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Technical Report - 2009 - 032
EUROPEAN UNION MANAGEMENT PLAN
2009-2011
COMMON QUAIL
Coturnix coturnix
Disclaimer:
This technical document has been developed through a collaborative programme involving
the European Commission, all the Member States, the Accession Countries, Norway and other
stakeholders and Non-Governmental Organisations. The document should be regarded as
presenting an informal consensus position on best practice agreed by all partners. However,
the document does not necessarily represent the official, formal position of any of the partners.
Hence, the views expressed in the document do not necessarily represent the views of the
European Commission.
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Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2009
ISBN 978-92-79-13217-9
N° Catalogue KH-31-09-002-EN-N
© European Communities, 2009
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.
First draft compiled in 2000 by:
Jean-Charles Guyomarc’h, Université de Rennes-I, France
Final compilation by:
Christian Perennou, Station Biologique de la Tour du Valat, F-13200 Le Sambuc, France.
Finalisation by the European Commission in June 2009.
Comments, data or general information to the final version were generously provided by:
Dr Sébastien Derégnaucourt, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology
Jean-Luc Tesson, Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage, France
L. Barbier and J-M Boutin, Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage, France
Dr. José Domingo Rodríguez-Teijeiro & Dr. Manel Puigcerver Oliván, Universidad de Barcelona
Borja Heredia, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Spain
Dr Andreas Ranner, Anlagenrecht, Umweltschutz und Verkehr Amt der Burgenländischen Landesregierung,
Austria
Nicolaos Kassinis, Cyprus Game Fund Service – Ministry of Interior
Michael Miltiadou, BirdLife in Cyprus
Angeles Evangelidis and Rigas Tsiakiris, HOS, BirdLife in Greece
Ana Iñigo, SEO/BirdLife in Spain
Ruud van Beusekom, VBN/BirdLife in the Netherlands
Nicola Crockford and Peter Newbery, RSPB, BirdLife in the UK
John Marchant, British Trust for Ornithology
Dr. Petar Iankov, Bulgarian Society for the Protection of Birds, BirdLife Bulgaria
Boris Barov, Ian Burfield and Konstantin Kreiser, European Division, BirdLife International
Dr Andre Raine, BirdLife Malta
Fernando Spina, INFS (Istituto Nazionale Fauna Selvatica), Italy
Torsten Larsson, Sweden
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Contents
Executive summary
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Introduction
Biological Assessment
General Information
Taxonomy
Populations
Distributions throughout the annual cycle
Population developments
Survival and productivity
Life history
Habitat requirements
Available key knowledge
Threats
Habitat loss/modification
Droughts and climate change
Genetic pollution from released Japanese Quail and/or hybrids
Hunting
Predation (non-human)
Policies and legislation relevant for management
Framework for Action
Priority statement/evaluation
Purpose of the action plan
Results for the period 2009-2011
Activities
References
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Tables
Table 1. Geographical distribution of the Common Quail Coturnix coturnix during
the year (EU 27).
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Table 2. European breeding population of the Common Quail Coturnix coturnix.
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Table 3. Timing of the different breeding stages in Catalonia, Spain, as a function of altitude
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Table 4. Hunting seasons and annual bags in some EU and other European countries.
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Table 5. Threats importance at national level.
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Table 6. International conservation and legal status of the Common Quail
Coturnix coturnix.
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for the decade 1980-1990 (adapted from Gallego et al. 1990).
Table 7. Prioritized activities and results in all countries in the EU with populations of the
Common Quail Coturnix coturnix.
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Table 8. Summary of objectives/results and activities of the Common Quail
Coturnix coturnix Management Plan 2009-2011.
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52
Executive summary
The Common Quail Coturnix coturnix is listed on Annex II/2 of the EU Birds Directive as a species for
which hunting is permitted. However, it has been identified as a bird species that has an unfavourable
conservation status in Europe. This concern is based upon the fact that Common Quail populations
showed decreasing trends in many Member States between 1970 and 1990, and that despite some
increases during 1990-2000 its European population is still considered to be “Depleted” (BirdLife
International 2004a). It is therefore important to assess its current conservation status and which research
information is available, in order to appraise the current effectiveness of conservation actions, identify
reasons for the observed trends and recommend options for future management to assist population
recovery.
This Plan outlines management prescriptions to restore former population levels. It is aimed at all
Member States with breeding populations of the Common Quail. It outlines the actions to be taken in the
period 2009-2011, and should be followed by new versions with revised objectives that take into account
the results achieved during the first and following phases.
Only the nominate race of the Common Quail, breeding in Europe, Coturnix c. coturnix, is taken into
account in this management plan, and the European populations of Common Quail will be considered as
a whole for that management purpose. However, it is vital to realize that Europe fully shares its breeding
populations with North Africa, with a large proportion of birds breeding in succession in North Africa
then Europe in the same year, after performing a migration between its two breeding cycles.
Although the past decline of this species at the European scale is obvious, its dispersed distribution,
discreet character, very unusual migration patterns and breeding cycles make it very difficult to study
and to monitor on its breeding grounds.
Some of the possible threats to the Common Quail in the EU are identified as (1)
destruction/modification of the breeding and staging habitats, linked to intensification of agriculture
(change of crops and agricultural practices, use of pesticides), (2) droughts and climate change in
wintering areas and in some breeding areas; (3) genetic pollution from released Japanese and/or hybrid
Quails. Furthermore (4) hunting and (5) predation (non-human) can be seen as aggravating factors in
some cases.
Recognizing that the current (2005) European population level represents a lower level than historically
documented, this Management Plan aims to restore the species to a favourable conservation status1
through reversing the declines in SE Europe and maintaining its natural genetic diversity. To reach
this target, the Management Plan identifies nine operational objectives or Results that have to be
achieved during its 3-year running period. These are:
(1)
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the release both on public and private lands, fenced-in or not, of the Japanese Quail (C.c. japonica)
and its various hybrids (C.c. coturnix x C.c. japonica) is explicitly forbidden and this ban is
effectively enforced. Methods of genetic identification of both subspecies must be developed in
order to achieve an objective identification.
The EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) states that a species’ conservation status will be taken as Favourable when:
Population dynamics data on the species concerned indicate that it is maintaining itself on a long-term basis as
•
a viable component of its natural habitats; and
•
The natural range of the species is neither being reduced nor is likely to be reduced for the foreseeable future;
and
•
There is, and will probably continue to be, a sufficiently large habitat to maintain its population on a long-term
basis.
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(2) Hunting seasons in EU Member States are in accordance with information on breeding period as
defined in “Period of reproduction and prenuptial migration of Annex II bird species in the EU”, and
hunting does not affect late breeding birds and birds during spring migration.
(3) The overall permitted hunting level in the EU, as set through national bag limits, is kept below
levels that risk significantly slowing the rate of recovery of the European Quail population.
(4) Breeding and staging habitats of the Common Quail are conserved, managed sustainably and,
eventually, restored in all Member States with significant numbers of breeding Common Quail; so as
to ensure recovery in Common Quail numbers.
(5) Technical assistance is provided to those African countries where Quail hunting is important, so as
to help ban – as in Europe – the release of Japanese/ hybrid Quails.
(6) The knowledge about wintering populations of the Common Quail in North and West Africa, and
breeding populations in North Africa, is improving and made widely available.
(7) A common method is agreed, validated by the EBCC and used by all Member States to monitor
Common Quail populations.
(8) Regular bag statistics are available for all Member States where Common Quail hunting is allowed.
(9) Research is under way to identify (1) the relative level of isolation of the four large palearctic
“flyway populations” and the functional links between the regions lying on each of the four paths,
notably the Atlantic (west Africa - Morocco - Iberia - north-west Europe) and Central Mediterranean
(Tunisia - Italy - Central Europe) flyways, and (2) the existence of exchanges between the European
population of the Common Quail and the southern (C.c. africana) and eastern (C.c. erlangeri)
African subspecies.
It is the responsibility of the relevant authority of each Member State to decide how to implement the
management prescriptions of this plan.
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0.
Introduction
The Common Quail Coturnix coturnix is listed on Annex II/2 of the EU Birds Directive as a species for
which hunting is permitted. However, it has been identified as a bird species that has an unfavourable
conservation status in Europe (Tucker & Heath 1994, BirdLife International 2004a).
This concern is based upon the fact that Common Quail populations showed decreasing trends in many
Member States during 1970-1990 (Tucker & Heath 1994, Boutin & Barbier 1999), and that despite some
increases between 1990 and 2000 its European population is still considered to be “Depleted” (BirdLife
International 2004a). It is therefore important to assess its current conservation status and which research
information is available, in order to appraise the current effectiveness of conservation actions, identify
reasons for the observed trends and recommend options for future management to assist population recovery.
Hence, this plan will focus upon the full implementation of the provisions of the Birds Directive as these
apply for this species.
Although this management plan provides recommendations and actions to be taken only by the European
Commission and EU Member States, the ecology of the Common Quail highlights the need for studies and
conservation actions in wintering (and north African breeding) areas: the long-term conservation of the
Common Quail depends also on international cooperation programs.
With a few exceptions the format of this management plan follows a new Single Species Action Plan format
developed by BirdLife International for UNEP/AEWA Secretariat (AEWA 2002).
The first chapter of the Management Plan briefly presents concise information on the Common Quail
populations. Chapter 2 focuses on the key knowledge for the 27 EU Member States. Chapter 3 analyses the
threats that are believed to be the causes of its decline while chapter 4 lists the policies and legislation
relevant for the Common Quail management in Europe.
Chapter 5 sets out long-term and immediate objectives for its future management.
Chapter 6 describes the actions to be taken for the period 2009-2011. These activities cover all countries.
It is the intention that this Management Plan shall be revised in 2011.
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1.
Biological assessment
General
information
Taxonomy
The Common Quail is the smallest European species of the Phasianidae family.
In “classic” international atlases (Cramp & Simmons 1980; Johnsgard 1988; del Hoyo et al. 1994;
etc), up to eight subspecies are usually recognized:
– the nominate form C.c. coturnix (Linné, 1758) encompasses the largest part of the species’
distribution area (Europe, North, West and East Africa, Arabia)
– C.c. confisa (Hartert 1917) in the Canary Islands and the Madeira archipelago
– C.c. conturbans (Hartert 1917), endemic in the Azores (but cf infra);
– C.c. inopinata (Hartert 1917) in the Cape Verde Islands
– C.c. africana (Temminck & Sclegel, 1849), in Eastern and Southern Africa;
– C.c. erlangeri (Zedlitz 1912), in East Africa ;
– the Grey Quail C.c. orientalis in India and Pakistan ;
– C.c. japonica in Eastern Asia.
Only the first three are relevant to the EU.
Most of the distinctions for Atlantic Ocean and African races are only founded upon variations in the
reddishness in face and/or breast colour, are often based upon a small sample, and go back to old
descriptions from the first half of the 20th century.
The distinctiveness of the Atlantic islands forms has been recently questioned by Fontoura and
Gonçalves (1995) and Puigcerver et al. (1996) on the basis of more recent samples - notably from
Madeira and in the Azores - and of a new examination of earlier skins preserved at the British
Museum (Puigcerver et al. 1991, 2001). The populations on these islands are not isolated from their
continental counterparts, and the birds are not really different. These findings support earlier
suggestions (e.g. Bannerman 1963) that the nominate form is a summer visitor to all the Atlantic
islands.
Moreover, within those populations accepted as being nominate (in Europe, north and west Africa,
particularly Morocco), a pheno-typical variability of both the plumage colour and individual size has
been shown (Guyomarc’h et al. 1998b), highlighting that these criteria cannot be used alone for
defining separate subspecies.
On the other hand, earlier publications which claimed the existence of two varieties of Quail in
Mediterranean areas (e.g. see for Sardinia, Massoli-Novelli 1988 and for Portugal, Tait 1924 and Reis
Jr. 1931) have acquired a certain validity through the fact that the species is defined as ‘polytypic’ in
reputable publications (Cramp & Simmons 1980). However, they should best be discounted as they
do not take into account the morphological differences between one-year-old adults and young, 7-8week-old adults. Neither was the size variation due to the photo-period since birth taken into
consideration by these authors: Quails born in June–July and benefitting from longer days for feeding
are significantly larger than Quails born in October or March, at the same age (Saint-Jalme 1990).
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Both in continental Europe and on islands (notably the Azores), studies are now complicated by the
fact that these populations are possibly polluted by domestic Quails C. (c.) japonica since the 1980s
at least.
The taxonomic status of the two African subspecies (C.c. erlangeri and C.c. africana ) is still unclear.
The former is sometimes considered to be a resident of east Africa (Cheesman and Sclater 1935;
Benson and Stuart-Irwin 1966), where it occupies exactly the same areas as ‘Common’ Quails
wintering there from October to April. However for other observers (e.g. Mackworth and Grant 1952;
Puigcerver et al. 2001). C.c.erlangeri is so similar to the nominate form that they do not recognize
the validity of this taxon. The same occurs with the migratory Quail occupying a large part of eastern
and southern Africa, from Kenya to the Cape (the "Cape Quail", C.c. africana.). Its validity as a
subspecies is recognized by Chapin (1932), Courtenay-Latimer & Clancey (1960) and Mentis (1972),
whilst other authors merged it with the nominate form, e.g. McLachlan and Liversidge (1957) and
Urban et al. (1986). Despite the fact that the wings of the two African populations are very noticeably
smaller than those of the nominate subspecies (Benson & Stuart-Irwin 1966), the question of their
taxonomic status remains open.
The special case of Coturnix (c.) japonica
Finally, some recent authors (e.g. del Hoyo et al. 1994) consider the oriental population Coturnix
japonica as a separate species, on the basis of its supposed coexistence without hybridization
(sympatry) with the Common Quail in the Baikal region in Russia and the Kentei region in Mongolia.
However, in this latter region, recent proof of natural hybridization was obtained (Barilani et al.
2005). Clements (2002) in the supplement of his latest edition of the checklist, also recognizes two
species: Coturnix coturnix and C. japonica.
There is therefore still some controversy on the exact status (specific or subspecific) of this form,
which is not a purely academic debate but has direct conservation implications. Hybridization
processes could be under way in Europe due to the massive release of Quails of Asian origin (see
Section 3, below). However there is not yet any full evidence of this, as the hybrid Common Quails
found in the wild in some studies (e.g. in Spain, Barilani et al. 2005) could either be captive-bred
released hybrids, or free-born hybrids.
Populations
The Common Quail ranges over almost the entire Palearctic zone south of ca. 60° N. and up to 1200
m altitude (Fig. 1). Breeding areas (between 28 and 55-60° N) and wintering areas (between 10-12°
& 38-39° N) overlap broadly, in North Africa, the Nile and Jordan valleys and southermost Europe.
