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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 161 (2000) 49–69
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Hot spot activity and the break-up of Pangea
Jan Golonka a, *,1, Natalia Yurevna Bocharova b
a Jagiellonian University, Institute of Geological Sciences, U. Oleandry 2a, 30-063 Krakow, Poland
b Institute of Oceanology RAS, Moscow, Russia
Abstract
The Mesozoic and Cenozoic positions of the continents that formed Pangea in the Triassic–Jurassic were derived
from paleomagnetic and intraplate volcanic data, paleoclimatic observations, such as reef and fossil flora distribution,
and geological observations. Major hot spots helped to determine the longitudinal position of Pangea and to construct
a model of plate motion during the Pangean break-up. The position of the northern part of Pangea was constrained
using Iceland and Jan Mayen hot spots. The Iceland hot spot was traced from its present day position to Greenland
in the Paleocene, to Baffin Bay in the Late Cretaceous, to the Alpha Ridge in the Early Cretaceous, to the Chukchi
Borderland in the Middle–Late Jurassic, to Franz Joseph Land in the Early Jurassic, the Yenisei–Khatanga Trough
in the Middle Triassic, and finally to West Siberia in the Late Permian–Early Triassic. The hot spot activity is
expressed by Eastern and Western Greenland volcanics, the Siberian trap basalts, and perhaps by Alpha Ridge and
Chukchi Borderland volcanics. The Chukchi Borderland volcanics are related to the early stage of the opening of the
Canadian Basin. The position of the southern part of Pangea was constrained using the Bouvet hot spot. This hot
spot was tracked from its present day position to Western Antarctica in the Early Cretaceous–Late Jurassic and to
South Africa in the Early Jurassic–Late Triassic. This hot spot activity produced the Ferrar and Karoo volcanics.
The model of plate motion obtained agrees with other data on intraplate volcanics, which are also related to hot
spots. At the time of the opening of the Central Atlantic, the Cape Verde and Canary Island hot spots were located
along the ocean’s spreading axis. The long lasting location of hot spot and associated mantle upwelling plumes could
help to explain forces driving the Tethys transit plates, opening of the Ligurian Ocean and Eastern Mediterranean.
The European hot spots are related to the several Mesozoic phases of rifting. For example, the Rhine Graben hot
spot may have been located at the rifting axis in the North Sea. Several authors have already discussed the contribution
of hot spots to the opening of the South Atlantic and Indian oceans. Mantle plumes associated with hot spots play
an active role in rifting and initial phases of spreading. The lithospheric displacement, caused by upwelling combined
with sometimes remote collisional forces on the other side of continental plate, may result in compression and basin
inversion. © 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Cenozoic; hot spot tracks; Pangea; plate tectonics; Mesozoic; volcanism
* Corresponding author. Fax: +48-12-633-2270.
1 Previously with Mobil Exploration and Producing Technical Center, Dallas, TX.
0031-0182/00/$ - see front matter © 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S0 0 3 1 -0 1 8 2 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 11 7 - 6
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J. Golonka, N.Y. Bocharova / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 161 (2000) 49–69
1. Introduction
The objective of this paper is to review the
possibility of using the hot spot framework to
constrain the position of Pangea and its components during Triassic–Jurassic time and to determine the relations between hot spot activity and
supercontinental rifting and break-up. The scope
of this work is limited to hot spots located within
the broad boundaries of the Pangean supercontinent; the hot spots located within the Panthalassa
(Pacific Ocean) are not discussed.
The Mesozoic and Cenozoic positions of the
continents that formed Pangea in the Triassic–
Jurassic were derived from paleomagnetic and
intraplate volcanic data, paleoclimatic observations such as reef and fossil flora distribution, and
geological observations. Major hot spots could
help to determine the longitudinal position of
Pangea and to construct a model of plate motion
during the Pangean break-up. Generally, two
remote hot spot locations provide enough information to fix the position of the supercontinent prior
to the Middle Jurassic break-up. The obtained
model of plate motion can be compared with other
data on intraplate volcanics, which are also related
to hot spots. This approach allows us to check the
accuracy of the predicted model as well as to
determine the role of hot spots and mantle upwelling in the break-up processes.
2. Methodology
30 major hot spots related to the Pangea
break-up have been chosen: 15 locations within
the Atlantic realm, six within the Indian Ocean,
three in Africa, six in the Mediterranean area and
in Europe. This hot spot cluster corresponds
roughly to the African hot field defined by
Zonenshain et al. (1991), or zone of high geoid
residuals (see Duncan and Richards, 1991, fig. 1).
The continent and break-up related hot spot tracks
are not documented by continuous volcanic chains,
like oceanic ones; for example, Pacific Hawaii–
Emperor. The tracks plotted on maps ( Figs. 1 and
2) are a combination of observation of volcanic
activity and calculated positions of hot spots in
relation to the moving plates. Since the introduction of the concept of hot spot role in plate
tectonics by Wilson (1963) and Morgan (1971),
numerous hot spot related papers have been published. An extensive (365 pp.) bibliography of plate
tectonic related volcanism was compiled by the
University of Texas PLATES project (Coffin,
1997). We used modified hot spot tracks calculated
by Morgan (1971, 1972, 1981, 1983), Duncan
(1981, 1984, 1990), Duncan and Richards (1991),
Duncan and Storey (1992), Müller et al. (1993)
and Lawver and Müller (1994).
