Download 1. Postmortem Drug Testing

is the study of poisons.
a. Toxicologists study the harmful
effects these substances may
have on the body.
b. Forensic Toxicology is
the science of detecting
and identifying drugs
and poisons a person
may have used for
medicinal, recreational,
or criminal purposes.
1. Postmortem Drug Testing
 Accidental Poisonings
 Drug Abuse Cases
 Suicidal Poisonings
 Homicidal Poisonings
2. Workplace Drug Testing
3. Identification of Contraband Materials
Exposure to toxins can happen in 4 ways:
i. Ingesting them through the
gastrointestinal system
ii. Inhaling them into the lungs
iii. Injecting them into the bloodstream
iv. Absorbing them through the skin
Toxic substances can be classified by how
people are exposed to them:
i. Intentionally to treat illness or relieve pain
ii. Accidentally by overdose or harmful
combination
iii. Deliberately as a suicide attempt or to
inflict harm or death upon others
Toxicity
is the extent to which a substance is
poisonous and is affected by many factors.
i. Dosage- how much is
taken
ii. Duration- frequency
and length of exposure
iii. How it was takeningested, inhaled,
injected, or absorbed
iv. Interactions- other
substances in the body
a. Poisonings have been
documented since 399 B.C. with
Greek Philosopher Socrates as
one of the first victims.
399bc. Socrates is found guilty
of corrupting the youth of
Athens and sentenced to death
by hemlock
Video Clip
b. Poisoning was very common by 17th century, as
arsenic and cyanide were used settle disputes.
i. Arsenic is a chemical element that occurs naturally
in soil and minerals. It is released naturally from
the Earth's crust (through erosion, runoff,
volcanoes, etc.) as well as through industrial
processes such as mining, metal smelting, and
burning of fossil fuels. Arsenic can contaminate air,
water, and soil.
1. Arsenic is an odorless, tasteless poison.
Exposure to it can cause many health
problems. Being exposed to low levels for a
long time can change the color of your skin,
cause corns and small warts, stomach pain,
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, numbness in
hands and feet, partial paralysis, blindness,
and a variety of cancers. Exposure to high
levels of arsenic can cause death.
2. Through much of the nineteenth century, a
third of all criminal cases of poisoning
involved arsenic. One reason for its
popularity was simply its availability; it is the
major ingredient in rat poison.
James
Marsh
3. The Marsh Test is a method to detect
arsenic and was the first use of toxicology in
a jury trial.
 Arsenic is also one of the
many dangerous chemicals
in tobacco smoke.
Cyanide is a rare but potentially deadly
poison. It works by making the body
unable to use life-sustaining oxygen.
Cyanide sometimes is
described as having a “bitter
almond” smell, but it does not
always give off an odor, and
not everyone can detect this
odor.
2. Cyanide enters water, soil, or air as a
result of both natural processes and
industrial activities. In manufacturing,
cyanide is used to make paper, textiles,
and plastics. Cyanide is contained in
cigarette smoke and the combustion
products of synthetic materials such as
plastics. A common source of cyanide
poisoning is smoke inhalation during the
burning of common substances such as
rubber, plastic,
and silk which create
cyanide fumes.
c. During the 19th century, physicians
Mathieu Orfila and Robert Christison
developed tests to identify the poisons
in human tissue. This was the start of
the field of forensic toxicology.
Mathieu
Orfila (1814)
“The Father
of
Forensic
Toxicology”
France 1840. Marie Lafarge, age 24, was
charged with poisoning her husband
Charles by stirring arsenic into his food.
Lafarge was found guilty of murder, and
received a death sentence, which was later
commuted to life in prison.
d. Today, forensic toxicologists are concerned
with the legal and medical aspects of
alcohol, drugs, poisons, and toxins in body
fluids.
i. Toxicologists will often work with
pathologists to analyze body fluids from
autopsies. They use highly sophisticated
instruments, chemical reagents and
precise methodologies to determine the
presence or absence of specific
substances in the sample. They may also
be responsible for presenting evidence
in court.
ii. Toxicologists also analyze evidence to determine if
alcohol or drugs were a contributing factor in
criminal cases, such as vehicular homicide and
sexual assault (testing for “date rape” drugs).
iii. The field of forensic toxicology has also
grown to include drug and alcohol testing for
employers as well as testing athletes for
performance-enhancing substances.
