Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
History of cartography wikipedia , lookup
Counter-mapping wikipedia , lookup
Mercator 1569 world map wikipedia , lookup
Environmental determinism wikipedia , lookup
Cartography wikipedia , lookup
Early world maps wikipedia , lookup
Map database management wikipedia , lookup
Map projection wikipedia , lookup
Cartographic propaganda wikipedia , lookup
Children's geographies wikipedia , lookup
UNIT A Nation of Nations 1 40,000 B . C .– A . D . 1800 HISTORY YOU & The Americas had long been the home to a rich variety of Native American cultures. Hundreds of years ago, however, other peoples—– Europeans and enslaved Africans—–set foot in what was to them a new world. Together they created the United States of America—–a nation founded on the promise of liberty and equality for all the diverse people who have contributed to its success. Historic America Electronic Field Trips Independence Hall, also known as the Old State House in Philadelphia, was the birthplace of the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution—–the two documents that enshrine the rights and freedoms enjoyed by all Americans. To learn more about the unique role of Independence Hall in United States history, view video Chapter 7: Independence Hall in Historic America Electronic Field Trips. See pages 964–965 for primary source readings that accompany Unit 1. NORTH AMERICA c. 40,000 B.C. First migrants arrive in North America. c. 3400 B.C. Corn and beans cultivated in the Americas. 40,000 B.C. c. 35,000 B.C. Cro-Magnons invent bow and arrow. THE WORLD x c. 1500 B.C. People learn metalworking techniques. 1 B.C. c. 8000 B.C. Agriculture begins. c. 3500 B.C. Sumerians build first cities. c. 551 B.C. Confucius is born. c. 566 B.C. Siddharta Gautama (the Buddha) is born. L A U R I E P L AT T W I N F R E Y I N C . Native American art, such as this intricate Inca knife handle, shows the complexity of the cultures that first inhabited the Americas. A.D. 1607 Jamestown settlement founded. A.D. 1085 Anasazi build pueblos in North America. A.D. 1300 Cahokia is largest North American community. A.D. 1000 c. A.D. 33 Jesus dies in Jerusalem. A.D. 570 Muhammad is born. A.D. 1570 Iroquois form League of Five Nations. A.D. 1789 George Washington becomes first U.S. President. A.D. 1775 American Revolution begins. A.D. 1400 A.D. 1215 Magna Carta is signed. A.D. 1492 Columbus lands in the Americas. A.D. 1800 A.D. 1522 Magellan’s crew completes first world voyage. A.D. 1789 French Revolution begins. 1 LITERATURE Castaways B Y A L V A R N Ú Ñ E Z C A B E Z A D E V A C A Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca landed in present-day Florida in 1528, part of an expedition that was to explore and claim territory for Spain. After losing contact with their ships, the Spaniards found themselves stranded in a harsh land with no supplies, among often hostile local peoples. Cabeza de Vaca and 3 others reached Spanish territory (in present-day Mexico) after an 8-year odyssey; the 4 were the only survivors from a group of 300. This excerpt from Cabeza de Vaca’s account of the expedition concerns an attack on the Spaniards as they were crossing one of many lakes in Florida. SUPERSTOCK/NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY a poplar tree that had penIn view of this [the etrated into it two handIndians’ aggression] the breadths. All the Indians governor ordered the that we saw, from Florida horsemen to dismount and to here, use arrows; and attack them on foot. The they are so tall . . . they auditor dismounted with look like giants when seen them, and they attacked from a distance. They are the Indians and they all wonderfully handsome fought together in the lake, folk, very lean and exand so we forced our way tremely strong and agile. through. In this affray The bows they use are as some of our men were Exploration European explorers approach the coast of thick as a man’s arm and wounded, and the good Florida. Native Americans are gathered along the shore. eleven or twelve handweapons they carried were breadths long, which they shoot at a distance of two of no use; and there were men that day who swore hundred paces, so surely that they never miss anythey had seen two oak trees, each as thick as the lowthing. After we had made this crossing, a league farer part of a man’s leg, shot clear through by the Indither on we came to another that was very like it, ans’ arrows. And this is not so much to be wondered except for the fact that, as it was half a league wide, at considering the strength and skill with which they it was much worse; this one we crossed without hinshoot them, for I myself saw an arrow at the foot of 2 LITERATURE LITERATURE and find the sea, for the Indians said it was very close drance and without attacks by Indians, for as they had by: during this journey we thought we had discovered used up all their supplies of arrows in the first enit because of a very large river that we found, which counter, they had nothing left with which they dared we named the Magdalena. In view of this, on the next to confront us. On the following day, as we made anday I set off to find it, along with the commissary and other similar crossing, I found traces of people who Captain Castillo and Andrés Dorantes and seven othhad gone ahead of us and warned the governor of it, er mounted men and fifty on foot, and we marched for he was in the rear guard; and so, although the Inuntil the hour of vespers, when we reached an inlet dians attacked us, they were unable to harm us beor arm of the sea where we found many oysters, which cause we were forewarned, and when we emerged on the men enjoyed greatly, and we gave great thanks to level ground they continued to