives
• L'Impromptu de Versailles (14 October 1663)
7 See also
• Biography portal
• Theatre portal
8 References
• Le Mariage forcé (29 January 1664)—The Forced
Marriage
[1] “Molière”. Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary.
• Gros-René, petit enfant (27 April 1664; now lost)
[2] Hartnoll, p. 554. “Author of some of the finest comedies
in the history of the theater”, and Roy, p. 756. "...one of
the theatre’s greatest comic artists”.
• La Princesse d'Élide (8 May 1664)—The Princess of
Elid
• Tartuffe ou L'Imposteur (12 May 1664)—Tartuffe
• Dom Juan ou Le Festin de pierre (15 February 1665)
• L'Amour médecin (15 September 1665)—Love Is
the Doctor
[3] Roy, p. 756.
[4] Roy, p. 756–757.
[5] Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft (1840). Lives of the Most
Eminent French Writers. Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard. p. 116.
• Le Misanthrope ou L'Atrabilaire amoureux (4 June
1666)—The Misanthrope
[6] John W. O'Malley, The Jesuits; a history from Ignatius to
the present, London, Sheed and Ward, 2014, p.30 ,
• Le Médecin malgré lui (6 August 1666)—The Doctor
in Spite of Himself
[7] Alfred Simon, Molière, une vie (Lyon: La Manufacture,
1988), pp. 520-21.
• Mélicerte (2 December 1666)
• Pastorale comique (5 January 1667)
• Le Sicilien ou L'Amour peintre (14 February 1667)—
The Sicilian, or Love the Painter
• Amphitryon (13 January 1668)
• George Dandin ou Le Mari confondu (18 July
1668)—George Dandin, or the Abashed Husband
• L'Avare ou L'École du mensonge (9 September
1668)—The Miser
• Monsieur de Pourceaugnac (6 October 1669)
• Les Amants magnifiques (4 February 1670)—The
Magnificent Lovers
• Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (14 October 1670)—The
Bourgeois Gentleman
• Psyché (17 January 1671)—Psyche
• Les Fourberies de Scapin (24 May 1671)
[8] Martin Barnham. “The Cambridge Guide to Theater.”
Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1995, p. 472.
[9] Au, Susan (2002). Ballet and Modern Dance - Second Edition. London: Thames & Hudson LTD. p. 23. ISBN 9780-500-20352-1.
[10] Au, Susan (2002). Ballet and Modern Dance - Second Edition. London: Thames & Hudson LTD. p. 26. ISBN 9780-500-20352-1.
[11] Au, Susan (2002). Ballet and Modern Dance - Second Edition. London: Thames & Hudson LTD. p. 25. ISBN 9780-500-20352-1.
[12] Au, Susan (2002). Ballet and Modern Dance - Second Edition. London: Thames & Hudson LTD. p. 24. ISBN 9780-500-20352-1.
[13] ""Molière: Introduction” ''Drama Criticism''. Vol. 13.
Ed. Linda Pavlovski. Gale Group, Inc., 2001. Accessed:
28 Nov, 2007”. Enotes.com. Retrieved 2010-03-09.
[14] “Bibliography” in Curtis Hidden Page, trans., French Classics for English Readers: Molière New York & London,
G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1908, Vol. 1, p. xliii. Retrieved
2010-06-27.
8
9
[15] Olive Classe, ed., Encyclopedia of literary translation into
English: M-Z, Volume 2 London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 2000, Vol. 2, p. 958. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
[16] “Preface to the Translation” in Curtis Hidden Page, trans.,
French Classics for English Readers: Molière New York
& London, G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1908, Vol. 1, p. xxxi.
Retrieved 2010-06-27.
[17] Hume Cronyn, A Terrible Liar: A Memoir, New York:
Morrow, 1991, p. 275. Accessed via Google Books on
1 Nov. 2009. Retrieved 2010-03-09.
[18] “Bellinger, Martha Fletcher (1927) ''A Short History of
the Drama'' New York: Henry Holt & Company. pp. 17881. Accessed: Nov 27, 2007”. Theatredatabase.com. Retrieved 2010-03-09.
[19]
8.1
Bibliography
• Dormandy, Thomas. “The white death: a history of
tuberculosis”, New York University Press, 2000, p.
10
• Hartnoll, Phyllis (ed.). The Oxford Companion to
the Theatre, 1983, Oxford University Press
• Roy, Donald. “Molière”, in Banham, Martin (ed.)
The Cambridge Guide to Theatre, 1995, Cambridge
University Press
• Scott, Virginia. Molière, A Theatrical Life, 2000,
Cambridge University Press
• Riggs, Larry.