Two remote hot spot locations are crucial to
determine the position of Pangea during the
Triassic and Jurassic time, to fix the position of
the supercontinent prior to the break-up and disassembly. The position of the northern part of
Pangea was constrained using Iceland and Jan
Mayen hot spots. The Iceland hot spot was traced
from its present day position to Greenland in the
Paleocene, to Baffin Bay in the Late Cretaceous,
to the Alpha Ridge in the Early Cretaceous (see
Lawver and Müller, 1994), to the Chukchi
Borderland in the Middle–Late Jurassic, to Franz
Joseph Land in the Early Jurassic, to the Yenisei–
Khatanga Trough in the Middle Triassic, and to
West Siberia in the Late Permian–Early Triassic
(see Lawver, 1993). The position of the southern
part of Pangea was constrained using the Bouvet
hot spot (see Duncan and Richards, 1991). This
hot spot was tracked from its present day position
to Western Antarctica in the Late Jurassic–Early
Cretaceous and to South Africa in the Late
Triassic–Early Jurassic. Using an interactive computer graphics technique we compiled an updated
model of Pangean plate motions during the
Triassic and Jurassic time, prior to the break-up
of South Atlantic. The model for the last 130
million years (Cretaceous and Cenozoic) follows
the widely accepted models constructed by
PLATES and PALEOMAP software (see Lawver
and Gahagan, 1993; Golonka et al., 1994; Golonka
and Gahagan, 1997).
After we calculated the position and motion of
major continents using a modified PALEOMAP
model, we plotted 30 major hot spot locations in
fixed position. This allows us to check the accuracy
of the assumed and predicted locations versus the
J. Golonka, N.Y. Bocharova / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 161 (2000) 49–69
51
Fig. 1. Present day position and Mesozoic–Cenozoic tracks of the major Pangean hot spots.
actually observed volcanic, doming and rifting
activity during several stages of continental
break-up and disassembly.
3. Maps discussion
In the following discussion we frequently use
the term ‘hot spot moved’, which is understood to
mean that it changed location in relation to the
overlying plate. This is, of course, not quite correct;
the plate is moving over a relatively stationary
mantle plume expressed by a hot spot.
Nevertheless, the term makes it somewhat easier
to describe the geodynamic process.
3.1. Late Triassic — 220 Ma (Fig. 3)
At this stage the Bouvet hot spot was approximately located in South Africa position, which is
in good agreement with the location of the plume
head (see White and McKenzie, 1989; Storey et al.,
1992; Storey, 1995). There are indications of initial
rifting and volcanic activity prior to the Early
Jurassic extensive basalt lava flows. The rifting
started probably as early as the Early Permian and
continued through Permian and Triassic ( Veevers,
1994; Bangert et al., 1997; Stollhofen and
Stanistreet, 1997). The line of the Bouvet, Tristan
and St. Helen hot spots could indicate rifting and
basin formation, which preceded opening of the
South Atlantic. Basins existed during the Triassic
time in South Africa, Namibia, Parana and
Parnaiba (see maps in Golonka and Ford, 2000,
this volume). The line of the St. Helen–Trinidad
hot spots could also indicate the Paleozoic trend
of the Amazon basin. The Lower–Middle Triassic
basalts occurred in the Parnaiba basin (see Gust
et al., 1985; Khain and Balukhovski, 1993).
The Iceland hot spot was perhaps located below
the Taimyr Peninsula, between the Yenisei–
Khatanga area and Franz Joseph Land. This hot
spot was very active during Late Permian–Early
Triassic time, causing eruption of 1,200,000 km3
of basalts in the Western Siberian basin
( Zonenshain et al., 1990), within the short period
from 255 to 245 Ma. According to Sharma (1997),
the bulk of the Siberian lavas erupted within a
period of about one million years at 250 Ma.
Volcanic activity then progressed towards the
Yenisei–Khatanga trough south of the Taimyr
Peninsula, where the Middle Triassic lava flows
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J. Golonka, N.Y. Bocharova / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 161 (2000) 49–69
Fig. 2. Permian–Present Iceland hot spot track (Cretaceous–Present from Lawver and Müller, 1994, modified according to Storey
et al., 1998; Tegner et al., 1998).
are present ( Khain and Balukhovski, 1993). The
Levant hot spot, situated between the Eurasian
platform and Pontides terranes, could be connected with the opening of the proto-Black Sea,
or the so-called Tauric Basin ( Kazmin, 1990).
The Jebel Mara hot spot is located in the
Eastern Mediterranean area where rifting occurred
during the Permian and Triassic time (Stampfli
et al., 1991; Guiraud and Bellion, 1996) accompanied by Mid–Upper Triassic extensive, alkaline
basalt flows known from Levant to Morocco. The
rifting was followed by seafloor spreading recorded
J. Golonka, N.Y. Bocharova / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 161 (2000) 49–69
53
Fig. 3. Late Triassic (220 Ma) position of the major Pangean hot spots.
by Triassic Mamonia ophiolites from Cyprus
(Robertson and Woodcock, 1979). The Afar,
Comores, Reunion and St. Paul hot spots could
be associated with the rifting and drifting along
the Arabian and Indian margin, accompanied by
alkaline to transitional magmatism (Robertson
and Searle, 1990; Sengör et al., 1993; Guiraud and
Bellion, 1996). These hot spots could be an expression of mantle upwelling that was one of the
driving forces of the Cimmerian plates (Sengör,
1984), drifting from Gondwana to Eurasia. The
Comores–Bouvet line is also related to the early
stretching, predating the Karoo Rift System
(Lawver and Gahagan, 1993), developed along
the eastern coast of Africa. Around 230 Ma the
rifts and seaway between India, Madagascar and
the horn of Africa were already developed
( Veevers, 1994; Manspeizer, 1994).