The meta-population can be roughly divided, from east to west, into four groups defined by the main
migratory flows (Fig. 2): one Indo-asiatic area (Pakistan-Afghan route), corresponding to the Grey
Quail (ex C.c. orientalis Bogdanov); a near-east area (Egypt-Syria route); a central European area
(Tunisia-Italy route); and a western Atlantic area (Morocco-Iberia route), the last two (possibly the
last three) being of relevance to the EU. These four groups have not been proven to represent ‘real’,
biological populations, but they are useful for practical purposes.
The nesting area of the nominate race Coturnix coturnix in Europe stretches from Portugal and
Ireland east to the Urals, south of the 60th parallel North. The extent of the distribution area somewhat
varies depending on population fluctuations, with countries such as Ireland occupied only in some
years. Apart from the latter country, the Common Quail currently breeds regularly in all European
Union Member States, including all the large Mediterranean Islands (BirdLife International 2004a,
Handrinos & Akriotis 1997).
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The nesting area of the nominate race Coturnix coturnix in Europe stretches from Portugal and
Ireland east to the Urals, south of the 60th parallel North. The extent of the distribution area somewhat
varies depending on population fluctuations, with countries such as Ireland occupied only in some
years. Apart from the latter country, the Common Quail currently breeds regularly in all European
Union Member States, including all the large Mediterranean Islands (BirdLife International 2004a,
Handrinos & Akriotis 1997).
Bearing in mind methodological difficulties (see § « Population developments » below), the European
population totals 2.8 -5.5 million calling males (or 1.4 – 2.75 million pairs), by using an average ratio
of 1 pair: 2 singing males (Guyomarc’h 2003) (Table 2). The total European population has also been
estimated at between 2.8 and 4.7 million pairs by BirdLife International (2004a), but there appears to
have been confusion in some countries between numbers of breeding pairs and calling males.
Only 5-24% of the global Quail population breeds in Europe and 43-54% of the European population
breeds in Russia (BirdLife International 2004a; or 35–37% Guyomarc’h 2003), with big populations
also in Belarus, Bulgaria, Turkey, Romania and Ukraine. Only 23-38% of the European population
breeds in the EU (BirdLife International 2004b). Some 33-57% of the EU’s Quails breed in Spain,
whilst France, Germany, Italy, Poland and Portugal also have large populations.
The EU population totals 884,000-1,912,000 calling males and, in contrast to the European
population as a whole, is in favourable conservation status.
The Common Quail is apparently the only migratory Galliform. It is only a partial migrant though;
the tendency to migrate is genetically inherited, and very sensitive to selection. All populations
Distribution
through the annual produce both sub-sedentary birds, and others which undertake long and short migrations, respectively
called ‘sedentary phenotype’ and ‘long/short migrant phenotypes’.
cycle
The annual cycle is extremely difficult to study and summarize, since:
- different populations show various levels of migratory tendencies;
- birds from populations with low migratory tendency can produce offspring which are longdistance migrants;
- young birds born in March–April are capable of undertaking their first pre-nuptial migration
from the age of 8 or 9 weeks, with a pattern different from, but geographically overlapping
with, patterns shown by older birds;
- birds can breed several times in succession in a given year, in different countries or even
continents, and undertake either migrations or other movements between breeding cycles.
This can lead to a very high turnover of individuals in a given breeding area, which can
reach up to 95% in 15 days (Rodríguez-Teijeiro et al. 1992). This extraordinary mobility is a
key obstacle to any serious population monitoring (J.D. Rodríguez-Teijeiro & M. Puigcerver
Oliván, in litt.)
there is no synchrony between male and female movements: due to the lack of male parental
involvement, a male may undertake new movements of variable scale (distinct from true
migration) in search of another mate, as soon as its first mate has completed egg-laying.
Overall, in central latitudes (30-35°N.) the birds breed very early and have a very low migratory
tendency, whereas in the very low (Sahel) or very high latitudes (Northern Europe, Central Asia),
most birds undertake long migrations. Northern populations showing strong migratory tendencies
‘leap-frog’ over those with a weak migratory tendency, e.g. sub-sedentary populations of North
Africa and the Near East.
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Common Quails from Europe winter from the Mediterranean south to tropical Africa, where they
overlap to some extent with african populations of the erlangeri and africana subspecies (the exact
extent of overlap is uncertain).
After wintering south of the Sahara, populations of long-migrating birds undertake their pre-nuptial
migration at the end of January and February (Guyomarc’h 1992, Rodwell et al. 1996). They start to
arrive in the Maghreb countries from the third week of February, or even the 2nd in the south. Some
will carry on and reach southern Europe (Spain, Romania) in late March - early April (Puigcerver et
al. 1989, Munteanu & Maties 1974).
Simultaneously, the populations of short migrants (between 25-35° N, i.e. from the Mediterranean
basin) undertake their first reproductive cycle. Whatever their migratory status, 80-90% of Western
Palearctic Quails are thus by March either in the nesting phase in all favourable areas below 40°
latitude from Portugal to Arabia (Fontoura and Gonçalves, 1996, Combreau, unpublished), or passing
through Morocco, Egypt and Israel (Baha el Din et al. 1989, Bigger, in Mendelssohn et al. 1969).
A second enormous migratory movement then follows, made up of birds that have bred earlier at
lower latitudes (south of 40° N). They come in several waves: adult males first, then adult females,
and finally youngsters born in the same year. These three groups show abundance peaks separated by
several weeks. They reach regions north of 40° N between 10th April - late May, or even early June
for the first young birds. For a given latitude, birds breeding at moderate altitudes (1000-1200 m)
arrive several weeks later than those breeding in the plains, as was noticed in several parts of Europe
and Morocco (Puigcerver et al. 1989; Gallego 1993, Michaïlov 1996, Mur 1994, Brosset pers.
comm.; Guyomarc’h & Maghnouj 1995).The quantitative importance of these waves (as seen by
Europeans) largely depends on the earlier breeding success in southern latitudes: for instance, the last
great ‘invasion’ of Quails in Europe in 1964 (Davis et al. 1966) was preceded by record abundance
and breeding numbers in Morocco; in Catalonia (Spain) yearlings increased exponentially in the
“invasion year” of 1988 as compared with “normal abundance” years, whereas adults increased only
linearly (Puigcerver et al. 1989).
In Italy the index of relative abundance as derived from intense ringing campaign of passage migrants
(Macchio et al. 1999) shows a maximum on the third decade of May.
Simultaneously with this second wave, a large part of the southern population (birds with the “shortdistance migrant” phenotype) remain in the favourable southern habitats, notably at the huge irrigated
plains of Morocco and Arabia. Densities there are very high in May–June, with a majority of sexually
mature birds (a mixture of one-year-old adults and young adults).
After breeding in Europe is completed, the autumn migration starts. To summarise, the migration of
populations from south of the Loire (France), Castilla (Spain) and northern Italy is under way by the
first week of September (Guyomarc’h et al. 1988, Spano & Truffi 1992). Rodríguez-Teijeiro et al.
(1996) even found it in the last week of August in the North of Castilla (Spain). Apparently, timings
are determined by the Quail biological clock rather than by external local factors such as atmospheric
pressure, wind direction, etc. In the autumn, there seems to be no sexual or age segregation in the
succession of migratory waves, the only obvious trend being that the large majority of Quails
captured in October are youngsters from the same year.
The autumn migration (September - October) of the populations in Eastern Europe (including Russia)
is shifting much to the east and to the west from the spring flyway, reaching the western part of
Bulgaria (Nankinov 1982) and being very intensive along the Romanian and Bulgarian Black Sea
coast (P. Iankov, pers. comm.).
An important phase of preparation for the southwards migration takes place before embarking on the
sea crossing. In Italy, out of a large overall sample of over 25,000 birds analysed through ringing
(Licheri D. et al. 2005) a fast and significant increase in mean body mass is observed starting with the
first decade of september, with peaks in the second and third decade for adults and juveniles,
respectively.
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The first birds from the western populations arrive in lower Senegal at the end of September (C.
Sagna, pers. comm.), i.e. in the last weeks of the rainy season. The Quails normally have by this time
abundant food resources at their disposal. Massive arrivals occur from mid-October onwards (F.
Roux, pers. obs. 1974).
The proportion of birds with a weak or moderate migratory tendency (‘sedentary phenotype’) used to
be marginal in Europe earlier on. It has probably increased considerably in the southern Palearctic:
Morocco, Spain and Portugal, Arabia, Egypt, etc. Conversely, the proportion of birds inheriting
strong migratory tendencies is decreasing, presumably because of the bad wintering conditions in the
Sudan-Sahelian regions since the 1970s (Guyomarc’h 1992). A similar phenomenon has been
observed in southern Africa (lat. 20° south), with a resulting tendency for populations to become
increasingly sedentary overall (Mentis 1972).
Population
developments
Estimates and trends are available for most European countries (Table 2); however they are still
imprecise, as reflected e.g. in the large differences between maximum and minimum numbers. This is
due to a combination of reasons:
Methodological difficulties in censuring the species, especially since breeding females are very hard
to detect, and because once paired, males stop crowing. This often leads to broad ranges for national
estimates, most of which actually rely on no field census at all. An additional problem is linked to the
high mobility of breeding birds (see § “Distribution” above; J.D. Rodríguez-Teijeiro & M. Puigcerver
Oliván, in litt.) and to multiple breeding by the same individuals in a given year, e.g. in
Mediterranean countries first then in central/northern Europe. Therefore, national population
estimates cannot reliably be summed up at the scale of Europe;
- Inadequacies in large-scale compilations: Because the “breeding pair” is in this species a very
ephemeral phenomenon, the number of singing males is considered by specialists as a much more
practical index of population abundance than breeding pairs (see Table 2). However, broad-scale
compilations (e.g. BirdLife International 2004a, Tucker & Heath 1994) often use the latter and also
mix up data relating to pairs (although inaccessible in practice, with rare exceptions) with data on
calling birds (by nature unpaired). Converting the singing males into “pairs”, if attempted, should at
least take the sex-ratio into consideration, i.e. 1 pair for every 1 to 4 males, depending on the region
(Guyomarc’h 2003); but in practice it often does not.
High interannual fluctuations in breeding numbers for a given country, which do not necessarily
reflect the real variability in the total population size, but rather a variability in the amplitude of the
pre-breeding, northwards migration. For example:
- In France, numbers extrapolated from sample counts lead to estimates between 50,000 pairs
(in ‘bad’ years, e.g. 1985, 1991) and 200,000-250,000 (in ‘best’ years e.g. 1987, 1992, 1997)
(Guyomarc’h 1994).
- Similarly in the British Isles, in the decade 1987-97, 1989 was a ‘vintage’ year throughout
the United Kingdom (abundance index 1650); then 1994 (612) and 1997 (867) were ‘good’
years, while on the other hand 1991 was a particularly low year (index 107) (Ogilvie et al.
1999).
- In the Netherlands, the breeding population in the period 1998–2000 is estimated at 2,000–
6,500 pairs, whereas 1989 involved 8,000-12,000 pairs (Sovon 2002).
- Finally in Spain, numbers in good (rainy) years have been shown to be 4 or 5 times higher
than in dry years (Jubete 1997, in Puigcerver et al. 2004).
Since peak years may be different between countries, simply adding “peak national numbers” from
different years may not be adequate for estimating the European population. Trends are even more
difficult than population size to assess reliably, as they are masked by the demography of an extreme
‘r’ strategist, showing considerable year-to-year fluctuations and multiple breeding in different
countries, as noted above. For instance, Puigcerver et al. (2004) suggest that the varying abundance of
Common Quails in Spain might be partly due to the breeding success in North Africa, earlier in the
same year.
12
In recent decades, local/regional declines have been noted in a variety of regions (e.g. France north of
the Loire, Bulgaria, Romania - BirdLife International 2004a), and increases in others (e.g. Germany,
the Netherlands and Hungary, Guyomarc’h 2003, Spain, Puigcerver et al. 2004). In the Netherlands,
the extended distribution is probably partly explained by better observer coverage, and is seemingly
in contradiction with habitat loss due to agricultural intensification (Hustings et al. 2004). Overall,
there was a decrease in the 1970s in Europe north of ca. 45°N, but in the 1990s an overall increase
seems to have taken place (Guyomarc’h 2003).
Birdlife International roughly confirms these overall trends in Europe: a strong decline between 1970
and 1990 (especially in eastern and central Europe; Tucker & Heath 1994), followed by a decade of
mixed fortune in 1990-2000, with large differences between countries (e.g. increases in northern and
central Europe, declines in the south-east, especially Turkey). As a result, it is currently evaluated as
“Depleted” in Europe (BirdLife International 2004a), rather than “Vulnerable” as it was a decade ago.
Bag statistics can give no useful indication of trends at a pan-European scale over recent decades, due
to the enormous number of domestic Quails released and to changing dates in hunting season.
However, some reliable, local or regional trends of relevance to the EU can be summarized as
follows:
- a rapid collapse in populations hunted in France between 1970 and 1975, in parallel with an
extremely sharp fall of long-migrant phenotypes, whose presence has become patchy north
of the Loire (Mur 1994, Guyomarc’h 1992, 1995). However the hunting season was
gradually delayed by 2 weeks in the 1970s (from 25th August to 10th September), so that by
the late 1970’s it may no longer have overlapped with the peak migration period;
- a stability of the bag in Spain between 1973-96 (Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y
Alimentación); breeding numbers do not show either any particular trend (Puigcerver et al.
2004);
- for central European populations, a prime reference is provided by the recording over a
century of annual hunting bag tables of the Castelporziano Estate, a 5,000 ha fenced estate in
northern Italy, up to the 1960s (Ch. Fadat pers. comm.). Overall, data do not show any
decline upto ca. 1965; instead remarkable cycles of abundance are obvious with a 20-year
(+/- 2 yrs) return period and peaks around 1903-04, 1921-22, 1945-47, followed by a
spectacular collapse in the mid-1960s;
- the fall of long-migrant populations wintering in Senegal. Densities which used to reach,
locally, 500 Quails per 100 hectares of bushy savanna in the early 1960s (Morel and Roux
1966) were 20 times lower by 1991 in the most favourable rice fields of the very same
region (J.-C. Guyomarc’h, pers. obs.);
- In Cyprus, numbers on passage fluctuate enormously (Cyprus Game Fund Service, in litt.),
with apparently no clear trend.