Molière and Modernity, Charlottesville: Rookwood Press 2005
• Patricia M. Ranum, Portraits around Marc-Antoine
Charpentier (Baltimore, 2004), “Molière”, pp. 141–
49
• Claude Alberge, Voyage de Molière en Languedoc
(1647-1657) (Presses du Languedoc, 1988)
9
External links
• Works by Molière at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about Molière at Internet Archive
• Works by Molière at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• Molière’s works online at toutmoliere.net (in
French)
• Molière’s works online at site-moliere.com
• Molière’s works online at InLibroVeritas.net
EXTERNAL LINKS
• Biography, Bibliography, Analysis, Plot overview at
biblioweb.org (in French)
• Moliere’s Verses Plays Publication, Statistics, Words
Research (in French)
• The Comédie Française Registers a database of over
34,000 performances from 1680 to 1791
9
10
10.1
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
Text
• Molière Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re?oldid=720233333 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Derek Ross, Mav,
Bryan Derksen, Zundark, Tarquin, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Christian List, Gianfranco, Deb, William Avery, Hephaestos, Olivier,
Paul Barlow, Menchi, Wapcaplet, Paul A, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Jebba, Netsnipe, John K, Frieda,
WhisperToMe, Tpbradbury, Paul-L~enwiki, Wetman, David.Monniaux, Aron1, Rhys~enwiki, Robbot, Chocolateboy, Baldhur, Seglea,
Naddy, Mayooranathan, Cholling, UtherSRG, Wereon, Mandel, Guy Peters, Xyzzyva, DocWatson42, EdwardSabol, Jason Quinn, Neilc,
Manuel Anastácio, DavidBrooks, Antandrus, The Singing Badger, MisfitToys, Rdsmith4, Ganymead, Uly, Tsemii, Trevor MacInnis, D6,
Freakofnurture, Discospinster, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, Rama, Silence, Mani1, Pavel Vozenilek, Bender235, El C, Kwamikagami,
Joaopais, Bill Thayer, Thewayforward, Jacius, MPerel, Polylerus, JYolkowski, Enirac Sum, Hektor, Arthena, Philip Cross, Riana, SFTVLGUY2, Reaverdrop, Japanese Searobin, Woohookitty, PoccilScript, Orchew, Robert K S, Dumboy, Emerson7, Mandarax, Graham87,
Magister Mathematicae, Kbdank71, Icey, Wikix, Koavf, Farialima, Merrilee, Lairor, The wub, TBHecht, MarnetteD, Dar-Ape, FlaBot,
Pruneau, Margosbot~enwiki, Nihiltres, Wars, Str1977, Hannu83, Maustrauser, Alphachimp, Chobot, DVdm, Gdrbot, Chwyatt, YurikBot, Huw Powell, RussBot, Bhny, Djcartwright, Shell Kinney, K.C. Tang, Arichnad, UDScott, Dureo, Johndarrington, MollyTheCat, Ad
Nauseam, Wobbith, Asarelah, Mrbluesky, N. Harmonik, FF2010, Saranghae honey, [email protected], NYArtsnWords, LeonardoRob0t, Curpsbot-unicodify, Jeremy Butler, RG2, GrinBot~enwiki, Attilios, SmackBot, Blue520, Sicherman, Midway, HDS, Skizzik,
Squashy, Jprg1966, MalafayaBot, Mona, Colonies Chris, John Reaves, Atropos, Bigturtle, Wybot, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Curly Turkey,
Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Kipala, Pat Payne, IronGargoyle, Fernando S. Aldado~enwiki, Voceditenore, A. Parrot, Rkmlai, Arlamae1, Kyoko, GilbertoSilvaFan, Neddyseagoon, Dekaels~enwiki, André Koehne, JoeBot, Zayya, Shoeofdeath, CapitalR, O1ive, Courcelles, GrimGrinningGuest, AlbertSM, Arco de Rayne, Lazulilasher, WeggeBot, Davnor, Equendil, Cydebot, Henrymrx,
Aristophanes68, Channer, ST47, Robert.Allen, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, TonyTheTiger, The Dark Side, JustAGal, Escarbot, RobotG, QuiteUnusual, Danger, Storkk, Gökhan, Canadian-Bacon, JAnDbot, DuncanHill, Barek, Arch dude, C. C. Perez, Acroterion, Murgh, Bfx12a9,
Midgrid, Coughinink, Allstarecho, Haavardjenssen, Spellmaster, LeMarsu, Madseckert, Flowanda, Anne97432, Zouavman Le Zouave,
CommonsDelinker, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Kb1, Sasajid, Adavidb, J.A.McCoy, Gorka alustiza~enwiki, Johnbod, Smeira, Balthazarduju, Clitandre, M-le-mot-dit, Robertgreer, 2812, MetsFan76, Fair Alienor, Juliancolton, Natl1, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Pavane, Caspian blue,
VolkovBot, Aciram, AlnoktaBOT, Tomer T, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, CFrenchFry, Rei-bot, Ask123, Qxz, Pictureperfectkiddo, Susan1000, Littlealien182, Rdenholm, JhsBot, Modal Jig, Natg 19, Michelle192837, TonyPS214, Lainer21193, Nowax, Zerged, Alcmaeonid,
Symane, Munci, EmxBot, Austriacus, Copana2002, Natox, SieBot, Evansrjh, Nihil novi, BotMultichill, Proscript, Hoorah83, Bassclef91,
Mam711, Sterry2607, Monegasque, Yerpo, Tombomp, KathrynLybarger, Rhsimard, BenoniBot~enwiki, IdreamofJeanie, Denisarona, A