The Rheingraben, Tyrrhenian and Pantelleria
hot spots are related to the Permian and Triassic
Arctic–North Atlantic rift system as well as to the
extensive Permian volcanism around the North
Sea and minor Late Triassic volcanism west and
east of Denmark ( Ziegler, 1988, pls. 6, 7, 10). The
Tibesti hot spot could be connected to Pyrenean
rifting and volcanism ( Ziegler, 1988). Volcanism
and rifting in the Canadian Arctic are perhaps
associated with the Azores hot spot. Early rifting
in the Central Atlantic area is connected with the
Sierra Leone hot spot. According to Withjack
et al. (1998, fig. 9a), in the early stage of rifting in
this area, active asthenospheric upwelling combined with distant plate tectonic forces produced
initial thinning of the lithosphere, lithospheric displacement, widespread extension, possible doming,
but no volcanic extrusion. The Fernando Po hot
spot marked an extension of this rifting system
into the area between North and South America,
the future location of the Gulf of Mexico and
proto-Caribbean area.
3.2. Early Jurassic–Middle Jurassic — 200 and 180
Ma (Figs. 4 and 5)
During Early–Middle Jurassic time the Bouvet
hot spot was approximately located between South
Africa and Antarctica. The hot spot activity was
clearly expressed by initial break-up and strong
magmatic activity on both sides of the break-up
line. According to Cox (1992), the widespread
Early Jurassic Karoo volcanism in southern Africa
appears to have been generated from the large-
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J. Golonka, N.Y. Bocharova / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 161 (2000) 49–69
Fig. 4. Early Jurassic (200 Ma) position of the major Pangean hot spots.
Fig. 5. Early–Middle Jurassic (180 Ma) position of the major Pangean hot spots.
scale mantle plume, originating in the sublithospheric mantle, with a considerable addition of material from the lithosphere. Cox (1992) postulated
two stages of the break-up. The first stage was
accompanied by volcanism in southern and southwestern Africa. Substantial eruptive activity
occurred between approximately 198 and 173 Ma.
The second stage started the separation of
J. Golonka, N.Y. Bocharova / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 161 (2000) 49–69
Madagascar from Africa, marked by seafloor magnetic anomalies in the Somalia Basin. According
to Lawver and Gahagan (1993), the seafloor
spreading in the Western Somali Basin and the
Mozambique basin began at 175±10 Ma. Brewer
et al. (1992) dated the Antarctic early magnetic
episode as 193±7 Ma. The widespread Ferrar
magmatism occurred over a short interval
176±18 Ma (Brewer et al., 1996). Cox (1992)
described the zone of volcanism as a linear belt,
which extends through the Transantarctic
Mountains for 3000 km as far as Australia. Cox
(1992) suggests a possibility of elongated mantle
upwelling or connection with the subduction zone,
which was part of the Pangean Rim of fire (see
Golonka and Ford, 2000). The role of the Conrad
hot spot remains unclear because the thick cover
of ice prevents investigations in this area.
The Iceland and Jan Mayen hot spots moved
relatively west of the Eurasian continent,
approaching the area of the future opening of the
Arctic Ocean. The early stage of Franz Joseph
Land magmatism is dated, according to Dibner
(1994), as Sinemurian (203±14 Ma), see also
Jurassic volcanic activity mapped in Franz Joseph
Land–Svalbard area by Ziegler (1988, pls. 11–13)
and Doré (1991, pls. XI, XII, XIV ). Rheingraben,
Tyrrhenian and Pantelleria continued to influence
the Arctic–North Atlantic rift system. According
to Ziegler (1988, pl. 11) volcanic activity occurred
west of Norway, during the Sinemurian–Toarcian
time, followed by widespread volcanism related to
opening of the North Sea during the Middle
Jurassic time (see also Doré, 1991, pls. XI, XII,
XIV ).
The Afar, Comores, Reunion and St. Paul hot
spots continued to be located in the marginal
Gondwana–Neotethys zone, causing a southward
shift of ridges and rifting zones (Ricou, 1996).
This shift caused rifting of the Argo block and
possibly the Lesser Caucasus–Sanandaj–Sirjan
plate (Ricou, 1996; Adamia, 1991; Sengör et al.,
1991).
