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3.8 Reptiles The Southeastern United States, especially the Coastal Plain, has a high diversity of reptiles, and the State of North Carolina is no exception. North Carolina harbors over 70 native species of reptiles, including snakes, lizards, turtles, and the American Alligator. Reptiles, like many amphibians, are often very difficult to find and even the best available survey techniques may have limited success for detecting many species. This makes it essential to conduct survey and monitoring efforts over many years in order to collect sufficient information to understand the population status of each of the state’s native reptile species. North Carolina is also home to numerous imperiled species of reptiles, ranging from the Bog Turtle in the western portion of the state to the Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake, Southern Hognose Snake, Northern Pine Snake, and many others in the Sandhills and Coastal Plain. Some of these species, like the Bog Turtle rely on small, interspersed, very specific habitats such as mountain bogs for survival. Other species, like the Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake and Northern Pine Snake, require very large tracts of intact, high quality Longleaf Pine forests – those managed with fire to maintain an open and diverse understory. Many species of reptiles remain common in North Carolina, and appear to be able to tolerate some levels of urbanization. Northern Pine Snake (Jeff Hall NCWRC) Examples of urban tolerant species include the Green Anole and Eastern Rat Snake. Some species, such as Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnakes and Southern Hognose Snake, are generally intolerant of urbanization and the conversion of natural habitat to other uses. Still other species of reptiles, however, have been little studied because of their rarity or secretive nature. Some examples of understudied species include Mimic Glass Lizard, Coal Skink, and Eastern Coral Snake. It is important to continue efforts to survey the state for reptiles, and conduct research and monitoring to increase our knowledge of the status of reptiles in North Carolina, for both common and uncommon species. A list of Species of Greatest Conservation Need (SGCN) priority species is provided in Table 3.8.1 and results from the Taxa Team evaluation of reptile species is available for download in Excel format fromwww.ncwildlife.org/##. Table 3.8.1 Conservation Concern SGCN priority reptile species. Family ORDER: Crocodilia Alligatoridae Scientific Name Alligator mississippiensis Common Name American Alligator Federal/ State Listing * - /T ORDER: Testudines Caretta caretta Chelonia mydas Cheloniidae Eretmochelys imbricata imbricata Lepidochelys kempii Dermochelyidae Dermochelys coriacea Clemmys guttata Glyptemys muhlenbergii Deirochelys reticularia reticularia Graptemys geographica Emydidae Malaclemys terrapin Pseudemys rubriventris Terrapene carolina carolina Trachemys scripta troostii Kinosternon baurii Kinosternidae Sternotherus minor peltifer Apalone spinifera aspera Trionychidae Apalone spinifera spinifera ORDER: Squamata Cemophora coccinea copei Farancia erytrogramma erytrogramma Heterodon simus Lampropeltis calligaster rhombomaculata Lampropeltis getula sticticeps Lampropeltis elapsoides [triangulum elapsoides] Lampropeltis triangulum temporalis Lampropeltis triangulum triangulum Colubridae Masticophis [Coluber] flagellum flagellum Nerodia sipedon williamengelsi Opheodrys vernalis Pituophis melanoleucus melanoleucus Regina rigida rigida Regina septemvittata Rhadinaea flavilata Seminatrix pygaea paludis Thamnophis sauritus sauritus Virginia valeriae valeriae Elapidae Micrurus fulvius Scincidae Eumeces [Plestiodon] anthracinus Crotalus adamanteus Viperidae Crotalus horridus Sistrurus miliarius miliarius Loggerhead Sea Turtle Green Sea Turtle Atlantic Hawksbill Sea Turtle Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtle Leatherback Sea Turtle Spotted Turtle Bog Turtle Eastern Chicken Turtle Northern Map Turtle Diamondback Terrapin Northern Red-bellied Cooter Eastern Box Turtle Cumberland Slider Striped Mud Turtle Stripe-necked Musk Turtle Gulf Coast Spiny Softshell Eastern Spiny Softshell Northern Scarlet Snake Common Rainbow Snake Southern Hognose Snake T/T T/T E/E E/E E/E - /T - /SC - /SC - /SC - /SC Mole Kingsnake Outer Banks Kingsnake - /SC Scarlet Kingsnake Coastal Plain Milk Snake Eastern Milksnake Eastern Coachwhip Carolina Water Snake Smooth Green Snake Northern Pine Snake Glossy Crayfish Snake Queen Snake Pine Woods Littersnake Carolina Swamp Snake Common Ribbon Snake Eastern Smooth Earth Snake Eastern Coral Snake Coal Skink Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake Timber Rattlesnake Carolina Pigmy Rattlesnake - /SC - /SC - /SC - /E - /E - /SC - /SC Anguidae Ophisaurus attenuatus longicaudus Ophisaurus mimicus Eastern Slender Glass Lizard Mimic Glass Lizard - /SC *Federal Listing Status: E – Endangered; a taxon which is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range. T – Threatened; a taxon which is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range. C – Candidate; taxa for which the [Fish and Wildlife] Service has on file enough substantial information on biological vulnerability and threat(s) to support proposals to list them as endangered or threatened. FSC – Federal Species of Concern; an informal term not defined in the federal Endangered Species Act. Defined as those species that appear to be in decline or otherwise in need of conservation and are under consideration for listing or for which there is insufficient information to support listing at this time. State Listing Status: E – Endangered; any native or once-native species of wild animal whose continued existence as a viable component of the State’s fauna is determined to be in jeopardy or listed as a federal endangered species. T – Threatened; any native or once-native species of wild animal which is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range or listed as a federal threatened species. SC – Special Concern; any species of wild animal native or once-native to North Carolina which is determined to require monitoring but which may be taken under regulations adopted under State laws. Conservation recommendations for the associated habitats have been incorporated into the natural community descriptions in Chapter 4. Additional recommendations can be found in a Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation (PARC) technical publication on habitat management for amphibians and reptiles in the Southeast (Bailey et. al.2006). The following paragraphs provide information about a few of the reptile species identified by the Taxa Team as priority species for knowledge gaps or management concerns, and work that has been conducted to implement conservation and management recommendations. Lizards Eleven species of native lizards occur in North Carolina, with the highest diversity in the Sandhills and Coastal Plain regions. Lizards, in general, have not been the focus of intensive survey, monitoring, or research in North Carolina. Some species appear to be quite common (e.g., Green Anole, Five-lined Skink), while others are very difficult to detect, or occur in apparently low numbers (e.g., Slender and Mimic Glass Lizard). New locality records for the Slender Glass Lizard have recently been detected, but few surveys specifically aimed at lizards have been recently conducted. Snakes There are 37 species of snakes native to North Carolina. Snakes can be found from the mountains to the coast, but the highest diversity and the most imperiled species occur in the Sandhills and Coastal Plain. Most species are quite secretive. Some remain abundant (e.g., Eastern Worm Snake), while others are becoming increasingly rare (e.g., Northern Pine Snake). Six snake species in the state are venomous, including three species of rattlesnakes, the Eastern Cottonmouth, the Copperhead, and the Eastern Coral Snake. Inventory and monitoring surveys for reptile species are conducted statewide, at both historical and new locations. These survey efforts have yielded new occurrence records for many reptile species, including Timber Rattlesnake, Corn Snake, Mole Kingsnake, and several others. Several species are the focus of more intense survey, research, and monitoring efforts in addition to passive surveys, including Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake, Southern Hognose Snake, and Northern Pine Snake. Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnakes are listed as State Endangered in North Carolina. This species once occurred throughout much of the Coastal Plain, but populations have been drastically reduced. Historically, Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnakes were found in Timber Rattlesnake (Jeff Hall, NCWRC) thirteen counties, but, since 2005, detections have only come from three counties, with all but three specimens found in a single county. Habitat loss and fragmentation, due to development and silviculture, are some of the biggest reasons for these declines, as well as road mortality, and outright killing. Another significant issue for the Eastern Diamondback Rattleskake is limited refugia. Refugium sites are limited to tree stumps, as many of the other refugia used by this species in other parts of its range are absent in NC – no gopher tortoise, armadillo, or pocket gopher burrows. Stumps that are large enough for use by an Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake are uncommon across the landscape. Winter temperatures are likely an important factor in limiting the distribution of the Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake. Thus, any limits on potential refugia may have an even bigger impact on the species. Recent work on stump-dependent species has shown great promise in the creation of artificial stump holes, and this work will continue. Monitoring of Southern Hognose Snakes, a State Species of Special Concern, has been ongoing for more than 25 years in the Sandhills and Coastal Plain. These snakes are strongly tied to sandy soils and large tracts of well-managed Longleaf Pine forests. They are extremely secretive during most of the year, but can be monitored by finding them crossing roads when they become more active in