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Occupational stress, job satisfaction, and employee loyalty in hospitality industry: a comparative case study of twohotelsinRussia MasterThesissubmittedinfulfillmentoftheDegree MasterofScience inInternationalTourism SubmittedtoDr.FlorianAubke EvgeniaAntonova 1111525 Vienna,8thofJune,2016 AFFIDAVIT IherebyaffirmthatthisMaster’sThesisrepresentsmyownwrittenworkandthatIhaveused nosourcesandaidsotherthanthoseindicated.Allpassagesquotedfrompublicationsorparaphrasedfromthesesourcesareproperlycitedandattributed. Thethesiswasnotsubmittedinthesameorinasubstantiallysimilarversion,notevenpartially,toanotherexaminationboardandwasnotpublishedelsewhere. 8.06.2016 Date Signature I II ABSTRACT Themodernrhythmoflifeisincreasinglydemandingformanypeople.Consideringthatmost peoplearespendingasignificantamountoftimeatwork,theirworkingconditionsandtheir generalphysicalandmentalstateattheworkplaceareplayinganincreasinglyimportantrole. Thus, work-related stress has become a significant and relevant problem for the employees, causing physiological, psychological, or even mental health problems. Occupational stress amongemployeescanalsonegativelyaffecttheirefficiency,productivity,andincreaseturnoverrates,whichinturnwillimplycostsforthecompany.Nevertheless,occupationalstressisa complexandmultifacetedconceptanditneedstobeinvestigatednotonlyassuch,butalsoin relationtootherimportantfactorsinfluencingjobconditions,suchasjobsatisfactionandemployeeloyalty. Hospitalityindustryasaworkplacehashigherrisksofoccupationalstressduetothenatureof the service sector and the emotional labour. At the same time, people are one of the most valuableassetsinthehotels,whichmakesitevenmorecrucialtoaddresstheissue. Whilethereisavarietyofaresearchaboutoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployee loyalty in the hospitality industry as such, the potential differences in these factors between chain and independent hotels are insufficiently studied. Therefore, the current research is aimingtoaddressthisunderstudiedissue.Acomparativecasestudyanalysisoftwohotelsin Russiahasbeenconducted.Oneofthemainfindingswasthatthereisasignificantdifference in occupational stress and employee loyalty between the two hotels. More precisely, independenthotelemployeeshavehigherstresslevelsandlowerloyalty.Thesefindingsindicate thatfurtherresearchinthisfieldisneeded. III IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First,Iwouldliketothankmysupervisor,Dr.FlorianAubke,forhisinfinitepatience,valuable suggestionsandhelpfulhints. Iwouldliketoalsothankmyfriendsfortheirsupportandkindwords. MyspecialthanksgotomyfriendNatalieforhergreathelpandencouragement,andtoTaya formotivatingandcheeringmeup. Mostimportantly,Iwouldliketoexpressmysinceregratitudetomybrothersandmyparents, Mikhail and Elena, who were always there for me, believing, motivating, supporting, giving advises,orsimplylistening. V TABLEOFCONTENTS Affidavit.........................................................................................................................................I Abstract.......................................................................................................................................III Acknowledgements......................................................................................................................V ListofFigures................................................................................................................................X ListofAbbreviations....................................................................................................................XI 1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................1 1.1 Contextandpreviousresearch...........................................................................................1 1.2 Researchaimsandobjectives.............................................................................................2 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 1.2.6 1.2.7 1.2.8 1.2.9 OccupationalstressandJobsatisfaction.........................................................................................4 OccupationalstressandEmployeeloyalty......................................................................................4 Jobsatisfactionandemployeeloyalty............................................................................................4 Moderatingroleofgender..............................................................................................................4 Moderatingroleofmaritalstatus...................................................................................................5 Moderatingroleofage....................................................................................................................5 Moderatingroleofeducation.........................................................................................................6 Moderatingroleofparenthood......................................................................................................6 DifferencesinOccupationalstress,Jobsatisfaction,andEmployeeloyaltybetweenindependent andchainhotels.............................................................................................................................7 1.3 Structureofthesis...............................................................................................................7 2 Literaturereview....................................................................................................................9 2.1 Stress...................................................................................................................................9 2.1.1 Classificationsofstress..................................................................................................................10 2.1.2 Stressors........................................................................................................................................13 2.2 OccupationalStress...........................................................................................................15 2.2.1 EffectsofOccupationalStress.......................................................................................................23 2.2.2 ManagingOccupationalStress......................................................................................................24 2.2.3 OccupationalStressintheHospitalityIndustry............................................................................25 2.3 Jobsatisfaction..................................................................................................................26 2.4 Employeeloyalty...............................................................................................................29 2.5 Chainvsindependenthotels.............................................................................................34 3 Methodology........................................................................................................................36 3.