Sierra Leone, Cape Verde and Tibesti hot spots
influenced the opening of the Central Atlantic–
Ligurian Ocean system. According to Withjack
et al. (1998, fig. 9b), during the late rifting phase,
55
the lithosphere was thinned and forces associated
with astenospheric upwelling increased substantially. Lithospheric displacement, caused by
upwelling, combined with the collisional events in
western North America, resulted in compression
and inversion in the intervening zone. Diabase sill
and dikes intruded into the continental crust and
a large volume of the basaltic lavas extruded
throughout eastern North America. Most of this
magmatic activity occurred at 201±2 Ma
(Dunning and Hodych, 1990; Olsen, 1997;
Withjack et al., 1998). The magmatic activity also
occurred on the African side of the Central
Atlantic Ocean and in the adjacent area of South
America ( Ziegler, 1988; Guiraud and Bellion,
1996). In the Ligurian Ocean, Ricou (1996)
described sedimentary breccias covered or intercalated with tholeitic basalts and postdated by
Callovian–Oxfordian radiolarites. Ricou (1996)
argues that the return to quiet and volcanic-free
sedimentation marks the end of spreading. While
the Tibesti hot spot could mark the southern part
of the Ligurian Ocean, the Levant hot spot could
be connected with the northern one — the Pieniny
Klippen Belt Ocean (Birkenmajer, 1986). The role
and position of this hot spot, as well as the position
of the Ceara point and its role in the opening of
the proto-Caribbean area and Gulf of Mexico,
remain somewhat speculative.
3.3. Middle–Late Jurassic — 160 and 140 Ma
(Figs. 6 and 7)
During the Middle–Late Jurassic time, the
Bouvet hot spot maintained its position close to
the Africa–Antarctica break-up. At that time,
seafloor spreading began along the line Bouvet–
Comores in the Somali Basin and the Mozambique
Channel ( Rabinowitz et al., 1983; Simpson et al.,
1979; Lawver et al., 1992; Lawver and Gahagan,
1993). The flow basalts occurred in the coastal
basins of Madagascar and Mozambique (Coffin
and Rabinowitz, 1988, 1992; Guiraud and Bellion,
1996). Lawver and Gahagan (1993) argued that
Somali and Mozambique spreading must have
been accompanied by seafloor spreading in the
Southwest Weddell Sea. LaBrecque and Barker
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J. Golonka, N.Y. Bocharova / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 161 (2000) 49–69
Fig. 6. Middle–Late Jurassic (160 Ma) position of the major Pangean hot spots.
Fig. 7. Middle–Late Jurassic–earliest Cretaceous (140 Ma) position of the major Pangean hot spots.
(1981) proposed that the Weddell Sea contains
oceanic crust of Middle Jurassic age (165 Ma,
anomaly M29), however, according to Storey et al.
(1996), this age has not been subsequently
substantiated.
The Comores hot spot could also be related to
J. Golonka, N.Y. Bocharova / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 161 (2000) 49–69
the rifting, which was active during the Late
Jurassic in Yemen (Guiraud and Bellion, 1996).
By Late Jurassic times, the Crozet hot spot reached
the position of future seafloor spreading between
India and Antarctica.
Iceland and Jan Mayen hot spots moved into
the direction of Chukchi borderland and future
opening of the Canadian Basin. In the Late
Jurassic, the progressive break-up of Pangea
included a system of spreading axes, transform
faults and rifts which connected ocean floor
spreading in the central Atlantic and Ligurian Sea
to rifting which continued through the Polish–
Danish graben to Mid-Norway and the Barents
Sea. Rifting in the Arctic region was part of this
system and was caused by the trench-pulling forces
which consumed the Anui–Anvil oceans
(Zonenshain et al., 1990), in conjunction with a
mantle convection and upwelling cell expressed by
the hot spot volcanics of the Alpha Ridge and
Chukchi Borderland. According to Hall (1990),
the average density of the Chukchi Borderland
crust is similar to the average crustal density of
the Alpha Ridge ( Weber and Sweeney, 1990),
which was considered as a product of hot spot
volcanism or Large Igneous Province ( Vogt et al.,
1979; Forsyth et al., 1986; Lawver and Müller,
1994; Lawver, 1993; Coffin and Eldholm, 1994).
The Jurassic volcanism was observed on
Northwind Ridge, which is part of the Chukchi
Borderland, by Arthur Grantz (oral communication at Penrose Conference, 1995). Coffin and
Eldholm (1994, fig. 1, table 1) also included
Chukchi Plateau and Northwind Ridge into their
list of Large Igneous Provinces (LIPS).
Via the processes of subduction pull and mantle
upwelling, a system of narrow marine troughs and
exposed rift-shoulder uplifts developed parallel to
the Laurasian margin ( Kos’ko, 1984; Polkin,
1984). These rift depressions subsequently developed into the East Siberian Sea Basin and the
North Chukchi Basin (Grantz and May, 1987;
Grantz et al., 1990; Kos’ko, 1984; Polkin, 1984).
The central rift developed later into the Canadian
oceanic basin (Lawver et al., 1990; Lane, 1994;
Embry, 1994; Zonenshain et al., 1990).
Further south, the distribution of Rheingraben
and other European hot spots, as well as
57
Tyrrhenian and Pantelleria hot spots, matches
reasonably well the rifting and volcanic activity
depicted for Mesozoic seaways between Europe
and the Arctic by Doré (1991, pl. XIV ). Doré
(1991) depicted volcanics west of Norway, north
of Ireland, in the North Sea between the UK and
Denmark, and on the London–Brabant Massif. A
similar picture was presented also on Ziegler’s
(1988, pls. 12, 13) paleogeographic maps.