Finally,
- numbers seem to be growing strongly in Arabia and Morocco, and maybe in all the Maghreb
countries. These birds do not constitute separate populations, but a part of the population that
breeds in Europe, in variable proportions depending on the year;
- in Iberia and Italy, a trend towards increasing wintering numbers is reported in southern parts
and on the islands (e.g. Balearics, Ferrer et al. 1986; Madeires pers. comm.), as in Cyprus
(M. Miltiadou, BirdLife Cyprus, pers. comm.).
In summary, it seems that after a real decline in the 1970s (the quantitative amplitude of which is
unknown because of the lack of earlier, reliable pan-European estimates or indexes), the main trend of
the overall population now seems to be a gradual increase of the ‘sedentary’ and ‘short-migrant’
phenotypes over the ‘long-migrant’ one in the West Palearctic population, leading to:
13
-
an increase in the proportion of the population that winters (and breeds afterwards) in the
South Mediterranean and Arabia; (Local perception = ‘population increase’).
a highly variable proportion of the latter which subsequently migrates to Europe for a second
breeding phase (Local perceptions = ‘population increase’ or ‘decline’, depending on
regions);
conversely, a decrease in the fraction of the population that winters in tropical Africa. (Local
perception = ‘population decline’)
an overall trend of the whole population which is now “Likely increasing in the EU”, with
the evidence for a general decline being confined to the past, i.e. the 1970s. However
declines have not stopped in southeastern Europe.
These changes may have been driven both by recurrent droughts in the Sahel, which may have
counter-selected the ‘long-migrant’ phenotype (Guyomarc’h 1992), and by the massive releases of
Japanese/ hybrid Quails (see below), which mostly come from sedentary phenotypes.
Survival and
productivity
The Common Quail has a type ‘r’ population dynamic: very early age of first breeding (8-14 weeks),
large clutches (8-12 eggs) that are repeated 2 to 3 (max. 6) times a year, short parental care period (by
the female only), absence of fixed feeding areas, high mortality rate, short life-expectancy, and a
capacity for populations to renew their numbers very quickly.
The breeding potential of a given season rests, fundamentally, on youngsters in their first year, hence
the considerable year-to-year fluctuations noted above. Indeed, a single truly unfavourable climatic
episode happening during the course of their first winter, or in early spring in the Maghreb (e.g. a
drought), has a very strong negative effect on survival, and even more so on the success of the first
breeding period of March-April.
Based on the analysis of bag statistics, 4-5 young are produced on average per nest in Castille
(Guyomarc’h et al. 1989), and 5,3 in Italy (Spano & Truffi 1994).There have been no studies on
Quail survival rates from the moment of their independence to the end of their first year, when they
undertake their northwards, pre-nuptial migration.
When Quails are ringed during their pre-nuptial migration (e.g. Chigi et al. 1935, Arnould et al.
1954-55, Bortoli et al. 1970), they are already between 7 and 10 months old. Their survival rate in the
subsequent 12 months varies from 20% to 27-31% (F. Roux, comm. pers., Puigcerver et al. 1992).
Similarly, the remaining life expectancy of one-year-old birds varies between studies from 0.72 to
0.85 year (Puigcerver et al. 1992, Mur 1994).
14
Life history
Outside breeding season
Breeding:
Feeding:
In spite of traditionally
considering the pair as the
breeding unit, (Seth-Smith
1906; Hémon et al. 1988),
detailed studies clearly show
a more complex polygamous
mating
system,
which
includes both sequential
polygyny and sequential
polyandry (Rodrígo-Rueda
et al. 1997, RodriguezTeijeiro et al. 2003).
The Common Quail is an
exclusively
nocturnal
migrator.
Just
before
migration, birds undertake a
hyperphagic phase, in which
they eat as much as is possible
in order to build up reserves.
At 42 km/h (the average speed
measured for daytime flights),
a Quail can travel a maximum
distance of 160-50 kms per
Outside the nesting season, 88- night.
100% of food found in the crop is
made up of seeds (Keve et al. 1953, The migratory strategy of the
Penev 983, Combreau 1992, species is to bet on there being
Michailov 1995). Exceptionally 6- no food resources at the spot
10% is made up of invertebrates in where dawn forces the bird to
late summer in Portugal and Spain. land; it therefore rests during
During the breeding season the the day in an unplanned place
proportions
are:
67-8% without feeding much (which
invertebrates, 22-3% seeds, and 10- also helps avoid predators); it
1% fragments of green leaves leaves at the next twilight.
(Combreau 1992, Michailov 1995).
Seeds mainly consist of varieties of A Quail exhausts all its
Wheat (Triticum sp., Hordeum sp, reserves after a week’s journey
Secale cereale throughout the of around 1,000 km. So it
distribution area, Oryza sativa in usually resumes a normal daily
Senegal;
also
cultivated activity once again, with a new
phase
and
graminaceous cereals such as straw hyperphagic
or culm, various fodders, ryegrass, stocking up of reserves, at a
and wild species such as Digitaria spot where it can find
sanguinea, Panicum sp., Setaria sp., abundant seeds (= glucids).
Echinocloa crus-gallis, Eragrostis
sp. etc. in Europe and the Maghreb, The break-up of the pair at the
Dactyloctenium
aegyptium
in end of laying stimulates an
Senegal, and by the Lamiaceae, urge to move away in the male,
mainly Stachys annua, Galeopsis which remains in a sexual or
pre-sexual state (migratory),
sp, Ajuga sp.
whilst the female is in the
Seeds from some families are found incubation stage. This is the
in lesser quantities but on a regular key to the increasing bias in the
ratio
when
going
basis: Compositaceae (Cirsium sp., sex
Sonchus)
among
which
the northwards in the reproduction
Sunflower can play an interesting zone.
role at the end of summer and
during the wintering period in
Portugal.
Pairs form in communal (or
central) pairing places at the
end
of
migration
(Guyomarc’h et al. 1984).
These places are recognized
by the presence of several
calling males. After a male
establishes a reproductive tie
with a female, they leave
their communal place, adopt
a very discreet behaviour,
and become very difficult to
detect in the field.
The birds do not defend their
breeding territory, the same
plot of land can be used
simultaneously by two or
three pairs. The vital daily
surface area (1-2 hectares)
shifts every day, remaining
more or less centred upon
the nest.
The ‘faithfulness’ of the
male can drive it to attack
other females. But extra-pair
copulations do also occur,
together
with
mateswitchings (Rodrígo-Rueda
et al. 1997, RodriguezTeijeiro et al. 2003).
The adult is omnivorous, eating a
wide variety of vegetation, mainly
seeds, but also other vegetable
matter and invertebrates (molluscs,
arthropods and arachnids) at certain
times of the year. Seasonal
variations occur, determined by
physiological needs (Combreau &
Guyomarc’h 1992, Guyomarc’h et
al. 1998):
15
Breeding:
Feeding:
The pair bond only lasts
during the nesting period,
and sometimes even less; the
female rejects the male by
refusing copulation when 910 eggs have been laid. This
rift and the separation from
the male are necessary for
incubation to begin.
Papilionaceae,
Cruciferae,
Polygonacea, Chenopodiaceae etc.
Each of these families can, on a
local basis, play a dominant role in
the pre-migratory hyperphagic
phase.
The male will often, if not
always,
undertake
movements of variable
amplitude and start a new
breeding cycle elsewhere.
Each bird (especially males)
can set up several nests in
succession with a new
partner. The Common Quail
therefore
practises
successive
monogamy
(Guyomarc’h 1998).
In favourable biotopes, the
quail
shows
a
very
aggregative
distribution:
quails of both sexes gather on
small areas of about 4-12
hectares, on which a varying
number of unattached males
display. Numbers may reach
several
dozens
where
populations are dense, e.g. in
Morocco, or just 3-5 males,
as in France. These birds are
not territorial (Aubrais et al.
1986); the distance between
such ‘displaying centres’ is
variable: 0,5-1 km, or even
more.
These centres are apparently
‘traditional’ in character and
location, so long as the crop
rotation remains favourable,
and despite the rapid
turnover
in
Quail
populations.
Invertebrates represent a significant
proportion of food intake during the
breeding period, when they are
actively sought by birds of both
sexes (Combreau & Guyomarc’h
1989) which seek a wide variety of
insect species living on the ground:
small
Carabidae,
Elateridae,
Staphylinids, Dermestidae, ants
(adults and eggs), Diptera such as
Tipulidae, Araneidae (Lycosidae,
Liniphiidae…);
amphipod
and
isopod crustaceans in saltmarsh
habitats.
Gastropods
are
systematically eaten in alfalfa
(Helicella sp, Stagnicola, Succina
sp...).
The diet of quail fledglings
Results vary between areas,
depending
on
availability.
Invertebrates dominate, to a large
extent, in the crop of fledglings
from saltmarsh habitats where seeds
have not yet fallen to earth in June–
July (Combreau et al. 1990). On the
other hand vegetable matter is
predominant in the crops of those
youngsters analysed in more
favourable land areas such as cereal
fields and set-aside land (Mur 1994,
Michaïlov 1995): 38% invertebrates
(araneids, springtails, diptera..), and
62% vegetation, mainly seeds
(Euphorbia helioscopia, Stellaria
media, Viola arvense).
Observations carried out under
chosen and controlled situations
give the same results in terms of
ingested matter.
16
Outside breeding season
During migration, the majority
of birds seem to converge
towards bottleneck corridors:
– the Nile, in spring and
autumn.
Zuckerbrot et al.
(1980) showed that the Quail
crossing via the Sinai in 19723 were from (and headed for) a
specific area between 24° &
45° East, 41° & 49° North
(Bulgaria,
Georgia,
the
Ukraine). A substantial part of
this same migratory flow
passed between the Caucasus
and the Black Sea (Dementiev
& Gladkov 1952)
– Tunisia in the spring
(Arnould et al. 1953-54). We
know
through
other
experiments how this flight
path feeds into Bavaria,
Poland, Sweden, Norway and
western Russia (Dechambre
1936, Toschi 1939);
– the former Spanish Sahara
(west of the Sahara) in spring
(Valverde 1957) and possibly
in autumn as well.
The routes shown on Fig. 2
served to divide the palearctic
meta-population
into four
relatively
well-defined
populations,
with
distinct
migration routes.
Breeding:
Feeding:
40% was farinaceous material rich
in proteins and 60% early-growth
cereals; amongst these we observed
a very clear preference for small
round seeds, notably of Papaver
rheas, Setaria viridis, Galeopsis
(Guyomarc’h et al. 1995). Long
seeds were rejected (e.g. Lolium sp),
above all when they are sharp and
The average clutch size hard, such as Apera spica-venti,
varies from year to year Alopecurus spp.
even in favourable areas:
e.g. in alfalfa fields in The speed of chick growth is largely
Morocco between 10,3 determined by the protein content of
(1994, N=19) and 12,9 eggs available food resources. The
(1992, N=19, Maghnouj second week of its life appears to be
1995). There is probably a the most critical, since a doubling in
significant
difference weight is observed (going from 10between the average clutch 12g at 7 days; to 20-25g at 21 days).
size of March and June:
respectively 11,6 (8-16,
N=22) and 11 eggs (7-12)
for Morocco and Europe
(Dementiev and Gladkov
1952, Mur 1994, Schifferli
1950, Muntaner et al. 1983),
and the late clutches from
August and September: 8.5
eggs (7-10).
The most likely explanation
is that such sites may have,
independently of the plot
location and the year’s crop,
some intrinsic qualities
(possibly geo-physical) that
make them attractive over
generations.
Hatching rate was 97–98%
in Morocco (Maghnouj, pers
comm. 1995), and 92% in
Spain, (Gallego et al. 1993).
The average number of
chicks per brood declines
from 6.7 (1 week after
hatching) to 3.9 (5 weeks
after hatching) in the
favourable
habitats
of
Bulgaria (Michailov 1996).
The breeding phenology
differs, at a given latitude,
depending on altitude (Table
3).
17
Outside breeding season
Habitat
requirements
The Common Quail systematically chooses open land, usually without hedges, either in lowlands or
in mountains: large alluvial grasslands or large cereal plateaux, even terraces of cultivated farmland
such as in the Moroccan High Atlas. When the countryside is less open (the mesh-like bocages of
Brittany or Aveyron, France), it settles away from trees in open spaces or where the region is
dominated by gentle slopes. The topography and land unevenness therefore play a large part in the
distribution of mating (displaying) centres.
The Quail carries out all its vital functions (feeding, nest-building) in the herbaceous strata of natural
coastal grasslands (abundant grasses), high altitude prairies (e.g. uncultivated land in the Aveyron and
Capcir, France) or, as for the Grey Partridge Perdix perdix, the grassy areas of open agro-systems
(with the notable exception of ryegrass).
The Quail prefers cover which, although dense enough to provide protection, allows fluid
movements, hence the choice of alfalfa, winter barley, and winter wheat when still green and showing
abundant basal leaves or early shoots (Aubrais et al. 1986). Other cultivated areas with similar
features such as flax (e.g. in west France) are used too, whereas Halimione clumps on saltmarshes are
avoided.
In Greece, where 60% of the agricultural land is concentrated in semi-mountainous areas, Quail seem
to avoid abandoned land. For example in a mountain plateau near the Vikos-Aoos National Park
(Pindos mountain, North-West Greece) where some population data exist, the species prefers
cultivated land with cereals or fodder (Trifolium spp. or natural hay-meadows that are not grazed and
cut periodically), rather than abandoned agricultural fields, where perennial grass is much higher and
denser. This is probably because the latter have many more naturally regenerating trees and scrubs, or
because surrounding hedges have grown too dense and tall as they are no longer grazed by goats, or
cut and burnt by farmers. This vegetation succession due to the abandonment of traditional land uses
(grazing and cultivation in small agricultural fields) is a general pattern observed all over Greece, and
may be in the long term a threat for many open grassland species along with Quail.
The situation is quite similar in Bulgaria (for which some population data exist), where during the
period 1990-2005 the Quail population was breeding predominantly in cultivated land with cereals
and to a lesser extend in meadows and other grasslands. Breeding in cultivated lands may be also a
potential threat due to the increasing use of chemicals (P. Iankov, pers. comm.).
Quail use the centre of fields more than their edges, which significantly limits the exploitation of
resources in linear structures such as walls or ditche.
In nesting time
In the agricultural areas of southwest France in May–June (P. Mur 1994), as well as in the large
alfalfa fields of Morocco in March–April (Maghnouj 1995 at Dourdan), a large majority of nests are
located in field edges rather than in their centre: over 50% are located less than 10 metres (80% less
than 20m) away from an edge, a drainage canal or ditch, or a meeting point between two fields.
