Download Profiles of Silk Road Travelers

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Profile of Zhang Qian
ZhangQian is one of the great historical figures of the Silk Road, for he was
one of the first Chinese travelers to venture outside of China's borders. His
travels in Central Asia opened the path for the development of the Silk
Road trade routes. ZhangQian lived during the Han Dynasty, sometime in
the second century BCE. This was a time of great empires and powerful
rulers. The sixth emperor of the Han Dynasty, Emperor Wu, worked
constantly to keep China's northern borders strong and secure from
invasions. To prevent the Xiongnu people from invading from the north,
Emperor Wu decided that he would establish an alliance with the Yuezhi
people to fight the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu had earlier defeated the Yuezhi,
who fled to the west of China. Emperor Wu had heard that the Yuezhi were
continually trying to avenge the death of their king and were looking for an
ally to join them to fight the Xiongnu. The road to the Yuezhi, howevel, was
very dangerous because it passed through the Taklamakan Desert, which
was controlled by the Xiongnu. The emperor called for volunteers to make
this hazardous journey. ZhangQian, who was then a young officer in the
imperial household, responded.
In 138 BCE, Zhang Qian ventured with 100 men outside the borders of
China and headed towards the west where the Yuezhi lived. He crossed
vast deserts and high mountain passes where bandits hid waiting to attack
and rob unsuspecting travelers. On his way to the Yuezhi, he was captured
by the Xiongnu and brought before their chief. The chief said, "The lands of
the Yuezhi lie to the north of my territoryl, by what right do the Han send
thither an ambassador? If I wanted to send an ambassador to a country
situated to the south of Chin4 would the (Emperor of China) let me do 7t?"
ZhangQian was kept as a prisoner. The Xiongnu people gave him a wife,
andZhangQian had a son with her. After ten years, the Xiongnu were less
vigilant of ZhangQian and he was able to escape with his wife, his sor! and
a guide.
ZhangQian continued traveling westward and after "many periods of ten
days," he came to the valley of Ferghana (in modern-day Uzbekistan). The
people of Ferghana were excellent archers on horseback, and their horses
were far more powerful than the Chinese horses. Their ruler had heard of
the riches of the Chinese Empire and wanted to establish relations with the
Chinese emperor. ZhangQian told him, "My lord, instruct your guides to
conduct me to the Yuezhi; if, in spite of everything, I manage to return to
my own country, my king will send you gifts without number." The mler
thus provided him with safe conduc! interpreters, and guides, and Zhang
Qian set out to travel once more. He finally reached Bactria (modern-day
Afghanistan), which the Yuezhi had conquered. Bactria had fertile land and
was a peaceful region compared to the warring regions around China's
rth, but were driven out by the Xiongnu and had
moved all the way down to Bactria.
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borders. ZhangQian asked the Yuezhi leader to form an alliance against the
Xiongnu, but the Yuezhi did not wish to join the Chinese in war against the
Xiongnu, preferring instead to give up their quest for revenge and to live
peacefully in Bactria. ZhangQian lived with the Yuezhi for a year before
returning to China. During this time ZhangQian learned about many new
plants and animals. He later transported some of these plants back to
China.
Although ZhangQian tried to avoid the Xiongnu on his way home, they
took him prisoner again. But within a year the Xiongnu were engaged in a
civil war. During the chaos, ZhangQian escaped. Finally, after 13 years of
travel and adventure, he returned to China. Of the 100 companions he
originally set out with, only one returned with him. He brought back many
stories of new lands and of peoples of different cultures. He told the
emperor of the strong and powerful horses of the Ferghana region. These
"blood-sweating horses" were capable of carrying armored men into battle
and were stronger than any of the horses in China. ZhangQian told of
things that the Chinese had never heard of or seen before, such as the "big
bird with eggs the size of jars" (probably ostriches) found in the Arabian
Peninsula, and of "clever jugglers" found in Syria. ZhangQian also told the
emperor that in the lands towards Bactria and Ferghana he had seen silk
and bamboo that he knew had originated in China. This led him to believe
that there were traders who traveled an overland route through southwest
China to northern India.