The Sierra Leone, Cape Verde and Tibesti hot
spots still influenced the opening of the Central
Atlantic–Ligurian Ocean system. The protoCentral Atlantic seafloor spreading regime became
more passive ( Withjack et al., 1998, fig. 9c). At
the end of this period, the Canary hot spot moved
into the proto-Central Atlantic area. This movement and change of some European hot spot
locations to the area between the UK and
Greenland caused the beginning of the reorganization of the Pangean break-up system. The Atlantic
began to propagate into the area between Iberia
and Canada. The North Sea–Poland rifts turned
into aulacogenes. The Ligurian–Pieniny Oceans
reached maximum width and stopped spreading.
The Tibesti hot spot was located further off
Spain, on the northern margin of Africa, in
Tunisia. The Tibesti and Jebel Mara mark the line
along the northern African margin where, according to Guiraud and Bellion (1996), large east–
west-trending rifts were initiated during the latest
Jurassic–earliest Cretaceous, with volcanic intrusions on rift shoulders. The West and Central
African rift, which developed during the Late
Jurassic time (Guiraud and Bellion, 1996), could
be associated with the Cameroon hot spot. The
rift related magmatic activity, with alkalic and
tholeitic types, occurred mainly in Benue trough
( Wilson and Guiraud, 1992).
The Afar, Comores, Reunion and St. Paul hot
spots continued to be located in the marginal
Gondwana–Neotethys zone. Afar is perhaps
related to rifting volcanism in the Euphrates
Trough and Palmyrides (Guiraud and Bellion,
1996). The long lasting location of the hot spot
chain and possibility of associated mantle upwelling plumes on the southern Neotethys margin
could help to explain the concept of Tethys transit
plates introduced by Ricou (1996). With this con-
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J. Golonka, N.Y. Bocharova / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 161 (2000) 49–69
cept, Ricou (1996) could explain the systematic
migration of continental blocks from the southern
to the northern side of Tethys and the associated
asymmetry of this part of Tethys, bounded by
passive margins to the south and an active margin
to north. The above mentioned set of hot spots
was perhaps an active force from the Late
Paleozoic to the Late Cretaceous.
3.4. Early Cretaceous — 120 Ma (Fig. 8)
This is the time of the break-up of Gondwana,
which followed the Middle–Late Jurassic break-up
between Gondwana and Laurasia.
According to Lawver and Gahagan (1993),
significant new continental break-ups occurred at
about 130 Ma: Africa and South America split
apart to form the South Atlantic; India and
Antarctica split apart, and Arctic Alaska moved,
opening the Canada Basin (see also Golonka et al.,
1994; Golonka and Scotese, 1995).
According to Wilson (1992), at least two major
mantle plumes expressed by the hot spots of St.
Helen and Tristan da Cunha have been influential
in weakening the lithosphere along the line of the
developing South Atlantic rift. The Tristan plume
is associated with large volumes of flood basalt on
the South American side in Parana and smaller
volumes on the African side in Etendeka
( Hawkesworth et al., 1992). Our reconstruction
for 120 Ma shows the Tristan hot spot already in
location between South America and Africa, while
St. Helen is still some distance from the future
Atlantic margin. This is in agreement with Müller
et al.’s (1993, fig. 2) reconstruction and with a
diachronous opening of South and Equatorial
Atlantic (Nürnberg and Müller, 1991).
The Crozet (Conrad) and Kergulen hot spots
were located between Australia–Antarctica and
India. The Rajmahal Traps in India (Baksi et al.,
1987) could be associated with the Crozet hot spot.
According to Lawver and Gahagan (1993),
both Rajmahal Traps and Kergulen Plateau
( Houtz et al., 1977; Davies et al., 1989) were
created after seafloor spreading commenced
between India and East Antarctica (see also Kent
et al., 1997). According to Kent (1991), mantle
plume existed at this area long before spreading.
The Lawver and Gahagan (1993) assumption, that
motion of India was driven by a subduction zone
along the southern margin of Eurasia, does not
seem to be valid, because of the possible and
Fig. 8. Early Cretaceous (120 Ma) position of the major Pangean hot spots.
J. Golonka, N.Y. Bocharova / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 161 (2000) 49–69
widely accepted existence of the spreading center
between India and Eurasia (see Ricou, 1996, Map
7; Sengör and Natalin, 1996, fig. 21.45; Zonenshain
et al., 1990, fig. 201; Golonka et al., 1994, fig. 55;
Metcalfe, 1994, fig. 9b). The pushing force caused
by mantle upwelling better explains the initial
phase of the northward drift of India. In the later
phase, however, the Eurasian subduction could
have become the major force driving the India
motion.
The Jebel Mara hot spot position coincides with
the spreading in the Eastern Mediterranean (see
Ricou, 1996, Map 8; Sengör and Natalin, 1996,
fig. 21.41; Robertson et al., 1996, fig. 5). The tholeitic volcanism in the Antalya basin (Robertson
et al., 1991), basaltic dikes and extrusives in the
Troodos complex in Cyprus (Morris, 1996), could
be related to the hot spot activity. Similarly, the
Erastothenes Seamount (see Bogdanov et al.,
1994), with density similar to a volcanic plateau
rather than continental crust, could be the hot
spot product. Rifting and drifting of the Taurus
plate from Arabia and flow basalts along the
northern margin of Arabia (Guiraud and Bellion,
1996) could also be related to the Afar hot spot.
According to Lawver and Müller (1994), the
seafloor spreading in the Canada Basin started
during the Early Cretaceous (see also Lane, 1994).