In Cyprus, it is a common breeder in the lowlands in winter barley field edges, especially if these are
bordered by phrygana (dwarf scrub) and riparian/ marsh vegetation or if the barley is planted in moist
fields. Since 1981, it also nests in irrigated agriculture, like alfalfa and vegetables, but it is a far more
common breeder in marshland vegetation of open shores of dams and natural wetlands.
There is a significant preference for nesting in an environment which is difficult to spot visually,
dominated by vertical structures, with green rather than ochre colours (Michel 1998). Visual
protection from aerial predators is reinforced by habits such as female pulling vegetation over itself
and over the nest and eggs.
18
Habitat
requirements
Colza, corn, sorghum, sunflower, soya as well as artificial grasslands (ryegrass) are usually
avoided, as well as wheat growing on bare soil. Quails quickly adapted to the spread of
proteagenous peas in the 1980s and 1990s - maybe because of the density of insects that this crop
supports, but such a choice eventually proved catastrophic, since the peas mature and die very
early in the season, which leaves incubating females, clutches and young chicks at the mercy of
predators and storms. Moreover, the absence of an early vegetation under the pea cover makes
egg prone to rolling around when it rains.
Overall, a reduction in potential breeding habitats is likely to have taken place in many parts of
Europe in recent decades, as was measured e.g. in southwest France.
During migration & winter
In Cyprus, birds are found during autumn passage in the breeding habitats mentioned above, but
also in the now open/bare/uncultivated barley fields where they congregate, as they feed heavily
on the seeds of Amaranthus graecizans, which have a thick growth at these fields. In the winter it
is found mostly in thick phrygana/maquis vegetation, from the coast up to 700m elevation.
19
2.
Available key-knowledge
This chapter provides a summary of up-to-date knowledge on the biology, distribution and trends of the
populations of the Common Quail that occur in the EU. It also gives information on the hunting status in the
Member States.
A major problem in developing a Management Plan for the Common Quail is the extremely wide
distribution of the species, breeding in farmland throughout nearly the whole of Europe. This makes it
difficult to study and to precisely evaluate the population without detailed monitoring.
An important part of the Common Quail lifecycle takes place outside the borders of EU, where it is also
difficult to assess the wintering populations (e.g. North and West Africa).
Furthermore the knowledge of bag statistics in Europe, North and West Africa is simply inadequate to assess
the extent and variation of hunting pressure. Whatever is available on open seasons and annual bags is shown
in Table 4.
20
Figure 1. Distribution of the Common Quail Coturnix coturnix (illustration from Guyomarc’h 2003).
Hatched leftwards: breeding area; hatched rightwards: wintering area (both areas overlap partly)
21
Table 1. Geographical distribution of Common Quail Coturnix coturnix during the year (EU
27)
Wintering
Breeding
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Cyprus
Denmark
Estonia
Finland (few)
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland (not annual)
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
•
•
•
•
•
•
Italy
Portugal
Spain
Cyprus
Greece
Bulgaria
22
Table 2: European breeding population of Common Quai Coturnix coturnix l.
Only includes EU countries plus other European countries (in shaded rows) with major populations.
Note: Breeding pairs and calling males are not directly comparable: these are
two different population indexes (see text)
BirdLife International estimate
(2004a)
Guyomarc’h 2003 (data
from late 1990s - early
2000s )
Breeding pairs
Year(s)
Trend
19902000
1998 - 2002
(+)
2001 - 2002
(0)
1994 - 2002
2000
2000 - 2001
1998
1998 - 2002
2000
1995 - 99
1995 - 2000
(0)
+
+
0
+
(F)
(+)
(-)
(5,000 - 15,000)
100,000 - 150,000
3,000 - 7,000
50,000 - 200,000
10,000 - 20,000
150,000 - 300,000
20,000 - 100,000
-
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
(5,000 - 15,000)2
15,000 - 30,000
2,400 - 5,700
8,000 - 15,000
(1,000 - 4000)
5000 - 10,000
200 - 600
10 - 50
10 - 100
(100,000 - 500,000)
12,000-32,000
(2,000 - 5,000)
[Note: 5,000 - 10,000
in Handrinos &
Akriotis 1997)
70,000 - 94,000
0 - 20
(5,000 - 20,000)
1999 - 2002
1988 - 91
2003
(0)
F
?
30,000 - 45,000
100,000 - 150,000
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Romania
Portugal
Russia (Eur.)
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Canary Is.
Sweden
Turkey
Ukraine
UK
20 - 500
(1,000 - 2,000)
10 - 25
1-3
2,000 - 6,500
100,000 - 150,000
160,000 - 220,000
(5000 - 50,000)
1,500,000 - 2,000,000
2,000 - 6,000
1,000 - 2,000
(320,000 - 435,000)
(2,500 - 10,000)
(10 - 40)
(300,000 - 800,000)
100,000 - 160,000
5 - 450
1990 - 2000
1999 - 2001
2002
1990 - 2002
1998 - 2000
2000 - 2002
1999 - 2002
2002
2000
1990 - 1999
1999
1992
1997 - 2003
1999 - 2000
2001
1990 - 2000
1996 - 2000
+
+
0
+
(+)
(-)
(0)
F
0
0
?
(-)
(F)
(-)
0
1,000 - 10,000
20,000 - 130,000
30,000 - 50,000
50,000 - 150,000
1 - 2 million
500,000 - 1,000,000
250,000 - 500,000
500,000 - 600,000
-
Country
Austria
Belarus
Belgium
Bulgaria
Cyprus
Czech Rep
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
2
considered however by Austrian experts to refer to calling males rather than pairs
23
Calling males
BLI data
Breeding populations trends
+ increase, 0 stable, - decreasing, F fluctuating, ? unknown
Quality of data:
bold: reliable quantitative data available for the whole country
normal characters: generally well known, but poor/ uncomplete quantitative data
( ): poorly known, with no quantitative data available
Calling male data (Guyomarc’h 2003)
-: no data available
Table 3: Timing of the different breeding stages in Catalonia, Spain, as a function of altitude for the
decade 1980-1990 (adapted from Gallego et al. 1990).
MONTH/
ALTITUDE
APRIL
MAY
1200m
CROWING
800m
600m
JUNE
CROWING
CROWING
LAYING
LAYING
LAYING
JULY
AUGUST
HARVESTING
HATCHING
MAT.
CARE
HARVESTING
HATCHING CARING
EMANCIPATION
HARVESTING
HATCHING CARING
EMANCIPATION
HARVESTING
200m
LAYING HATCHING
CROWING
24
MATERNAL
CARE
EMANCI YOUNG
PATION
ADULTS
Table 4: Hunting seasons and annual bags in some EU and other European countries.
Country
Austria
Bulgaria
Cyprus
France
Greece
Italy
Malta
Portugal
Romania
Russia
Spain
Ukraine
Hunting season
1 - 30 September
(Burgenland Province only)
15 August - 30 October
21 August - 16 October &
30 October - 28 February,
Sundays and Wednesdays,
except some small coastal
areas (~50 km2) that are
daily from the 4 September
- 16 October
Last Saturday of August 20 February (3)
20 August - 2 December
Mid September - 31
December (4)
The hunting season is
determined on a yearly
basis upon a
recommendation of the
Ornis Committee in line
with Maltese legislation,
namely the Conservation of
Wild Birds Regulations,
2006
1 September - 30 December
(in recent years, closing
date was late November)
1 August - ??
15/28 August - ??
15 August - 15/25
September
??
Annual bag
(individuals)
300,000
19 - 56,000
Source
Dr Andreas Ranner, pers.
comm.
Union of hunters and anglers
Cyprus Game Fund Service,
Annual Harvest Report
43,200 (2004)
340,000 + 5%
(1)
72,000
Boutin et al. 2000
Thomaides 1996 &
Guyomarc’h 2003
unknown
No data
available
400,000 (1)
5,000
1,600,000 (2)
1,340,000 (1)
134,000
Hunting legislation;
ICN
Fontoura pers. comm.
Paspaleva pers. comm.
Mezhnev 1994
Spanish Environmental
Ministry hunting statistics
Ukrainian Hunting Dept.
(1) including released Japanese and hybrid Quails
(2) in the mid-1970s
(3) Opening dates = can be open as from the last Saturday of August but most of the time it is not
shot before the general opening in the course of September.
(4) Opening dates can be on 1 Sept. in some areas
25
Figure 2. Main migration paths of the Common Quail Coturnix coturnix to/from the West Palearctic.
26
3
Threats
This chapter gives an overview of current human activities, along with climate changes, that are
believed to have a negative impact on the Common Quail populations. Although not located in the
European Union, some threats to the species in the wintering areas are also taken into account, as those
areas are believed to be of crucial importance for the Common Quail.
To describe the importance of threats to Common Quail populations, the following categories are used:
Critical: a factor causing or likely to cause very rapid declines (>30% over 10 years);
High: a factor causing or likely to cause rapid declines (20-30% over 10 years);
Medium: a factor causing or likely to cause relatively slow, but significant, declines (10–20% over 10
years);
Low: a factor causing or likely to cause fluctuations;
Local: a factor causing or likely to cause negligible declines;
Unknown: a factor that is likely to affect the species but to an unknown extent
1.
Habitat loss/modification
Modern agriculture practices affect breeding habitats in a number of ways, e.g.:
- early hay-making season, with short intervals between two cuts. For instance, alfalfa, a very
favourable crop much sought after by quails has become today the primary source of nest and
clutch destruction in Morocco. The female no longer has the required 5-8 weeks for egg-laying
and incubation (Maghnouj pers. obs. 1995-96 in the irrigated parts of the Tadla).
- mowing practices: non-flying young birds are often killed in the middle of fields, where they get
concentrated by the circular, inward-spiralling move of mowing machines. A centrifugal move
by a machine would gradually push the birds towards the edges, and prove less lethal to both the
Quail and other species, e.g. rails and partridges (Broyer 1996).
- intensive pesticide use is doubly harmful:
a) by reducing the amount of cover, which increases Quail vulnerability;
b) by the huge reduction of food resources (seeds and invertebrates), which become limiting,
in spite of the demographic strategy of the species. The reduction in pesticide use in
Bulgaria over the last 10 years (because of their inflated price) may have encouraged both
breeding success and local population increases (Michaïlov 1995) ;
- all stubble-clearing operations, wholesale eco-clearance in July and August (as in Bulgaria,
Michaïlov 1995), and ground clearance immediately after the harvest are disastrous since they
remove the cover for both the Quail and its prey.
More generally, habitat degradation mainly stems from the evolution of crop rotation and farming
intensification (new strains, phyto-sanitary programmes, low mowing, early stubble clearance following
harvesting, etc.)
A good supply of animal food sources for both females and Quail chicks, which feed on the ground
surface, is vital for successful breeding. Pesticides reduce invertebrate densities in crops, which in turn
affects Quail productivity through a shortage of animal protein.
Each region (or each country) shows its own particularities in terms of agriculture impact, but the results
are often the same in terms of Quail declines. For example, the general reduction in grassy areas
between 1970 and 1990 was -25% in France (IFEN 1996, in Verheyden 1999). Other crops, which are
27
in theory beneficial to Quails, have progressed (winter wheat, winter barley), but they have lost their
initial qualities as a breeding habitat through the intensive use of herbicides. Finally, spring crops (corn,
sunflower, soya, sorghum) have progressed considerably in the same period, but they are totally
unusable during the breeding peak in May-June, which further reduces nesting and rearing areas.
However, these phenomena are often complex:
- sunflowers which are avoided in summer, become attractive in late August / September during
migration (and during the hunting season), both for the cover and the abundance of earlygrowing seeds which they offer;
- pea fields are attractive in May for cover and insects, but they become dangerous at the end of
June when they dry out (egg-rolling, predation);
- paradoxically, meadows bring about a reduction in Quail density when they are permanent or in
a process of rapid rotation by cattle (Mur 1994 in France; Fontoura, pers. obs. in Portugal).
Management measures oriented towards the development of ‘wild fauna set-aside land’ constitutes an
interesting avenue to explore ( Moreau et al. 1995). An experiment carried out in Deux-Sèvres and Illeet-Vilaine (west France) showed that set-aside lands - especially fallow land - are attractive sites for
breeding birds and that they provide good food resources for young birds (Guyomarc’h et al. 1996).
However, their role is limited overall by their small surface area and their dispersed location, which
cannot be easily fitted to the ‘traditional’ mating (displaying) centres.
Yet, other EU countries may show a totally different pattern, albeit on a smaller scale.
Cyprus does not yet have the high degree of agriculture intensification, mechanization and monoculture
characterizing most EU countries. Due to its small surface area and the highly fragmented land-tenure
system, Cyprus agriculture has not suffered from monocultures as much as other EU countries. The
average cultivated land tenure for all zones is ca. 3.6 hectares, i.e. the smallest in the whole of Europe.
This land-tenure system makes agricultural intensification practically impossible. In Cyprus, irrigated
land (sprinkle-fed alfalfa and vegetables) has increased from about 18,000 hectares (10% of the
agricultural land) in the 1970s to 38,000 hectares (22% of the agricultural land) in 1995. This took place
mainly in the lowlands, below 600-700 m elevation, where there is more open space and land is easier to
irrigate. It could account for the observed increase in breeding and wintering Quail populations along
with that of the black francolin Francolinus francolinus.
A very important cause of loss/modification of autumn staging habitat in Bulgaria is the boom of
construction developments covering almost the entire coastline of the Black Sea. It includes compact
built up of previously open grassland areas and erection of increasing numbers of wind turbines in the
areas of mass concentrations of the Quail. The wind turbines may have destructive effects on the
population passing in autumn along the Western Black Sea coast taking into consideration the flight
abilities of the birds and the nocturnal pattern of migration. In areas such as the Bulgarian part of
Coastal Dobrudzha (especially the region of Shabla - Cape Kaliakra - Balchik), where due to the shape
of the coastline Quails stop in the biggest national numbers, erection of hundreds of planned wind
turbines is underway (P. Iankov, pers.comm.). There is a similar threat in Romania.
In Italy, major coastal stopover areas are under threat due to impinging touristic / infrastructural
activities causing significant habitat loss. This is true both in spring, for birds which have crossed the
barriers represented by the Sahara and Mediterranean, including long endurance flights across the sea:
and in autumn, being the latter also a crucial phase for the storing of energy reserves for southwards
migration.
28
Importance of habitat loss/modification
•
For breeding areas in the EU the importance of habitat loss/modification is set at Low/ Local.
[Note: this is based on current assumed impact of this factor on EU population changes, and
does not imply that this factor cannot assume in the future a High or Critical importance]
•
2.