follow us. We attacked God for having brought us there. them on two sides and killed two Indians, and they Next morning I sent twenty men to explore the wounded me and two or three other Spaniards, and coast and find out because they took what it was like; they shelter in the woods returned on the folwe were unable to WE ATTAC KE D lowing night saying do them any more that those inlets and TH E M ON TWO SI DES AN D harm or damage. We bays were very large marched like this for KI LLE D TWO I N DIANS , and entered so deeply eight days, and after AN D TH EY WOU N DE D M E AN D into the land that they the crossing I have demade it extremely difscribed no more IndiTWO OR TH R E E OTH E R ficult to find out what ans attacked us until a . . . SPAN IAR D S we wished to know, league farther on, and that the coast was which is the place very far away. Once that, as I have said, we we had learned this, and considering the fact that we were going. were ill prepared and ill equipped to explore the coast, As we were going our way, Indians came out of I returned to the governor. When we arrived we found the woods without our hearing them and attacked the him and many others sick, and the previous night the rear guard, and among them was a hidalgo [a man of Indians had come upon them and placed them in the lower nobility in Spain] named Avellaneda who great peril owing to the illness they had suffered; also, turned around on hearing the cries of a lad who was one of the horses had died. I reported to him what I a servant of his and went to his aid, and the Indians had done, and the unfavorable lie of the land. That day hit him with an arrow at the edge of his cuirass we stayed there. [breastplate], and the wound was so severe that almost all the arrow went into his neck and he died on the spot, and we carried him to Aute [community near R e s p o n d i n g t o L i t e r at u r e present-day Tallahassee, Florida]. We arrived after nine days of journeying from Apalachee [village near 1. What difficulties did Cabeza de Vaca enpresent-day Tallahassee], and when we reached there counter while trying to explore Florida? we found all the people fled, and the houses burned, 2. Do you find Cabeza de Vaca to be a careand a great quantity of maize and pumpkins and ful observer? Support your answer with beans, all ready to be harvested. We rested there for examples from the selection. two days, and after that the governor asked me to go LITERATURE 3 CHAPTER 1 A Geographic Perspective on History L AT E 1 4 0 0 s : E A G E R E X P L O R E R S P O R E O V E R T R AV E L J O U R N A L S A N D M A P S “Just as we roof our houses or churches with lead, so this palace is roofed with fine gold. And the value of it is almost beyond computation.” HISTORY JOURNAL R E write O a description of the As you read this chapter, ways that the geography of your locale has affected the events that have occurred there in the past and in the present. 4 During the 1200s, people copied books by hand, so books were scarce. About 1440, however, Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press. Soon printing presses were common, and Europeans were exchanging ideas at an unprecedented rate. Polo’s journal was now available to explorers. In 1492, the Genoese Christopher Columbus set sail to find the riches of Japan and China, he took along Polo’s book as a guide. NAL S E UR N O Thus did Marco Polo describe Japan, a country he had never visited. Polo, a trader from Venice, lived in China for about 20 years in the late 1200s. While there, he heard stories about a mysterious country now called Japan. After returning home, Polo was commanding a Venetian ship in a war against Genoa when he was captured and held prisoner. During his imprisonment, he recorded the story of his travels. HISTORY Chapter Overview Visit the American Odyssey Web site at americanodyssey.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 1—Chapter Overview to preview the chapter. F R O M “ L I V R E D E S M E R V E I L L E S ” ( D E TA I L ) M A R C O P O L O W I T H E L E P H A N T S A N D C A M E L S A R R I V I N G AT H O R M U Z / B I B L I O T H E Q U E N AT I O N A L E , P A R I S / T H E B R I D G E M A N A R T L I B R A R Y By sharing his discoveries about the geography of Asia, Marco Polo influenced the history of the world. 5 SECTION 1 The Five Themes of Geography 1 5 4 2 : E X P L O R E R P U B L I S H E S S E N S AT I O N A L T R AV E L J O U R N A L © SUPERSTOCK It was a gripping story tions of native peoples, the of survival that Alvar environment, the kinds of Núñez Cabeza de Vaca food people ate, and the lohad to tell. This Spanish cation of places and the disnoble had been a member of tances between them. an expedition sent to claim In describing these disnew lands in America for the coveries to the king, Cabeza Spanish king. The explorers de Vaca was writing about experienced terrible misforgeography, the study of tunes, including shipwreck people, places, and environand disease. In presenting his ments. Geography looks at A Land of Great Variety journal to King Charles V, space on the earth and how Newcomers to the Americas saw animals Cabeza de Vaca admitted specific spaces are alike or and plants that they had never seen before. that the expedition had different. It is a rich subject failed to achieve its goals. He filled with intriguing, even was convinced, however, that his journal was a worthastonishing information. To help organize such a huge while offering to the king. body of information, today’s geographers cluster their The value of his report, Cabeza de Vaca wrote, was subject matter around five themes: location, place, its information about the new lands, including descripmovement, human/environment interaction, and