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................36 3.2 Selectionofmethodology.................................................................................................36 VI 3.3 Researchinstrument..........................................................................................................37 3.3.1 Occupationalstress.......................................................................................................................37 3.3.2 Jobsatisfaction..............................................................................................................................38 3.3.3 Employeeloyalty...........................................................................................................................38 3.4 Selectionofstudysite........................................................................................................38 3.5 Dataanalysis......................................................................................................................39 4 Results...................................................................................................................................40 4.1 Descriptionofthesample..................................................................................................40 4.2 Testingthehypotheses......................................................................................................43 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5 4.2.6 4.2.7 Correlationsbetweenoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyalty.....................43 Moderatingroleofgender............................................................................................................44 Moderatingroleofmaritalstatus.................................................................................................45 Moderatingroleofage.................................................................................................................45 Moderatingroleofeducation.......................................................................................................47 Moderatingroleofparenthood....................................................................................................49 Differencesinoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltybetweenindependent andchainhotels...........................................................................................................................49 4.3 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................52 5 DiscussionandConclusion....................................................................................................54 5.1 Interpretationofresults....................................................................................................54 5.1.1 RQ 1: What are the relationships between occupational stress, job satisfaction, and employee loyaltyinchainhotelandindependenthotel?............................................................................54 5.1.2 RQ 2: Which demographic characteristics play moderating roles in occupational stress, job satisfaction,andemployeeloyaltyinchainhotelandindependenthotel?................................55 5.1.3 RQ 3: Are there any differences in occupational stress, job satisfaction, and employee loyalty betweenchainandindependenthotels?....................................................................................56 5.2 Limitationsandfutureresearch.........................................................................................57 6 Bibliography..........................................................................................................................59 Appendices..................................................................................................................................72 Appendix1:Questionnaire..........................................................................................................72 Appendix2:DescriptiveStatistics...............................................................................................82 Appendix3:Correlationsandstatisticaltests.............................................................................84 VII LISTOFTABLES Table1Sourcesofstressatwork(Cooper&Marshall,1976)....................................................17 Table2Stress-relatedhazardsatwork(Lekaetal.,2004).........................................................20 Table3CharacteristicsofthecasestudyHotels........................................................................39 Table 4 Correlations between occupational stress, job satisfaction, and employee loyalty in HotelA........................................................................................................................................43 Table 5 Correlations between occupational stress, job satisfaction, and employee loyalty in HotelB........................................................................................................................................44 Table6Differencesinoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltybetweenmen andwomeninHotelA................................................................................................................45 Table 7 Differences in occupational stress, job satisfaction, and employee loyalty due to the ageinHotelA(Kruskal-WallisTest)............................................................................................46 Table 8 Differences in occupational stress, job satisfaction, and employee loyalty due to the ageinHotelB(Kruskal-Wallistest).............................................................................................47 Table 9 Differences in occupational stress, job satisfaction, and employee loyalty due to the educationinHotelB(Kruskal-Wallistest)..................................................................................48 Table10OccupationalstressdifferencesbetweenhighschoolandbachelorgraduatesinHotel B..................................................................................................................................................48 Table11EmployeeloyaltydifferencesbetweencollegeandbachelorgraduatesinHotelB....49 Table12JobsatisfactiondifferencesbetweencollegeandbachelorgraduatesinHotelB.......49 Table13Descriptivestatisticsofoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltyin casestudyhotels........................................................................................................................50 Table 14 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test results for occupational stress, job satisfaction, and employeeloyaltyacrosstwocasestudyhotels..........................................................................51 Table 15 Mann-Whitney Test results on differences in job satisfaciton between case study hotels..........................................................................................................................................51 VIII Table16T-Testresultsondifferencesinoccupationalstressbetweencasestudyhotels.........52 Table17T-Testresultsondifferencesinemployeeloyaltybetweencasestudyhotels............52 Table18Resultsofhypotesestesting.........................................................................................53 IX LISTOFFIGURES Figure1TheHumanFunctionCurve(PortoleseDias,2012)......................................................13 Figure2Aheuristicmodeloforganizationalhealth(Hart&Cooper,2001)..............................19 Figure3ThelinksintheService-ProfitChain(Heskettetal.,1994)...........................................30 Figure4GenderofRespondentsintheCaseHotels..................................................................40 Figure5AgeofRespondentsintheCaseHotels........................................................................41 Figure6Employees'educationintheCaseHotels.....................................................................41 Figure7Employees'maritalstatusintheCaseHotels...............................................................42 Figure8ParenthoodstatusesofEmployeesintheCaseHotels................................................42 X LISTOFABBREVIATIONS GAS–GeneralAdaptationSyndrom GJSQ–GenericJobStressQuestionnaire NIOSH–NationalInstituteforOccupationalSafetyandHealth SPSS–StatisticalPackagefortheSocialSciences WHO–WorldHealthOrganization XI MASTERTHESISTITLE 1 INTRODUCTION Thecurrentstudyisaimingtoinvestigatesuchimportantworkplacerelatedaspectsandissues as occupational stress, job satisfaction, and employee loyalty with regards to differences betweenchainandindependenthotels.Thischaptergivesanintroductiontothecontextofthe study,previousresearch,formulatestheaimsandobjectivesoftheresearch,anddefinesthe researchquestionsaswellashypothesesthatshouldbeaddressed. 