mckeage, Loren.wilton, ClueBot, SaberBlaze, The Thing That Should Not Be, Blackangel25, Portia1780, Icarusgeek, Rjd0060, Classicalsteve, Razimantv, Mezigue, Ilove129, HicTamenVivit, Lauragj89, Thelustywench, Jeanenawhitney, Quercus basaseachicensis, Steamroller Assault, Thtaupin, Versus22, Introductory adverb clause, Amcilroy, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Gnowor, Avoided, Skarebo,
73mmmm, Cg2p0B0u8m, Dtwiggy, Jupernia, Good Olfactory, RyanCross, Kbdankbot, Wyatt915, Addbot, Neodop, Underwaterbuffalo,
Leszek Jańczuk, Jim10701, Download, LaaknorBot, LinkFA-Bot, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Tallorno, Wikiwark, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Nirvanagyrll1, Amirobot, Downstage right, KenelmJames, Dr Roots, Bladt, AnakngAraw, Acbdc, Synchronism, AnomieBOT,
David Lee Rubin, Rubinbot, Jim1138, 9258fahsflkh917fas, Materialscientist, Xqbot, The sock that should not be, C+C, Archimatth,
Lam-ang, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Vlastimil Svoboda, Green Cardamom, LucienBOT, Raouldj, Ranumspa, D'ohBot, Hirpex, Commit
charge, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, HRoestBot, DefaultsortBot, Alonso de Mendoza, Rushbugled13, Bmclaughlin9, RedBot, Serols,
December21st2012Freak, Jauhienij, Kgrad, DixonDBot, Chnou, Axlvilain, Enchantedme, Diannaa, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Ripchip Bot,
Alfons2, WinContro, EmausBot, Ron Holmstrom, WikitanvirBot, Frederic420, 4meter4, Wikipelli, John of Lancaster, Anirudh Emani,
ZéroBot, Hydriz, Maliepa, Erianna, Chewings72, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Eva.i.uta, Alexcoldcasefan, Piast93, Glanis, Marechal
Ney, Crazymonkey1123, Helpful Pixie Bot, Rebekahw7, Neptune’s Trident, Greg Books, LouisAlain, Classicfilmbuff, CitationCleanerBot, Tony Tan, The Traditionalist, Gcbennett76, Taief.shahed, BrianDeeG, SD5bot, Packer1028, Gcbennett77, Dexbot, Ovtchi, VIAFbot,
Nimetapoeg, Nappenappe, Maria M Lopes, Liz, Mouliere9999p, OccultZone, Laptopguru, Loose eel, Henry.jefferies5924, --R-C-R-J--,
Adjrock, HYMBK, JoePeschel, KH-1, KasparBot, Crouziprot, Xandyxyz, Xjordan15, CatonMA, Troyelover123, Donp123 and Anonymous: 398
10.2
Images
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Jean-Léon_Gérôme_-_Louis_XIV_and_Moliere.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Jean-L%
C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_Louis_XIV_and_Moliere.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist:
Jean-Léon Gérôme
• File:Les_Contretemps.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Les_Contretemps.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB:Les_Contretemps.jpg Original artist: Drawing:
Pierre Brissart and Jean Sauve. Upload: O zanni
• File:Moliere-Rue_de_Richelieu.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Moliere-Rue_de_Richelieu.JPG
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Natl1
• File:Molière_-_Nicolas_Mignard_(1658).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Moli%C3%A8re_-_
Nicolas_Mignard_%281658%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.lessing-photo.com/dispimg.asp?i=26030249+
&cr=3&cl=1 Original artist: Nicolas Mignard
• File:P_culture.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/P_culture.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
• File:P_vip.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/P_vip.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Perelachaise-Moliere-p1000403.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/
Perelachaise-Moliere-p1000403.jpg License: CeCILL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rama
10
10
TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
• File:Pierre_Mignard_-_Portrait_de_Jean-Baptiste_Poquelin_dit_Molière_(1622-1673)_-_Google_Art_Project_(cropped).jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Pierre_Mignard_-_Portrait_de_Jean-Baptiste_Poquelin_dit_Moli%
C3%A8re_%281622-1673%29_-_Google_Art_Project_%28cropped%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The png version was
converted to jpg at Quality “8” with Photoshop Elements 10 Original artist: Pierre Mignard
• File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable
author provided. Mobius assumed (based on copyright claims).
• File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
• File:WorksMoliere1739Vol01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/WorksMoliere1739Vol01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Private Collection of S. Whitehead Original artist: Moliere and John Watts
10.3
Content license
• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0