region. Guide to Reading 6 Main Idea Vocabulary Read to Find Out . . . Geographers use five themes to study and describe spaces on the earth. CHAPTER 1 geography location place movement human/environment interaction region what geography is and what it reveals about people, places, and environments. how the five themes of geography help organize geographical information. A GEOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVE ON HISTORY B R I T I S H L I B R A R Y, L O N D O N / B R I D G E M A N A R T L I B R A R Y, L O N D O N A World Map From 1570 This map shows many misunderstandings about the size and shape of North America, South America, Australia, and Antarctica. Which parts of this map look like maps of today? The theme of location focuses on a specific place and considers the question of its position on the earth’s surface. People may talk about the location of a place just out of curiosity, or they may actually want to visit it. Meridian. For a long time, individual mapmakers chose where to locate the Prime Meridian——usually putting it where they lived. Finally, in 1884, the United States held the First International Meridian Conference where delegates decided to locate the Prime Meridian at an observatory in Greenwich, England. The other meridians are measured east or west of the Prime Meridian up to 180°. This grid system enables people to give the exact, or absolute, location for any place on the earth. Absolute Location Relative Location In 25 B.C. a young man named Strabo visited Alexandria, then the Roman capital of Egypt. In a library built by Egyptian royalty, Strabo pored over an enormous collection of scholarly writings on geography and mapmaking. He later published his conclusions in an 18-volume book on geography. Two of Strabo’s central conclusions were that the earth had the shape of a sphere and that the best map of the earth would employ a grid of intersecting lines, a plan that is still in use today. One set of grid lines consists of the lines of latitude, which circle the earth parallel to each other and to the Equator, an imaginary line around the center of the earth. The Equator is measured at 0°, and the poles are measured at 90° N (north) or S (south). The other set of lines comprises longitude lines, which run from pole to pole and measure distance east or west of a starting line called the Prime People usually think of a place’s location in relation to other known places, a concept called relative location. Even before there was a written language, people indicated relative location by drawing simple maps in sand or by saying, for example, that Europe is north of Africa. People still use directions based on relative location to get to their destinations. Location Finding Places Anywhere on Earth HISTORY Student Web Activity 1 Visit the American Odyssey Web site at americanodyssey.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 1—Student Web Activities for an activity relating to location. SECTION ONE 7 In 1596 explorer William Barents and his crew experienced the extremes of a place in the Arctic when their ship was frozen in the ice at 76° N latitude. Gerrit de Veer, one of the crew, recorded their experiences in a detailed account accompanied by illustrations. Place Describing a Location Every place, or specific location, on the earth has a set of characteristics that distinguish it from other places. When geographers focus on place, they look at the physical features of a location as well as its human features. A place’s physical features include the nature of the land and water as well as the weather, soil, plants, and animals. The human features include the number and kinds of people who live in a place, the activities that occur there, and the cultures, languages, and religions represented. The combination of all these different characteristics gives each place its own distinctive flavor. Movement Monitoring a Continuing Flow From the beginning of human history, people have moved from one location to another, sometimes migrating great distances. They may have moved out of necessity, because of catastrophic natural events such as droughts or because of conflicts with other people. They may also have moved out of curiosity or from a desire to seek a better life. Such movements may be temporary, such as the travels of explorers or traders, or permanent, when people move to a new location and settle there. Geographers are also interested in the transfer of goods from place to place and the spread of information and ideas. All these activities are examples of the theme of movement. B I B L I O T H E Q U E N AT I O N A L E D E C A R T E S E T P L A N S , P A R I S / B R I D G E M A N A R T L I B R A R Y, L O N D O N R E P R O D U C E D B Y C O U R T E S Y O F T H E T R U S T E E S , T H E N AT I O N A L G A L L E R Y, L O N D O N Moving Into the Unknown Determining location at sea or in a new land presented explorers with a challenge. They used an astrolabe like the one shown (upper left) to determine latitude. Which geography themes does this painting illustrate? 