1.1 Contextandpreviousresearch Wellbeing and health represent an important part of our lives. Medical and scientific breakthroughsmadeitpossibletocuremanyseriousdiseases,howevernowadayspeoplearefacing newchallengesofmentalandphysicalwelfare.Modernrhythmoflife,characterizedbysuch phenomenaasglobalization,urbanization,intensetechnologicaldevelopments,isparticularly demandingformanypeople.Consideringthatmostpeoplearespendingasignificantamount oftimeatwork,theirworkingconditionsandtheirgeneralphysicalandmentalstateatworkplaceareplayinganincreasinglyimportantrole. Stressatworkhasbecomeasignificantandrelevantprobleminthemodernworld.Itcanaffect employees’ health and wellbeing, causing not only physiological, but also psychological, emotionalandevenmentalproblems.Moreover,occupationalstresscannegativelyinfluence their work efficiency, performance, and service quality, and boost turnover rates; hence incrementing costs for both the employee and the company (Villanueva & Djurkovich, 2009; O’Neill & Davis, 2009). However, occupational stress is a complicated and multifaceted concept;thusitneedstobeinvestigatednotonlyassuch,butalsoinrelationtotheotherfactors influencingthejobsituationofanindividual.Evidenceshowsthatthereisstrongnegativerelationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (Richardson & Burke, 1991; Cavanaughetal.,2000;Rizwanetal.,2014),whichinturncaninfluenceemployee’sloyaltyina positiveway(LaLopa,1997). Peopleworkinginhospitalityindustryarealsoatahigherriskofoccupationalstressduetothe natureoftheservicesector,whereemployeeshavedirectinteractionwiththecustomersand playanimportantroleintheproductionandconsumptionofaservice.Oftenbeinganintermediarybetweentheconflictingdemandsofthecompany,management,andcustomers,employees are facing dissonance (Ruyter et al., 2001). Moreover, hotel business is operating twenty-fourhours,sevendaysaweek,andthatdictatessomespecialjobaspects,suchasshift work or irregular working hours. At the same time, employees are one of the most valuable assets in the hospitality industry; thus understanding the nature of occupational stress and 1 MASTERTHESISTITLE associatedfactorswillalloweithertopreventthepotentialnegativeconsequencesortomanagethemproperly. Occupational stress, job satisfaction and employee loyalty, as well as their nature, consequences,andstrategiesformanagingthemhavebeenofinterestformanyresearchersduring thelastdecades.However,theseimportantfactorsinfluencingemployeesinvariouswaysin thehotelindustryarestillremainingunderstudied.Moreover,theresearchonthesetopicsin termsofdifferencesamongvarioustypesofhotelsisevidentlylackingandneedsfurtherdevelopment. 1.2 Researchaimsandobjectives Theaimofthispaperistoinvestigatethedifferencesbetweenchainandindependenthotels intermsofoccupationalstress,jobsatisfactionandloyaltyoftheiremployees.Bothtypesof thehotelsarecontinuouslyexaminedandcomparedintermsoftheircompetitivenessorrevenues. However, there is a marked lack of the literature and research aimed at studying whether different ownership types in the hospitality industry can significantly influence the above-mentionedjob-relatedfactors.Understandingofthoseiscrucialforefficientandeffectivemanagementofthemostvaluableassetintheindustry–thepeople.Moreover,conceptualization of the differences between chain and independent hotels in terms of the special aspectsofworkplacesand,mostimportantly,theirpotentialeffectonemployees’healthand satisfactioncanbeextremelyusefulandvaluablefortheprospectiveemployees. Scientificevidenceshowsthatoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltyhave certaindegreeofinterrelation(Chandraiahetal.,2003,Kimetal.,2009;Abdullahetal.,2009). Different job stressors, as well as the occupational stress as a whole, were proved to significantly influence job satisfaction in a negative way (House & Rizzo, 1972; Cavanaugh et al., 2000; Kim et al., 2009; Luthans, 2011). However, one has to admit that certain challenge stressorshaveapositiveimpactonthejobsatisfaction(Cavanaughetal.,2000;Karatepeetal., 2014). Job satisfaction, in turn, has a strong positive relationship with employee loyalty (Jawahar,2006;Wan,2012).Moreover,Wan(2012)arguesthatemployeeloyaltyactuallyarises from the job satisfaction. Unfortunately, there is not much literature on the correlation betweenemployeeloyaltyandoccupationalstress,butithasbeenprovedthatstressedemployeesaremorelikelytoleavethecompany(Porter&Steers,1973).Asturnoverintentionsare stronglyandnegativelycorrelatedwiththeemployeeloyalty(Bhatnagar,2012;Mohsinetal., 2015),itcanbeexpectedthatemployeeloyaltywillalsohavenegativerelationshipwithworkrelated stress. The current research is therefore also aiming to examine these abovementionedrelationswithrespecttothetwocasestudyhotels. Additionally,themoderatingrolesofdemographicfactorsonthesevariableshaveveryoften beenofinterestfortheresearchers.However,theexistingstudieshaveidentifiedquitecon- 2 MASTERTHESISTITLE tradicting results. Thus, it has been found that if there is a significant difference due to the gender of respondents, then women tend to experience more stress (Almedia & Kessler, 1998),bemoresatisfiedwiththeirjobs(Al-Ababneh&Lockwood,2010),andexpresshigher loyalty (ManpowerGroup, 2002). In terms of age, it can be assumed based on previous research that the younger employees are experiencing more stress (Chandraiah et al., 2003), reportlessjobsatisfaction(Chandraiahetal.,2003;Al-Ababneh&Lockwood,2010),andtend tobelessloyalthantheolderones(Taylor,2006).Educationseemstoresultinmorestressfor the employees (Doughty, 2013), but at the same time in higher job satisfaction levels (AlAbabneh&Lockwood,2010).However,influenceofthelevelofeducationonemployeeloyaltywasnotfoundtobesignificant(Sheikhy&Khademi,2015). Marital status has been proved to have certain effects on job situation as such. Thus, some researchershavefoundthatmarriedemployeesareexperiencingmorestressthanunmarried ones(Kessler,1979).However,resultsonhowmarriageinfluencesthejobsatisfactionofthe employeesarecontradictive.Somestudiessuggestthatmarriedemployeesaremoresatisfied with their jobs (Saner and Eyüpoğlu, 2013), while the others are not finding any significant differences(Azimetal.,2013).Beingaparentcanalsohavecertaineffectsondifferentaspects ofthework,yettheresearchershavenotcometoaconsensusinthistopic.Severalresearchershaveconcludedthatemployeeswithchildrenaresufferingfromworkstressmorethanthe oneswithoutkids(Lamanna&Riedmann,2012;Hobart,2015).Nevertheless,someinvestigations have found no differences between parents and non-parents in terms of occupational stress (O’Neill & Davis, 2009). Job satisfaction was proved to be lower with the increasing numberofchildren(Bilgic,1998).However,otherstudieshavenotfoundanysignificantinfluence (Forgionne & Peeters, 1982, cited by Bilgic, 1998). Employee loyalty with respect to parenthoodisnotstudiedwell,yetthereisevidencethatemployeeswithchildrentendtostay attheirjoblonger(Sibbaldetal.,2003). Basedontheabove-mentionedaimsandobjectives,aswellasontheexistingliterature,the followingresearchquestionsareaddressedinthisstudy: 1. Whataretherelationshipsbetweenoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltyinchainhotelandindependenthotel? 2. Which demographic characteristics are playing moderating roles in occupational stress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltyinchainhotelandindependenthotel? 3. Arethereanydifferencesinoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyalty betweenchainandindependenthotels? Basedontheresearchquestionsandtheassociatedliterature,thefollowinghypotheseswere developedinordertoguidetheanalysisofthedatacollected. 3 MASTERTHESISTITLE 1.2.1 OccupationalstressandJobsatisfaction Thepreviousstudieshaveshownthatstressatworkhasastrongandnegativecorrelationwith job satisfaction (Richardson & Burke, 1991; Cavanaugh et al., 2000; Rizwan et al., 2014). Researchobservingthesamerelationshipinthehospitalitysectorhasfoundonlyonejobstressor,namelyinterpersonaltensions,tohaveasignificantnegativecorrelationwithjobsatisfaction.Roleambiguitywasprovedtohaveasignificantlynegativerelationtothegeneralwork stressaswell(Yang,2010).Thefollowingnullhypothesisisformulatedtoinvestigatethepatternsinthetwocasestudyhotels: H1:Occupationalstressisnotcorrelatedwithjobsatisfaction. 1.2.2 OccupationalstressandEmployeeloyalty There has been evidence in previous research that job stress has a negative correlation with organizational commitment (Garg & Dhar, 2014). Besides, it has been proven that more stressedemployeetendtohaveincreasedintentiontoleavethecompany(Cavanaughetal., 2000;Bhattietal.,2010).Thenullhypothesisisofferedfortestingthisrelationship: H2:Occupationalstressisnotcorrelatedwithemployeeloyalty. 1.2.3 Jobsatisfactionandemployeeloyalty AccordingtoLaLopa(1997),employeeswhoaresatisfiedwiththeirjobtendtobecommitted totheemployerandstayintheirjobforalongerperiodoftime.Abdullahetal.