the fall. A recent publication (Beane, et al. 2014) suggests that no discernable trend in the captures Southern Hognose Snake (Jeff Hall, NCWRC) of Southern Hognose Snakes was found over a long-term study in the Sandhills. However, outside of the Sandhills, this species is extremely rare and infrequently encountered. Many coastal counties, with historical records of the Southern Hognose Snake, have no records within the last twenty years, despite considerable effort to detect the species. Additionally, a mark-recapture study of 5 species of snakes on Sandhills Game Land is currently being conducted by NCWRC biologists and volunteers. Species targeted for this research include Northern Pine Snake, Eastern Coachwhip, Carolina Pigmy Rattlesnake, Corn Snake, and Southern Hognose Snake. This research is aimed at determining population size, relative abundance of each species, and other natural history aspects, such as movements and population status over time. Turtles North Carolina is home to 21 species of turtles, ranging from the terrestrial Eastern Box Turtle to numerous aquatic species, 5 sea turtles, and the estuarine Diamondback Terrapin. Some species, like the Yellow-bellied Slider, are generalists, using a wide variety of wetland habitats, and as such, are common throughout the state. Others, such as the Bog Turtle, are highly specialized, relying on very specific habitat types, and are, accordingly, quite rare and difficult to find. The natural history and distribution of some species have been extremely well-studied, while others are in need of increased survey, research, and monitoring work. Diamondback Terrapin (Jeff Hall, NCWRC) Bog Turtles are the smallest turtle in North America. There are two distinct U.S. population segments, one in the Northeast (Maryland to New England) and one in the Southeast (GA to VA). In North Carolina, Bog Turtles have been found in 22 counties in the western edge of the Piedmont and Mountain ecoregions. Their habitats include scattered small grassy, herbaceous wetlands and small riparian systems, often associated with pastureland or open fields. Roughly 75% of all Bog Turtle habitat in the Southeast is located on private lands, making partnerships with private landowners an integral component of conservation efforts for this species (Herman 2013). Project Bog Turtle is a North Carolina Herpetological Society conservation initiative supported by numerous state, federal, and private partners. The initiative supports inventory surveys, population density studies, and habitat conservation and restoration actions (http://projectbogturtle.org/). The Eastern Box Turtle is the only terrestrial turtle species native to North Carolina, and was designated the state reptile in 1979. A collaborative of wildlife professionals, scientists, Bog Turtle (Jeff Hall NCWRC) and educators from several state agencies and two universities initiated the Box Turtle Connection, a project designed to collect statewide data on Box Turtles. The project was initiated in response to concerns that this once common and widespread species may be experiencing population declines, due to habitat loss and fragmentation, and pressures from other anthropomorphic impacts (Somers and Matthews 2006). In early 2013, the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wildlife Fauna and Flora (CITES) added 3 turtle species that are native to North Carolina to their list of species for which there is conservation concern because they are harvested for commercial trade: Diamondback Terrapin, Spotted Turtle, and Common Snapping Turtle. The Diamondback Terrapin is found in brackish waters of the Atlantic Coast, and is protected in North Carolina as a Species of Special Concern. The Spotted Turtle and Common Snapping Turtle are freshwater species commonly found in ponds and lakes. Only the Common Snapping Turtle can be harvested commercially in North Carolina, although a Wildlife Collection License must be obtained for this activity, and take is limited to 10 animals per day and 100 animals per year. However, the CITES listing provides an international focus on conservation concerns for these species. There are 5 marine turtle species found in North Carolina’s coastal region: Loggerhead, Green, Hawksbill, Leatherback, and Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtles. More information on marine species can be found in Section 3.10 of this chapter. As federally protected species that uses both land and sea, the jurisdiction over sea turtle activity is divided between the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (land) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (marine). The NCWRC has cooperative agreements with both USFWS and NMFS in order to monitor sea turtle activity in the state, and all data collected by NCWRC biologists and permitted volunteers is shared with the appropriate federal agency. The North Carolina Sea Turtle Program coordinates a network of over 1,000 volunteers and collaborators that work to monitor sea turtle nesting and stranding activities along the state’s coastline. Four species of sea turtle nest along North Carolina's beaches: Loggerhead, Green, Leatherback, and