8 CHAPTER 1 A GEOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVE ON HISTORY A Story of a Close Relationship B R I T I S H L I B R A R Y, L O N D O N / B R I D G E M A N A R T L I B R A R Y, L O N D O N Human/ Environment Interaction B R I T I S H L I B R A R Y, L O N D O N / B R I D G E M A N A R T L I B R A R Y, LONDON The theme of human/ environment interaction explores the interdependence of people and their surroundings. People depend on the environment for fresh water, food, and shelter, their three most basic needs. For much of human history, people have settled near rivers, lakes, or other sources of fresh water. The simplest and earliest way that people obtained food was as hunter-gatherers. They Picturing New Discoveries Explorers returned to their Euhunted, fished, or collected vegropean homelands with tales of new regions such etables and fruits found where as the Arctic (above). Books illustrated new kinds of plants they lived. Of all the ways that (right). What does the image above tell you about the explorer’s life in the Arctic? people have lived, the huntergatherer way of life produces the fewest environmental changes. About 10,000 B.C., some hunter-gatherer societies beSection Assessment gan to experiment with the domestication of plants and animals, leading to the development of agriculture. AgriMain Idea culture revolutionized the way people interacted with 1. Use a diagram like this one to summarize how their surroundings. It also changed the environment far the five themes help geographers to study more extensively than had their former way of life, a patspaces on the earth. tern that continues today. Five Themes Region A Versatile Organizing Concept The theme of region is the most flexible of the five themes. A region is an area that is defined according to one or more characteristics. Those characteristics may be physical features, or they may be based on other types of human concepts such as political divisions, kinds of languages, or types of industry. Geographers often need to consider the physical features of an area, even when they are focusing on another type of region concept. The physical features of a region, such as the type of land, the bodies of water, the climate, and the vegetation, often influence whether or not the region will be heavily populated and what types of industries will flourish there. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Vocabulary 2. Define: geography, location, place, movement, human/environment interaction, region. Checking Facts 3. What is the difference between absolute and relative location? 4. What is the simplest method people have used to obtain food? Critical Thinking 5. Evaluating Information Do you agree that region is the most flexible of the five geographic themes? Why or why not? SECTION ONE 9 Social Studies Skill READING A MAP T H E R E G I O N S O F T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S, 2 0 0 0 CANADA N Washington North Dakota Montana M i New York ch Idaho Wyoming Nevada Utah Colorado California New Mexico Arizona Wisconsin an South Dakota ig Oregon PACIFIC OCEAN Vermont Minnesota Mississippi Rhode Island Texas 160°W 22°N 60°N 170°W 160°W 155°W 150 mi. 0 150 km 140°W 20°N Hawaii 0 100 mi. 18°N 0 100 km MEXICO Midwest West Regional boundary Gulf of Mexico 0 0 30°N Northeast South Florida 65°N CANADA REGIONS Louisiana 110°W 55°N ATLANTIC OCEAN Georgia Alabama 70°N 40°N New Hampshire Massachusetts Connecticut Pennsylvania New Jersey Iowa Delaware Nebraska Indiana Ohio West Maryland Illinois Virginia Virginia Missouri Kansas Kentucky North Carolina Tennessee South Oklahoma Carolina Arkansas 120°W Alaska Maine 500 mi. 250 State boundary 0 250 500 km Albers Equal-Area projection 100°W 20°N 80°W 90°W 70°W The four regions shown here are based partly on geographical location and partly on history and other factors such as climate. In which region do you live? Which regions border your region? Learning the Skill Maps are visual tools that show to scale the relative size, location, or even environmental aspects of specific geographic areas. Maps contain symbols and other elements that enable you to interpret them accurately. Reading a Map To read a map, follow these steps: Practicing the Skill Study the map above and answer the following questions. 1. Which region has no coastline? 2. Which region has the greatest number of states? Which has the fewest? a. Examine the title to determine the map’s content. 3. Which state is closest to the Equator? b. Examine the map’s scale, which indicates the ratio between the map’s size and the actual area being represented. A scale also shows the ratio between distance on the map and real distance on the earth. 4. Which state has a place with a location of 120° W and 45° N? c. Look for a compass rose or directional arrow to find the map’s directions. d. Examine the lines of latitude and longitude to find the absolute location of specific places. Express the latitude and longitude in degrees and direction. For example, the tip of Florida is about 80° W and 25° N. e. Read the legend, or key, to interpret any boundary lines, shapes, or other symbols. 10 SOCIAL STUDIES SKILL 5. Approximately how long is the western border of the state of Idaho? Applying the Skill Use the map on page 15 to write two statements about your geographic area. The Glencoe Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook, Level 2 CD-ROM provides more practice in key social studies skills. SECTION 2 The Themes as Guides to History E A R LY 1 5 0 0 s : T R A N S F E R O F M A P A C R I M I N A L A C T ( D E TA I L ) C H AT E A U D E V E R S A I L L E S / L A U R O S - G I R A U D O N / B R I D G E M A N A R T L I B R A R Y, L O N D O N “It is impossible to get a Spices were valuable bechart of the voyage because Europeans lacked the cause the king has decreed fodder to keep domesticated the death penalty for anyflocks alive through the winone sending one abroad.” ter. Each fall people butchered The king was Manuel I of many of their animals and Portugal, and the chart was a then salted the meat to keep map of Vasco da Gama’s travel it from spoiling. If the meat route from Lisbon around spoiled, people masked the Africa to India. The person taste of decay with spices. Sailors Gossip making the complaint was a Before da Gama’s voyage, In the busy ports of Europe, sailors often spread news visitor to Portugal