Several authors ( Vogt et al., 1979; Forsyth et al.,
1986; Asudeh et al., 1988; Jackson et al., 1986;
Lawver and Müller, 1994; Lawver, 1993; Coffin
and Eldholm, 1994) argue that the Alpha Ridge
complex was generated by mantle plume activity
related to the Icelandic hot spot. Lawver and
Müller (1994) conclude that the Iceland hot spot
might have triggered the seafloor spreading that
led to the formation of the Canada Basin. After
opening the Canada Basin, Iceland and Jan Mayen
hot spots moved toward the Canadian Arctic
Islands and could have been associated with the
Albian–Cenomanian emplacement of flood basalts
on the Ellesmere Island and Axel Heiberg Island
(Ricketts et al., 1985; Embry and Osadetz, 1988).
The central Atlantic was spreading and propagating towards the area between Iberia, Grand
Banks and Flemish Cap, later north and towards
the Rocall Trough ( Ziegler, 1988, pls. 14, 15). The
location of the Azores, Massif Central,
59
Rheingraben,
Bohemian,
Tyrrhenian
and
Pantelleria hot spots is in fair agreement with
patterns of rifting, spreading and volcanic activity
on the map of Ziegler (1988). The rifting and
spreading in the Biscay Bay might be associated
with the vicinity of the Pantelleria hot spot. The
Eastern Mediterranean–Biscay Bay–Labrador Sea
break-up line roughly related to Afar, Jebel Mara,
Tibesti, Pantelleria, Massif Central hot spots,
began to form at that time.
3.5. Late Cretaceous — 90 and 65 Ma (Figs. 9 and
10)
The Late Cretaceous was a time of maximum
disassembly of the former Pangean supercontinent.
At the same time a significant reduction of the size
of Tethys occurred, leading to the modern configuration of continents.
Spreading of the Central and Southern Atlantic
continued with a significant increase of the
Equatorial Atlantic (Nürnberg and Müller, 1991).
At the end of this period, most of the present day
Atlantic hot spots were located inside, or on the
margins of the ocean. The Bermuda hot spot
moved across North America during the
Cretaceous time. This crossing was marked by
igneous activity, which produced, among others,
kimberlites and other alkalic rocks of the Arkansas
province. According to Morris (1987), these rocks
yielded absolute age in the range of 86–106 Ma.
The Ceara hot spot might be associated with a
large amount of the flood basalt in the Columbian
Basin of the Caribbean Sea (Bowland and
Rosencrantz, 1988).
The Indian plate was moving rapidly northward, opening the Indian Ocean (Royer and
Sandwell, 1989; Lawver et al., 1992). The movement of India over the Reunion hot spot resulted
in emplacement of large volumes of flood basalts,
known as Deccan traps (Mahoney, 1988; Coffin
and Eldholm, 1994). The volcanics of the
Ninetyeast Ridge were also initiated at that time
( Royer et al., 1991).
The northern movement of Africa, Arabia and
India placed Jebel Mara and Afar hot spots inside
the continents, south of the new Tethyan margin.
This displacement perhaps contributed to the
60
J. Golonka, N.Y. Bocharova / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 161 (2000) 49–69
Fig. 9. Late Cretaceous (90 Ma) position of the major Pangean hot spots.
Fig. 10. Late Cretaceous–earliest Paleogene (65 Ma) position of the major Pangean hot spots.
change of the Arabian margin from passive to
convergent (Ricou, 1996; Sengör and Natalin,
1996; Guiraud and Bellion, 1996).
Europe moved westward to approximately the
present day longitudinal position over the Massif
Central, Rheingraben, Bohemian, Tyrrhenian and
Pantelleria hot spots. This movement, related to
the rotation of the Eurasian continent, was a result
J. Golonka, N.Y. Bocharova / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 161 (2000) 49–69
of the opening in Arctic and collisions in northeastern and eastern Asia (Zonenshain et al., 1990).
Greenland and adjacent areas of Canada moved
over the Iceland hot spot (Lawver and Müller,
1994). The location of the Iceland hot spot
between the Baffin Island and Greenland, approximately during the time span between 100 and
70 Ma (Lawver and Müller, 1994, fig. 1), resulted
in spreading in the Labrador Sea, rifting in the
Baffin Bay and emplacement of the volcanics on
the western coast of Greenland (Gill et al., 1992,
1995; Holm et al., 1992; Larsen et al., 1992). The
main line of spreading in the Atlantic realm,
adjacent to Europe, was Biscay Bay–Labrador Sea
(see Ziegler, 1988, pl. 16; Huyghe and Mugnier,
1994, fig. 4). The widespread inversion in the
North Sea (Huyghe and Mugnier, 1994; Dronkers
and Mrozek, 1991) and in Central Europe (Ziegler,
1988, 1990, 1992; Baldschuhn et al., 1991) could
be a result of the stress induced by movement of
Europe and ridge pushing from the Bay of Biscay
spreading. The direction of Late Cretaceous
Subhercynian and Laramide structures (Ziegler,
1988, pl. 16) is parallel to the Bay of Biscay and
perpendicular to the Alpine–West Carpathian
front as well as to the future spreading in the
North Atlantic, between Norway and Greenland.