Kemp's Ridley. Volunteer groups monitor beaches daily from May to August and mark sea turtle nests. They monitor these nests throughout incubation, and inventory each nest after it has emerged in order to determine hatching success. The Sea Turtle Stranding and Salvage Network collects data including species, carapace measurements, location, and probable cause of stranding from all reported sea turtle strandings. Loggerhead Sea Turtle release (Jeff Hall NCWRC) Other turtle survey efforts have taken place in various parts of the state. These included recent trapping efforts in the mountains, where NCWRC biologists have detected Stripe- necked Musk Turtles, Eastern Spiny Softshells, and River Cooters in aquatic habitats where they were not previously documented. Surveys of streams in the Uwharrie Mountains, found in the Piedmont region of North Carolina, have recently documented additional and relatively large numbers of Gulf Coast Spiny Softshell turtles in several drainages. Additionally, a new citizen science initiative, aimed at increasing our knowledge of Diamondback Terrapins, has been formed called the Terrapin Tally. Designed to help estimate population numbers, the Terrapin Tally is a joint project with the North Carolina Coastal Reserve and National Estuarine Research Reserve and the NCWRC. Crocodilians The American Alligator is the only crocodilian species found in North Carolina, occurring throughout much of the Coastal Plain. Once extremely rare in the state, alligators have increased in numbers since being federally listed under the Endangered Species Act, allowing them to be removed from endangered status in 1987. Trade of this species is still regulated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, because of “Similarity of Appearance” to American Crocodiles. Recent survey work (2014-2015) has been conducted jointly between NCWRC and North Carolina State University to determine the status of the species in the state. Results of this research are currently being analyzed. 3.8.1 Comparison of 2005 - 2015 Priority Species The 2005 WAP listed 43 reptile species as SGCN priority species and did not provide separate categories for knowledge gaps or management concerns. In comparison, the 2015 evaluation identified 43 species as SGCN, 47 species as knowledge gap priorities and 24 species as management concern or need priorities. There have been scientific advances in direct DNA sequencing methods that enabled tests of previous hypotheses of phylogenetic relationships (Amphibiaweb 2014). This new information has led to suggestions for taxonomic revisions such as those proposed by Frost (et al. 2006) and others. However, newly published taxonomy should not be interpreted as a formal, mandatory change; it is simply an alternative that should be evaluated alongside other such proposals (Amphibiaweb 2014). Table 3.8.2 provides a list of species for which name changes have been made since the 2005 WAP was published. Table 3.8.2 SGCN list revisions and changes since 2005 WAP 2005 2015 Common Name Scientific Name Common Name Scientific Name Comment Black Swamp Snake Seminatrix pygaea Carolina Swampsnake Seminatrix pygaea paludis Add trinomial to species name Bog Turtle Clemmys muhlenbergii Glyptemys muhlenbergii Genus changed Eastern Coachwhip Masticophis flagellum Loggerhead Musk Sternotherus Turtle minor Masticophis [Coluber] flagellum flagellum Stripe-necked Musk Sternotherus minor peltifer Turtle Genus changed Add trinomial to species name Common name changed Add trinomial to species name Coal Skink Eumeces anthracinus Eumeces [Plestiodon] anthracinus Genus name changed Eastern Chicken Turtle Deirochelys reticularia Deirochelys reticularia reticularia Add trinomial to species name Broad-headed Skink Eumeces laticeps Removed from SGCN list Eastern Hognose Snake Heterodon platirhinos Removed from SGCN list 3.8.2 Conservation Concerns The conservation concerns for reptiles are many, and are summed up well by Gibbons et al. (2000). This paper notes, though amphibians are often thought of as much more imperiled, reptiles are also experiencing drastic declines world-wide and face numerous threats to their conservation status. Some of the major concerns that may affect the abundance or distribution of reptile species include habitat loss and alteration, poor habitat management (e.g., lack of appropriate fire regimes), environmental pollution, unsustainable use, emerging diseases, and invasive species. Most of the reptiles in North Carolina are affected not by one, but a myriad of issues related to their habitats. Sea turtles in particular are species that have experienced declines because of a multitude of factors, especially because they nest on beaches, but they face numerous threats once they are in the ocean. Some turtle species have experienced high levels of collection from the wild, and this type of activity may be unsustainable for certain species.Climate change may be another issue that affects the status of reptiles, though this has been relatively understudied. Additional threats faced by reptiles include road mortality, and the invasion of non-native plants and animals, such as fire ants, into North Carolina. Many species of reptiles have been heavily affected by the loss of habitat throughout North Carolina. Large snakes and those species that are associated with very specific habitat types have likely been most affected by habitat loss and fragmentation. Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnakes have been affected by numerous factors, now limiting them to only a small population in the Coastal Plain. Bog Turtles have been drastically affected by the loss of mountain bogs, or by the lack of management in the bogs that remain. Conservation recommendations for the habitats associated with reptiles have been incorporated into the natural community descriptions in Chapter 4. 3.8.3 Knowledge Gaps The current status of many reptile species is poorly known in North Carolina. Inventories using appropriate survey techniques are important for understanding the distribution of species, status of populations, effects of stressors on populations, and the effects of harvest. For instance, biologists lack information about locations or status of populations of Rainbow Snake and Mimic Glass Lizard. Some species are more difficult to survey than others, and novel techniques should be developed to make surveys more effective. 3.8.4 Management Need Management needs for reptile species vary widely depending on each species’ habitat use and natural history traits. In general, terrestrial reptiles often require specific habitat types, oftentimes in very large tracts of high quality, well managed habitat. Reptiles that rely on firemaintained pine habitat are drastically affected by the lack of sound management, including prescribed fire. Management of these types of habitats needs to take place on a large scale in order to preserve reptile diversity. Lack of fire, fire suppression, or the conversion of open pine habitat to industrial forests has led to the decline of many habitat specialists such as Northern Pine Snakes, Southern Hognose Snakes, and Chicken Turtles. Information on habitat management for herp species can be found in the PARC technical publication on habitat management for amphibians and reptiles in the Southeast (Bailey et al.2006). Sound management of large tracts of Longleaf Pine forests in the Sandhills region is an example where diverse reptile populations continue to persist. Working with land managers to emphasize the need for management using prescribed fire, to maintain diverse forests, is extremely important for maintaining diverse reptile populations. Bog Turtle conservation efforts are another example of implementing management to maintain or increase populations of reptiles. This species is now restricted to very small mountain bogs that are easily shaded out by thick vegetation if active management is not undertaken. Though sometimes difficult to implement, current efforts to maintain bogs in an open-canopied state are contributing to the conservation of this rare species. Sea turtles represent a species where extremely intensive management is now necessary to maintain or increase populations of this group of species. Turtle nests must be caged to keep predators away, nests are monitored to determine each species’ status, and young and adult turtles face numerous threats that need to be managed from a fisheries perspective. 3.8.5 Threats and Problems Chapter 5 describes 11 categories of threats the Taxa Team considered during the evaluation and ranking of priority species and provides information about the expected scope and severity of their impacts to wildlife in North Carolina (see Appendix#). Results of Metric 9 evaluations indicate the most likely threats to create significant impacts to reptile populations in North Carolina over the next 10 years include the following: natural system modifications (e.g., fire suppression, land management activities) biological resource use (e.g., harvesting and collection) pollution (e.g., point and nonpoint sources of wastes and effluents, contaminants) climate change impacts, especially drought Research related to these threats and their impacts on certain reptile species was ranked as a high priority. Habitat loss, modification, and mismanagement should be a focus of efforts to reduce threats to many species of reptiles. Three introduced species have been documented in the state, including Texas Horned Lizard, Mediterranean Gecko, and Brown Anole, but none of the populations of these species appear to be widespread. Breeding populations exist for both Texas Horned Lizard and Mediterranean Gecko, but no breeding activity has yet been detected for Brown Anoles in the state. Of the three non-natives, the Brown Anole represents the highest threat to native species, as it has been shown to outcompete the Green Anole in Florida and elsewhere. 3.8.6 Additional Information Management information can be found in a PARC technical publication on habitat management for amphibians and reptiles in the Southeast (Bailey et al.2006) and is available online http://separc.