frantically the merchants of Venice had of new discoveries that rulers tried to keep secret. trying to discover exactly how monopolized trade in the da Gama had accomplished his spices that came westward by historic voyage. the traditional route from Today, when many kinds of maps are freely availAsia. Now the Venetians saw their wealth disappearing, able, people may find it hard to imagine that maps were and they were desperate to counter Portugal’s threat. once kept strictly secret. In the past, possession of a This series of events was only one of countless occasions map could mean great power, in this case, control of the when knowledge about geography has had a major lucrative spice trade. impact on historical events. Guide to Reading Main Idea Vocabulary Read to Find Out . . . A knowledge of geographic concepts such as the five themes can illuminate the study of past events that have shaped the development of the United States. history climate vegetation how an understanding of geography helps people understand history. the ways in which the five themes of geography relate to United States history. SECTION TWO 11 NORTH AMERICA EUROPE ASIA P H Y S I C A L M A P O F T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S AFRICA KA AS GE AL A N R SOUTH AMERICA AUSTRALIA r Yukon Rive 60°N ANTARCTICA 50°W HUDSON BAY N CANADA Co l u r ve Ri St .L aw r en ce o lif 0 S AU N AI PL AT E NT Y EN OU M IN PL A TA L NT IC CO AS B ATLANTIC OCEAN 30°N A LAI N TAL P OAS FC L GU 70°W or a AS M ni BA HA Gulf of Mexico MEXICO 120°W Continental Divide 70°N 160°E 170°E 180° RUSSIA N ARCTIC OCEAN CUBA State boundary HAITI JAMAICA kon Riv er Yu leu ti a n Is 0 200 400 mi. 0 200 400 km Albers Equal-Area projection 110°W CARIBBEAN SEA 22°N Oahu Gulf of Alaska l ands Hawaii Kauai AL AS A 55°N CANADA RANGE KA 60°N 20°N O KS R A NGE Alaska Bering Sea er Canc c of Tropi National Boundary 170°W 160°W 150°W 140°W 130°W 120°W BRO 65°N 40°N MT N DG E r ive RI oR CATSKILL MTS. S. L. Michigan v er M is de an Gr av Br Rio EDWARDS PLATEAU Ca 0 s Ri o 200 656 OZARK PLATEAU n sa Ri of 1,640 ka s i ssippi R iv e r SC CA LLANO ESTASCADO f Gul 6,560 ie Er CU M BE A PLAT RLA P Chattahoochee P A E AU N D R. L A AL C L TL LU H I A EGH A E O hi Ar Meters 4,000 2,000 500 L. CENTRAL PLAI NS MOJAVE DESERT Feet 13,120 L. Ontario R. r WHITE MTS. son i ur ve SAND HILLS H ud so Ri ADIRONDACK MTS. n uro .H M is or r ve Ri L BADLANDS NS EY ADA NEV GE S LL L VA l Co o ad L. Superior PLAI N S S I ER R A RA N A CENTR C OA S T GREAT BASIN AT r GRE Riv e UNTAI Y MO a AU Sn TE PLA BIA ke ROCK COLUM AD ER A NG PACIFIC OCEAN m E b ia R iv e r 50°N 60°W 100°W Molokai PACIFIC Maui Lanai OCEAN 0 100 200 mi. 0 100 200 km Mercator projection 160°W 90°W 0 250 500 mi. 0 250 500 km Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection 20°N Hawaii SOUTH AMERICA 155°W 80°W The altitude key shows that the United States has land at most of the different altitude levels on the earth. What are some of the ways that the presence of these different landforms might influence people and events? 12 CHAPTER 1 A GEOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVE ON HISTORY © G. BRAD LEWIS/TONY STONE IMAGES © DAVID MUENCH © JON ORTNER/TONY STONE IMAGES A Country Characterized by Diversity These four locations—Oregon, Hawaii, New York, and Alaska (moving from left to right)—look very different from each other. What are some of those differences? © GEORGE SCHWARTZ/FPG I N T E R N AT I O N A L C O R P. History is the study of people and events over time. Geography looks at people and events not over time but in space. Focusing on geographic concepts such as the five themes can illuminate the study of the past as well as make it easier to understand the present and the future. The Location of the United States Forty-eight Plus Two The United States is located in the Northern Hemisphere west of the Prime Meridian. The United States currently includes 48 states that are contiguous, that is, that share borders, and 2 other states. The state of Alaska shares a border with Canada. The state of Hawaii is a group of islands located in the central Pacific Ocean. A consideration of such a location can raise many questions about the history of the United States. How and when did the 48 states come together as a single political body? How and when did Alaska and Hawaii join the contiguous states? How has the location of the United States affected its relations with other nations in different parts of the world? The location of the United States has influenced many events in its history, including events that are occurring today. Places in the United States Richness and Variety When a person pictures the physical characteristics of all the places in the United States, an extraordinary variety of environments becomes apparent. When the influences of all the different cultural heritages are added, the picture becomes even more amazingly diverse. The concept of “place” can illuminate the study of history by showing how different people at different times came to this land and chose where to live. The earliest Americans settled in many diverse environments and developed ways of life that harmonized with those diverse places. Later settlers from Europe looked for harbors or farmland or opportunities for fur trapping. At each new stage of United States history, people have come seeking a place where they could live and prosper. Regions of the United States Natural Versus Human Divisions The map on page 10 shows various political regions——areas defined by governments acting individually or jointly. The regions that nature has created are equally interesting and important. Landforms When someone looks at a physical map of the United States, like the one on page 