Emperor Wu was fascinated and impressed with ZhangQian's stories of
different peoples and lands and with the plants, animals, and goods beyond
China's borders. He decided to send an army to try and gain control of the
Xiongnu territory. ZhangQian's knowledge of that terrain proved
invaluable in preparing Chinese soldiers to battle against their enemies.
After many long battles, the emperor's army finally defeated the Xiongnu
and gained control of the region all the way to Bactria, where the Yuezhi
lived. China was now able to control the trading routes in this regiory which
developed into a key section of the Silk Road. ZhangQian's journey thus
led to the beginning of the Silk Road trade.
The Chinese emperor later made ZhangQian ambassador of China. He
brought gifts to other tribes along China's borders and is thought to have
also brought alfalfa and grapes back to China. In the remaining years of his
life, ZhangQian became well known all over China and in the West. Peopie
called him the "Great Travele1," and he was Promoted to state minister for
foreign affairs.
envoy--official
46
ZhangQian's spirit of travel and adventure led to the discovery of many
lands and peoples outside of China's borders. His travels enabled China to
messenger exchange goods with other kingdoms. Envo)rs that succeeded him followed
his trails and also brought back samples of unknown plants and minerals.
From these contacts with other peoples, plants such as the cucumbel the
pomegranate, and the walnut came to China. Thanks toZhangQian's
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efforts to seek out the Yuezhi and to his continued contacts with the other
tribes who inhabited the lands surrounding China, the people of Central
Asia peacefuIly exchanged goods and ideas with China along the Silk Road
for a long time.
ALONG THE SILK ROAD
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Profile of Xuan Zang
Buddhism was introduced to China around the begirming of the Common
Era and became widespread two cenfuries later. In time, Buddhism
influenced many areas of Chinese life, including language, Iiterature,
philosophy, art, and architecture. Many imagesln chineie art include
sculptures of Buddha and paintings with Chinese faces expressing calm
compassiory reflecting Buddhist values regarding life and time. chinese
Buddhist artwork reflected a blending of Chinese art tradition and values
with styles from lndia, Persia, and other Central Asian regions. one of the
most significant signs of the impact of Buddhism on China is the number of
Chinese words with Buddhist origins. Many words related to the teachings
of Buddhism can be found in everyday expressions and proverbs.
one of the missionaries who contributed greatry to the accurary of
Ruddhist teachings in China was Xuan Zang.Fi" *u, born in 602 CE to a
familyof government officials. As a young man he traveled extensively
throughout China and spent 15 years studying Buddhist philosophy and
mastering Buddhist doctrines and principles. As he studied guddhist
teachings, the different translations conJused him. He decided to journey to
India to study the original versions of the Buddhist teachings (written in
sanskrit) and to talk with other Buddhist monks. He thought that this was
the only way to clarify the errors and contradictions in thethinese
translations of Buddhist writings.
In the autumn of 629 CE, Xuan Zangbeganhis pilgrimage from China to
India. It was a long journey across vast, hot deserti. He encountered oasis
tgwns where people welcomed him and tried to persuade him to stay in
their countries. But xuanzangcontinued on. sometimes people helped
him with interpreters and gifts. After leaving the oasis towns, xuanZang
faced the steep, iry mountain ranges of the Hindu Kush where people dled
of illnesses brought on by the harsh weather conditions and whereiobbers
waited for victims. xranzang's determination helped him keep going.
when Xuan ZangftnaLly reached Indi4 he spent over ten years studying
the original teachings of Buddha talking wiih guaahist monks and
scholars, and traveling to many parts oflndia in search of Buddhist
teachings and writings. He visited Buddhist temples, gathered hundreds of
Buddhist records and writings to carry back to China,-and translated many
of the original Buddhist teachings into Chinese with the help of assistants.