(2009)have supportedtheevidenceofapositivecorrelationbetweenjobsatisfactionandemployeeloyalty.Followingnullhypothesisisformulated: H3:Jobsatisfactionisnotcorrelatedwithemployeeloyalty. 1.2.4 Moderatingroleofgender Severalresearchpapershavepresentedevidencethatwomentendtoexperiencemorestress than men, both general daily stress (Almedia & Kessler, 1998), and work-related stress (Michaeletal.,2009).ResearchbyBurkeetal.(2008)reportedthatfemalemanagersareexperiencingmorestressthanmaleonesduetothefamily-workconflict.However,researchdoneby O’NeillandDavis(2009;2011)inthehotelindustryhasnotshownanysignificantdifferences inoccupationalstressamongmenandwomen.Inordertohaveconsistencyoverthehypotheses,thefollowingnullhypothesisisproposed: H4a:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinoccupationalstressduetothegender. 4 MASTERTHESISTITLE Similartooccupationalstressandgender,theevidenceongenderinfluencingjobsatisfaction is controversial. Many researchers have not found the differences to be significant between menandwomen(Burkeetal.,2008;Civilidag&Sargin,2013;Civilidag,2014).However,there wassomeevidencethatwomenreportedoverallhigherjobsatisfactionthanmen(Al-Ababneh &Lockwood,2010).Thustheproposedhypothesisis: H4b:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinjobsatisfactionduetothegender. Empiricalresearchhasindicatedthatwomentendtoshowmoreloyaltytowardsthejobthan men(ManpowerGroup,2002).However,thenullhypothesisisofferedfortesting: H4c:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinemployeeloyaltyduetothegender. 1.2.5 Moderatingroleofmaritalstatus Previous research has evidenced that married employees tend to be moreexposed to stress thantheirunmarriedcolleagues(Kessler,1979).Thefollowinghypothesisisgoingtobetested: H5a:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinoccupationalstressduetothemaritalstatus. Scientific evidence showed controversial results in terms of influence that marital status has onthejobsatisfactionofemployees.Thus,somestudieshavefoundthatmarriedemployees tend to be more satisfied than unmarried ones (Saner and Eyüpoğlu, 2013), whereas other researchindicatednosignificantdifferenceduetothemaritalstatus(Azimetal.,2013). The followinghypothesesisformulated: H5b:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinjobsatisfactionduetothemaritalstatus. Even thought the literature on effect of marital status on employees’ loyalty is lacking, the followingnullhypothesisisofferedfortesting: H5c:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinemployeeloyaltyduetothemaritalstatus. 1.2.6 Moderatingroleofage The previous research has shown that young adults (25-35 years old) and early middle aged (36-45 years old) were experiencing more stress due to such job stressors as role overload, roleambiguity,andstrenuousworkingconditionscomparedtolatemiddleaged(46-60years old)employees(Chandraiahetal.,2003).Thus,thehypothesisismade: H6a:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinoccupationalstressduetotheage Age proved to be a significant moderating variable in terms of job satisfaction in some research.Thus,themiddle-agedemployees(36-45yearsold)reportedmorejobsatisfactionthan 5 MASTERTHESISTITLE theyoungeradults(Chandraiahetal.,2003).Theemployeesyoungerthan25yearsoldtendto betheleastsatisfiedwiththejob(Al-Ababneh&Lockwood,2010).Thefollowingnullhypothesisisproposed: H6b:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinjobsatisfactionduetotheage Therehasbeenevidencethatolderemployeestendtostaywiththeircurrentemployerfora longertime(Taylor,2006),thusitcanbeassumedthattheyhaveahigherlevelofloyaltytowards their organization. The following null hypothesis is suggested for testing the relationship: H6c:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinemployeeloyaltyduetotheage 1.2.7 Moderatingroleofeducation Ithasbeenfoundthatmoreeducatedemployeesaremoreexposedtostressthantheones, whoarelesseducated(Doughty,2013).However,thisrelationshipisnotlinear(Bartholome, 2007).Thus,thefollowinghypothesisisoffered: H7a:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinoccupationalstressduetoeducation. Researchhasshownthatmoreeducatedemployeestendtobemoresatisfiedwiththeirjobs than less educated ones (Al-Ababneh & Lockwood, 2010). Nevertheless, other findings suggested that education has negative relationship with job satisfaction (Rogers, 1991, cited by Bilgic,1998),ornosignificantinfluenceatall(Bilgic,1998).Thus,thenullhypothesisisoffered toinvestigatetheinfluence: H7b:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinjobsatisfactionduetoeducation. ResearchconductedbySheikhyandKhademi(2015)hasnotfoundanysignificantdifferences inemployeeloyaltyduetotheireducation.Thus,thefollowinghypothesisisofferedfortesting: H7c:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinemployeeloyaltyduetoeducation. 1.2.8 Moderatingroleofparenthood ResearchbyO’NeillandDavis(2009)hasnotfoundanysignificantdifferencesonstresslevels betweenemployeeswhohadordidnothavechildren.However,therehavebeenseveralstudiesthathaveidentifiedthatparentswereexperiencingmorestressthannon-parents(Lamanna&Riedmann,2012;Hobart,2015).Thus,thefollowinghypothesisisoffered: H8a: There are no significant differences in occupational stress between parents and nonparents. 6 MASTERTHESISTITLE Indifferentstudiestherelationshipbetweenparenthoodandjobsatisfactionhasbeenfound bothnotsignificant(Forgionne&Peeters,1982,citedbyBilgic,1998),andsignificantandnegative(Bilgic,1998).Thenullhypothesisisproposedasfollows: H8b: There are no significant differences in job satisfaction between parents and nonparents. Thereisalackofevidenceaboutthemoderatingroleofparenthoodonemployeeloyalty.Sibbaldetal.(2003),forinstance,haveindicatedthatemployeeswithchildrentendtostaylonger withtheorganization.However,thisintentiondoesnotnecessarilymeantheseemployeesare more loyal to the company. The following hypothesis is formulated in order to test the relationship: H8c: There are no significant differences in employee loyalty between parents and nonparents. 1.2.9 DifferencesinOccupationalstress,Jobsatisfaction,andEmployeeloyaltybetweenindependentandchainhotels The topic of differences between investigated variables in chain and independent hotels is highlyunderstudiedandthereforenoassumptionscanbemadepriortotheresearch.However,herearethenullhypothesesproposed: H9:ThereisnosignificantdifferencebetweenindependentandchainhotelinOccupational stress H10:ThereisnosignificantdifferencebetweenindependentandchainhotelinJobSatisfaction H11: There is no significant difference between independent and chain hotel in Employee Loyalty 1.3 Structureofthesis Thisresearchstartswiththeliteraturereviewoftheexistingstudiesandtheoriesaboutdifferentaspectsofoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployees’loyalty.Thecertaincharacteristicsofthesetheorieswithrespecttothehospitalityindustryareexaminedaswell.Then, an overview of the differences between chain and independent hotels is given. Further, the comparativecasestudymethodologyusedinthecurrentstudy,theresearchinstrumentsand thedataanalysisaredescribed.Theoccupationalstresslevels,jobsatisfaction,andloyaltyof the employees are evaluated based on the case study of 2 hotels in Russia. Primary data is 7 MASTERTHESISTITLE collectedusingquestionnairesandcorrelationsareanalysedwiththehelpofStatisticalPackagefortheSocialSciences(SPSS).Thentheresultsoftheresearchandthediscussionarepresented.Finally,theconclusionispresentedincludingimplicationsandpotentialforthefuture research. 8 MASTERTHESISTITLE 2 LITERATUREREVIEW Thischapterincludestheliteraturereviewoftherelevanttopics.First,thetheoryofstressis discussed,andthenthespecialaspectsofoccupationalstressingeneralandinhospitalityindustry are covered. Further, literature on job satisfaction and employee loyalty is reviewed. Finally,theoverviewofthedifferencesbetweenchainandindependenthotelsispresented. 