a. There are two types of poisoning:
i. Acute poisoning
1. Involves high doses over short time periods
2. Example: Cyanide; produces immediate
symptoms
ii. Chronic poisoning
1. Involves lower doses over long periods
2. Examples: Mercury and lead; symptoms
develop gradually
Poisoning causes less
than ½ of 1% of all
homicides ; Accidental
drug overdoses are
much more common.
a. Illegal drugs can be defined as drugs with no
current accepted medical use in the United States
i. Examples: Heroin and LSD
b. Controlled substances are legal drugs whose
sale, possession, and use are restricted because
of the mind-altering effect of the drugs and the
potential for abuse
i. Examples: Prescribed narcotics, depressants,
and stimulants
c. Of the top eight arrest offenses in the United
States, drug abuse violations continuously rank
near the top of the list.
d. Drug offenders make up more than half of the
federal prison system population and about 20%
of the population in state prisons.
e. Over 25% of domestic violence disputes are
drug related.
f. 81% of child endangerment cases are drug
related.
Controlled Substances Act (1970)
a. Federal Law established 5 schedules of classification of
controlled substances based on:
i. Drug’s potential for abuse
ii. Potential to physical & psychological dependence
iii. Medical Value
• Psychological dependence (need it mentally):
the conditional use of drug caused by underlying
emotional needs
• Physical dependence (need it physically):
physiological need for a drug that has been brought
about by its regular use. - Characterized by withdrawal
sickness when administration of the drug is abruptly
stopped
5 Schedules of Controlled Substances:
i. Schedule I
1. Drugs with high potential for abuse and addiction, NO medical value
a. Ex: Heroin, LSD, Ecstasy, Marijuana
ii. Schedule II
1. Drugs with high potential for abuse and addiction, have some medical value with
restrictions
a. Ex: PCP, Cocaine, Amphetamines, Most Opiates, Some Barbiturates
iii.Schedule III
1. Drugs with less potential for abuse and addiction, currently acceptable for
medical use
a. Ex: Some Barbiturates, Codeine, Steroids
iv.Schedule IV
1. Drugs with low potential for abuse and addiction, currently acceptable for
medical use
a. Ex: Tranquilizers like Valium, Xanax, Librium
v. Schedule V
1. Drugs with low potential abuse, medical use, lowest potential dependency
1. Ex: Some Opiates with Non-Narcotic Ingredients (Zotex-C syrup, Poly-Tussin)
• Hallucinogens - alter normal perceptions,
thoughts, and moods
• Narcotics - relieve pain and cause sleep
• Stimulants - increase alertness and activity
• Anabolic Steroids - promote tissue growth
• Depressants - depress functions of central
nervous system, cause calm and bring about
sleepiness
1. “Psychedelic drugs”
2. Increase awareness of sensory input
3. Affect the user’s perceptions, thinking,
self-awareness, and emotions.
4. Diminish control and can cause panic
5. The effect and intensity of response to
these drugs varies from person to person
Street Names: Acid,
Boomers, Yellow
Sunshines, Cid,
Doses, and Trips
Phencyclidine
Street Names: Angel
Dust, Crystal, Hog,
Supergrass, Killer
Joints, Ozone, Wack,
Embalming Fluid,
and Rocket Fuel.
LSD is the best known and most researched psychedelic. It is the
standard against which all other psychedelics are compared.
It is one of the most potent, mood-changing chemicals.
It is manufactured from lysergic acid, which is found
in the ergot fungus that grows on rye and other grains.
Known as “acid”, LSD is sold on the street in small tablets (“microdots”),
capsules or gelatin squares (“window panes”). It is sometimes added to
absorbent paper, which is then divided into small squares decorated
with designs or cartoon characters (“loony toons”).
LSD users call an LSD experience a “trip”. It is
very potent; little needed to cause vivid visuals
hallucinations that can last for 12 hours. Things
go wrong often so it is called a “bad trip”.
• Most popular drug at club scenes
• Causes psychological difficulties,
including confusion, depression,
sleep problems, drug craving,
severe anxiety
• Decreases inhibitions

Also Known as MDMA (Adam, XTC, Bean, E, M, and Roll)

Ecstasy comes in a tablet
that is often branded:
1. Act to reduce pain by suppressing the central
nervous system’s ability to relay pain messages to
the brain
2. Can produce tolerance and withdrawal
Most narcotics are derived from the opium poppy.
a. Tolerance is a condition in which higher doses of a drug are
required to produce the same effect experienced during initial
use.
i. Tolerance is often associated with physical dependence.
b. Withdrawal is a collection of
symptoms that a person
experiences when, after a
period of regular use, the
quantity of available substance
in the brain is reduced.
i. Symptoms and signs of
withdrawal are often
opposite to the main effect
of the drug.
