Download Ethnoecology of Indian Ephedras

Pleione 6(1): 81 - 86. 2012.
© East Himalayan Society for Spermatophyte Taxonomy
ISSN: 0973-9467
Ethnoecology of Indian Ephedras
Rita Singh and Pragya Sourabh
School of Environment Management, GGS Indraprastha University, Dwarka 16C, New Delhi 110 075, India
E-mails: [email protected] (Corresponding author) & [email protected]
Revised 16.05.2012; Accepted 18.05.2012
Abstract
Present investigation documents the ecological and economical uses of Ephedra Tournefort ex Linnaeus
(Ephedraceae) in India. Ephedra is known locally in the region of its occurrence as Soma or Somlata.
All the species of Ephedra act as soil binder and enrich the soil in which they grow with silica. The
dried resinous pith yields a number of alkaloids used in medicines. The fruit and fleshy bracts are
edible.
Key words: Somalata, Ephedra, silica, alkaloids
INTRODUCTION
Medicinal plant research is regaining its frequency, as synthetic drug research may not lead to the
creation of all needed drugs. Ethnobotanical approach to drug discovery incorporates the use of
medicinal knowledge of indigenous societies living in the tropics into plant exploration and drug
discovery. Indigenous people, who have lived with and used these plants for thousands of years,
are excellent sources for medical information.
Fossil records reveal that human use of plants as traditional medicine dated back to the
middle Paleolithic age, approximately 60,000 years ago (Solecki & Shanidar 1975). Plants were
used as flavouring agents, foods, insect deterrents, ornamentals, fumigants, spices and cosmetics
(Pieroni et al 2004; Stanley et al 2001). Generally, the medicinally useful plants are sold as
commodities in the market, and those that are sold for medicinal purposes dominate the market
(Runner et al 2001). The World Health Organization estimated that over 80 % of the people in
developing countries rely on traditional remedies such as herbs for their daily needs, and about
855 traditional medicines used crude plant extracts. This means that 3.5 to 4 billion of the global
human population rely on plant resources for drugs (Jan et al 2009; Maridass & Britto 2008).
Rapid destruction of forests in the tropical and subtropical regions has stimulated urgency
towards ethnobotanical research. In this respect the knowledge of indigenous people and vernacular
names are of immense use.
The genus Ephedra Tournefort ex Linnaeus, also known as Soma or Somlata, which belongs
to the family Ephedraceae, is unique gymnosperm due to its natural occurrence in hot as well cold
deserts and has both ecological and economical significance. It is distributed throughout all continents
except Australia. Ten species of Ephedra occur in India, namely E. foliata Boissier, E. gerardiana
Wallich ex Stapf, E. intermedia Schrenk & C.A. Meyer, E. kardangensis P. Sharma & P.L. Uniyal,
E. khurikensis P. Sharma & P.L. Uniyal, E. nebrodensis Tineo, E. saxatilis (Stapf) Royle ex Florin,
E. regeliana Florin, E. sumlingensis P. Sharma & P. Uniyal and E. przewalskii Stapf.
Ephedra is one of the few gymnosperms adapted to extreme aridity and has highly reduced
plant body. All the species of Ephedra are almost similar in gross morphology, with decussate
82
Ethnoecology of Indian Ephedras
reduced leaves and ovulate strobili, often with fleshy bracts and seeds with an inner integument
and an outer envelope. The apical part of the inner integument is extended into a micropyler tube
that serves for pollen reception. The male strobili consist of stalked microsporangia surrounded
by a number of paired bracts.
Historically, Ephedra is described as “Somalata” in Veda. Mythologically the juice of
Ephedra, which was known as somrasa, was considered as a divine drink, offered to Gods.
About 20 different plants have been identified as soma on the basis of morphological,
biochemical and narcotic characteristics (Mahdihasan & Mahdi 1989). The description of
the Soma plant can be traced out in Rig Veda, especially in the ninth Mandala and few more
hymns in other Mandalas (Padhy & Dash 2004). Various religious groups, including Hindus
and Parsees, used them in their ceremonies to produce feelings of exhilaration (Lee 2011).