2.1 Stress Stress is quite a difficult term to define due to its subjectivity and complexity. The fact that stresshasbeenatopicofinterestforresearchersfromfourfairlydifferentdisciplines(medicine,sociology,management,andpsychology)andthattheyproposedtheirownconceptsand methodology, makes the topic even more complex and multifaceted (Cummings & Cooper, 1998, cited by Fevre et al., 2003). Term “stress” itself was first introduced by Hans Selye, a Hungarian endocrinologist, who is also known as the “father of stress” (Fink, 2009). Being a medical student, he has noted that patients with different illnesses had some common nonspecificsymptomsatthebeginningoftheirillness.ThisobservationhasledtohisfurtherresearchofthebodyreactiontothestressfulstimulianddevelopmentoftheGeneralAdaptationSyndrome(GAS)concept(Fink,2009).Selyehasintroducedtheterm“stress”andhasgiventhefirstandmostgenericdefinition:“Stressisthenonspecificresponseofthebodytoany demand”(Selye,1976b).InhisGAStheory,Selyehasidentifiedthreestages:alarm,resistance, andexhaustion.Atfirststage,alarm,thebodyisrespondingtothestressorswiththefirstsigns of changes and the defence processes are activated (Ivancevich & Matteson, 1980). Later, if thestressorisnotdisappearingandadaptationisdeveloped,theresistancephaseisachieved. Longerstresscanresultinthethirdstage,exhaustion,andevenleadtothedeath(Fink,2009). Thisprocessiscyclical;therefore,ifnewdemandsareputonthebodyagain,thealarmstage will reoccur. The consequences for the individuals can be sicknesses, fatigues, or decreased performanceatwork(Ivancevic&Matteson,1980). While initial research about stress has been done into the medical field, later on stress has beendefinedfromthedifferentpointsofview.Thus,behaviouralsciencesseestressas“perception of threat, with resulting anxiety discomfort, emotional tension, and difficulty in adjustment”(Selye,1976a).Anbazhaganetal.(2013)mentionamoredetaileddefinitionbyTobias Schafer: “Stress is an adaptive response, moderated by individual differences that are a consequenceofanyaction,situationoreventthatplacesspecialdemandsonaperson,which perceivesanimbalancebetweenthelevelofdemandplaceduponthemandtheircapabilityto meetthosedemands”.Inthiscase,stresscanresultinthepsychological,physiological,orbehaviouralresponseofanindividual,whicheventuallycanresultintheillhealth(Palmer,1989). 9 MASTERTHESISTITLE Several authors emphasize that stress should be defined as a perceptual phenomenon (Cox, 1978), meaning that stress appears from the perception of individuals as that they cannot handle the demands being made on them (Lazarus, 1966). Lazarus (1991) conducted an importantresearchontherelationshipbetweenstressandemotions,alsodescribingthecoping processes. The researcher has created a “Cognitive-Motivational-Relational Theory of Emotion”,wherehehighlyemphasizedthatstressaswellasemotionsarenotcausedbyexternal factors,butratherbyperson-environmentrelationships,whichcandifferovertimeordueto circumstances.Therefore,discrepanciescanbefoundbetweentheone’sreactiontothesituationandtheobjectiverealityofit(Lazarus,1991). Another important theory in the history of stress-related research is the “Theory of stress, appraisal,andcoping”,introducedbyLazarusandFolkman(1984).Itstatesthatstressarises fromtheappraisalofcertainenvironmentaldemandstoattackindividualresourcesandtherefore threaten the well-being (Holroyd & Lazarus, 1982, cited by Dewe et al., 2012). Lazarus distinguishesbetweentwotypesofappraisal:primaryandsecondary.Primaryappraisalrepresentstheperson’sevaluationofthesituationorencounteranditspersonalmeaning,whereas secondaryappraisalfocusesonthemeasuresthatcanbetakentodealwiththesituationand thepersonalresourcesneededforthat(Deweetal.,2012).Thisiswhentheprocessofcoping with the stress starts, that is, efforts made by an individual to manage the stress. The researchershavedifferentiatedtwocopingapproaches:emotion-focusedandproblem-focused coping. Emotion-focused coping is focused on dealing with unpleasant emotions caused by stress,whileproblem-focusedcopingisdealingwiththeproblemsolving(Lazarus&Folkman, 1984). Generally,stresscanhavesomesignificanteffectsontheindividual’sphysical,psychological, anemotionalhealth.Stresscanweakentheimmunesystem,whichcanleadtoincreasedrisks ofcontractingillnessesandinfections,causecardiovascular(e.g.highbloodpressureandheart diseases), musculoskeletal (e.g. headaches and back pain), and gastrointestinal system problems(e.g.diarrhea)(Luthans,2011).Consequencesofstressonmentalhealthareoftendisregarded,yetstillitcantriggeranger,anxiety,depression,nervousness,tension,andboredom (Luthans,2011). 2.1.1 Classificationsofstress Sincethetermstressisnotaneasyonetodescribeandthereisnoonecertaindefinitionofit, it is no wonder that several classifications of the stress have been proposed by different research.Levi(1971,citedbySzaboetal.,2012)wasthefirstonetoidentifythedifferencebetween“positive”and“negative”stress.Later,Selye(1974)introducedtheappropriateterms forthesekindsofstress:“eustress”forapositivestress,and“distress”foranegativeone.Selyealsonoticedthatpeoplearequalifyingthestressortobedistressoreustressindividually. Thisdecisionisdependentnotonlyonanactualamountofdemandperceivedbytheindividu- 10 MASTERTHESISTITLE al,butalsoonothercharacteristics,suchasthetiming,theperceptionofthedesirabilityofthe demand,ifitisbeneficial,whetherthedemandisself-imposedorimposedexternally,andif imposedexternally,whereexactlyitcamefrom(afriend,amanager,apolice,etc.)(Fevreet al., 2003). Selye (1974, cited by Szabo, 2012) has underlined in his works, that “stress is not whathappenstoyou,buthowyoureacttoit”.However,somecommonexamplesofdistress andeustresscanbefoundintherelevantliterature.Thus,typicaltypesofdistressare:divorce, punishment,injury,negativefeelings,financialproblems,workdifficulties(TheAmeriсanInstituteofStress,2016a),deathofafamilymember,conflictininterpersonalrelationships,legal problems, etc. (Mills et al., 2008). Eustress can be caused by marriage, promotion, winning money, establishing new relationships and making new friends, graduation (The Ameriсan InstituteofStress,2016a),havingachild,takingavacation,retiring,learninganewhobby,etc. (Millsetal.,2008).Eustresscanhavesuchpositiveimpactsasincreasedmotivation,focused energy,feelingofexcitement,orimprovedperformance.Distress,however,canleadtoanxiety,decreasedperformance,mentalorphysicalproblems(Millsetal.,2008). Lazarus (1966) has specified three kinds of stress: harm, threat, and challenge. Harm is the psychologicaldamagethathasalreadyoccurredandcannotbechange;threatistheanticipation of harm that has not happened yet, but might already be unavoidable; and challenge comes from the difficult demands that one feels confident to meet by mobilizing own resources (Lazarus, 1993). These types of stress are caused by different preceding events, not only in an environment, but also within the person, and can lead to various consequences. Thus,stateofthreatcancauseseriousproblemswithmentaloperationsandweakenfunctioning,whereaschallengecanhaveverypositiveeffects,suchasimprovedperformanceandincreasedmotivation(Lazarus,1993). Dr.Albrechtdefinedfourcommontypesofemotionallyinducedstress.Theseare:timestress, anticipatory stress, situational stress, and encounter stress (Albrecht, 1979). Time stress is anxiousresponsetotheconceptoftime,forinstanceastrongfeelingoftheneedtodosomething within a certain time period. People experiencing time stress can feel “desperate, trapped, miserable, and often rather helpless” (Albrecht, 1979, p.89). Anticipatory kind of stress, also sometimes generally referred to as a “worry” or fear of the future, is a state of anxiety about some independent occasion with little or no reason underlining. This type of stressisexperiencedbyalmosteveryoneatleastoncetoacertainextentandcanbeexplained asacommonworrythatsomethingwillgowrong(Albrecht,1979).Situationalstressisastate of anxiety due to a situation in which one feels threatened, has little or no control over the situationandisafraidto“loseface”intheeyesoftheothersortobephysicallyinjured.Encounterstressisafearofhavingtodealwithapersonorgroupofpeoplewhoonedoesnot likeorwouldnotbewillingtodealwithatthecertainmoment.Encounterstresscanalsobea resultofgettingtiredofinteractingwithtoomanypeople(Albrecht,1979). 