For autumn migration areas in the EU the importance of habitat loss/modification is set at High.
Droughts and climate change
On sub-Saharan wintering populations
Although not located in the European Union, climate conditions (most particularly drought) in wintering
areas can indirectly lead to abnormally high mortality. Since 1970, the Sahelian regions of west Africa,
which provide wintering areas to west European populations, have been hit by long periods of drought,
with an annual rainfall now rarely exceeding the long-term average, and quite often remaining well
below (Jarry 1994). The dates of first arrivals on the breeding areas in the northeast Iberian Peninsula
have advanced by 0.87 day/year showing a negative association with December and January air
temperature in the western sub-Saharan zone (Rodriguez-Teijeiro et al. 2005).
It is strongly suspected that this drought brought about the major decline of a large proportion of Quail
populations which flourished right up to the 1950s and 1960s. The gradual drop in the level of rainfall
noted since measures exist (see p. 394 in Guyomarc’h 1992) has considerably modified the bushy
savannah of the Saloum, Senegal and Niger basins. It seems that the drop in Quail numbers between
1967-68 and 1971-72 constitutes a dramatic turning-point.
Drought may have acted principally through affecting farmland where the Quail search for cover and
food: for instance, millet and sorghum fields shrank from 120,000 to 20,000 hectares between 1975 and
1990 in the Senegal basin (Guyomarc’h 1992). As a likely consequence, the fat reserves of Quails
measured in the Djoudj (Senegal) on their migratory path to Mauretania and Europe, were found to be
very low. These reserves are insufficient to meet the energy requirements to reach their next stopover wadis of the south Atlas (e.g. Wadi Draa valley, in south Morocco). Overall, this amounts to a strong
counter-selection of the long-distance migrant birds.
On Mediterranean breeding birds
Access to plentiful water is essential for egg-laying. When deprived of water (dry period without dew),
egg-laying stops. Since the Spanish hunting bag is positively related to the the annual rainfall, rain
probably affects productivity indirectly, perhaps by improving breeding habitats, or by helping maintain
a favourable habitat quality until later in the season (Michaïlov 1995, Puigcerver et al.1999).
Sudden shortages of water in Tunisia, resulting from strong sirocco wind spells, are known to lead to the
nests and broods being abandoned (Lavauden 1935). Drought could explain why some years - that
would otherwise seem to be favourable - prove to be eventually disastrous for Quail breeding, as e.g. in
1989 in many French regions. It could also help explain the opposite phenomenon: an abundance of
breeding Quails in areas irrigated by sprinkling.
Importance
•
The importance of climate change in wintering and breeding areas is provisionally set at Low/
Local.
[Note: this is based on current assumed impact of this factor on EU population changes, and
does not imply that this factor cannot assume in the future a High or Critical importance]
29
3.
Genetic pollution from released Japanese Quail and/or hybrids
Japanese Quails and their hybrids with Common Quail are frequently bred and released in Europe for
hunting purposes. This practice was initiated in the 1970s, particularly in France and Italy, in order to
meet the requirements of hunters in years when Quail bags declined. All EU countries are potentially
affected, and the risks are mainly generated by Spain, France, Italy, Greece, Turkey, and even Tunisia
(F. Roux pers. comm.)
Initial releases
Initially, Japanese Quails were released from stocks originating from Quail breeding for the food
industry. The origin of these birds is well known. Quails from the (sub-)species Coturnix (c.) japonica
have been domesticated in Japan and all along the Pacific coast for several centuries. Yamashina (1961)
clearly states that domestic, non-migratory stock enabled the re-establishment of quail-breeding as an
economic activity in Japan after World War II. To this initial stock, domestic Quails from Taiwan,
Korea, China were then added, as well as ‘country quails’ domesticated from birds captured in the wild
(Howes 1964, Mills et Faure 1991). Thus the genetic ingredients for migration were re-introduced into
this captive population3. From this stock, breeding quails were sent to France and Italy in the 1950s
(Rizzoni & Lucchetti, 1957, 1972). A ‘cynegetic’ (hunted) strain quickly diverged from the ‘foodindustry’ strain, but frequent introductions of birds from the latter into the former were made in order to
‘improve’ the quality of birds supplied to hunters (fighting weight gain, encouraging flight; J-C
Guyomarc’h, unpubl. obs. in Sologne, France).
In Italy (Baccetti et al.) the first Japanese Quails were imported in 1953. Most Italian Provinces have
seen releases in the wild, despite apparently very low breeding performances. In 1966 a semi-melanic
form has also been released in several areas, including the Island of Capraia (Tuscany).
In parallel with birds of Asian origin, indigenous quails captured in Italy just after WW2 were also bred
for hunting. Italian breeders continue today to provide migratory ‘wild’ Common Quail for release each
spring (in April; S. Spano pers. com.). In addition, an industrial production of hybrid stock (‘wild’
Italian x Japanese) was set up, by Italian breeders first (possibly as early as 1980), then French breeders,
e.g. from 1982-83 onwards at Romorantin (Sologne), and from at least 1992-93 at Domaine
d’Empaillon (Auch) (J-C Guyomarc’h, pers. obs.).
In Europe, no clear monitoring of the scale of releases was done between 1960-1980. For France, an
estimated maximum of 450,000-500,000 birds released per year would seem reasonable for the early
1980s, on the basis of ONCFS studies in 1983 (i.e. between 3/4 and 2/3 of the 640,000 Quails shot in
total; Ferrand 1986). Most releases were done in August or September, before hunting opened, and the
majority were shot. But evidence has been gathered that several hundred Japanese Quail were also
released in June 1985 in Maine-et-Loire (France), and calling Japanese birds have been recorded in
France, Portugal and Spain (Rodriguez-Teijeiro et al. 1993, Guyomarc’h 2003; Y. Kayser pers. comm.).
Out of a sample of 160 Common Quails captured in Catalonia, Spain, during the 1998 breeding season,
5% contained Japanese Quail genetic material (mitochondrial DNA) (Puigcerver et al. 2000).
Some EU members have taken a strong stand against such releases.
o In Cyprus, no release of Japanese or hybrid Quail has taken place and the Game Fund, Ministry
of Interior, is strongly against it. Additionally, release of any exotic animal species on the island
is illegal.
3
This was further shown by a few very large-scale introductions attempted in the USA into several states, such as
Missouri and Tennessee. Birds came from ‘country quails’ brought from Japan after the war. These operations
showed that a large number of these birds were good migrators (Stanford, 1957), which incidentally contributed to
the failure of these attempts: the quails got lost in neighbouring states.
30
o
o
In Portugal, the general hunting law allows releasing huntable species both for short-term
hunting purposes (e.g. for training fields and for hunting within three days after release) and for
long-term objectives (population recovery). The law states the obligation to ensure "genetic
purity and similarity of the introduced animals with the receptive species". The uncertain
taxonomic status of the (sub)species could be a problem as the legislation only refers to the
species level, but the general understanding of the Administration is that Japanese Quail is a
species, following the EBCC Atlas of European breeding birds and BirdLife International. So,
its use for training fields and recovery is considered illegal. Currently, there are few regular,
small-scale releases of Common Quail for training/hunting purposes. These are done with
captive-bred birds, and breeding must legally ensure the "genetic purity, etc...". Control is done
at Quail production centres, but not in the field. Currently, the key issue is therefore to have a
quick, easy way of controlling (sub)species in captive breeding centres. This would stimulate the
breeding in captivity of the wild species and consequently its release in the wild, decreasing the
probability but not eliminating the illegal use of Japanese Quail.
In France, the release of the Japanese Quail is prohibited since 2000.
European, Japanese and hybrid Quails are virtually impossible to distinguish from morphological
factors. The best discriminating criteria remains the breeding call (“crowing”), but it has to be
remembered that hybrids can produce calls identical to both parent (sub)species (Derégnaucourt et al.
2001).
In short, cynegetic’ Quails are: 1) hybrids of Japanese Quail and Common Quail; and 2) probably
bringing Coturnix (c.) japonica genetic material into wild European populations of Common Quail, to
an unknown extent. Furthermore, the few hybrid individuals that have not lost the migratory habits
could potentially bring genetic pollution away from Europe, especially to North Africa which currently
hosts a vital component of the overall metapopulation.
The effect of releases on wild populations
Both male Japanese Quails and F1 hybrids are very aggressive in the breeding season, and
systematically dominate male Common Quails of the same age in direct encounter tests (Derégnaucourt
2000). They will copulate with any female Common Quail which they meet during summer.
Beyond ethical considerations on genetic pollution, the main drawback of released, hybrid Quails is that
they have inherited the genetic characteristic of being sedentary, and potentially can pass it on to wild
populations (Deregnaucourt 1998). In ‘cynegetic quails’ available in western Europe, the frequency of
migratory phenotypes is dropping considerably but has not completely disappeared, which increases the
danger of spreading pollution throughout the entire distribution area, notably towards the African
wintering zones. A recent study found that 8% of migrants from an Italian breeding centre, and 32%
from a French breeding centre (among which 24% were long-distance migrants), were indisputably
polluted (Guyomarc’h et al. 2000).
So, releases of the Japanese Quail in the 1960s and 70s, and of hybrid Quails, may contribute to a
lowering impulse to migrate in the Common Quail, and to the reduced frequency of phenotypes showing
this tendency, thus exacerbating the drop in numbers of long-migrating birds. Releases may also reduce
the adaptive value of wild populations by introducing into them birds which are not adapted to the
vagaries of a natural life (climatic factors, predation, etc….). It has thus been stated that “releasing
hybrid and Japanese Quails in the wild could rapidly lead to widespread genetic pollution of the
western palearctic populations of the European Quail” (Derégnaucourt et al. 2005).
However in Catalunya (Spain), detailed monitoring in the last 11 years has shown that despite 100,000
Quails of dubious origin being released annually, the proportion of hybrid birds detected in the field
during the breeding season is small (<5%), and did not increase over the period. It is therefore likely that
hunting, predation and possibly other natural factors currently prevent genetic pollution to reach a large
31
scale (J.D. Rodríguez-Teijeiro & M. Puigcerver Oliván, in litt.). No similar study seems to have been
done in any other part of the EU, and therefore any true impact on populations of this potential threat
remains unknown.
Therefore, as a consequence of a potential risk rather than of yet any evidence of a current negative
impact, recent studies unanimously conclude on the need to ban Japanese/ hybrid Quail releases
throughout Europe and even further, in the rest of the Common Quail distribution area (Guyomarc’h
2003, Barilani et al. 2005).
•
4.
The importance of genetic pollution from released Japanese Quail and/or hybrids in breeding, transit
(migration) and wintering areas is provisionally set at Unknown.
Hunting
The Common Quail is fully protected in Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,
Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia, Sweden,
Switzerland, Slovenia and UK.
It is furthermore listed in the Red Data Books of Austria (Near-Threatened), Denmark, Estonia, Finland,
Latvia, Lithuania, Spain (Data-deficient) and Sweden.
It can be hunted in specific periods in the following EU countries: Austria (one province only out of 9:
Burgenland), Bulgaria, Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Spain.
Practices
In most of Europe, Asia and Africa, the Quail is hunted with guns by dedicated specialists with dogs.
Several convergent sources point at a significantly unbalanced sex-ratio among birds killed, to the
detriment of males: ca. 60% males in Morocco in 1985-86, a 1.98 male/female ratio in 11 years of bag
statistics in Italy ( N=143 rings returned). The dates of these captures coincide with the breeding season
in both cases, and can be attributed to the difficulty in flushing a female off her nest if she is laying or
incubating. With non-shooting hunting methods deemed to be non-selective, a 1.57 male/female ratio
was obtained at Cape Bon (Tunisia).
Another technique consists in using nets (Italian three-sectioned vertical net, or small square cloth laid
across stubble) while mimicking the female call (Berthet 1946), which leads to the exclusive capture of
unpaired, wandering males. This practice was outlawed in Italy in 1939, but since then, there was some
relaxation in special zones called ‘quagliare’ up until 1977 (Spano, pers. comm.). In the rest of Europe
too, nets are usually forbidden, but in the 1990s a certain amount of net-trapping was ongoing in Italy
(in Puglia, Calabria, Frioul and Piedmont) in order to fuel hybrid Quail breeding and dog training
(Spano, pers. comm.), as well as a small number in Andalusia, Spain (Guyomarc’h 2003).
In Malta, hunters operate in spring (targets = males only) and in autumn, by throwing a square net
(roughly 10m x 10m) over cut vegetation, after attracting the birds to it with a device mimicking the
female call (the ‘kwaljarin’ or ‘kirjolin’). They also drive the birds towards the trap on foot, having
possibly previously burned the surrounding vegetation where the birds could have taken refuge (Fenech
1992). This practice seems to be on the decline. Although the trapping of Quail was banned in Malta by
Legal Notice 79/2006, it was permitted under derogation during 26 March-20 May 2007.
Hunting seasons
Available data is summarized in Table 4.
Hunting does occur in the breeding and pre-breeding stage in north Africa (e.g. Egypt), and will
continue so long as the real start of the breeding period (March) is not fully recognized and accepted by
32
authorities. Morocco, where the first scientific studies demonstrated this point in 1985-86, is an example
of a country where hunting dates were changed so as to avoid the breeding season - it is now 2 October
to 22 January, whereas in the 1980s it used to cover February and March too.
At the beginning of the hunting season, hunting may affect young birds less than 6-7 weeks old, which
have a limited hunting interest: weak flight capability and no body fat. The latitude and altitude of
hunting areas do play a part.
In Spain, in the Catalonian Pyrenees, the average time for hatching is in the third quarter of June at 800
m, in the third quarter of July over 1000 m (Puigcerver et al. 1989). So an estimated 50% of youngsters
hatched over 1000 metres altitude are less than 40 days old on 1st September, when the season opens.
In SW France, an analysis on wings recovered in lowlands (Tarn-et-Garonne, Haute-Garonne) in 198789 suggested that over 80% of the youngsters were hatched before 15th July, and had completed their
post-juvenile moult by 1st September. But as in Spain, the situation is different at altitudes of 800–1000
metres (e.g. in Loire, Aveyron and Eastern Pyrenees) where breeding, growth and migration of the
young are delayed by at least 2-3 weeks (Puigcerver 1990, Mur 1994). So except for an occasional short
flight, most young birds may still be undergoing their post-juvenile moult when the season starts on 1st
September, and may not fly efficiently. They represented for example 40% (N = 35) of the Quails shot
in Cerdagne (France) in early September 1990.
National bag statistics
Figures are available only for a few EU countries, plus a few neighbouring ones which may have an
impact on populations of EU relevance (see Table 4).