Yury people in India urged him to stay, but he would ask them, "why does
the sun travel the world?" and then reply, "to dispel the shadows.,, Xuan
Zang wished to carry the original teachings of Buddha back to China to
teach and enlighten the Buddhist followers there. He began his journey
back to China n 643 cE. Xuan zangbrought many new"schools of Buddhist
thought to china and contributed to the retigion'smaturity in the countrv.
His travels were the basis for the classic Chinese novellournev to thewesi.
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Profile of Marco Polo
Marco Polo, his father, and his uncle were probably the most famous
European travelers to travel the long and challenging distance from Europe
to China. Marco Polo was born in 1254C8 in Venice, Italy, atrade city. His
father and uncle were merchants who traveled and traded widely.
envoy - ofTicial messenger
When Marco Polo was yourrg, his father and uncle were frequently away on
trading trips. In Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul in Turkey), a place
where traders from the East and West met to trade and interact, Marco's
father and uncle heard stories of the great Mongol Empire to the eas! and
they decided to travel there. On their journey, they met a group of Mongol
Imperial envoys on their way to the court of Khubilai Khan. The envoys
invited the Polos to return with them to China. The year was7262, and
Khubilai Khan reigned supreme over a large portion of Central Asia and
northern China.
Khubilai Khan was a powerful ruler. He was the grandson of Genghis
Khan, who had created a great empire in Central Asia and conquered
northern China. Khubilai Khan succeeded to power and eventually
conquered southern China in1279. Because the huge expanse of the
Mongol Empire was united under one goverrunent, travelers could travel
fairly safely along the entire route of the Silk Road.
friar-a
member of certain
religious orders
Khubilai Khan wished to learn more about the peoples and cultures to the
west (towards the Mediterranean and Europe). He welcomed the Polos and
enjoyed talking with them. Khubilai Khan asked Marco Polo's father and
uncle to return to Europe and invite 100 friars to come to China and teach
him and his people about this new faith.
The Polos returned to italy and shared many stories about the things they
had seen and learned in China. Marco Polo was now 77 years old and eager
to travel to faraway lands. In1.277, Marco Polo's father and uncle set off
again toward China. This time they took Marco with them. Atthough the
Polos could not find 100 friars to travel to China, they were able to convince
two to begin the journey. The journey was difficult, though, and both
turned back. The Polos continued oru and finally, after three-and-a-half
years, they reached China.
Khubilai Khan again welcomed the Polos and was particularly interested in
meeting Marco. Khubilai Khan enjoyed listening to Marco's stories, and
Marco quickly gained the ruler's favor. Khubilai Khan sent Marco on
government trips all over China. On his travels, Marco was fascinated by
many Chinese inventions that did not exist in Europe, such as paper money,
printing machines, and coal fuel. Marco stayed in Khubilai Khan's court as
a guest for 17 years and did not return to Venice until.1297.
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Marco Polo was an excellent storvtellel, and he told fascinating tales of the
lands to the east. Marco dictated his stories to a scribe. and they were
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published asTheTraaels of Marco Polo, or ADescription of theWorld. To many
Europeans who had never traveled to foreign lands, Marco Polo's stories
were unbelievable, and he was often accused of lying. When his book and
the stories were questioned, he replied, "I have not written down half of
those things that I saw." By sharing his experiences, he raised interest in
other lands and peoples, especially those of Central Asia and China. Many
other traders, hearing of Marco Polo's stories, set out to follow his route to
China.
create and act in a short biographical tribute to this noteworthy person from the silk
Road. Use the information on your handout to create a three-minute feature on his life.
Each member of your group must participate in the performance.You may inctude
visual props or other material to supporl your narrative. After your performance, you
will be asked to answer questions about the person you are profiling.