11 MASTERTHESISTITLE Other well-known types of stress are acute, episodic acute, and chronic stress. Acute stress, alsoknownas‘fightorflight’response,isthemostcommonkindofstressthateveryperson experiencesmanytimesthroughoutlife.Usually,acutestressiscausedbycertaineventsinthe recentpastorbytheanticipationofsomethinginthenearestfuture(AmericanPsychological Association,2016b).Acutestresstendstobeshort-term,andaftertheresponsetoitisover,it takes about 90 minutes for the metabolism to get normal again (The Ameriсan Institute of Stress,2016a).Thecommonsymptomsofacutestressare:emotionaldistress,muscularproblems, stomach, gut and bowel problems, as well as increased blood pressure, sweaty palms, dizziness, cold hands or feet, shortness of breath, etc. (American Psychological Association, 2016b).Acutestressassuchisnotdangerousandcanbesuccessfullytreatedandmanaged. Episodicacutestressisamoreserioustypeofstress,whichoccurswhenapersonisexperiencing acute stress more frequently and does not get adequate relief. In contrast to the acute stress,whichisrathershort-term,episodicacutestressisusuallyhappeningonthedailybasis. Thiskindofstressischaracterizedwiththesymptomsofextensivearousal,suchaspermanent headaches,migraines,hypertensions,andheartdiseases(AmericanPsychologicalAssociation, 2016b). Chronicstressisthemostharmfulanddangeroustypeofstress.Itariseswhenoneisfeeling trapped in a certain stressful situation and does not see any possible solution. This type of stresscanbearesultofaPostTraumaticStressDisorderorchildhoodexperience,butalsoit cancomefromtheuntreatedanduncontrolledeverydaystress(PortoleseDias,2012).Chronic stressislong-termandthefactthatpeoplecangetusedtoitmakesthediagnosticevenmore difficult (American Psychological Association, 2016b). Chronic stress can have such serious physical and psychological consequences as anxiety, insomnia, muscle pain, high blood pressure,weakenedimmunesystem,etc.(AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,2016c).Apartfrom beingaprimarycauseforsuchproblems,chronicstresscanstronglycontributetothedevelopmentofotherhealthproblems:heartdiseases,depression,orobesity(AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,2016c). In order to describe how performance is affected throughout the different stress stages, Dr. Nixonhasdevelopeda‘HumanFunctionCurve’(seeFigure1).Asitcanbeseen,atthedrone zonethereisnotenoughpositivestresstohaveanimpressiveperformance,thusonecanfeel boredandnotmotivated.Duringprimarystagesofarousal,namelyhealthytension,theperformanceisincreasingtogetherwiththeamountofstress.IntheC’Zonetheperformanceis reachingoneofthehighestlevelsduetoeustress(PortoleseDias,2012).Healthytensionrepresents the perfect state for not only top performance, but also for the sustainable success andpersonalwellbeing(Holden,2008,p.295).Atthisstageonefeelsmentallyandphysically healthy,motivatedandbalanced(Holden,2008).However,oncethepeakispassed,andstress isgettingchronic,oneisenteringthefatiguezone(PortoleseDias,2012).Atthisstagenotonly doestheperformancedecrease,butalsothedangerofnegativeconsequencesincreases.Itis 12 MASTERTHESISTITLE importanttorecognizethesignsofchronicstressearlyenoughinordertominimizetheharmfuleffects(Holden,2008).Ifthisisnotdoneproperly,thezoneofexhaustionisentered,which can lead to serious consequences, such as ill health or burnout, and dramatically decreased performance. FIGURE1THEHUMANFUNCTIONCURVE(PORTOLESEDIAS,2012) Whentalkingabouttheclassificationofstress,itisimportanttoalwaysrememberthatithighlydependsonapersonalityandtheperceptioncandramaticallydifferfrompersontoperson. Forinstance,thesameeventcanbeconsideredbyonepersonasapositiveone,andtherefore resultineustress,andforanotheroneitmightresultinacutestresswithnegativefeelingsand consequences.However,therearesomecommoncharacteristicsofstressintermsofreaction andconsequences.Someofthose,mostlyfromphysicalandpsychologicalperspective,were discussed before in this section. However, as one can see from above, there are also other important aspects that can be strongly affected, such as individual and group performance, decision-makingprocesses,orperception(Kavanagh,2005). 2.1.2 Stressors Theterm“stressor”itselfwasintroducedbySelye(1956)todefine“theexternalforceorinfluenceactingontheindividual”(citedbyFevreetal.,2003).However,eventhoughthisisamost commonterminology,certainresearchershavebeenusingdifferentdefinitions.Forinstance, someauthors,likeEdwards(1998),wereusingtheterm“stress”todefinetheseexternalforces,and“strain”fortheresultingaction(Fevreetal.,2003). So,generallyspeaking,stressorsarethesourcesofstressthatcanbebothinternalandexternal.Similarlywiththestressitself,therearevariousclassificationsofstressorsofferedbydifferent researchers. They can differ in terms of their origin, clarity, duration, choice, level of inducedstressandifthestressorarisesaloneortogetherwiththeotherones(Weber,2011). 13 MASTERTHESISTITLE One of the common classifications offers a logical division of stressors into four categories: environmental,organizational,group,andindividualstressors(Anbazhaganetal.,2013). Environmentalstressorsincludeseveralsocialandtechnicalinfluencingfactors,suchas“technological change, family demands and obligations, economic and financial conditions, race, caste,class,ethnicidentity,relocationandtransfers”(Anbazhaganetal.,2013).Moregenerally, environmental stressors have been divided into 4 categories:cataclysmic events, stressful lifeevents,dailyhassles,andambientstressors.Cataclysmiceventsincludetheonesthatare usuallyaffectingthewholecommunity,suchascatastrophes,naturalandtechnologicaldisasters,andwars,butalsoimprisonment(Evans&Cohen,1987).Stressfullifeeventsareusually the significant ones that require some kind of personal or social adaptation, such as, for instance, marital status, social or economic condition changes. Whereas daily hassles are the situations that everyone is experiencing on a daily-basis and that are usually causing shortterm stress. These daily hassles include problems at work or in the family, or environmental conditions,suchasnoise,crowding,orweather.‘Ambientstressors’isthetermdevelopedby Campbell (1983) to describe the stressors that are often represented as background permanentconditionsthathavenegativeimpactsandcanbephysicallyperceptibleandhardlymanageable. One of the examples of ambient stressors would be living in an area with heavy air pollution(Evans&Cohen,1987). Organizational stressors are emerging from within the organization, for instance policies, strategies, structure and design, processes organization and working conditions (Anbazhagan etal.,2013).CooperandMarshall(1976)haveintroducedfivemaincategoriesofworkstressors: ones intrinsic to the job, role in the organization, career development, relationship at work, and organizational structure and climate. Organizational stressors will be discussed in moredetailsfurtherinthispaper. Groupstressorsaretheonesthatoccurwithintheformalandinformalgroups,towhichone belongs. Examples of such stressors are: lack of group cohesiveness, lack of social support, interpersonal and inter group conflict. Individual stressors are considered to be the internal ones, for instance, role conflict and ambiguity, personality traits, life and career changes (Anbazhaganetal.,2013). AnotherwidespreadclassificationofstressorsintroducedbyHill(1949,citedbyWeber,2011) distinguishesbetweeninternalandexternalstressors,basedontheirorigin.Internalstressors originatewithinapersonandrepresentstress-inducingthoughtsorbehaviour,personalperceptions, and expectations. Common internal stressors are pessimism, putting pressure on oneself to be perfect, negative self-talk, perfectionism, unrealistic expectations, and lack of assertiveness(Greene,2013).Externalstressorsareallthatarenotself-induced,theyarecomingfromoutside.Onecanarguethatforsomepeoplecopingwithexternalstressorsismore challengingastheyareusuallyoutofindividual’scontrol(Weber,2011).Theexamplesofex- 14 MASTERTHESISTITLE ternalstressorsaremajorlifechanges,work,financialproblems,relationshipandfamilyissues (Greene,2013). Asitwasalreadydiscussedabove,sometypesofstress(eustress)canhavepositiveeffectson individuals,whilstothermighthavenegativeconsequences(distress).Thesimilarclassification was used in the research about stressors behind positive and negative stress, which were named challenge and hindrance stressors accordingly. Thus, hindrance stressors are the demandsthatareperceivedbyanindividualasobstructivetheprogresstowardpersonalaccomplishments or goal attainment (Colquitt et al., 2010), whilst challenge stressors are the demands perceived as opportunities for development, improving knowledge, and goal achievements (Colquitt et al., 2010). Many studies have been conducted with the focus on workrelatedhindranceandchallengestressors(Cavanaughetal.,2000;Bingham,Boswell,&Boudreau,2005).Cavanaughetal.