Cyprus
Many birds are shot in the autumn hunting season (Sep-Oct) but individual bags are small due to lack of
dogs to aid hunters in flushing the Quail. Only in small areas (one for each district) where dogs are
allowed during the autumn hunting period is any number of birds taken. During winter, larger numbers
are taken and then only during the period when dogs are allowed (Nov-Dec).
Hunter harvest records have been recorded by the Game Fund since 1986. Since 1998 Game Fund
conducts a randomly selected telephone survey covering > 1% of registered hunters from all districts
(450-500 hunters/year) (Papadopoulos and Kassinis 2005). The Game Fund combines harvest records
with annual population counts for resident game species to monitor population levels and safeguard the
species’ sustainable harvest.
The average participation in Quail hunting in September ranges from 13% to 19% of all Cypriot hunters,
varying between districts. It is estimated that average hunting days per Quail hunter ranges from 5-9
hunting days per season (8.6 days in 1999, 5.6 days in 2000). In year 2000 the average Quail hunter
harvested a total number of 4.2 Quail for the whole season. The tables below show Quail harvest
estimates for 1999 and 2000.
33
1999 Quail harvest
Average Quail
Total harvest
per hunter
District
Hunters
Participation %
Hunters
Lefkosia
Lemesos
Larnaka
Ammochostos
Paphos
14,000
12,000
7,000
5,000
6,000
16%
8%
43%
29%
0%
2,240
960
3,010
1,100
0
1.2
2.3
3.2
4.8
0.0
2,688
2,208
9,632
5,280
0
Total
44,000
17%
7,310
2.3
19,808
Source: Cyprus Game Fund Service, Annual Harvest Report, 1999
2000 Quail harvest
Average Quail
Total harvest
per hunter
District
Hunters
Participation %
Hunters
Lefkosia
Lemesos
Larnaka
Ammochostos
Paphos
14,000
12,000
7,000
5,000
6,000
13%
5%
26%
22%
0%
1,820
600
1,820
1,100
0
2.1
2.2
7.8
8.9
0
3,822
1,320
14,196
9,790
0
Total
44,000
13%
5,340
4.2
29,128
Source: Cyprus Game Fund, Annual Harvest Report, 2000
Harvest data may fluctuate greatly from year to year and will depend on the availability of birds in
specific days as well as the possibility of hunters to be present in specific areas. Also, the r-selected
nature of Quail leads to large variations in harvest from year to year. It is estimated that September
Quail harvest in Cyprus ranges from 11,000-36,000 birds per year. The harvest data for the NovemberDecember season is estimated to range from 8,000-20,000 birds per year making the total harvest to be
19,000-56,000 birds annually.
There is no bag limit for Quail.
Spain
The mean bag collected over 5-years periods remains rather constant at 1.3 – 1.4 million birds per year
(“bad” years 1.1 million, “good” years 1.7 million) (Puigcerver et al. 2001). One method of regulating
Quail hunting in Spain is to reduce the number of days where shooting is permitted, for example in
Castilla y León hunting is permitted for only 22 days.
France
An enquiry carried out by the Department of Haute Garonne Hunters’ Federation in 1986 (110
municipalities) indicates that the hunting associations released around 3,800 Quails at the end of
August, of which 3,700 were shot during the hunting season, as well as 1,250 wild Quails, which
therefore represent one quarter of the total bag for this department.
34
If this is taken as a representative example4, one can extrapolate these proportions to the national annual
bag, which was estimated at 640,000 birds three years earlier (ONC-SOFRES enquiry, Ferrand, 1984).
The total bag of wild Quail in France would therefore reach 160,000 for this period, including 140,000
young Quail (i.e. 90% of the total, a classic percentage). These values would be, respectively 210 and
190,000 if we estimate that wild Quail make up one third of the national bag.
Taking as a basis the estimated number of breeding pairs and average clutch size, we can speculate that
the total annual production laid between 0.8 and 1.4 million young birds in the period 1985-1992. The
annual bag therefore represented, at most5, 10–18% of the birds produced in France (13-24% if wild
Quail make up one third of the national bag ) (Guyomarc’h 1995).
A more recent national enquiry of shooting bags was carried out in autumn 1998 (Boutin 2000): the total
estimate was 340,000 Quails shot, but with no distinction possible between released and wild birds.
Greece
A 1994-1995 enquiry revealed that the Common Quail was in the top group of hunters’ preferred
species, on a par with the wood pigeon Columba palumbus. During the first 6 weeks of hunting, i.e.
during some 125 hunting trips, the average take was 4 Quail per gun per trip (Thomaides 1996). Taking
into account a total number of hunters of 3,000 (which is the number of questionnaires sent out by the
author of the enquiry, being the number of replies 400) and 6 trips by hunter, the total take could
amount to 3,000 × 6 × 4 = 72,000 Quails. At least one third of these Quails would be “local” shot in the
last ten days of August. But, because only 3% of the hunters that were polled reached the authorized
limit of 12 Quail per hunting trip, the interpretation of the estimates is not straightforward.
Italy
There is no sound information on national harvest.
Malta
There is no sound information on national harvest.
Portugal
There is no data available on trends in hunting pressure on Quail population numbers.
Bulgaria
(The annual bag is estimated at 250,000 to 350,000 Quails (enquiry by Union of Hunters and Fishers in
Bulgaria), all taken in autumn as no spring hunting is allowed. Most are taken from the Via Pontica
flyway (especially from the area of mass concentration of Quails in the Shabla – Cape Kaliakra –
Balchik region of North-Eastern Bulgaria). Much less shooting takes place inland. The figure is
indicative of the numbers of Quails passing during autumn migration through the country, rather than of
the size of the national breeding population (no captive-bred Quail are released).
Russia
The take fell from 2.5 million in the 1960s to 1.6 million by the mid-70s (Mezhnev 1994).
4
but this is a department of keen Quail hunting specialists, which leads to possibly larger than average numbers of
Quails being released.
5
without taking into account birds migrating from the northernmost countries through France.
35
In total, the annual bag for Eurasia was estimated at ca. 4.27 million birds/year (Guyomarc’h 2003),
including released birds, to be compared with a wild population of 1.3-2.45 million breeding pairs, and
4-5 young/clutch surviving in average to 1 month (post-fledging age).
In those European countries where hunting is permitted, the current hunting bag - even if not well
evaluated - does not seem to be related to the estimated numbers of Quails born in (or passing through)
these areas. The past declines in some populations in these countries was not preceded by any particular
hunting measure which might have brought about this phenomenon, or contributed to it.
Conclusion
Hunting therefore does not seem to be a primary limiting factor for the European population overall, but
it may add to the natural mortality rate, especially on locally declining sub-populations. Even if not
scientifically proven, a few hunting practices may locally affect the species conservation status:
- a hunting season starting too early, e.g. around 20th August in lowlands or in the first week of
September in the mountains. Such takes have an effect on local birds, still attached to their birth
place. Whole family parties can then be flushed and taken, unlike what happens with birds on
passage (usually solitary).
- nets set up in the Sinai area catch large numbers along eastern migratory routes (Baha el Din
and Salama 1991; Lorgnier du Mesnil 1993), in addition to the great hunting pressure
experienced by the same populations along the Black Sea coast to/from Russia and Ukraine.
- birds are still hunted on their pre-breeding migration near the beaches of the Tyrrhenian coast in
central Italy.
- Spring hunting by tourists with guns has recently dropped in Morocco (Alaoui 1996), but it is
not known whether it has in the rest of the Maghreb too.
- In the Maghreb countries, both the populations of early breeders and those which do not migrate
outside these territories in summer (June) are exposed to a constant human predation which may
eventually amount to considerable numbers.
- Spring poaching with nets is still a reality in Puglia (Italy) and in Andalusia (Spain); but the
level of the take is unknown, and as it is exclusively directed at males, it is unlikely to have
serious consequences. However, as the function of unpaired males is not well known, the
possible consequences of this hunting practice are not yet assessed.
- Under derogation, spring hunting of Quail is still possible in Malta.
Importance
•
For breeding ranges States in the EU (Member States where hunting is allowed) the importance of
hunting is set at Medium.
[Note: this is based on current assumed impact of this factor on EU population changes, and
does not imply that this factor cannot assume in the future a High or Critical importance]
The evaluation on overall harvest is lacking information from crucial areas, where hunting is intense
(based on percentage of recoveries of Italian ringed Quails). This information gap could be considered in
the statement and evaluation.
•
For the wintering areas and migration stop-overs outside Europe, the importance of hunting is set
at Unknown
5 – Predation (non-human)
In Russia, the Common Quail is the prey of foxes, ermines, polecats; which destroy broods and adults
during the summer (Dementiev and Gladkov 1952). Groups in migration are attacked by various falcons
36
and by the Steppe eagle Aquila nipalensis. In Italy, notably in Sardinia and on the island of Montecristo,
there are numerous instances of predation by falcons (Eleonora’s Falcon Falco eleonorae and Peregrine
F. peregrinus), buzzards, sparrowhawks, Yellow-legged Gull Larus (argentatus) michahellis and by
owls at night (in Spano & Truffi 1992). In Europe, the large number of stray cats, often a long way from
any habitation, add their take (brooding birds, chicks) to those of natural predators.
No study has to our knowledge evaluated the effects of predation on wild populations. But different
experiments involving radio-tracking young captive-bred females (of Coturnix c. coturnix), released into
agro-systems, indicate the following losses (J-C Guyomarc’h, unpublished data):
*In 1986-87 in the Lauragais (Haute-Garonne, France)
- 30% of egg-layers over 2 weeks of monitoring (N = 35);
- 25% of incubating birds over 2 weeks of monitoring (N = 12).
- overall, ca. half of the females were predated (by Buzzard Buteo buteo, Hen Harrier
Circus cyaneus and domestic cats).
*In 1996, in the grasslands of Sainte-Blandine (in Deux-Sèvres, W. France) of 32 sexually
mature female Quail, at least 16 (over 50%) were taken by predators over the following three
weeks by small carnivores (weasel 1, stone marten 1, domestic cats...), whilst buzzard and
harriers each accounted for roughly one third.
* In 1993-95, in the province of Tarragona (Catalonia, Spain), 31 breeding females were
electronically tagged and monitored throughout their breeding cycle. Only four of them
vanished, out of which two cases of predation were confirmed, which is remarkably low
(Rodrigo-Rueda et al. 1997 ).
Since 1980 large fields with spring crops (sunflower, corn, peas…) have developed, which offer
breeding Quails only a precarious shelter. This may have exacerbated the impact of natural predation, by
birds especially, as harriers (Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus) are obviously keen on Quails as a
prey.
•
The importance of Predation (non-hunting) in wintering and breeding areas is provisionally set at
Low/Local.
As a summary, the relative importance of the threats as perceived by experts in various European
countries in summarized in table 5 below.
37
Table 5: Threats importance at national level
Threat Score
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Cyprus
Czech
Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
United
Kingdom
Outside EU: N
& W Africa
Release of
Japanese or
hybrid
Quails**
P
P
P
P
P
Habitat loss
and
modification
Hunting
H
S
H
?
Ph
N?
S
S
-
N
Ps
H
S
H
Ph
H?
S*
?
Ph
S
Ph
Ph
S
N
H
S
H
H?
N
S/H?
Ph
H
-
P
P
H
N
P
N
S
N
Climate
change
P
P
P
N
P
H
P
P
H
P
P
P
P
P
P
S
Predation
(non-hunting)
S
(no data available)
N
H
H - High relevance, S - some relevance, N - no relevance, P - potentially relevant, Ph - potentially high
relevance, Ps - potentially some relevance.
* - evaluation concerns just the last 10-15 year period when small farmers’ plots predominated in the
agricultural sector. Some (or even significant) changes might happen soon when adopting the intensive
agricultural practices common in the EU (including increased usage of chemicals, fertilizers, large fields
of monoculture, etc.).
**- for this specific threat, “H” denotes countries which practice (or have recently practiced) massive
releases, whilst all other countries are listed as “Potential” since ALL of them can be affected, due to the
migratory habits of the Common Quail.
38
4.
Policies and legislation relevant for management
Table 6: International conservation and legal status of the Common Quail Coturnix coturnix.
EU
World
BLI
BLI
Bern
Bonn
Birds
6
Status
European SPEC
Convention Convention
Directive
(Criteria)
Status7 category8
Annex
Annex
Annex
Not listed
Depleted
3
II/2
Appendix
III
Appendix II
Convention
Africanof
Eurasian
International
Migratory
Trade on
Waterbird
Endangered
Agreement
Species
listed
Not listed
Member States / Contracting parties obligations
EU Birds Directive
The Common Quail is listed on Annex II/2 in the EU Birds Directive which implies that it can
be hunted in all Member States which have defined a hunting season for this species, and that
non-selective hunting methods are prohibited (with some exceptions).
Bern Convention
The Quail features in Annex lll, i.e. species ‘protected’, but not ‘strictly protected’.
Prohibition of non-selective capture methods (art.8) but exclusion clauses exist (art.9).
Committment to inter-party cooperation for conservation (art.10), and to strictly control the
introduction of non-indigenous species (art.11)
Bonn Convention
The species features in Annex II (not protected, but conservation state unfavourable). The
parties commit themselves to co-operating to restore and conserve its habitats.
6
BirdLife International/IUCN Red List assessment.
BirdLife International 2004a
8
BirdLife International 2004a
SPEC 1: Species of global conservation concern. Species which are globally threatened, conservation
dependent or data deficient.
SPEC 2: Species whose world populations are concentrated in Europe (i.e. over 50% of the total
population or range occurs in Europe) and which have an unfavourable conservation status.
SPEC 3: Species whose world populations are not concentrated in Europe, but which have an
unfavourable conservation status in Europe.
non-SPEC: Species which have a favourable conservation status but whose populations are
concentrated in Europe.
39
7
5.
Framework for Action
Priority statement/evaluation
The Common Quail is a relatively abundant species and an important quarry species in southern
Europe and North Africa. The Common Quail is not concentrated on marginal habitats, but
instead has a wide distribution and uses the majority of agricultural areas during the breeding
season. Due to its very particular breeding system and migration pattern, which is unique in
European birds, quantitative knowledge on population size and trends is very incomplete and
subject to large gaps or inconsistencies. Its erratic breeding output between years results in
fluctuations in autumn population size, which should be taken into account when determining
the size of the hunting bag in the following winter.