According to Baldschuhn et al. (1991), the
Coniacian to Campanian time of inversion in
northwestern Germany does not coincide with the
continent–continent collision events in the alpine
realm. Unternehr and Van Den Driessche (1997)
argue that North Sea compressive tectonics were
not restricted to basin inversion, but also involve
crust and/or lithospheric buckling, and that there
is a close connection between North Atlantic
Opening and compression in the southern North
Sea during the Late Cretaceous. Change of location of the European hot spots probably contributed to this inversion.
3.6. Tertiary — 40 and 20 Ma (Figs. 11 and 12)
Tertiary is a time of the gradual transition from
a maximum disassembly to the new assembly of
continents. Spreading of the Central and Southern
Atlantic continued with a significant increase of
the Equatorial Atlantic (Nürnberg and Müller,
61
1991). During this period, the Bermuda hot spot
was finally located inside the Atlantic and
Cameroon on the Atlantic margin.
According to Lawver and Müller (1994),
Greenland moves over the Iceland hot spot during
the time span 60–40 Ma. The east coast of
Greenland was affected by an Iceland mantle
plume ( White and McKenzie, 1989; Holm et al.,
1992). Extrusion occurred on East Greenland
mainly between 57 and 53 Ma (Noble et al., 1988).
The late phase of volcanism yielded various ages
30–48 Ma (Nielsen, 1987; Larsen and Marcussen,
1992). Between 40 Ma and present day, the Iceland
hot spot changed its location to the modern 64°N
latitude and 16°W longitude (Oskarsson et al.,
1985; Einarsson, 1991; Flóvenz and Gunnarson,
1991; Lawver and Müller, 1994). The newest
research on the age of the Greenland volcanics
seems to support their mantle plume origin with a
slight age modification. 40Ar–39Ar dating by Storey
et al. (1998) shows that volcanism commenced in
West Greenland during 60.5±0.4 Ma. The timing
of the onset of volcanism in West Greenland
coincides with the opening of the northern
Labrador Sea. Storey et al. (1998, see also Graham
et al., 1998) argues that the arrival of the Iceland
mantle plume beneath Greenland was a contributing factor in the initiation of seafloor spreading in
the northern Labrador Sea. According to Tegner
et al. (1998), the tholeiitic magmatism along the
East Greenland rifted margin largely occurred in
three distinct pulses, at 62–59 Ma, 57–54 Ma and
50–47 Ma, relating the mantle malting episodes
triggered by plume impact, continental break-up
and passage of the plume axis. The Tegner et al.
(1998) model implies northwestward drift of
Greenland relative to the plume axis by ~3.8–
5.0 cm/yr between ~60 and ~49 Ma. Saunders
et al. (1997, p. 51, fig. 3, p. 82) depict a large
asymmetric plume affecting the North Atlantic
province Igneous Province in places between Baffin
Island and West Greenland in the west, the British
Isles in the east and Hold with Hope in NE
Greenland in the north, a distance of more than
2000 km. The existence of such a large, asymmetric
plume could explain the difficulties in drawing hot
spot tracks and the discrepancies in the estimation
of their stationary positions over a long period of
62
J. Golonka, N.Y. Bocharova / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 161 (2000) 49–69
Fig. 11. Paleogene (40 Ma) position of the major Pangean hot spots.
Fig. 12. Neogene (20 Ma) position of the major Pangean hot spots.
time. A single hot spot point could appear in
different positions within the same large mantle
plume.
The opening of the North Atlantic was linked
to the mantle plume related to this hot spot by
White and McKenzie (1989). According to White
(1992), shortly after the Iceland plume initiated,
the extension between Greenland and the north-
J. Golonka, N.Y. Bocharova / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 161 (2000) 49–69
west Europe margin did continue until it developed
into a full oceanic spreading center. The voluminous volcanic complexes, containing wedges of
seaward-dipping reflectors, were placed in the
vicinity of the continent–ocean transition (Coffin
and Eldholm, 1992; Skogseid et al., 1992). Boldreel
and Andersen (1992) observed the compressional
structures at several locations in the Faeroe–
Rockall area, which may be associated with
seafloor spreading of the Atlantic and with the
complex Miocene spreading history of Iceland.
Within the Tertiary period, the central
European hot spots were distributed close to the
present day locations. The mantle upwelling, associated with these hot spots, was responsible for
intensive lithosphere stretching and rifting. Rifting
occurred mainly during the Oligocene and Miocene
time, on the area between France and Ukraine
(Ziegler, 1988, 1990, 1992; Bois, 1993; Wilson,
1994; Wilson and Downes, 1991; Rutkowski, 1986;
Żytko et al., 1989), and was associated with the
alkaline volcanism. According to Bois (1993),
extension occurred in a part of the European plate,
with the rifting of the Rhine, Limagne and Bresse
Trough, at the same time when the Alpine compression underwent a climax. Part of this rift
system was the Gulf of Lions related to the mantle
plume expressed by volcanics in Massif Central
and Provence, and on Corsica and Sardinia
( Wilson and Downes, 1991; Bellon and Brousse,
1977). Rifting in this area was followed by oceanic
seafloor spreading and drifting of Corsica and
Sardinia (Burrus, 1984; Bois, 1993; Ricou, 1996).
This movement and subsequent opening of the
Tyrrhenian Sea pushed the Adria plate eastward,
causing deformation of the Alpine–Carpathian
system, reaching as far as Romania ( Ellouz and
Roca, 1994; Royden, 1988).