• Heroin is one of the more
addictive drugs due to the
extremely short amount of time
it takes to enter the brain.
The drug is particularly
dangerous because its
purity is always in
question, leaving the
user to guess how much
of the drug can result in a
high and how much can
result in a fatal overdose.
HEROIN STREET NAMES: Snow, black tar, smack, dirt,
diesel, red rock, white junk, Harry, H, White Horse,
Horse, Hard Stuff, White Stuff, Joy Powder, Scag.
Black Tar
Heroin
Packaged
Heroin
Best known for
being injected
Heroin
Powder
it can
also be
snorted
and
smoked
1. Increase feelings of well-being, energy, and alertness
while suppressing appetite. Can be followed by
depression.
2. Tend to be highly addictive.
3. Used to treat narcolepsy and A.D.D. (Ritalin)
4. Also includes nicotine and caffeine
“Uppers”
or
“Speed”
Once stimulant wears off, severe depression usually
sets in, requiring more stimulant (speed binge)
• Produces effects similar to crack cocaine, but
last longer
• Once effects wear off, users may sleep for
days
• Chronic users exhibit violent destructive
behavior and acute psychosis like paranoid
schizophrenia
Methamphetamine is a particularly unique
and dangerous drug produced in meth labs
using a variety of ingredients available in
stores. The manufacturing of
methamphetamine is called "cooking".
Law enforcement agencies across the country are hoping to get
a message out to young people that meth takes a terrible toll
on their bodies. The pictures of the teeth alone should be
enough to scare anyone straight.
This drug causes severe tooth decay in a very short time. Dental professionals
have coined the term ‘meth mouth’ to describe the extensive damage typically
caused by this drug. Methamphetamine is highly acidic and attacks tooth
enamel. Other side effects include dry mouth, bruxism and jaw clenching.
Transformations After Abusing Heroin,
Cocaine, Alcohol, and Meth:
Video Clip
(Synthetic compounds chemically related to testosterone)
1. Promote cell and tissue growth and division
2. Popular with weightlifters, bodybuilders, and
other athletes; used to increasing bone mass and
body muscle.
3. Side effects can include acne,
increased body hair, baldness,
high blood pressure, high
cholesterol, impaired fertility
in males, blood clotting, heart
attacks, and certain types of
cancers.
• Anabolic steroids are bad for the
heart—they can increase fat deposits
in blood vessels, which can cause
heart attacks and strokes.
• They may also
damage the liver.
• Steroids can halt
bone growth—
which means
that a teenage
steroid user may
not grow to
his/her full adult
height.
• The most common anabolic
steroids taken today include
anadrol, oxandrin, dianabol,
winstrol, deca-durabolin, and
equipoise.
• On the street, steroids may be
called arnolds, roids, or juice.
There are three different
methods to use anabolic
steroids: injected through
the veins or muscle tissue,
oral intake, and rubbed onto
the skin in the form of gels
or creams.
1. Depressants are substances which slow down the normal
function of the central nervous system.
2. Cause drowsiness and slowed brain activity; relieve
anxiety and produce sleep
3. Side effects include slurred speech and loss of
coordination. Overdoses slow heart rate and
breathing and have the potential to induce
comas and cause death.
4. Mixing depressants with alcohol and other
drugs increases potency and health risks
5. Include Barbituates and Benzodiazepines, such
as Valium, Xanax, and Rohypnol “date rape
drug”
The three most common date
rape drugs are:
• Rohypnol
• GHB (gamma
hydroxybutyric)
• Ketamine (an animal
anesthetic)
These drugs also are known as
"club drugs" because they tend
to be used at dance clubs,
concerts, and raves.
• Rohypnol is a fast acting drug, as it only
takes thirty minutes to start to work. While
“date rape drug”
it can last up to 18 hours.
• Causes confusion, dizziness, lack of
judgment, and drowsiness or loss of
consciousness
• When Rohypnol is mixed in with alcohol
there is a higher risk of overdose, difficulty
breathing, or even death
• Rohypnol can cause amnesia to the user;
nicknamed "the forget drug"
Some manufacturers (but not all) recently reformulated the drug to
make it more detectable.
 When put in a light-colored drink, new Rohypnol will turn the
beverage bright blue.
 Consumers of darker-colored beverages should be tipped off by
a cloudy appearance.