ALONG THE SILK ROAD
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Profile of Khubilai Khan
Khubilai Khan was the grandson of Genghis (or Chinggis) Kharu the
Mongolian political and miiitary leader who united the Mongol tribes and
forged the Mongol Empire. Despite the fact that the Mongols were nomadic
and did not have a sophisticated economy, they conquered all the land from
China to the Mediterranean, including much of eastern Europe. After
Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire and led its early expansiory
Khubilai led the Mongols to their greatest moment of glory when he
conquered southern China in1,279, the first time that a foreigner established
rule over all of China.
steppe belt routetransportation corridor that
traversed the vast plains of
Eurasia from modern-day
ivlongolia to Hungary;
served as a northem
altemative to the Silk Road
contiguous-connected in
Mongol conquests resulted in severe damage to a number of Silk Road oasis
cities because Mongol conquerors usually laid waste to any city that
resisted attack. Some infrastructure of the Silk Road was permanently
damaged, but Mongol rule also brought an era of peace to much of Eurasia
and an increase in Silk Road trade. The period of the Mongol Empire is
often considered the third golden age of the Silk Road. The safety of both
the steope belt route and the Silk Road unde.r the reisn of the Moneol
Empire made them both reliable trade routes. Indeed, this marked the
period when Marco Polo and other Europeans made the long voyage from
Europe to China.
Khubilai grew interested in Chinese culture in his youth. He was first given
an important political position in1251, when his brother put him in charge
of civil and military affairs for China which the Mongols had partially
conquered. During his years as governor of northern China, Khubilai
oversaw increases in agricultural and social welfare spending. He also
adopted the Chinese belief in mercy toward the conquered and did not
massacre the population of cities that were captured, a change from earlier
Mongol practice that earned him the praise of Chinese warlords. In1264,
Khubilai won a struggle for power over control of the Mongol Empire with
his brother and became emperor.
Khubilai's principal goal was to unite and conquer China, which he
accomplishedinl2Tg after years of warfare. This was an amazing
achievement not only because the Mongols became the first foreign
emperors of China, but also because China had not been united since 907
CE. With the addition of southern China, the Mongol Empire reached its
greatest extent, spaffdng from eastern Europe to the Pacific Ocean with the
Middle East and Central Asia entirely under its control. This remains the
larsest contisuous emoire in world historv.
an unbroken sequence
khan-a local chieftain or
man of rank in some
countries of Central Asia,
including ancient
Mongolia
Unlike previous khans. Khubilai identified himself with the Chinese world
and turned away from the traditional nomadic culture of the Mongols. This
enabled him to become a successful Chinese emperol, but contributed to
internal feuds among the Mongols and the eventual breakup of the Mongol
Empire after his death. As Chinese emperol, Khubilai installed the Yuan
ALONG THE SILK ROAD
55
Grand Canal -a manmadc
h Jterwav thal connecl>
Beijingwi'ihcen'iralChina
Dynasty and moved the capital of China to Beijing. He engaged in many
r:ublic works. includine rebuildins the Grand Canal and extendins
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Indochina, and Japan. These expensive campaigns drained money tl-rat
could have been used for domestic programs.
Khubilai appointed foreigners to the top positions in the Chinese
governmenf whereas ethnic Han Chinese were confined to lower posts. As
an example, Khubilai made Marco Polo, a trader from Venice, a government
official. Marco Polo praised Khubilai Khan as a great leader in his writings,
and Europeans who read his works were impressed by Khubilai's ability to
govern such a rich empire. In particula4 Marco Polo praised him for
making paper cuffency the only medium of exchange. As foreign trade
flourished during Khubilai's reign, Europeans visited China and even set
up residence there.
In his later years, Khubilai Khan's excessive eating caught up to him. He
gout-a disease marked by developed gg! and died of it n 7294. His ability to conquer, unite, and
a paintu1 inflammation of
govern China as a foreigner remains a remarkable achievement, but the
the joints, deposrts of
Mongol Empire fragmented after his death, and the Yuan Dynasty he
urates in and around the
joints, and usually an
founded in China lasted less than 100 years. Khubilai Khan's reign as
e\cessiveamounto[uric
,l -.-represented the high point of the Mongol Empire.
emperor
thus
acid in the blood
Cieate and::act in a,,ehort b,iograptricat tilhuie to this,notewotthll,person,{iorn the Silk
Fload. Use the information on your handout to create a three.minute feature on his life.
