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Section 1 — Introducing the Region: Physical
Geography
Europe and Russia occupy part of the huge landmass[landmass: a very large, unbroken area
of land] called Eurasia. Eurasia reaches from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. It is so large that
geographers divide it into two continents, Europe and Asia.
Europe is the world’s second smallest continent. Oceans and seas border Europe to the north,
south, and west. Asia borders Europe on the east.
Russia is the world’s largest country. It spreads over two continents. Western Russia lies on the
continent of Europe. Eastern Russia stretches across Asia to the Pacific Ocean. The Ural
Mountains, at 60°E longitude, mark the dividing line between Europe and Asia, and between
western Russia and eastern Russia.
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Section 2 — Physical Features
The Alps cut through France, Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, and Slovenia.
Photolibrary
The Alps cut through France, Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, and Slovenia.
Photolibrary
Europe and Russia share a landscape[landscape: a large area with a particular kind of
scenery, such as a desert landscape] of sweeping plains and rugged mountains. Large rivers
wander across the broad plains. These rivers drain into three of the world’s four oceans—the
Atlantic, the Pacific, and the Arctic oceans.
Europe
On a map, the European landmass looks like a giant peninsula[peninsula: a long, narrow
stretch of land that is surrounded by water on three sides] attached to Eurasia. Smaller
peninsulas jut out from all sides of Europe. They include the Balkan Peninsula, the Iberian
Peninsula, Italy, and Scandinavia. Various seas, bays, and gulfs are tucked in between. Several
big islands are also part of Europe.
Much of Europe lies on the Northern European Plain, which is one of the largest expanses of flat
land on Earth. It extends almost 2,500 miles from east to west. Several mountain ranges cross
Europe. The Alps form a major barrier between central and southern Europe. The Pyrenees
separate France and Spain. The Apennines run through Italy.
Europe’s rivers serve as water highways. They also provide drinking water and power for
electricity. The Danube River flows through six countries, more than any other major river in the
world. The Rhine river valley is one of the most productive industrial and farming areas in the
world.
Russia
Much of Russia also lies on broad plains. The western, or European, part of Russia shares the
Northern European Plain. Western Russia extends to the Ural Mountains in the east and to the
Caucasus Mountains in the south.
From the Ural Mountains, eastern Russia spreads across the full width of Asia. This area is called
Siberia. The West Siberian Plain is a large area of flat land with many lakes and swamps. To the
east lies the Central Siberian Plateau. Rivers have carved narrow canyons through this high, flat
plateau.
Russia has thousands of lakes. The largest is Lake Baikal, the oldest and deepest lake in the
world. It holds one fifth of Earth’s fresh water. In winter, the lake freezes with ice up to three
feet deep.
The Kamchatka Peninsula at the eastern edge of Russia reaches into the Pacific Ocean. More
than 100 volcanoes[volcanoes: a break in Earth’s crust where magma and other material
erupts from Earth’s interior] rise from this finger of land. No roads or railroads connect the
peninsula to Siberia. Everything must arrive by airplane or boat.
Section 1 — Introducing the Region: Physical
Geography
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Section 2 — Physical Features
Mount Kilimanjaro towers over the grasslands in East Africa. Corbis
Mount Kilimanjaro towers over the grasslands in East Africa.
Corbis
Africa is often called the “plateau continent.” The land is shaped like an upside-down pie plate.
Much of the center of Africa is a high, dry plateau[plateau: a raised area of land, such as a
hill or mountain, with a flat top]. At the edges of the continent, this plateau sometimes slopes
to a coastal plain. In other places, it drops sharply into the sea.
There are huge, low-lying areas called basins[basin: a bowl-shaped depression, or hollow, in
Earth’s surface] in several places on this plateau. Four mighty rivers flow from these basins to
the sea. Sometimes the land falls steeply as the rivers flow downstream. As a result, ships are not
able to sail very far up these rivers into Africa’s interior.