VS.
i. All alcohols are toxic to the body; can
damage the liver, alter behavior, and
depress the Central Nervous System
ii. Alcohol is absorbed through the stomach
and intestine
1. Oxidized in the liver
2. Excreted by breath, perspiration, and urine
• Alcohol is a Depressant
• Continued use may lead
to physical dependency
18,000 out of 44,000
annual traffic deaths
are alcohol-related and
send over 2 million
people to the hospital.
The Drink Wheel
Botulism is the most poisonous biological substance
known to humans. Caused by Clostridium botulinum.
1. So deadly that 1 gram of the
crystalline toxin evenly spread out
and inhaled could kill more than a
million people
2. Acts as a neurotoxin and paralyzes
muscles; Causes irreversible damage
to nerve endings
3. Extremely deadly in small amounts and causes
painful spasms before death
4. Can be found in contaminated food such as canned
vegetables, cured pork and ham, smoked or raw
fish, honey, and corn syrup.
5. High heat and acid can kill the bacteria and spores.
In the US, an average of 145
cases are reported each year.
Of these, approximately 15%
are foodborne, 65% are infant
botulism, and 20% are wound.
Tetanus is also caused by bacteria, caused by
Clostridium tetani.
1. Deadly nervous system disease that
causes violent muscle spasms
2. Responsible for 1 million deaths
per year worldwide, but only 5
deaths per year in U.S. because of
vaccinations against it.
Tetanus bacteria produces spores
that primarily live in the soil or
the feces of animals. These spores
are capable of living for years and
are resistant to extremes in
temperature.
i.
A pesticide is any substance used to
control pests. Pests may be target insects,
vegetation, fungi, etc. Most control the
pests by poisoning them.
ii. Unfortunately, pesticides can be poisonous to
humans as well. Some are very poisonous, or
toxic, and may seriously injure or even kill
humans. Others are relatively non-toxic.
iii. Pesticides can irritate the skin, eyes, nose, or
mouth. The most important thing to remember
is that you should always use caution
whenever you work with any pesticide!
iv. There are three specific ways in which
pesticides may enter your body.
1. Dermal exposure: Wet, dry, or
gaseous forms of pesticides can
be absorbed through the skin.
2. Inhalation: Whether as dusts,
spray mist, or fumes, pesticides
can be drawn into your lungs as
you breathe.
3. Ingestion: Pesticides can enter
the body through the mouth;
this can occur when hands are
not properly washed before
eating or smoking.
Each pesticide is classified into a "toxicity
category" and given an associated "signal word"
that must appear on every product label so that
pesticide users are alerted to the pesticide's acute
toxicity.
To figure out the "acute inhalation toxicity" of a
pesticide, scientists add a known amount of the
pesticide to air. The amount that causes half of
the animals to die is the "Lethal Concentration
Fifty" (LC50) of the pesticide. The lower the LC50
value, the more poisonous the pesticide.
Examples of pesticides:
Prior to 1972 when its use was banned, DDT was a
commonly used pesticide. Although it is no longer used or
produced in the United States, we continue to find DDT in
our environment.
One of the EPA's first acts was to ban DDT, due to both
concerns about harm to the environment and the potential
for harm to human health. There was evidence linking DDT
with severe declines in bald eagle populations due to
thinning eggshells.
DDT's human studies showing harm at very low levels of
exposure. Studies show a range of human health effects
linked to DDT and its breakdown product, DDE: cancers. male
infertility, miscarriages, and nervous system & liver damage
i. Metal compounds such as arsenic, lead, and mercury
are very poisonous
ii. Have been used for suicides and homicides
• Some heavy metals – such as cobalt, copper, iron, manganese,
and zinc – are essential to health in trace amounts.
• Others are non-essential and can be harmful to health in
excessive amounts. These include cadmium, antimony,
chromium, mercury, lead, and arsenic – these last three being
the most common in cases of heavy metal toxicity.
The easiest
screening
process for
heavy
metals is
Hair
Analysis.
i. Hydrogen cyanideused in gas chambers
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN); A
toxic liquid or colorless gas. It
is found in the smoke of
various tobacco products and
released by combustion of
nitrogen-containing organic
materials.
ii. Carbon monoxide- car exhaust
CO poisoning symptoms 
Ricin- derived from beans of the castor oil plant.
• lethal in humans in very small quantities; enters
the cells of the body and prevents them from
making necessary proteins, causing cell death.
Victim dead within a few hours.
• A poisonous protein in the castor oil
bean, Ricinus communis
• Enters the body in various ways:
 inhaled as a mist or a powder
 injected into the body
 ingested as food or drink
• In April 2013, envelopes that
preliminarily tested positive
for ricin, were intercepted at
the US Capitol's off-site mail
facility in Washington, D.C.