12, the region that seems most prominent may be that of the mountain ranges that SECTION TWO 13 run down the west side of the continent. These westernmost mountains make up the Coast Ranges, with the Rocky Mountains slightly to the east. These impressive mountains arose millions of years ago when tectonic plates (the huge pieces of the earth’s outer crust) collided. To the east of the western mountains lies a series of Plains areas. The Plains are generally flat and lack significant changes in landforms, though the elevation drops gradually from west to east. Between the Plains and the Atlantic Ocean lie the Appalachian Mountains, less impressive in height than their counterparts to the west. East and south of these mountains are the coastal lowlands. For someone studying history, these landforms can suggest many questions. Where could people settle most easily? Which landforms are the easiest for people to traverse? When the early European settlers tried to migrate, for example, the Appalachian Mountains prevented easy access to western territories. For those hardy people who faced the challenge, moving uphill and through forests often meant carrying possessions on their backs and sometimes canoes as well. Most migrants chose to move along the coastal plain and up low-lying rivers instead, where the geography made movement easier. Water Systems 14 CHAPTER 1 The term climate refers to the set of meteorological conditions, including sunlight, temperature, precipitation, and wind, that characterize an area. An area having the same meteorological conditions is called a climate region. The United States has a wide variety of climate regions from the subarctic areas of Alaska to the tropical regions of Hawaii. The climate of a region is like a meteorological boundary that sets limits for all aspects of life, including the extent to which humans can survive. In particular, climate determines the kinds of plants that can grow in an area and the kinds of animals that can thrive there. Vegetation Regions The term vegetation refers to the collection of plants that grow in an area. When people travel from one area to another that is very different, it is usually the vegetation that first draws their notice. Given the variety of climate areas and landforms that characterize the United States, it is not surprising that the vegetation regions of the country are equally diverse. There are several kinds of forests, each with its own distinct family of trees. There are desert areas and flat grassland regions. Each type of vegetation supports a specific type of human lifestyle and activities. © TOM DIETRICH/TONY STONE IMAGES Throughout history, people have settled near a supply of fresh water. In North America fresh water in lakes and river systems is abundant. Several lakes are so large that they are easily visible on the map on page 12. Many lakes were formed as a result of the Ice Age that took place from about 2 million years ago to about 10,000 B.C., when sheets of ice moved down from the north as far as the valleys of the Missouri and Ohio Rivers. The ice blocked the water of some rivers and formed lakes, such as Great Bear Lake in northern Canada. The ice also dug out hollows as it moved over rocks, and water later filled these hollows creating, among other bodies of water, the Great Lakes, which lie between Canada and the United States. The United States also contains several major river systems, which consist of brooks and streams that flow into small rivers that, in turn, flow into larger ones. The Mississippi River system is the largest in the United States both in the size of its drainage area and in its volume of water. Throughout history, rivers have been important in the exploration, trade, and control of an area because rivers offer a natural route of transportation. For example, when settlers from the British colonies tried to migrate westward, they found their progress impeded by the French, who had built a network of settlements and forts that helped them control large parts of the Mississippi River system. Climate Regions Moving Through the Locks Locks are sections of a waterway that can be closed off with gates so that the water level can be raised or lowered. How can locks make it easier to travel on waterways that have variations in water level? A GEOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVE ON HISTORY FA C T O R S I N F L U E N C I N G V E G E TAT I O N Climatic factors—such as the amount and intensity of sunlight, annual temperature patterns, and the annual rate of precipitation—limit the kinds of plants that grow naturally in a region. The type of soil and the local landforms also affect a region’s vegetation. GRASSLAND © DAVID MUENCH Jan. 10°F to –12°C to 20°F –7°C July 80°F to 90°F Temperature Annual Precipitation 0 Alaska 0 0 200 mi. 0 200 km Less than Less than 20 in. 51 cm Grasses feed animals and people throughout the year. In the winter, cattle and other grazing animals eat dried or fermented grass products. People eat foods made from wheat, oats, corn, and rice. 200 mi. 200 km Hawaii 27°C to 32°C Agate Fossil Beds, Nebraska MEAN ANNUAL AIR TEMPERATURE °F °C Over 75 Over 24 70 to 75 21 to 24 65 to 70 18 to 21 60 to 65 16 to 18 55 to 60 13 to 16 50 to 55 10 to 13 45 to 50 7 to 10 40 to 45 4 to 7 35 to 40 2 to 4 30 to 35 –1 to 2 25 to 30 –4 to –1 20 to 25 –7 to –4 DESERT 0 Jan. 20°F to –7°C to 30°F –1°C July 74°F to 23°C to 82°F 28°C Annual Precipitation Monument Valley, Arizona 15 to 20 –9 to –7 500 mi. 10 to 15 –12 to –9 0 250 500 km Albers Equal-Area projection 5 to 10 Adaptations enable desert plants to survive in a dry climate. Mesquite tree roots can grow to depths of about 260 feet (79 m). Many cacti expand to store rainwater and then