In Aryan custom soma was used as a natural restorative for health that makes the consumer
awakened and alert. It was used as a drink for longevity which was given even to the
newborn.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Various species of Ephedra investigated in the present study are collected from the states
of Rajasthan, Gujrat, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Kashmir during repeated field
visits. The collected Herbarium specimens are deposited at IPUH (Indraprastha University
Herbarium) maintained at Biosystematics Lab, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University,
New Delhi. While doing extensive field surveys during 2001-2011, the spatial distribution and
diversity of Ephedra in India was investigated. We also surveyed information on the traditional
knowledge associated with the uses of different species of Ephedra in their indigenous area
of occurrence.
For ethnobotanical studies, semi-structured questionnaires were prepared, which included
the queries on local name, uses, myths, legends associated with Ephedra. These questionnaires
were used to interview indigenous people of all age groups as well as setlers from the adjoining
areas of Nepal, Tibet, in Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh. In Rajasthan, however, only local
residents were interviewed. The data collected are substantiated by photographic
documentation.
OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION
Eight species of Ephedra are reported from the Western Himalaya. All these species have
diverse vernacular names in their regions of occurrence (Table 1). In Kinnaur, Lahul and
Spiti in Himachal Pradesh, Ephedra intermedia is one of the dominant shrub-species in the
barren landscape. They are generally associated with Artemisia dracunculus, Hippophae
salicifolia, H. rhamnoides and spread across the slopes and act as soil binder. Besides
these E. kardangensis, E. khurikensis and E. sumlingensis from Lahul and Spiti have
been found to be associated with pines (Sharma et al 2010). Further in northwest they are
replaced by Ephedra gerardiana, E. nebrodensis, and E. regeliana in Leh, Ladakh and
Kashmir. In Leh, Ladakh E. regeliana forms herbaceous mat or cushions. All these western
Himalayan species grow in arid zone and act as an important soil binder species due to their
deep and proliferating rhizome. Therefore, the practice of harvesting the entire plant along
with their root leads to soil erosion and ultimately the deterioration of the soil. Ephedra
saxatilis occurs in moist gullies, slopes of Deoban in Chakrata, Uttarakhand. All the species
of Ephedra enrich the soil with silica contents due to the presence of large quantity of
phytolith in their overall biomass.
Rita Singh & Pragya Sourabh
Table 1. Vernacular names of Ephedra in localities of their occurrence
Name
E. foliata Boissier
E gerardiana Wallich ex
Stapf
E. intermedia Schrenk &
C.A. Meyer
E. nebrodensis Tineo
E regeliana Florin
E. saxatilis (Stapf) Royle
ex Florin
Vernacular Name
Kuchar
Suaphogro,
Andhokimp
Tutgantha
Somlata
Omah, Umah
Cho-Cho dugur
Dewaria, Tutgantha
83
Place
Punjab (Chopra et al 1931; Sahni
1990; Saxena 1979)
Western Rajasthan (Chopra et al
1931; Sahni 1990; Saxena 1979)
Jaunsar, Uttaranchal (Chopra et al
1931; Sahni 1990)
Lahul and Spiti, Himachal Pradesh)
(Chopra et al 1931)
Baluchistan(Sahni 1990)
Ladakh
Garhwal, Uttaranchal (Sahni 1990)
E. foliata is the only climber species that occurs in the hot arid deserts of Rajasthan and
Gujrat. The smooth photosynthetic branches are an important source of forage for camel, sheep
and goat. The white fleshy bracts and seeds of E. foliata also form an important component of
nutrition for many animal and insect species surviving in nutrient poor habitat of Rajasthan (Singh
et al 2007). The species which occurs in Leh, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand have
bright-red fleshy bracts which are sweet and rich in many amino acids (Vishin & Razdan 1962)
and are generally used in arid regions for the preparation of jam. The crimson juicy bracts are
also eaten by birds and rodents in Lahul and Spiti valley of Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh. They
devour these bracts and help in the scattering and dispersal of the seeds in higher crevices of
rocks and thus extend the altitudinal distribution of the species in Lahul and Spiti valley.