According to reports, the
envelopes were addressed to
the office of Mississippi
Republican Senator Roger
Wicker and President Barack
Obama.
Anthrax- caused by Bacillus anthracis, a
bacterium that forms spores.
1. Spreads to humans from infected animals.
2. Can enter the body by inhalation,
ingestion, or skin absorption.
Anthrax is found all
over the world. It
contaminates the
ground when an
affected animal dies.
There aren't any
known cases of anthrax
passing from one
person to another, so it
is considered to be
noncontagious.
In 2001, shortly after the terrorist attacks of 9/11, 22
letters laced with anthrax were sent in the U.S. mail. Five
were killed and 17 were sickened in what became one of
the worst biological attacks in U.S. history.
Collection & Preservation of Drug Evidence


Field examination of substances to determine if
drugs are present
Package must prevent loss of contents and/or cross
contamination
 Original container usually a good package
 Volatile substances must be packaged in airtight
containers to prevent evaporation of the solvent
 Mark packages with enough information to
ensure identification by the officer in future legal
proceedings and to establish Chain of Custody.
 Supply any background info regarding drug’s
identity
The lab handles the analysis of marijuana, other drugs, and
prescription medications which may be involved in criminal
cases or found in the possession of subjects involved in
various crimes.
i. By means of chemical tests, most controlled substances
and common drugs can be identified.
ii. There exists a huge range of tests for the detection
of certain substances but to conduct all of these
tests to determine the identity of the substance
would be time consuming, so "presumptive testing"
is done.
1. Presumptive testing does not
positively identify the substance
but it does narrow down the
many possibilities so that more
specific tests can later be
conducted.
Presumptive screening is rapid and
fairly inexpensive.
3. If a screen is positive, it needs further testing; further
testing is called a confirmation. While a presumptive
screening test gives a positive or negative result, it does
not tell you how much drug is in the sample. This means
you cannot tell when, how much, or exactly which drug
the person has taken. This can only be done with a
confirmation test.
a.Examples:
• Color tests, Microcrystalline Testing, Thin Layer
Chromatography, Gas Chromatography,
Spectrophotometry, Mass Spectrometry, Neutron
activation analysis (NAA).

• Marquis Test:
Allows field examination of
substances to determine if
drugs are present
– Turns purple in the presence of
Heroin, morphine, Opium
– Turns orange-brown in presence of
Amphetamines
• Scott Test: Three solutions
– Blue then pink then back to blue in the
presence of Cocaine
• Duquenois-Levine:
– Test for marijuana
– Turns purple
• Identifies drug by using chemicals that
reacts to produce characteristic crystals




Drop of chemical reagent added to small
quantity of drug.
Crystalline precipitate forms
Each type of drug has an individual crystal
pattern when seen under a polarized light
microscope
Tests are rapid and do not require isolation of
the drug
•
•
•
•
Thin Layer Chromatography
Gas Chromatography
Spectrophotometry
Mass Spectrometry
Chromatography/mass spectrometry isolates the drug from any mixing
agents or other substances that might be combined with it. A small
amount of the substance is injected into the gas chromatograph. Different
molecules move through the chromatograph's column at different speeds
based on their density. For example,
heavier compounds move
more slowly, while lighter compounds
move more quickly. Then
the sample is funneled into a mass
spectrometer, where an
electron beam hits it and causes
it to break apart. How the
substance breaks apart can
help the technicians tell
what type of substance it is.
Mass Spectrometric Analysis For Drug Analysis
1. They are not always looking for exact chemicals, but
metabolites of the desired chemicals (ex. heroin
converts to morphine within seconds)
b. Forensic toxicologists also perform scientific
tests on bodily fluids and tissue samples to
identify any drugs or chemicals present in the
body of victims or suspects.
1. Is a drug or poison present? What
substance?
2. How much of the substance is present? Is
it’s concentration in the body sufficient to
cause death?
3. How was the drug/poison
administered?
An autopsy, also known as a postmortem examination, may also be
needed.
After the body is received, it is first
photographed. The examiner then notes the
kind of clothes and their position on the body
before they are removed. Next, any evidence
such as residue, flakes of paint or other
material is collected from the external
surfaces of the body. Ultraviolet light may
also be used to search body surfaces for any
evidence not easily visible to the naked eye.
Samples of hair, nails and the like are taken,
and the body may also be radiographically
imaged.
a. Collect sample of all body fluids
b. Collect samples from organs and
tissues