shrink as they use water during dry periods. The temperature and rainfall statistics given here are averages for these three specific locations. Other grassland, desert, and forest locations may have different climate patterns. –15 to –12 FOREST 8 in. to 20 cm to 12 in. 30 cm © MICHAEL GADOMSKI/PHOTO RESEARCHERS © ROB BOUDREAU/TONY STONE IMAGES Temperature 250 Jan. 24°F to 28°F –4°C to –2°C July 72°F to 74°F 22°C to 23°C Temperature Annual Precipitation Delaware Water Gap, Pennsylvania 44 in. to 112 cm to 48 in. 122 cm Every autumn the flat green leaves of this forest change color. The cooler, shorter days cause the breakdown of the green pigment chlorophyll. Other pigments in the leaf now become visible as the yellow, orange, and red colors of fall foliage. Climate and vegetation are interrelated. How important is a region’s vegetation to the people who live there? SECTION TWO 15 © TONY STONE WORLDWIDE the end of that Ice Age, while the ocean floor between Alaska and Asia was exposed and could serve as a “land bridge,” the first humans migrated into North America from Asia. From that moment until the present, a series of migrations have populated the United States and the other countries of the Americas. A rich understanding of United States history can be developed, in part, by tracing the reasons for and the effects of those migrations. A consideration of the goods, information, and ideas that have flowed into and out of the United States over the centuries can further enhance one’s knowledge of history. Human/Environment Interaction An Inevitable Interdependence Facilitating Movement Modern highways include many features to improve safety, such as controlled traffic patterns at intersections. How might a well-planned network of highways influence people’s lives? Groups of people have always interacted with their surroundings in ways that affected the people as well as the environment. These interactions have produced human culture——the combination of institutions, ideas, and products that people have created and passed on from generation to generation. The time line below describes some of the milestones in the development of human culture. Movement People Come to the Two Continents The Early Centuries Fifty thousand years ago, North and South America were filled with a fascinating array of animals, but there were no people there at all. Anthropologists infer that the first human ancestors appeared in Africa a few million years ago. Their descendants migrated into Europe and Asia slightly less than 1 million years ago. That migration took place during the most recent Ice Age, which ended about 10,000 years ago. Much of the earth’s water was locked up in glaciers, and the ocean level was lower than it is today. Sometime toward The earliest Americans adapted to the variety of environments they discovered on the new continents. Some of their ways of life, for example, hunting and gathering, had a minimal impact on the surroundings. The single human activity that most changed early environments was the clearing of forests for farming and for fuel. Cutting down forests begins a series of changes that includes the loss of topsoil, the silting of rivers, and an overall increase in an area’s temperature. 3 3 , 0 0 0 B . C . Already established are the use of wood, bone, and stone tools, the control of fire, and the practice of burying the dead. B 18,000 B.C. People use needles to sew. . C .–3,000 10,000 B.C. People make pottery and use pots to boil water. 3 3 , 0 0 0 B . C . People are already creating artwork, including cave paintings and carvings. CHAPTER 1 1 8 , 0 0 0 B . C . People use bows and arrows to hunt game. 15,000 ➤ ➤ ➤ 20,000 . C . 3 , 0 0 0 B . C . People use writing, establish cities, make wheels, and build canals for irrigation. 15,000 B.C. People burn animal fats and oil to produce light. A GEOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVE ON HISTORY ➤ 25,000 B ➤ ➤ ➤ 30,000 16 33,000 10,000 5,000 ➤ H U M A N C U LT U R E D E V E L O P S, 8 , 0 0 0 B . C . People are domesticating plants and animals. © WORLD PERSPECTIVES People’s Night Lights This computerized composite image shows the light sensed by a satellite during the night. In which two areas is the light the most concentrated? As the centuries have passed, the magnitude of the environmental changes caused by human activity has increased in a drastic way. Monitoring Today’s Conditions In the late decades of this century, people have developed an amazing range of tools for looking at the environment. These tools can show the impact of natural events, such as volcanic eruptions, as well as human activities, such as burning fuel. The knowledge obtained from these tools will enable citizens and governments to make intelligent choices about the way people relate to their surroundings. People can now use a modern understanding of the theme of human/environment interaction along with the other geography themes to illuminate the study of past events. The value of integrating the study of history and geography has been recognized for centuries. As one early historian noted: s Geography without History seems as carcass without motion, so History without Geography wanders as vagrant without a certain habitation. —John Smith, The General History of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles, 1624 A Section Assessment Main Idea 1. Use a diagram like this one to show, using the five themes, how geography has influenced the development of the United States. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Development of United States Vocabulary 2. Define: history, climate, vegetation. Checking Facts 3. Give an example of a history question related to the location of the United States. 