North Africa
The Sahara is the main physical feature[physical feature: any natural characteristic of
Earth’s surface, such as landforms and bodies of water] in North Africa. It is the world’s
largest desert[desert: a geographic region with too little rainfall to support much plant life;
also a vegetation zone]. The Sahara has sand dunes, bare rock, gravel plains, and mountains.
The Nile, Africa’s longest river, runs through this desert and empties into the Mediterranean Sea.
The Atlas Mountains stretch across the northwestern part of this region.
West Africa
South of the Sahara lies the Sahel region. The plains of the Sahel are mostly dry grassland. The
Niger River runs through the western Sahel. This is the third longest river in Africa. Also in the
Sahel is a large lake called Lake Chad. This lake shrinks and grows depending on the season. In
general, it has been getting smaller for many years.
East Africa
Three large lakes lie in or near the Great Rift Valley. Lake Tanganyika is the longest
freshwater[freshwater: made up of water that is fresh, not salty; also describes creatures
that live in fresh water, such as freshwater fish] lake in the world. Lake Victoria is the world’s
second largest freshwater lake, and Lake Malawi is the ninth largest.
To the east of Lake Victoria, Mount Kilimanjaro rises from the plains. At 19,340 feet, this peak
is the highest point in Africa.
The Ethiopian Highlands lie to the north of the lake. This rugged area covers two thirds of the
country of Ethiopia.
Central and Southern Africa
The Congo basin is a major physical feature of Central and Southern Africa. This large, lowlying area sits at the center of the continent. The Congo River loops through this basin and
empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Farther south lies the Zambezi River. This river has many
waterfalls. The largest of these is the beautiful Victoria Falls. Two deserts, the Namib and
Kalahari, make up much of the southern part of this region.
Section 1 — Introducing the Region: Physical
Geography
Southwest and Central Asia are spread across one large section of the Eurasian
landmass[landmass: a very large, unbroken area of land]. The region[region: an area
defined by one or more natural or cultural characteristics that set it apart from other
areas] is surrounded by seas, plains, and mountains.
Southwest Asia lies at the crossroads of Africa, Europe, and Asia. All three continents meet here
at the Mediterranean Sea. Central Asia occupies the lonely center of the Eurasian landmass.
Central Asia is a region of treeless plains and deserts[desert: a geographic region with too
little rainfall to support much plant life; also a vegetation zone].
Southwest Asia is bordered by several seas. The Mediterranean and Black seas mark the
northwestern border. The Red Sea runs along the western side of the region. The Arabian Sea
cradles the southern border.
Central Asia’s northern border looks over the plains of Siberia. Rugged mountains rise along the
southern and eastern borders. These mountains include the Hindu Kush, one of the highest
ranges in the world.
Section 2 — Physical Features
This satellite photograph shows two gulfs in Southwest Asia. You can see the Gulf of Oman at
the bottom and the Persian Gulf at the top. Corbis
This satellite photograph shows two gulfs in Southwest Asia. You can see the Gulf of Oman at
the bottom and the Persian Gulf at the top.
Corbis
The physical landscape of Southwest and Central Asia is marked by great contrasts. This region
includes both the lowest spot on Earth and some of the highest peaks. Dusty deserts cover much
of the region. Yet there are also large bodies of water, such as the Persian Gulf. A gulf[gulf: a
large inlet of the sea that cuts deeply into the land] is an arm of the sea that is partly
surrounded by land. The Persian Gulf is about 600 miles long. It averages almost 125 miles in
width.
Southwest and Central Asia also have several inland seas[inland sea: a large body of salt
water with little or no connection to the ocean]. These are large bodies of salt water with little
or no connection to the ocean. The Caspian Sea is the world’s largest inland body of water. Its
waters are salty, but not as salty as the ocean. As a result, this inland sea is home to both
freshwater[freshwater: made up of water that is fresh, not salty; also describes creatures
that live in fresh water, such as freshwater fish] and saltwater fish.