In Central Europe, the NW–SE-trending rift
system is perpendicular or diagonal to the thrust
front of the Western Carpathians (Żytko et al.,
1989). The Tertiary magmatism connected with
the Bohemian hot spot is crossing the Carpathians
between Moravia and Upper Silesia on the one
side and the Pannonian Basin on the other. The
andesite volcanism inside the Carpathians
( Ksia̧żiewicz, 1977; Birkenmajer, 1986; Żytko
et al., 1989) is the link between Bohemian and
63
Pannonian extrusions. Kováč and Marko (1997)
observed the crustal stretching, accompanied in
places by mantle updoming, which forced the
Middle Miocene synrift basin subsidence.
Paleogene and Neogene rifting produced northwest–southwest-trending
depressions,
which
affected the platform below Carpathian thrusts
(Oszczypko, 1997). The Krakow area (Rutkowski,
1986), located only kilometers from the
Carpathian thrust front, consists of a system of
horsts and grabens formed by Neogene rifting and
only minimally affected by the Alpine-Carpathian
collisional deformations. Krysiak (1997) distinguished the Middle Miocene (Badenian) phase of
deformation in the Carpathian foredeep in Poland.
During this phase a gravitational stress field was
acting together with small extension of NE–SW
to E–W direction. At that time the NW–SE oriented faults became reactivated. It appears that
mantle plume related extension plays a bigger role
in the European hinterland tectonics than does
Alpine compression. The North Sea subsidence,
renewed during the Tertiary (Joy, 1992), could
also be related to the Central European rifting.
The existence of the mantle plume related extension in Europe, perpendicular and diagonal to the
Alpine–Carpathian system, supports the hypothesis of Boldreel and Andersen (1992). The Atlantic
margin inversion tectonics are as much related to
the opening (ridge pushing) of the Atlantic as to
Alpine collision. The ridge pushing force on the
northern side of the European plate, combined
with the collision of the southern side, resulted in
compression and basin inversion.
Africa drifted northeastward over Cameroon,
Tibesti, Jebel Mara and Afar hot spots. The Afar
hot spot plume influenced the opening of the Red
Sea and the Gulf of Aden ( White and McKenzie,
1989; Menzies et al., 1992). According to Guiraud
and Bellion (1996), most volcanic fields in west
and central Africa lay far from the rifted Mesozoic
basin, often occurring where fracture zones cut
across a domal structure which probably overlay
localized mantle upwellings. The Afar, Jebel Mara
and Cameroon hot spots are associated with past
or existing rifting, while Tibesti and other small
localities perhaps mark areas of future rifting. The
Levant hot spot volcanism is associated with the
64
J. Golonka, N.Y. Bocharova / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 161 (2000) 49–69
Dead Sea rifting. The hot spot track also left a
large amount of volcanics in the area between the
Arabian, Turkish and Transcaucasus plates
(Bogdanov et al., 1994). The Tyrrhenian and
Pantelleria hot spots were located in the Late
Neogene time close to their present day positions.
The rifting in the Pantelleria Trough, between
Africa and Sicily, occurred in the Pliocene and
Quaternary. The rift depicted by Casero and Roure
(1994, fig. 1) perpendicularly cut the Sicilian–
North African thrust front.
Europe, as well as in the North Atlantic–North
Sea region.
(6) Mantle plumes, associated with hot spots,
play an active role in rifting and initial phases of
spreading. The lithospheric displacement, caused
by upwelling, combined with sometimes remote
collisional forces on the other side of the continental plate, may result in compression and basin
inversion.
Acknowledgements
4. Conclusions
(1) Hot spots within the Pangean hot field
appear to remain fixed over the Mesozoic and
Cenozoic period of time. They provide a good
frame of reference for determination of the longitudinal position of Pangea. They also enable us to
construct a model of plate motion during the
Pangean break-up and disassembly.
(2) The obtained plate motion model agrees
reasonably well with observations on intraplate
and mid-oceanic volcanics, including Large
Igneous Provinces, and with hot spot related rifting
and break-up events. The existence of asymmetric
plumes could explain the difficulties in drawing
hot spot tracks and the discrepancies in the estimation of their stationary positions over a long period
of time. A single hot spot point could appear in
different positions within the same large mantle
plume.
(3) Hot spots are related not only to the opening
of the Atlantic and Indian Ocean, but also to
rifting and spreading in Tethys. The long lasting
location of hot spots and associated mantle upwelling plumes could help to explain the forces driving
the Tethys transit plates. They are also related to
the opening of the Ligurian Ocean and Eastern
Mediterranean.
(4) The Iceland hot spot contributed to the
emplacement of Siberian traps and could have
triggered the seafloor spreading and opening of
the Canada Basin.
(5) The European hot spots are related to
several Mesozoic and Cenozoic phases of rifting
and orogenic activities in Central and Western
We would like to thank Mobil Corporation for
permission to publish this paper. We would like
to express our gratitude to our numerous Mobil
coworkers, especially Dave Ford, Jeff Kraus, Bob
Pauken, Martha Withjack, as well as our PLATES
colleagues Larry Lawver and Mike Coffin for
valuable contributions and discussions. We thank
Lars Stemmerik, Jörg Trappe and Gregers Dam
for reviewing the paper and for discussions.
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