Eac,h,member:ot.){aur.g1iau*,rnust participate,in the perIoirnanc6,,Y.o*,rnay incfude, :::,:
vi$tral props oi oth,er mateiial to suip"port,yo*r nariative,,Aftei,ybl:,r:Performance, you
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56
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Profile of Rabban bar Sauma
White many people have heard of Marco Polo's travels from modern-day
Italy to China, few know about Rabban bar Sauma, a Nestorian Christian
born in China who traveled to Rome and Paris and wrote about medieval
Europe in Persian. Sauma provides an interesting counterpart to Marco
Polo as another Silk Road traveler who disseminated accounts of the
faraway lands he visited.
L
ighur-a group
:*:lie
of Turkic
porverful in
].1..nqolia and Central Asia
':'tr.,
een dre eighth and
:." elnh centuries
Rabban bar Sauma was born in Beijing around 7220,butwas not ethnically
Chinese. He came from a wealthy Uighur family of Nestorian Christians
and became a monk at age 23. Nestorian Christianity emerged from the
teachings of Nestorius in the fifth century. It taught that Jesus existed as two
people, a man and a divine son of God. This differentiated Nestorian
Christianity from traditional Christianity, which teaches that Jesus was a
single person. Nestorians predominated along the Silk Road, reaching
Persi4 Central Asi4 Mongoli4 and China. Howevel, Islam replaced
Nestorian Christianity in many of these areas beginning in the seventh
century CE.
Sauma gained fame as a teacher and decided to make a pilgrimage to
Jerusalem. He did not make it all the way there because of local fighting,
but was called to Baghdad (the center of the Nestorian Church) and was
appointed to lead a mission to the Persian division of the Mongol Empire.
Khubilai Khan then paid for him to visit Europe as an official envoy from
the Ilkhan, the part of the Mongol Empire centered. in Persia.
Ilkhanate----one of the four
:rincipal regrons of the
\loneol Empire, centered
n Persia and also
:-rciuding modern-dav
.\f gharustan, Azerbaijan,
;.nd n'estern Pakistan
Sauma visited the Pope in Rome as well as the kings of France and England
in his role as envoy of the llkhanate. His diary of his travels, written in
Persian, paints a unique view of medieval Europe by * outsider. Sauma
was one of the first people from East Asia to reach western Europe and his
travels provide an example of how religions and people were able to move
along the Silk Road during the Mongol Empire, the third great era of the
Silk Road.
Offia,.ano,act.irt;a.sEott:.bio$rapnical,triUute&:this:notestorll $1herso*:tiorfi:.th$.$itk..:,.:
Road. Use the information on your nandout to cieate a three-rninute feature on his life.
.visual..pfops.or..offier.:r,naterielrto.Er.rH$o.c,1tout..narruine.Af,tetfo f.pe,if rnance, You
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ALONG THE SILK ROAD
57
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Profile of Sir Aurel Stein
Sir Aurel Stein was a Hungarian-British archaeologist and geographer who
conducted extensive travels in Central Asia. Along with other early
twentieth century European and Japanese explorers, his research revived
interest in Central Asia and in the legacy of the Silk Road.
In the late nineteenth century, Great Britain and Russia competed for
in{luence in Central Asia, and Europeans once again became interested in
the region. Several French, German, Russiary and ]apanese expeditions
traveled to the regiory where they uncovered artifacts from the Silk Road's
heyday. Many of the expeditions took the artifacts back to Europe and
Japan and gave them to museums.
Stein was born in Hungary 1n1862, but later became a British citizen. He
was a scholar on Central Asia and India and worked at various Indian
universities, translating and publishing several ancient works from the Silk
Road before deciding to go on expeditions to Central Asia.