The species is of unfavourable conservation status in Europe, its population remaining
“Depleted” following declines during 1970-90. In particular, the ‘long-distance migrant
phenotype’, i.e. birds that breed north of 40-45°N, may be threatened in the long term by a
combination of factors that are partly beyond EU control (e.g. climatic changes like droughts in
the Sahel) and partly possible to control (e.g. genetic pollution from released birds). There are
currently no specific protection measures for the Common Quail in Europe.
The European Union only accounts for a very small part of the distribution area of this species.
That is why, the management measures that can be taken in Member States will not be enough
to guarantee the sustainability of breeding populations which winter in North or tropical Africa
for half of the year.
40
Purpose of the action plan
The Common Quail is a Depleted species in Europe, which has been affected by events out of
short-term human control (climatic change, long-term changes in agriculture). After a large
decline in the 1970s, its European population seems to have stabilized overall in recent decades,
except in SE Europe. However, the genetic structure of the population is largely influenced by
the release of exotic Quails, which may threaten eventually the species’ migratory habits, and
therefore its capacity to regularly breed in good numbers in northern Europe. Recognizing that,
the plan aims:
To restore the species to a favourable conservation status9 including through
reversing the declines in SE Europe and maintaining its natural genetic diversity.
Results for the period 2009-2011
This section outlines the Results to be achieved during the first 3-year period of Common Quail
management within the EU. The Results outlined below (and the corresponding activities in
Section 6) are targeted at both the European Commission and (mostly) at the authorities
responsible for the implementation of the provisions of the Birds Directive in the Member
States. The Results listed below initially aim at addressing the most urgent issues needed to
safeguard the Common Quail population in the EU, while keeping the corresponding activities
to be carried out in the 3 year period within a realistic level.
The running period of the Action Plan is 2009-2011, and this version will be followed by
versions with revised objectives/results that will take into account the results achieved during
the first phase. It is the responsibility of the relevant authorities of each Member State to decide
how to implement the management prescriptions of this plan.
The required Results for the initial Common Quail Coturnix coturnix Management Plan period
(2009-2011) are listed below.
Policy and legislative actions
Current texts show up two weaknesses: (1) they ignore the existence of the geographic
(sub)species C.(c.) japonica (a natural, migratory subspecies from Asia) and sometimes mix it
with a “domestic species status”, and (2) they ignore the existence of the hybrids produced by
crossing the Common Quail C.c. coturnix with diverse stocks of Japanese Quail, whether
domesticated or not. Furthermore, releases of captive bred quails will continue – whether legally
or not - because of the perceived decrease of long-distance migrants in those countries where it
9
The EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) states that a species’ conservation status will be taken as
Favourable when:
•
Population dynamics data on the species concerned indicate that it is maintaining itself on a
long-term basis as a viable component of its natural habitats; and
The natural range of the species is neither being reduced nor is likely to be reduced for the
•
foreseeable future; and
There is, and will probably continue to be, a sufficiently large area of habitat to maintain its
•
population on a long-term basis.
41
is a popular game species, and because of the high professionalism achieved by captive Quail
breeders. The real issue at stake is therefore to offer a viable, harmless alternative to
Japanese/hybrid Quail releases, although their potential efficiency in assisting population
recovery remains to be shown. A Result of the implementation of this Management Plan should
therefore be that by 2011:
(1) The release both on public and private lands, fenced-in or not, of the Japanese Quail (C.c.
japonica) and its various hybrids (C.c. coturnix x C.c. japonica) is explicitly forbidden and this
ban is effectively enforced. Methods of genetic identification of both subspecies must be
developed in order to achieve an objective identification.
Whilst the species is in a state that does not preclude hunting, it is essential to ensure that this
activity does not hamper the recovery of the population. Spring hunting that overlaps with the
return migration or the start of breeding should not be permitted under any circumstances. The
opening dates for the hunting season in the EU Member States should also avoid effects on latehatching Common Quail broods. Therefore, these two should be results of the implementation
of this Management Plan by 2011:
(2) Hunting seasons in EU Member States are in accordance with information on breeding
period as defined in “Period of reproduction and prenuptial migration of Annex II bird species
in the EU”, and hunting does not affect late breeding birds and birds during spring migration.
(3) The overall permitted hunting level in the EU, as set through national bag limits, is kept
below levels that risk significantly slowing the rate of recovery of the European Quail
population.
Management of breeding habitats
Throughout the EU, factors reported to limit populations include habitat loss and modification.
The majority of Common Quail breeding in the EU occur in South Western and Central Europe,
where numbers are more or less stable or fluctuating. Results of the implementation of this
Management Plan should therefore be that by 2011:
(4) Breeding and staging habitats of Common Quail are conserved, managed sustainably and,
eventually, restored in all Member States with significant numbers of breeding Common Quail,
so as to ensure recovery in Common Quail numbers.
International co-operation
The Common Quail is a fully migratory species, and winters mainly in North and West Africa.
Breeding and subsequent release of Japanese/hybrid Quails in southern countries, especially in
West Africa (Senegal), is currently planned by hunting associations and private tourist hunting
organisations for the same reasons as in Europe (increasing rarity of migrating phenotypes), and
international cooperation should address this threat not only at EU level as proposed under
Result 1.
Furthermore, although African wintering (and North African breeding) areas are far from the
EU border, there is an urgent need to improve knowledge about wintering population numbers
and distribution.
42
Therefore by 2011 the following results should be achieved:
(5) Technical assistance is provided to those African countries where Quail hunting is
important, so as to help ban - as in Europe - the release of Japanese/hybrid Quails.
(6) The knowledge about wintering populations of the Common Quail in North and West
Africa, and breeding populations in North Africa, is improving and being made widely
available.
Research and monitoring
Adequate population monitoring is vital for achieving the goals of restoring the species from a
Depleted conservation status to Favourable conservation status. However, both population size
and trends are poorly known, as is the nature of the migratory routes, the existence – or not – of
genetic exchanges with neighbouring populations, etc. This improvement must be achieved at
local, national and international level.
Furthermore, the Common Quail is a very popular quarry species, with significant bags
harvested every year in the Member States where hunting is permitted. Therefore, it is urgent to
assess the pressure of hunting on the Common Quail populations. It should be noted that a
proposal for the development of national systems of bag reporting (including some mechanism
for determining age ratios and monthly totals) is currently being developed, as part of the
Sustainable Hunting Initiative, and commissioned by DG ENV.
Results of the implementation of this Management Plan should therefore be that by 2011:
(7) A common method is agreed, validated by the European Bird Census Council (EBCC)
and used by all Member States to monitor the Common Quail populations.
(8) Regular bag statistics are available for all Member States where the Common Quail
hunting is allowed.
(9) Research is under way to identify (1) the relative level of isolation of the four large
Palearctic “flyway populations” and the functional links between the regions lying on each
of the four paths, notably the Atlantic (west Africa - Morocco - Iberia - North-Eest Europe)
and Central Mediterranean (Tunisia - Italy - Central Europe) flyways, and (2) the existence
of exchanges between the European population of the Common Quail and the southern (C.c.
africana) and eastern (C.c. erlangeri) African subspecies.
6.
6.1
Activities
Policy and legislative actions
To achieve the Result (1) that “the release both on public and private lands, fenced-in or not, of
the Japanese Quail (C.c. japonica) and its various hybrids (C.c. coturnix x C.c. japonica) is
explicitly forbidden and this ban is effectively enforced. Methods of genetic identification of
43
both subspecies must be developed in order to achieve an objective identification”; the relevant
administrative bodies in all Member States as well as the European Commission shall take
action to:
(1.1)
Ensure that the Japanese Quail (C.c. japonica) and its various hybrids (C.c. coturnix x
C.c. japonica) are given appropriate EU and national status so as to be treated as
(potential) exotic/pest species, which threaten the integrity of a European native species;
(1.2)
Pass legislation forbidding the release in the wild of Japanese/hybrid Quails, both on
public and private land, whether fenced-in or not;
(1.3)
Enforce this legislation, especially through strict control of breeding centres;
(1.4)
Fund research aiming at developing a rapid genetic assessment of individuals, so as to
enable effective control of breeding centres.
To achieve the Result (2) that "hunting seasons in EU Member States are in accordance with
information on breeding period as defined in “Period of reproduction and prenuptial migration
of Annex II bird species in the EU”, and hunting does not affect late breeding birds and birds
during spring migration", the relevant administrative body in all Member States shall take action
to:
(2.1)
Ensure that national hunting seasons are in accordance with information on spring
migration and breeding period as defined in “Period of Reproduction and Prenuptial
migration of Annex II Bird Species in the EU” (Annex I of this Action Plan).
To achieve the Result (3) that “The overall permitted hunting level in the EU, as set through
national bag limits, is kept below levels that risk significantly slowing the rate of recovery of the
European Quail population”, the relevant administrative body in all Member States shall take
action to:
(3.1)
6.2
Define and promote a Maximum Permitted Bag per hunter (either per hunting day or
per season), which can be adapted yearly according to the state of the populations based
on monitoring.
Management of breeding and staging populations and habitats
To achieve the Result (4) that “Breeding and staging habitats of the Common Quail are
conserved, managed sustainably and eventually restored so as to ensure recovery in the
Common Quail numbers”, the following actions shall be taken:
(4.1)
Ensure that future EU agri-environmental schemes incorporate provisions that allow the
conservation of breeding and staging habitats, in line e.g. with the specific prescriptions
suggested by Guyomarc’h (2003, p. 72).
(4.2)
Member States will support such schemes, e.g. the development of set-asides and of
“quail-friendly” cultivating techniques, and ensure they are properly monitored so that
prescriptions can be refined to best meet the conservation objectives, in all European
Member States with significant numbers of breeding Common Quail.
44
6.3
International co-operation
To achieve the Result (5) that “Technical assistance is provided to those African countries
where Quail hunting is important, so as to help ban – as in Europe – the release of
Japanese/hybrid Quails”, the following international activities should be on schedule:
(5.1)
Member states and the European Commission raise the awareness of decision-makers in
relevant African countries on the need to legally ban, and enforce, the release of
Japanese/hybrid Quails.
To achieve the Result (6) that “The knowledge about wintering populations of the Common
Quail in North and West Africa, and breeding populations in North Africa, is improving and
made widely available”, the following international activities should be on schedule:
(6.1)
6.4.
Member States and the European Commission support studies and monitoring schemes
aiming at (1) identifying the African wintering area of the European populations, (2)
monitoring the numbers (or density) of wintering birds in a representative sample of
each key wintering habitat type, and (3) monitoring the numbers (or density) of
breeding birds in key breeding habitats in North Africa.
Research and monitoring
To achieve the Result (7) that “A common method is agreed, validated by the EBCC and used
by all Member States to monitor the Common Quail populations“, the following activities
should be on schedule:
(7.1)
Standardised (or at least, internationally compatible) monitoring programmes for the
Common Quail population size are undertaken in each Member State with a significant
breeding population, and data are regularly analysed and reported. This scheme could be
included in a broader, pan-European monitoring scheme for e.g. farmland birds10.The
current project to monitor the Common Quails of the Atlantic meta-population could be
very useful.
(7.2)
An international coordinating body (e.g. a “Quail Working Group”) is set up with
clearly defined objectives, focusing on translating the results of well coordinated
national monitoring programmes into permissible bag quotas.
To achieve the Result (8) that “Regular bag statistics are available for all Member States where
the Common Quail hunting is allowed “, the following activities should be on schedule:
(8.1 )
Regular bag surveys are implemented in Member States where the Common Quail
hunting is allowed, in co-operation with local, regional and national hunters
associations, so as to assess monthly totals hunted, age and sex-ratios.
10
The Pan European Common Bird Monitoring Scheme (PECBM) collected data on Quail in 2003 but it
proved too variable to use safely at a European level. Inclusion of the Quail remains a possibility and it
should collect the data, but erratic nature of quail numbers is a problem (R Gregory pers. comm.).
45
(8.2)
The structure of bag tables is regularly analysed (via wing analysis, which enable to
assess age-ratios), and results are made widely available.
To achieve the Result (9) that “Research is under way to identify (1) the relative level of
isolation of the four large Palearctic “flyway populations” and the functional links between the
regions lying on each of the four paths, notably the Atlantic (west Africa - Morocco - Iberia North-West Europe) and Central Mediterranean (Tunisia - Italy - Central Europe) flyways, and
(2) the existence of exchanges between the European population of the Common Quail and the
southern (C.c. africana) and eastern (C.c.erlangeri) African subspecies“, the following activities
should be on schedule:
(9.1)
Member States and the European Commission support targeted research programmes
aiming at answering these questions.
46
Table 7: Prioritized activities and results in all countries in the EU with populations of the Common Quail (Scale for Priority and Time Scale is given at the
bottom of the table).
Result
(1) The release both on public and
private lands, fenced-in or not, of
the Japanese Quail (C.c .japonica)
and its various hybrids (C.c.
coturnix x C.c. japonica) is
explicitly forbidden and this ban is
effectively enforced. Methods of
genetic identification of both
subspecies must be developed in
order to achieve an objective
identification.
Priority
Essential
National or European Commission activities
Member states will:
• Ensure that the Japanese Quail (C.c. japonica)
and its various hybrids (C.c. coturnix x C.c.
japonica) are given appropriate EU and national
status so as to be treated as (potential) exotic/pest
species, which threaten the integrity of a
European native species;
• Pass legislation forbidding the release in the wild
of Japanese/hybrid Quails, both on public and
private land, whether fenced-in or not;
• Enforce this legislation, especially through strict
control of breeding centres;
• Fund research aiming at developing a rapid
genetic assessment of individuals, so as to enable
effective control of breeding centres.
Time scale
Means of verification
Immediate
Publications/web-pages
with
legislation of Member State.
Short
official
No Japanese/hybrid Quails detected in
breeding centres during random controls by
Member States’ agents.
Medium
Technical articles by breeders in
professional journals demonstrate a real
shift from banned to native Quails.
Medium
Reports by Member States to the ORNIS
committee on controls implemented in
breeding centres.
Short
Articles in applied science journals propose
techniques applicable by e.g. government
control officers.
47
Result
(2) Hunting seasons in EU Member
States are in accordance with
information on breeding period as
defined in “Period of reproduction
and prenuptial migration of Annex II
bird species in the EU”, and hunting
does not affect late breeding birds
and birds during spring migration.
Priority
High
National or European Commission activities
Member States will ensure that national hunting
seasons are in accordance with information on
breeding period as defined in “Period of Reproduction
and Prenuptial migration of Annex II Bird Species in
the EU”.
Time scale
Medium
Means of verification
Publications/web-pages with official
hunting seasons in Member State, including
specific provisions linked to altitude.
Additional annual publicity about
compliance with hunting seasons is
undertaken in key areas (brochures etc).