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/se-hmg.pdf. Programs and information from the North Carolina Herpetological Society (NCHS), the United States Geological Survey’s (USGS) Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative (ARMI), and North Carolina Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation (NCPARC) are important resources for conservation of North Carolina’s native reptile species. An online database, for tracking reptiles, is the Carolina Herp Atlas, developed by Davidson College Herpetology Laboratory. This program tracks county-level distribution information for native species in North and South Carolina and is available online at www.carolinaherpatlas.org. Davidson College also maintains an online identification and information guide, Amphibians and Reptiles of North Carolina (www.herpsofnc.org). Taxonomic classification and agreement on naming conventions for some species is likely to be unsettled until scientific evidence supporting any recommended changes becomes widely accepted. Resources for information about changes in classification include The Center for North American Herpetology (CNAH), an organization that serves as a data bank for information about North American amphibians, turtles, reptiles, and crocodilians. Published research literature documenting taxonomic changes is available online http://www.cnah.org. The CNAH web page also provides a link to peer-reviewed articles published in the Journal of North American Herpetology and access to articles in the Contemporary Herpetology journal archives. Another resource for amphibian taxonomy is the American Museum of Natural History Amphibian species of the World online reference database available online http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia. 3.8.7 Recommendations In general, protection and restoration of natural community composition and function, and protection of surrounding natural areas under current conditions are the best ways to ensure suitable habitats are available for these species. Measures that protect a large and diverse group of populations is the best way to ensure that species are able to survive future stresses, and adapt to changing climate conditions. Table 3.8.3 lists the species for which there are research priorities. Distributional and status surveys. Priorities for conducting distributional and status surveys need to focus on species believed to be declining or mainly dependent on at-risk natural communities. Distributional surveys of Longleaf Pine habitat specialists should continue to be conducted. Some of these include Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake, Northern Pine Snake, Southern Hognose Snake, Eastern Coachwhip, Eastern Coral Snake, and Chicken Turtle. Conduct surveys for aquatic or semi-aquatic species of snakes including Rainbow Snake, Black Swamp Snake, and Glossy Crayfish Snake. Continue to conduct surveys on aquatic turtle species in the mountains, where relatively little is known about turtle assemblages compared to other parts of the state. Survey habitat for Timber Rattlesnakes in the mountains and Piedmont to determine overwintering locations in order to protect and monitor these sites. Conduct surveys for Diamondback Terrapins to determine where healthy populations still occur, and implement conservation efforts accordingly. Focus survey efforts on learning more about the distribution and population status of glass lizards, both in the Coastal Plain and in the Piedmont. Monitoring. Long-term monitoring is critical to assessing species and ecosystem health, and in gauging resiliency of organisms to a changing climate. These efforts will inform future decisions on how to manage species and their habitats. Long-term monitoring is needed to identify population trends, and to assess performance of conservation actions. Monitoring plans should be coordinated with other existing monitoring programs where feasible. Monitor priority reptile species that are perceived as declining and or rare, especially upland snake species such as Southern Hognose Snakes, Northern Pine Snakes, Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnakes, and Timber Rattlesnakes. Continue to monitor Bog Turtle populations annually using mark-recapture and intensive habitat surveys. Continue to monitor sea turtles and Diamondback Terrapins using appropriate techniques. Monitor snake populations for signs of emerging diseases that could be detrimental to populations. Continue the state-wide “Box Turtle Connection” program, forming a long-term database of that status of the Eastern Box Turtle throughout the state. Research. Research to facilitate appropriate conservation actions includes habitat use/preferences; information on reproduction and recruitment, such as location and timing, and fecundity; population dynamics, including competition and population genetics; and natural history traits, such as feeding and predation. Research must also be conducted to determine vulnerability of SGCN and other priority species to specific threats; studies should provide recommendations for mitigation and restoration. Continue mark-recapture program to determine status, life history, and population sizes of Bog Turtles. Telemetry work should also aid in understanding population dynamics. NCWRC biologists recently began a