Ephedra is known to all natives in Himalayan region and over a period of time its uses
have been crystallized into traditional medicines by the indigenous people. Ephedrine and
pseudoephedrine are dominant and most pharmacologically useful alkaloids isolated from the
stems of Ephedra sp. (Singh et al 2007; Stanley et al 2001; Konno et al 1979), although the
related alkaloids such as norephedrine and norpseudoephedrine (Grue & Spenser 1989),
methylephedrine (Sagara et al 1983) are also present.
The ephedrine extracted from E. regeliana from Ladakh is used as nasal drops. It is also
used for the treatment of asthma and hay fever. The juice of the fleshy bracts is given to soothe
the respiratory passage infections. Sometimes bracts are used as remedy for hay fever and seeds
are used as cooling medicine (Gorsi & Miraj 2002). It is mixed with tobacco for the preparation
of good quality of Naswar (Saadia et al 2009), however at some places the ash of the burnt
plants is also mixed with tobacco and is used as sniff.
The decoction of stem and roots of Ephedra is used as a remedy for rheumatism and
syphilis. It is also used as diuretic, tonic and anti-asthmatic. The thin leafless branches are considered
diaphoretic and antipyretic. The roots are used as a mild astringent and it is believed to lower the
blood pressure and dilates the peripheral blood vessels. The rhizome and dry plants are used as
fuel in the higher altitudes where the tree line recedes.
We have observed that in Himachal Pradesh Ephedra intermedia is collected in huge
quantities and stacked along the roadsides in deserted and abandoned regions of Pooh in Lahul
from where it is illegally transported to Punjab (Amritsar) for further processing and isolation of
ephedrine and other compounds. The yellow brown resin of fresh and young stem used to cure
rashes of allergic origin in army barracks in Pooh region of Lahul and Spiti and acts as an antiseptic.
We have found that the villagers of Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh know the use of the dried
84
Ethnoecology of Indian Ephedras
Plate I: Fig. 1. Population of Ephedra growing on loose rocky soil slopes and acting as soil binder; Fig. 2.
Population of Ephedra saxatilis having fleshy
red bracts; Fig. 3. Longitudinally split intermodal
region of stem showing the area containing resinous pith(p); Fig. 4. Open sun drying of Ephedra harvested from wild populations; Fig. 5.
Gunny bags full of dried twigs of Ephedra ready
for transport to the cities
1
2
3
4
5
Plate II: Female strobilus of different Ephedra
species. Fig. 1. Fractured bracts showing two
seeds with twisted tubillus of E. intermedia; Fig.
2. Decussately arranged fleshy red bracts and
exposed seeds of E. gerardiana; Fig. 3.
Decussately arranged fleshy red bracts of E.
saxatilis; Fig. 4. Strobilus of E. saxatilis
enclosing two seeds; Fig. 5. strobili of E.
regiliana. [Scale bars: 0.1 cm; 0.1 cm; 0.2 cm; 0.3
cm; 0.5 cm – respectively]
Rita Singh & Pragya Sourabh
85
crystallized brown powdery pith resin. They scoop out the powdery resin with needle and after
mixing it with milk they take it as vitalizer. Almost all the Ayurvedic and Allopathic expectorants
include Ephedra as one of the ingredients.
E. intermedia and E. gerardiana in Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir are major raw material
supplying states in the Pharmaceutical Industry in India. Ephedra foliata in Rajasthan attain the
same importance of bioresource as Ephedra of the Western Himalaya but the local people in
Rajasthan are still unaware of the ethnopharmacy of this plant.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of
India, New Delhi for financial support in the AICOPTAX project [J-22018/54/2000-CSC(BC)].
LITERATURE CITED
Chopra, R.N.; Krishna, S. & Ghose, T.P. 1931. Indian Ephedras: their chemistry and
pharmacology. Indian J. Med. Res. 19: 177 – 219.
Gorsi, M.S. & Miraj, S. 2002. Ethnomedicinal Survey of Plants of Khanbad Village and its Allied
Areas, District Gilgit. Asian J. Pl. Sci. 1: 604 – 615.