(2000),forinstance,havefoundthathindrance-relatedstress hadnegativecorrelationwithjobsatisfactionandpositiveonewithjobsearchandturnover, whereas challenge-related stress showed positive effects on managers’ motivation and job satisfaction. Patterson (1988) has studied the stress experienced by the families and therefore classified stressorsbehinditbasedontheirorigin:individual,family,andcommunitystressors.Individualstressorsinthiscaseare,forexample,illnessorlossofjob;familystressorsincludedivorce, sexualabuse,havingachild;andcommunitystressorsareexternalones,likenaturaldisasters, taxes,bankfailures,etc.(Weber,2011). AnotherstressorclassificationwithinthefamilystressframeworkofferedbyBoss(1988,cited by Weber, 2011) differentiates volitional and nonvolitional stressors. The volitional stressors are the ones coming from voluntary induced events, such as wanted pregnancy, career change, or start of education (Weber, 2011). Nonvolitional stressors are ones “that are not soughtoutbutjusthappen,suchasbeinglaidofforthesuddenlossofsomeoneloved”(Boss, 1988,p.40).Apparentlycopingwithnonvolitionalstressorsismoredifficultthanwithvolitionalduetolackofcontrolandsuddennessoftheincident(Weber,2011). As it can be seen, there is the whole variety of classifications of stressors based on diverse criteria.Manyofthestressortypesintersect,whichmakesdistinctiveandclearclassification notpossible.However,understandingthenatureofstressors,andconsequentlyofstressorigins,canhelpnotonlymanagingtheexistingstressbetter,butalsoavoidingstressinthefuture. 2.2 OccupationalStress Occupationalstressasawidespreadphenomenonnowadayshasbeeninvestigatedandcategorized by several authors. Several research are proving that stress at work is the leading 15 MASTERTHESISTITLE sourceofstressamongAmericanadultsandthatithasdramaticallyincreasedduringthelast decades(TheAmericanInstituteofStress,2016b).AsurveyconductedinCanadareportsthat 38.8%ofCanadiansbetweentheagesof15and75areexperiencingslightstressatwork,25% are relatively stressed, and 5.4% of respondents are extremely stressed (Statistics Canada, 2002–updatedinSeptember2004,citedbyBrun&Lamarche,2006).Therisinginterestinthis topiccanbeexplainedbysomeverysignificantconsequencesassociatedwiththeoccupationalstressforbothemployeesandemployers(Watkins,2003;Brun&Lamarche,2006).Inorder tobeabletoanalyseallaspectoftheoccupationstress,itisfirstnecessarytounderstandthe natureandthefoundationsoftheoccupationalstress. Justaswiththegeneralstresstermdiscussedabove,thereisnoparticular,agreedupondefinitionoftheoccupationalstress,whichisalsosometimescalledjoborworkstress.Ross(1997, p.42)statesthatoccupationalstressis“theformofphysiologicalandemotionalarousal”experiencedbytheemployeewhenexposedtothethreateningsituationoraconflictwithanother staff member or a client. According to the Leka et al. (2004), “work-related stress is the response people may have when presented with work demands and pressures that are not matched to their knowledge and abilities and which challenge their ability to cope”. It is importanttounderstand,thatpressureatworkbyitselfcannotbetotallyavoidedinamodern businessworldandisnotnecessarilydestructive.Onthecontrary,whenaworkerisexperiencinganadequateandmanageableamountofpressure,heorshemightfeelalertandinspired todothejobandtolearn.Nevertheless,theperceptionofanacceptableamountofpressure isveryindividualandoncethelimitisexceededtheconsequencesonemployee’shealthand performance can be dramatic (WHO, 2016). According to several research papers, the most stressfultypesofworkaretheoneswheredemandsandpressurestowardstheemployeesare notmatchingtheirabilitiesandknowledge,whereworkersdonotgetanopportunitytomake choicesortohaveanycontrol,andwheresupportfromothersislacking(Lekaetal.,2004). At first, most of the research on occupational stress and its nature were focused within psychologicalandmedicalfield,thus,puttingemphasisontheindividualbehaviours,personality qualities and coping mechanisms initiated and managed by the individuals themselves (Lo & Lamm, 2005). However, more recent studies have acknowledged the need to have a more multifaceted view on the problem and to include the important environmental factors contributing to the stress. Thus, such factors as employment (e.g. salaries, company rules and policies,workingconditions),androlesplayedbyotherparties(e.g.employers,tradeunions, or government agents) were recognized to be significant in understanding the nature of the work-related stress (Lo & Lamm, 2005). Furthermore, many other aspects were accepted as beinginfluentialonstresslevels:forinstance,poorworkorganization,poorworkdesign,poor management,unsatisfactoryworkingconditions,andlackofsupportfrom colleaguesandsupervisors(Lekaetal.,2004). 16 MASTERTHESISTITLE Cooper,DeweandO’Driscoll(2001)havearguedthatoccupationalstresssourcescanbedividedintothreegroups:job-specific,organizationalandindividualsources.Firsttwosourcesare consideredtobeexternalorenvironmental.Theinvestigationoftheseenvironmentalsources wasofagreatinterestformanyresearchers.Thus,CooperandMarshall(1976)intheirOccupationalStressModelhavedistinguishedfivesourcesofworkstress:intrinsictojob,roleinthe organization, career development, relationships at work, and organizational structure and climate.Table1givesanoverviewofthesesourceswithsomeexamplesofpossiblestressors. Environmentalsources Stressors IntrinsictoJob Poorphysicalworkingconditions Workoverload Timepressures Physicaldanger,etc. RoleinOrganization Roleambiguity Roleconflict Responsibilityforpeople Conflicts are organizational boundaries (internal & external),etc. CareerDevelopment Overpromotion Underpromotion Lackofjobsecurity Thwartedambition,etc. RelationshipsatWork Poorrelationswithboss,subordinates,orcolleagues Difficultiesindelegatingresponsibility,etc. Organizational Structure and Cli- Littleornoparticipationindecision-making mate Restrictionsonbehavior(budgets,etc.) Officepolitics Lackofeffectiveconsultation,etc. TABLE1SOURCESOFSTRESSATWORK(COOPER&MARSHALL,1976) 17 MASTERTHESISTITLE CartwrightandCooper(1997)furtherdevelopedtheabove-mentionedmodelandaddedanotherenvironmentalfactor,namelythehome-workinterface.Ithasbeenacknowledgedthat workandfamilylifeareinterconnectedandcanhavehighimpactoneachother(Huangetal., 2004, cited by Zhao et al., 2011). According to Greenhaus and Beutell (1985, p. 77, cited by Zhaoetal.,2011)work-familyconflictis“aformofinter-roleconflictinwhichtherolepressuresfromtheworkandfamilydomainsaremutuallyincompatibleinsomerespect”.Lateron, thisaspectalsobecameoneofthepointsofinterestformanyresearchersinvestigatingoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andotherwork-relatedissues(Chiangetal.,2010;Zhaoetal., 2011). IvancevichandMatteson(1980)haveofferedtodifferentiatebetweenextraorganizationaland intraorganizationaljobstressors.Extraorganizaionalstressorsincludesuchfactorsasfinancial stability, family, health, and other stressors that appear outside the work life. Intraorganizationalstressorscanbedividedintofourcategories:individual,group,organizational,andphysical environment. Schuler (1982) distinguishes seven types of work stressors: job qualities, relationships,organizationalstructure,physicalqualities,careerdevelopment,changeandrole intheorganization. Roleconflictandroleambiguityarethejobstressantecedentsthathavebeenusedbynumerousresearcherstoanalyseandmeasuretheoccupationalstress(Rizwanetal.,2014;Sherazet al.,2014;Rametal.,2011;Kimetal.,2009).Roleconflictdefinitionsvaryamongtheresearchers.Kahnetal.