Southwest Asia
Southwest Asia is a land of peninsulas[peninsula: a long, narrow stretch of land that is
surrounded by water on three sides] and plateaus[plateau: a raised area of land, such as a
hill or mountain, with a flat top]. The Arabian Peninsula occupies the southern part of the
region. Covering more than 1 million square miles, it is the largest peninsula in the world.
Farther north lies the Anatolia Plateau. This rugged region stretches across much of modern
Turkey. The center of the plateau has landscapes[landscape: a large area with a particular
kind of scenery, such as a desert landscape] that are often described as “moonscapes.”
Erosion[Erosion: the gradual wearing away of Earth’s surface by the action of wind, water,
ice, and gravity] by wind and water has carved the hills in this volcanic region into caves, cones,
and strange shapes called “fairy chimneys.”
Southwest Asia has other interesting features, including
• the Arabian Sea—a shipping route known as a “hurricane alley” because of the violent storms
that develop there.
• the Tigris-Euphrates Valley—one of the most fertile river valleys of the ancient world.
• the Dead Sea—an inland sea between Israel and Jordan. At about 1,349 feet below sea level, it
is the lowest place on Earth. The Dead Sea is nine times as salty as the ocean. This is so salty
that almost nothing can live in its waters.
Central Asia
Central Asia also varies greatly in elevation. The Caspian Sea lies below sea level. But some
Hindu Kush peaks rise over 25,000 feet.
Central Asia boasts some of Earth’s largest inland seas. The Black Sea covers an area larger than
the state of California. The Aral Sea was another large inland sea, but it is rapidly shrinking in
size.
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Section 1 — Introducing the Region: Physical
Geography
Monsoon Asia begins at the western border of India. From there, it reaches east to the Pacific
Ocean. In the north, it spreads across China to the Korean Peninsula. A large
peninsula[peninsula: a long, narrow stretch of land that is surrounded by water on three
sides] south of China includes Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand. This peninsula is ringed
by the South China Sea, the Gulf of Thailand, and the Bay of Bengal.
This region[region: an area defined by one or more natural or cultural characteristics that
set it apart from other areas] has several countries made up of many islands. They include
Japan, the Philippines, and Indonesia. Sri Lanka, Brunei, and East Timor are other island
nations[nation: a large group of people who share a common history and culture. Not all
nations have their own government or control a territory, but the word nation often means
a country or nation-state.].
The countries of Monsoon Asia are often grouped into three sub-regions. These smaller regions
are South Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia.
Section 2 — Physical Features
Mountains are the most commanding feature of Monsoon Asia’s landscape[landscape: a large
area with a particular kind of scenery, such as a desert landscape]. The rugged Himalayas
form India’s northern border. They include Mount Everest, the world’s highest mountain. Like
other mountain ranges, the Himalayas were formed when sections of Earth’s crust[crust: the
hard outer layer of Earth], called plates, collided. The two plates that came together to create
the Himalayas are still colliding. As a result, the mountains are getting higher. But mountain
building is a slow process. Mount Everest grows about half an inch a year.
South Asia
India makes up most of South Asia. Many people call India a subcontinent. Mountains and ocean
separate India from the rest of Asia, so it is almost like a small continent.
Three important rivers begin in the Himalayas. They are the Indus, the Ganges, and the
Brahmaputra. The Ganges and Brahmaputra meet to form one of the world’s largest river
deltas[deltas: the triangle-shaped deposit of sand and sediment that occurs where a river
flows into an ocean]. Then, they empty into the Bay of Bengal.
The Ghats are another mountain range in India. The Eastern and Western Ghats run parallel to
India’s coasts. Between them lies the Deccan Plateau. The Deccan Plateau covers most of
southern India’s interior.
East Asia
East Asia’s landscape is diverse. Mountains surround the Plateau of Tibet. The Huang He begins
on this plateau[plateau: a raised area of land, such as a hill or mountain, with a flat top]. So
does the Chang Jiang (Yangtze), the third longest river in the world. Both rivers run east across
China before emptying into the Pacific.