Stein's first expedition began in 1900, and he made three more expeditions,
in 1906-1908,1913-7976, and in 1930. During these trips, he retraced the
Silk Road routes between China and the West and uncovered and collected
artifacts. His observations contributed to current knowledge on the path
that the original Silk Roads took. Stein was the first European to buy parts
of the contents of the breathtaking Mogao Caves, also known as the Caves
of the Thousand Buddhas, near Dunhuang in western China. The caves
were virtually unknown outside of China until the artifacts that Stein
purchased made them famous. One of the treasures that Stein took from the
Mogao Caves was the Diamond Sutra, which was printed in 868 CE,
making it the oldest known printed text in the world.
Stein's expeditions unearthed an amazing collection of paintings,
documenis, and artifacts that are now housed in the British Museum, the
British Lrbrary, the Srinagar Museum in northern India and the National
Iv{useum in New Delhi,India. Together, they contributed to knowledge of
Buddhist literature and art as well as the history of the Central Asian
portion of the Silk Road. Before his Blst birthday, Stein was granted
permission to explore in Afghanistan, but he died in Kabul in1943 before
he could begin his hip.
The expeditions of Europeans like Stein in the late nineteenth and early
twentieth century helped in piecing together the ancient route of the Silk
Road and in demonstrating the extent to which ideas, culture, and goods
spread along the route. While the artifacts that these explorers brought back
to Europe aided in studying the Silk Road, many Central Asian countries
claim that these goods are part of their cultural heritage and should be
returned to their area of origin. In either case, these explorers renewed
interest in the Silk Road just as long-distance trade virtually ceased along its
route: the Trans-siberian Railroad was completed in 1.905, and this more
58
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northern route quickly became the main corridor for transporting goods
across Eurasia.
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Silk Road Timeline
Year
Around 3000 BCE
323 BCE
Event
Silk is first produced in China
Alexander the Great's Empire, which extends from Greece in the west to Egypt in the south,
reaches northern lndia and the Ferghana Valley on the edge of modern-day China.
Around 200 BCE
Chinese immigrants bring the secret of silk production to Korea, the first time that the closelyguarded secret spreads outside of China. Over centuries, the secret will spread to lndia, Central
Asia, and the Middle East before reaching Europe.
138-116BCE
Chinese general Zhang Qian goes on two missions to Central Asia. His reports on trade routes
and the products in the region encourage the Han Dynasty to start trading with Central Asia,
effectively opening the Silk Road.
First century BCE
629-643 CE
Silk reaches Rome for the first time.
Chinese Buddhist monk Xuan Zang travels to lndia, where he spends years studying the original
Buddhist scriptures. He later returns to China and introduces new schools of Buddhist thought.
600s CE
lslam spreads from the Arabian peninsula to Central Asia.
1206 CE
Genghis Khan unites the Mongols and begins the rapid expansion of the Mongol Empire.
1279 CE
Khubilai Khan defeats southern China, establishing the Yuan Dynasty and marking the greatest
extent of the Mongol Empire.
1271-1297 CE
Marco Polo travels to China, where he stays for 17 years as a guest of Mongol Emperor Khubilai
Khan. His descriptions of Chlna fascinate Europeans and stimulate interest in China and
Chinese goods.
Mid-1300s CE
The Black Death plague devastates Europe. Most experts believe that the disease reached
Europe from Central Asia via the Silk Road.
1400s CE
1497-1499 CE
The Ming Dynasty stops trading silk outside its borders. The Silk Road no longer serves as a
shipping route for silk, which is now produced in many places throughout Eurasia, including ltaly.
Portuguese sailorVasco da Gama discovers the sea route from Europe to Calcutta in lndia via
the Cape of Good Hope in Africa. This route becomes the preferred conduit for trade between
Europe and Asia.
'1905 CE
The Trans-Siberian Railroad begins operation, linking Moscow to the Pacific Ocean. This
becomes the main transportation route across Eurasia, and long-distance trade along the
ancient Silk Road comes to an end.
1992 CE
A rail link between Almaty, Kazakhstan, and Urumqi, China opens, making non-stop rail travel
along the Silk Road route possible for the first time.
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