mark-recapture study on upland snakes throughout the Sandhills Game Land to determine the status of priority species. Conduct research on the movements and habitat use of upland snake species in the Sandhills and Coastal Plain in order to guide land use and protection. If possible, radio telemetry on certain species would be useful in elucidating habitat associations and limiting factors for these species. Conduct mark-recapture surveys on Eastern Box Turtles throughout the state in order to track population trends and determine differences in populations in relation to land use. Continue research on aspects of sea turtle biology and recovery along the coast. Determine the effects of harvest on the conservation status of aquatic and semi-aquatic turtles. Table 3.8.3 lists the species for which there are research priorities. Table 3.8.3 Knowledge Gap priority reptile species. Family Anguidae Colubridae Scientific Name Ophisaurus ventralis Farancia abacura abacura Lampropeltis getula getula Nerodia erythrogaster Nerodia taxispilota Elaphe guttata [Pantherophis guttatus] Tantilla coronata Virginia striatula Graptemys kohnii Emydidae Common Name Eastern Glass Lizard Eastern Mud Snake Eastern Kingsnake Red-bellied Water Snake Brown Water Snake Federal/ State Listing* Corn Snake Southeastern Crowned Snake Rough Earth Snake Mississippi Map Turtle (High Rock Lake Pop.) Trachemys scripta elegans Red-eared Slider Gekkonidae Hemidactylus turcicus Mediterranean Gecko Kinosternidae Sternotherus odoratus Eastern Musk Turtle Phrynosomatidae Phrynosoma cornutum Texas Horned Lizard Polychrotidae Anolis sagrei Brown Anole *Nonnative *Nonnative *Nonnative *Nonnative *Nonnative *See Table 3.8.1 Management Practices and Conservation Programs. Management practices that reduce impacts and work synergistically with other conservation actions are needed to enhance the resilience of natural resources. Particular needs include preserving biodiversity, protecting native populations and their habitats, and improving degraded habitats. We will Promote appropriate prescribed fire regimes to maintain open, diverse habitat that supports abundant upland snake populations. Continue to manage mountain bogs using appropriate techniques, and promote habitat restoration and maintenance on mountain bogs. Restore lands where lack of fire, or fire suppression, has altered pine-dominated forests. Determine “hot spots” for road mortality and assess ways of alleviating issues, including underpasses or other techniques. Cooperative Efforts and Partnerships. Conservation programs and incentives and partnerships should be utilized to the extent possible to preserve high quality resources and protect important natural communities. Protection measures that utilize existing regulatory frameworks to protect habitats and species should be incorporated where applicable. Land conservation or preservation can serve numerous purposes in the face of anticipated climate change, but also promotes ecosystem resilience overall. Continue to support programs that limit collection of priority species, including permit requirements, law enforcement oversight, and legislative action that protects species. Implement the state listing process by routinely evaluating conservation status and recommending legislative updates to revise the state species lists. Support land trusts and conservation easements as a means to protect amphibian habitat. Utilize programs such as the Wildlife Conservation Lands Program and others to protect, manage, and restore habitat on private lands. Support citizen science and volunteer efforts to monitor species and habitats. Utilize partnerships and research collaborations with local universities and education programs to implement conservation, research, and management actions. Develop education, outreach, and technical guidance programs for the public. Work with private landowners to promote habitat that supports a high diversity of reptiles. References will be added to end of chapter. Bailey MA, Holmes JN, Buhlmann KA, and Mitchell JC. 2006. Habitat Management Guidelines for Amphibians and Reptiles of the Southeastern United States. Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation Technical Publication HMG-2. Montgomery, AL. 88 pp. Available online (May 2013) http://separc.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/se-hmg.pdf. Beane JC, Graham SP, Thorp TJ, and LT Pusser. 2014. Natural History of the Southern Hognose Snake (Heterodon simus) in North Carolina, USA. Copeia 2014(1): 168-175. Gibbons JW, Scott DE, Ryan TJ, Buhlmann KA, Tuberville TD, Metts BS, Greene JL, Mills T, Leiden Y, Poppy S, and Winne CT. 2000. The global decline of reptiles, déjà vu amphibians. BioScience 50: 653-666. [NCHS] North Carolina Herpetological Society. http://ncherps.org. [ARMI] Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative. http://armi.usgs.gov. [NCPARC] North Carolina Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation. http://www.ncparc.org. Carolina Herp Atlas. http://www.carolinaherpatlas.org. [NAAMP] North American Amphibian Monitoring Program. https://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/naamp/index.cfm?.