No Quail hunting detected outside hunting
season during monitoring of hunting
activity in key areas.
(3) The overall permitted hunting
level in the EU, as set through
national bag limits, is kept below
levels that risk significantly slowing
the rate of recovery of the European
Quail population.
Medium
Member States will define and promote a Maximum
Permitted Bag per hunter (either per hunting day or
per season), which can be adapted yearly according to
the state of the populations based on monitoring.
Publications/web-pages with official
hunting bag limits in Member States.
Medium
Additional annual publicity about
compliance with hunting bags is
undertaken in key areas (brochures, etc.).
No excess bags detected during monitoring
of hunting activity in key hunting areas.
48
Result
(4) Breeding and staging habitats of
the Common Quail are conserved,
managed
sustainably
and,
eventually, restored in all Member
States with significant numbers of
breeding Common Quail., so as to
ensure recovery in the Common
Quail numbers.
(5)Technical assistance is provided
to those African countries where
Quail hunting is important, so as to
help ban - as in Europe - the release
of the Japanese/hybrid Quails.
(6)The knowledge about wintering
populations of the Common Quail in
North and West Africa, and
breeding populations in North
Africa, is improving and being made
widely available.
Priority
•
Essential
•
Medium
Medium
National or European Commission activities
The European Commission will ensure that future
EU agri-environmental schemes incorporate
provisions that allow the conservation of breeding
and staging habitats, in line e.g. with the specific
prescriptions suggested by Guyomarc’h (2003, p.
72).
Time scale
Member States will support such schemes, e.g.
the development of set-asides and of “quailfriendly” cultivating techniques, and ensure they
are properly monitored so that prescriptions can
be refined to best meet the conservation
objectivesin all European Member States with
significant numbers of breeding Common Quail.
Medium
Members states and the European Commission raise
the awareness of decision-makers in relevant African
countries on the need to legally ban, and enforce, the
release of the Japanese/hybrid Quails, while providing
a viable alternative where needed, along the same
lines as Action n° 1.4.
Member States and the European Commission support
studies and monitoring schemes aiming at (1)
identifying the African wintering area of the European
populations, (2) monitoring the numbers (or density)
of wintering birds in a representative sample of each
key wintering habitat type, and (3) monitoring the
numbers (or density) of breeding birds in key breeding
habitats in North Africa.
49
Short
Medium
Long
Means of verification
Public awareness raising, including
publications and brochures distributed to
private landowners, local authorities and
other relevant stakeholders.
Projects reports about results of
conservation and restoration of habitats and
other management prescriptions targeted at
the Common Quail.
Reports, articles and material (eg. leaflets,
brochures…) of projects aiming at raising
awareness.
Official journals of countries where
changes in legislation were introduced.
Published
results
of
research/monitoring projects.
these
Result
Priority
•
(7) A common method is agreed,
validated by the EBCC and used by
all Member States to monitor
Common Quail populations.
Medium
•
(8) Regular bag statistics are
available for all Member States
where the Common Quail hunting is
allowed.
•
High
•
National or European Commission activities
Standardised (or at least, internationally
compatible) monitoring programmes for the
Common Quail population size are undertaken in
each Member State with a significant breeding
population, and data are regularly analysed and
reported. This scheme could be included in a
broader, pan-European monitoring scheme for
e.g. farmland birds. The current project to
monitor the Common Quails of the Atlantic metapopulation would be very useful.
Time scale
Minutes of Ornis Scientific Working
Group.
Medium
Scientific publications.
An international coordinating body (e.g. a “Quail
Working Group”) is set up with clearly defined
objectives, focusing on translating the results of
well coordinated national monitoring programmes
into permissible bag quotas
Short
Regular bag surveys are implemented in Member
States where the Common Quail hunting is
allowed, in co-operation with local, regional and
national hunters associations, so as to assess
monthly totals hunted, age and sex-ratios.
Short
the structure of bag tables is regularly analysed
(via wing analysis, which enable to assess ageratios), and results made widely available.
50
Means of verification
Reports and websites from the Quail
Working Group (once established) and
from Member States game and wildlife
administrations reports.
Minutes of Ornis Scientific Working
Group.
Reports and websites from Member States
game and wildlife administrations.
Medium
Reports and website of the Quail Working
Group (once established).
Result
(9) Research is under way to
identify (1) the relative level of
isolation of the four large Palearctic
“flyway populations” and the
functional links between the regions
lying on each of the four paths,
notably the Atlantic (west Africa Morocco - Iberia - north-west
Europe) and Central Mediterranean
(Tunisia - Italy - Central Europe)
flyways, and (2) the existence of
exchanges between the European
population of the Common Quail
and the southern (C.c. africana) and
eastern (C.c.erlangeri) African
subspecies.
Priority
Low
National or European Commission activities
•
Member States and the European Commission
support targeted research programmes aiming at
answering these questions.
Time scale
Long
Means of verification
Scientific publications.
The Priority of each Result is given, according to the following scale:
• Essential: an action that is needed to prevent a large decline in the population, which could lead to species or subspecies extinction.
• High: an action that is needed to prevent a decline of more than 20% of the population in 20 years or less.
• Medium: an action that is needed to prevent a decline of less than 20% of the population in 20 years or less.
• Low: an action that is needed to prevent local population declines or which is likely to have only a small impact on the population across the range.
The Time scales attached to each Activity use the following criteria:
• Immediate: completed within the next year.
• Short: completed within the next 1-3 years
• Medium: completed within the next 1 - 5 years.
• Long: completed within the next 1 - 10 years.
• Ongoing: an action that is currently being implemented and should continue.
• Completed: an action that was completed during the preparation of the Management Plan
51
Table 8: Summary of objectives/results and activities of the Common Quail Coturnix coturnix Management Plan 2009-2011.
DESCRIPTION
VERIFIABLE INDICATORS
MEANS OF VERIFICATION
ASSUMPTIONS
Purpose:
- Population abundance maintained
and, in SE Europe increased.
- National and international publications
document that Common Quail numbers are
restored and the species is no longer in
unfavourable conservation status
- Northern and south-eastern sub-populations
do not show a long-term decline.
- Genetic analysis of wild-caught Quails do
not show a decline of long-distance migrant
phenotype.
Common Quail Management Plan
approved and supported by EU and
Member States.
For all results: Member States have
adequate resources and
commitment to take responsibility
for Common Quail management in
accordance with the Birds
Directive’s requirements.
To restore the species to a favourable
conservation status through reversing the
declines in SE Europe and maintaining its
natural genetic diversity.
- Proportion of long-distance migrant
phenotype stabilized.
Results 2009-2011:
1. The release both on public and private
lands, fenced-in or not, of the Japanese Quail
(C.c .japonica) and its various hybrids (C.c.
coturnix x C.c. japonica) is explicitly
forbidden and this ban is effectively enforced
. Methods of genetic identification of both
subspecies must be developed in order to
achieve an objective identification.
1. Publications/web-pages with
official legislation of Member State;
No Japanese/hybrid Quails detected
in breeding centres.
1. Random controls in breeding centres during
by Member States’ agents.
2. Hunting seasons in EU Member States are
in accordance with information on breeding
period as defined in “Period of reproduction
and prenuptial migration of Annex II bird
species in the EU”, and hunting does not
affect late breeding birds and birds during
spring migration.
2. Hunting season is not conflicting
in any Member State with “Period of
Reproduction
and
Prenuptial
migration of Annex II Birds Species
in the EU”, corrected for the effect of
altitude on breeding dates.
2. Publication/web-site with official hunting
seasons in Member States available by 2011.
3. The overall permitted hunting level in the
EU, as set through national bag limits, is kept
below levels that risk significantly slowing
the rate of recovery of the European Quail
population.
3.
Publications/web-pages
of
Member States with official hunting
bag limits, set according to results of
pan-European monitoring.
3. Controls by Member States’ agents in key
hunting areas: no excess bags detected.
52
DESCRIPTION
4. Breeding and staging habitats of the
Common Quail are conserved, managed
sustainably and, eventually, restored, so as to
ensure recovery in Common Quail numbers.
VERIFIABLE INDICATORS
4. There is no more net loss of
favourable habitats for Common
Quail, and set-aside projects or other
similar actions are implemented.
MEANS OF VERIFICATION
4. Project reports of favourable actions;
statistics about landscape evolution and
farming practices.
ASSUMPTIONS
For result 4, an assumption is that
environmental issues are taken into
account by the ministries of
agriculture of Member States.
5. Technical assistance is provided to those
African countries where Quail hunting is
important, so as to help ban – as in Europe –
the release of Japanese/hybrid Quails.
5. Ban of Japanese/hybrid Quails in
national legislation of Southern
countries
is
official
and
implemented.
5. Official journals (legal texts) and project
reports (effectiveness in the field).
6. The knowledge about wintering
populations of the Common Quail in North
and West Africa, and breeding populations in
North Africa, is improving and being made
widely available.
6. Assistance to southern countries
for bird monitoring and/or research
projects are initiated.
6. Population dynamics papers and annual
census of Common Quail on wintering sites
are published.
For results 5-6-7, a key assumption
is that Member States with relevant
populations of Common Quail are
willing to develop
research/conservation activities
beyond their borders, and to
coordinate protocols with each
other.
7. A common method is agreed, validated by
the EBCC and used by all Member States to
monitor the Common Quail populations.
7. All EU surveys about Common
Quail follow the same (or
compatible/comparable) protocol.
7. Minutes from Ornis Committee. Scientific
publications summarizing trends across
Europe.
8. Regular bag statistics are available for all
Member States where Common Quail
hunting is allowed.
8. Hunters associations or national
administrations implement regular
(ideally: yearly) bag registers for all
hunters.
8. Annual report on bags is available (member
States
websites;
reports
to
ORNIS
Committee…).
9. First answers to these scientific
questions start to emerge.
9. Scientific publications.
9. Research is under way to identify (1) the
relative level of isolation of the four large
Palearctic “flyway populations” and the
functional links between the regions lying on
each of the four paths, notably the Atlantic
(west Africa - Morocco - Iberia - north-west
Europe) and Central Mediterranean (Tunisia Italy - Central Europe) flyways, and (2) the
existence of exchanges between the European
population of the Common Quail and the
southern (C.c. africana) and eastern (C.c.
erlangeri) African subspecies.
53
For result 8, an assumption is that
hunters and hunters association are
willing to provide annual bags.
DESCRIPTION
VERIFIABLE INDICATORS
MEANS OF
VERIFICATION
ASSUMPTIONS
Activities
(1.1) Ensure that the Japanese Quail (C.c japonica) and its various hybrids (C.c.
coturnix x C.c. japonica) are given appropriate EU and national status so as to be
treated as (potential) exotic/pest species, which threaten the integrity of a European
native species.
Progress and actions taken by
Member State are reported
annually to the Commission at
annual Ornis Committee
meetings.
(1.2) Pass legislation forbidding the release in the wild of the Japanese/hybrid
Quails, both on public and private land, whether fenced-in or not;
(1.3) Enforce this legislation, especially through strict control of breeding
centres;
(1.4) Fund research aiming at developing a rapid genetic assessment of individuals
(2.1) Ensure that national hunting seasons are in accordance with information on
spring migration and breeding period as defined in “Period of Reproduction and
Prenuptial migration of Annex II Bird Species in the EU” (Annex I of this Action
Plan). [Note: At altitudes over 1000 metres, the breeding season is delayed by up to
3 weeks, and so should be the opening season].
(3.1) Define and promote a Maximum Permitted Bag per hunter (either per hunting
day or per season), which can be adapted yearly according to the state of the
populations based on monitoring.
(4.1) Ensure that future EU agri-environmental schemes incorporate provisions that
allow the conservation of breeding and staging habitats, in line e.g. with the
specific prescriptions suggested by Guyomarc’h (2003, p. 72). (European
Commission).
(4.2) Member States will support such schemes, e.g. the development of set-asides
and of “quail-friendly” cultivating techniques. (all European Member States with
significant numbers of breeding Common Quail).
54
Minutes from Ornis
Committee meetings and
annual reports from Member
States.
All Member States have
commitment and adequate
resources to implement the
actions for the Common
Quail management in
accordance with the Birds
Directive requirements.
DESCRIPTION
(5.1) Members states and the European Commission raise the awareness of
decision-makers in relevant African countries on the need to legally ban, and
enforce, the release of the Japanese/hybrid Quails, while providing a viable
alternative where needed, along the same lines as Action n° 1.4.
VERIFIABLE INDICATORS
Progress and actions taken by
Member State are reported
annually to the Commission at
annual Ornis Committee
meetings.
(6.1) Member States and the European Commission support studies and
monitoring schemes aiming at (1) identifying the African wintering area of the
European populations, (2) monitoring the numbers (or density) of wintering birds
in a representative sample of each key wintering habitat type, and (3) monitoring
the numbers (or density) of breeding birds in key breeding habitats in North Africa.
(7.1) Standardised (or at least, internationally compatible) monitoring programmes
for Common Quail population size are undertaken in each Member State with a
significant breeding population, and data are regularly analysed and reported. This
scheme could be included in a broader, pan-European monitoring scheme for e.g.
farmland birds. The current project to monitor Common Quails of the Atlantic
meta-population could be very useful.
(7.2) An international coordinating body (e.g. a “Quail Working Group”) is set up
with clearly defined objectives, focusing on translating the results of well
coordinated national monitoring programmes into permissible bag quotas
(8.1 ) Regular bag surveys are implemented in Member States where the Common
Quail hunting is allowed, in co-operation with local, regional and national hunters
associations, so as to assess monthly totals hunted, age and sex-ratios.
(8.2) the structure of bag tables is regularly analysed (via wing analysis, which
enable to assess age-ratios), and results made widely available.
(9.1) Member States and the European Commission support targeted research
programmes aiming at identifying (1) the relative level of isolation of the four
large Palearctic “flyway populations” and the functional links between the regions
lying on each of the four paths, notably the Atlantic (west Africa – Morocco –
Iberia – north-west Europe) and Central Mediterranean (Tunisia – Italy - Central
55
MEANS OF
VERIFICATION
Minutes from Ornis
Committee meetings and
annual reports from Member
States.
ASSUMPTIONS
All Member States have
commitment and adequate
resources to implement the
actions for the Common
Quail management in
accordance with the Birds
Directive requirements.
DESCRIPTION
VERIFIABLE INDICATORS
Europe) flyways, and (2) the existence of exchanges between the Common Quail
and the southern (C.c. africana) and eastern (C.c. erlangeri) African subspecies“.
56
MEANS OF
VERIFICATION
ASSUMPTIONS
7.
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