Grue-Sorensen, G. & Spenser, I.D. 1989. The biosynthesis of ephedrine. Canad. J. Chem. 67:
998 – 1009.
Jan, G.; Khan, M.A. & Jan, F.. 2009. Traditional Medicinal and Economic uses of Gymnosperms
of Dir Kohistan Valleys, NWFP, Pakistan. Ethnobot. Leaflets, 13: 1509 – 1521.
Konno, C.; Taguchi, T.; Tamada M. & Hikino, H. 1979. Ephedroxane, anti-inflammatory principle
of Ephedra herbs. Phytochemistry. 18: 697 – 698.
Lee, M.R. 2011. The history of Ephedra (ma-huang). J. Roy. Coll. Physicin. Edinb. 41: 78 – 84.
Mahdihasan, S. & Mahdi, F.S. 1989. Soma of Rigveda and an attempt to identify it. Am. J. Chin.
Med. 17: 1 – 8.
Maridass, M. & Britto, John De A. 2008. Origins of Plant derived Medicines. Ethnobot. Leaflets.
12: 373 – 387.
Padhy, S. & Dash, S.K. 2004. The Soma Drinker of Ancient India: Ethno-Botanical retrospection.
J. Human Ecol. 15: 19 – 26.
Pieroni A.; Quare, C.L.; Villanelli, M.L.; Mangino, P.; Sabbatini, G.; Santini, L.; Boccetti, T.;
Profili, M.; Ciccioli, T.; Rampa, L.G.; Antonini, G.; Girolamini, C.; Cecchi, M. & Tomasi,
M. 2004. Ethnopharmacognostic survey on the natural ingredients used in folk cosmetics,
cosmeceuticals and remedies for healing sting diseases in the inland Marches, CentralEastern Italy. J. Ethnopharm. 9: 331 – 344.
Runner, R.T.; Majindai, M. Berhanu; Abegaz Bezabih; Mhemistry, T. Bonaventure, Ngadjui
Cornelius, C.W.; Wanjala, K. Ladislaus, G. Bojase, A. Silayo, I. Masesange, O. Samuel &
Yeboah. 2001. Recent results from natural product research at the University of Botswana.
Pure Applied Chem. 73(7): 1197 – 1208.
Saadia, A.; Afzal, N.; Rashid Awan, M.; Khan, T. Salim; Gilani, A.; Khanum, R. & Tariq, S. 2009.
Ethnobotanical studies from Northern Pakistan. J. Ayub Med. Coll.. 21(1): 52 – 57.
Sagara, K.; Oshima, T. & Misaki, T. 1983. A simultaneous determination of norephedrine,
pseudoephedrine, ephedrine and methylephedrine in Ephedra herb and oriental
pharmaceutical preparations by ion-pair high performance liquid chromatography. Chem.
Pharmacol. Bull. 31: 2359 – 2365.
86
Ethnoecology of Indian Ephedras
Sahni, K.C. 1990. Gymnosperms of India and adjacent countries. Bishen Singh Mahendra
Pal Singh, Dehradun, India. p.69.
Saxena, S.K. 1979. Plant foods of Western Rajasthan. Man & Environment. 3: 35 – 43.
Sharma, P.; Uniyal, P.L. & Hammer, O. 2010. Two New Species of Ephedra (Ephedraceae)
from the Western Himalayan Region. System. Bot. 35(4): 730 – 735.
Singh, R.; Sharma, P & Radha, P. 2007. Seed predation and attenuating populations of Ephedra
foliata Boiss. In India. Phytomorphology. 57(3&4): 165 – 170
Solecki, R. & Shanidar, I.V.. 1975. A Neanderthal flower burial in Northern Iraq. Science. 190:
880 – 881.
Stanley, C.; David, A.C.; Helmut, F.; Maier-Stolte, Maria & Alvin, N.S. 2001. New observations on
the secondary chemistry of world Ephedra (Ephedraceae). Am. J. Bot.. 88(7): 1199 – 1208.
Vishin, M.L. & Razdan, B.K. 1962. Amino acids in the berries of Ephedra foliata. Proc.
Rajasthan Acad. Sci. 91: 45 – 48.