North of the Tibetan Plateau lie the Taklamakan and Gobi deserts[desert: a geographic region
with too little rainfall to support much plant life; also a vegetation zone]. The Gobi is one of
the world’s largest deserts. According to legend, an angry Mongolian chief created it. He turned
the land to desert when Chinese warriors forced him to leave this area.
The hilly Korean Peninsula and the chain of islands that make up Japan are also part of East
Asia. Japan’s islands were formed by volcanoes[volcanoes: a break in Earth’s crust where
magma and other material erupts from Earth’s interior].
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia is not one big landmass[landmass: a very large, unbroken area of land].
Instead, it is made up of peninsulas and islands. For example, the Malay Peninsula juts out into
the South China Sea.
Thousands of islands dot the seas of Southeast Asia. Some, like Borneo, are fairly large. Others
are so small that they just look like specks on a map.
Section 1 — Introducing the Region: Physical
Geography
Oceania is a vast region[region: an area defined by one or more natural or cultural
characteristics that set it apart from other areas] in the South Pacific Ocean. It includes the
continent of Australia and the large islands of New Zealand and Papua New Guinea. There are
thousands of smaller islands as well. They are scattered across hundreds of square miles of
ocean. The Pacific Islands form three major groups called Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.
The continent of Antarctica lies to the south of Oceania. On some world maps, you see
Antarctica as a narrow strip of land along the bottom. In fact, Antarctica is the fifth largest
continent in the world. Near the center of this frozen landmass[landmass: a very large,
unbroken area of land] is the South Pole. The stormy waters of the Pacific and Indian oceans
isolate Antarctica from the other lands in this region.
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Section 2 — Physical Features
The landmasses in this region include both continents and islands. An island is a body of land
surrounded by water. But most continents are also surrounded by water. What is the difference
between an island and a continent? To a geographer, the main difference is size. Islands tend to
be small, and continents are large. Australia is the smallest continent. But it is still over three
times as large as Greenland, the largest island on Earth.
No one knows the exact number of islands in Oceania. Geographers estimate that between
20,000 and 30,000 islands dot this region. Some of them are large, such as the North and South
Islands of New Zealand. Other islands are tiny specks in the sea.
Oceania
Australia is the largest landmass in Oceania. Most of the country is low-lying and very flat. One
major mountain range, Great Dividing Range, runs along the eastern edge. The interior of
Australia, called the outback, is a series of low plateaus[plateau: a raised area of land, such as
a hill or mountain, with a flat top] and plains. The Western Plateau covers a great part of the
continent.
Three deserts[desert: a geographic region with too little rainfall to support much plant life;
also a vegetation zone] ring the Western Plateau. The Simpson Desert is famous for its red sand
dunes. Row upon row of dunes, as much as 200 miles long, ripple across the land. The Great
Victoria and Great Sandy deserts also have hills of red sand.
The rest of Oceania consists entirely of islands. The cluster north and east of Australia is called
Melanesia. This name means “black islands.” It refers to the dark skin of the people who first
settled there. The islands of Melanesia lie south of the equator.
North of Melanesia are the more than 2,000 islands of Micronesia. This name means “tiny
islands.” Most of the islands of Micronesia are low-lying coral islands. They are scattered on
both sides of the equator.
The third island area, Polynesia, is the largest of the three. This name means “many islands.”
Polynesia includes New Zealand, Tahiti, Samoa, and Hawaii, as well as islands too small to map.
The islands of Polynesia are separated by hundreds of miles of sea.
Antarctica
Most of Antarctica is covered by ice sheets. This ice ranges from one to three miles deep.
Beneath all this ice, Antarctica has mountains and valleys like other continents.
The Transantarctic Mountains wind across the continent. They divide it into East and West
Antarctica. The South Pole lies in East Antarctica. The Antarctic Peninsula juts out from West
Antarctica like a tail. To the east of this peninsula[peninsula: a long, narrow stretch of land
that is surrounded by water on three sides] is the Weddell Sea.