4. Why did the Mississippi River deter the westward migration of British colonists? Critical Thinking 5. Making Inferences What historical changes might irrigation—the supplying of water to an area by ditches or pipes—bring to a dry region? SECTION TWO 17 Chapter 1 Assessment HISTORY 3. Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment Use a diagram like this 7. What three basic human needs does the environment satisfy? Self-Check Quiz Visit the American Odyssey Web site at americanodyssey.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 1—SelfCheck Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test. one to identify the distinctive features of the place where you live. 8. What revolutionary event took place about 10,000 B.C.? 9. What three examples of region are based on human concepts? Feature Place 10. What four examples of region are based on physical features? Feature Portfolio Project 12. What is history? The geographer Harm de Blij has written, “If a picture is worth a thousand words, then a map is worth a million.” R O JEC Respond in writing to this statement, either agreeing or disagreeing with Harm de Blij. Explain the reasons for your opinion. Revise your work before placing it in your portfolio. 14. How are the 50 states of the United States distributed? RTFOL T IO 13. Where is the United States located relative to the Prime Meridian? P Choose the vocabulary term that best matches each description below. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper. human/environment interaction geography location movement place region Feature 11. Why did King Manuel I of Portugal want to keep a particular map a secret? PO Reviewing Key Terms Feature 1. Theme that focuses on the distinctive characteristics of a specific location 15. What are political regions? 2. An area that is defined according to one or more characteristics 17. What is climate? Cooperative Learning 18. What does the term vegetation mean? In small groups, examine maps and use brainstorming to list the ways that all types of spatial boundaries can be established—from national borders to the property lines of private land. Then each member of the group should investigate one boundary that has changed at least once during its history. Find out what the boundary used to look like, what it looks like now, and why it changed. Report your findings to your group, and then choose one of the group’s stories to share with the whole class. 3. Theme that explores the interdependence of people and their surroundings 4. The study of people, places, and environments 16. What are some of the landforms in the United States? 19. How were the first people able to migrate from Asia to North America? 5. Theme that focuses on the relocation of people as well as the transfer of goods and information 20. What single human activity most changed the environment during the early centuries of life in North America? Recalling Facts Critical Thinking 1. Why do geographers often refer to the five themes of geography? 1. Determining Relevance How 2. What does the theme of location emphasize? 3. How is absolute location described? 4. What is relative location? 5. What types of features describe a specific place? does a knowledge of geography make it easier to understand history? Give examples to support your answer. Reinforcing Skills 2. Analyzing Information Recall a on page 19. Write a set of directions that would help someone read the map accurately. region of the United States you have visited or read about. Describe the region using one of the five themes of geography. 6. What are some reasons why people migrate? 18 CHAPTER 1 A GEOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVE ON HISTORY Reading a Map Examine the map GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY Ken Exploration by Early Settlers ne b ec R iv er 44°N G N E N E W Connecticut River ll s lmo n ve Sa Ri iver ck R ma r ri Me Fa r N 42°N Boston (1630) Hudson Rive r Fort Orange (1623) Plymouth (1620) Fort Nassau (1614) A B C D region human/environment interaction movement place Providence (1636) Hartford (1637) NEW NETHERLANDS Newport (1639) ATLANTIC OCEAN New Amsterdam (1623) Standardized Test Practice 1. Which of the following geographic themes would best help a historian to evaluate the significance of the invention of agriculture? L A N D 40°N Breukelen (1646) Test-Taking Tip: The word agriculture means cultivating the land, growing crops, and raising animals. Eliminate any themes that do not directly focus on these activities. English territory, 1630 Dutch territory, 1630 2. All of the following are examples of the theme of movement EXCEPT Settlement (date) John Oldham, 1633 0 50 100 mi. Darby Field, 1642 0 50 100 km Albers Equal-Area projection 76°W 74°W Simon Willard, 1640s 72°W 70°W Study the map to answer the following questions: 1. Where were the Dutch settlements located? 2. How does the size of New Netherlands compare to the size of New England? 3. Describe John Oldham’s explorations of 1633. 4. How does this map prove that rivers can affect history? Technology Activity 38°N A publication of the journals of Marco Polo. B the European spice trade. C clearing forests for fuel and farmland. D the travels of explorers. Test-Taking Tip: Be careful— overlooking the word EXCEPT in a question is a common error. Read through all the answer choices and select the one that does NOT relate to the movement of people or the spread of ideas or goods. 30 25 20 15 10 Using the Internet Search the Internet for a Web site 5 0 that has a political map of the world that you can print. Using this map as a focal point, create a bulletin board showing global interdependence. Include pictures and illustrations as examples. CHAPTER 1 ASSESSMENT 19