(1964)havestatedthatroleconflictoccurswhenworkersarerequiredtohave two or more contradictory behaviours. The authors are distinguishing five types of role conflict: intersender conflict (when expectations of two people are not meeting each other), intrasender conflict (mismatch between individual’s expectations and the role), inter-role conflict(whendemandsfromtwodifferentpositionsaremismatching),person-roleconflict(when there is discrepancy between an individual and his/her role), and overload of roles (when there is not enough time to practise two or more roles that an individual has) (Kahn et al., 1964).Generally,roleconflictisaresultofthemismatchbetweentheexpectationsofanindividualandtheactualperceptionoftherole.Roleconflicthasprovedtohavesomeunpleasant consequencesontheemployeesandtheorganization,suchaspoorjobperformance,jobdissatisfaction, increased turnover (House & Rizzo, 1972; Bhatti et al., 2010), and psychological stress(Bekkeretal.,2000). Roleambiguityreferstothesituationwhenemployeeshavesomeuncertaintyabouthowthey should behave and what is expected of them (Kahn et al., 1964). House and Rizzo (1972, p. 474)definedroleambiguityas“thelackofclarityandpredictabilityoftheoutcomesofone’s behaviour”. Role ambiguity occurs when employees do not have a structured and consistent jobdescription,whentherearenodirectionsonhowtomeetthejobrequirements,orwhen theirperformanceassessmentisnotwell-defined(Sherazetal.,2014).Employeesexperienc- 18 MASTERTHESISTITLE ing role ambiguity are more likely to avoid making decisions, to feel anxious and dissatisfied abouttheirwork(House&Rizzo,1972). Hart and Cooper (2001) have offered an organizational health approach to the occupational stress,whichisillustratedinFigure2.Theauthors believethatbothindividualandorganizational factors have an influence on employee’s well-being that is, in turn, affecting organizational performance. ‘Individual characteristics’ in this model represent personalities of the employees,theircopingmechanisms,attitudesandbehaviors,while‘organizationalcharacteristics’ include both objective qualities of the organization (e.g. resources and structure) and workers’ subjective perceptions of those (e.g. organizational climate and work experiences) (Hart&Cooper,2001).Oneofthestrengthsofthismodelisthatithasnotonlyacknowledged theinteractionsbetweenindividualandorganizationalaspectsandtheirinfluenceonemployee’s well-being, but also included a solid link to organizational performance (Lo & Lamm, 2005).Moreover,themacrolevelhasalsobeenincludedinthemodel,recognizingtheinfluence of external factors, such as government policies and legislation, interactions with the customersandthepartners,anddemandsfromshareholders(Lo&Lamm,2005). FIGURE2AHEURISTICMODELOFORGANIZATIONALHEALTH(HART&COOPER,2001) Asalreadymentionedbefore,veryoftenoccupationalstressiscausedbythepoorworkdesign andmanagementoftheorganization.Hazardsrelatedtoworkstresscanalsobedividedinto twocategories:workcontentandcorkcontext(WHO,2016).Literatureonoccupationalstress usuallydistinguishesninestress-relatedhazards,whicharepresentedintheTable1.However, itisimportanttorememberthatsomehazardsarenotuniversalandsomeculturesmightnot find them harmful (Leka et al., 2004). As it can be seen in the Table 1, both categories have many risk factors, which should be addressed for both preventing and managing the workstresslevelintheorganizations. 19 MASTERTHESISTITLE Workcontent • Jobcontent Workcontext • ⇒ Monotonous,under-stimulating,meaningless ⇒ Jobinsecurity tasks • ⇒ Lackofpromotionprospects ⇒ Lackofvariety ⇒ Under-promotionorover-promotion ⇒ Unpleasanttasks ⇒ Workof“lowsocialvalue” ⇒ Aversivetasks ⇒ Pieceratepaymentschemes Workloadandworkpace ⇒ Unclear or unfair performance evaluation ⇒ Havingtoomuchortoolittletodo systems ⇒ Workingundertimepressures • ⇒ Being over-skilled or under-skilled for a job Workinghours ⇒ Strictorinflexibleworkingschedules • Careerdevelopment,statusandpay • Roleintheorganization ⇒ Longandunsocialhours ⇒ Unclearrole ⇒ Unpredictableworkinghours ⇒ Conflictingroleswithinthesamejob ⇒ Badlydesignedshiftsystems ⇒ Responsibilityforpeople Participationandcontrol ⇒ Continuously dealing with other people andtheirproblems ⇒ Lackofparticipationindecision-making ⇒ Lack of control (e.g. over work methods, • Interpersonalrelations ⇒ Inadequate, inconsiderate or unsupport- workpace,workinghours,andtheworken- ivesupervision vironment ⇒ Poorrelationshipswithco-workers ⇒ Bullying,harassmentandviolence ⇒ Isolatedorsolitarywork ⇒ No agreed procedures for dealing with problemsorcomplaints • Organizationalculture ⇒ Poorcommunication ⇒ Poorleadership ⇒ Lackofclarityaboutorganizationalobjectivesandstructure • Home-workinterface ⇒ Conflictingdemandsofworkandhome ⇒ Lack of support for domestic problems at work ⇒ Lack of support for work problems at home TABLE2STRESS-RELATEDHAZARDSATWORK(LEKAETAL.,2004) 20 MASTERTHESISTITLE While organizational characteristics as well as environmental factors that can contribute to employees’ well-being and stress levels have been already thoroughly discussed above, individualcharacteristics,toucheduponintheHartandCooper’smodel,areworthmentioningin moredetails.Therearemanyindividualcharacteristicsthatcanhaveinfluenceonjobstress, butthisresearchwillgiveanoverviewonsomeofthem,namelyjobexperience,TypeAbehaviorpattern,andBigFivepersonalitycharacteristics. Somestudieshaveestablishedthatthemoreexperiencetheindividualhas,thelessheorshe isexposedtotheoccupationalstress.Thisrelationshipcanbeexplainedbyatleasttwotheories.First,theideaofselectivewithdrawal,thatstatesthatpeoplearemorelikelytovoluntary leavethejobiftheyareexperiencingmorestress,which,inturniscausedbycertainpersonal characteristics.Therefore,employeesthattendtostaywiththecompanyforlongertimeare theoneswhoaremorestress-resistant(Motowidloetal.,1986).Theotherreasonisadaptation. According to this concept, people tend to improve their coping mechanisms over the time, thus more experienced employees might become more stress-resistant (Motowildo et al.,1986). TypeAbehaviorisasyndrome,whichischaracterizedbyaggressiveness,competitiveness,and impatience (Ivancevich & Matteson, 1984). People with Type A behavior tend to be continuously engaged in many activities that imply overcoming obstacles in a short amount of time (Rose,1987).Thus,employeeswithsuchbehaviorareexpectedtobeinvolvedinmorestressfuleventsandperceivesomesituationsasmorestressful(Motowidloetal.,1986). Even though the role of the Big Five personality characteristics in the occupational stress is understudied,thistopicisstillofasubstantialinterestfortheresearchersandthereissome evidencethatsupportstheinterrelations.TheBigFivetheorydistinguishesbetweendifferent personality characteristics, namely neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness(Costa&McCrae1989,citedbyHart&Cooper,2001).Neuroticismrefersto atendencyofapersontoconcentrateonnegativeaspectsofoneselfandtheenvironmentand toexperiencenegativeemotions(Costa&McCrae1989,citedbyHart&Cooper,2001).This typeofpersonalityhasbeenprovedtohaveoneofthestrongestrelationshipswiththestress levels(Hart&Cooper,2001).Extraversiontypeofpersonalityreferstotheindividuals,whoare tendingtobeactive,talkative,optimistic,affectionate,andperson-oriented(Costa&McCrae 1989,citedbyHart&Cooper,2001).Extraversionincludessuchaspectasgregariousness(the extentofsocialinteractionofaperson),empathy(thelevelofinterpersonalwarmththatone ispredisposedto),andpositiveaffectivity(theextentofindividual’spositiveattitudetolife). Scientific evidence shows that this personality trait is strongly linked with problem-focused coping, positive life experiences, and psychological health (Hart & Cooper, 2001). The three otherpersonalitytypes(openness,agreeableness,andconscientiousness)havenotyetyielded anystrongscientificevidenceintermsofinterconnectionwiththeoccupationalstress,butone can argue about potential relations. Thus, agreeableness refers to people, who tend to be 21 MASTERTHESISTITLE compliant,helpful,andeasygoing(Costa&McCrae1989,citedbyHart&Cooper,2001).These peoplemighthavebetterrelationshipswiththecolleaguesandsupervisorsduetotheircalm and non-confrontational nature, and consequently lower levels of stress (Hart & Cooper, 2001).Opennesstypeofpersonalityrepresentspeoplewhoareopentonewideasandexperiences (Costa & McCrae 1989, cited by Hart & Cooper, 2001). This type of personality might havebothnegativeandpositivecorrelationswithoccupationalstress.Ontheonehand,these peoplemightbehighlyengagedandmotivated,butontheotherhand,theycanbetoocreativeanddreamyforsomeorganizations,wherethisisnotencouraged(Hart&Cooper,2001). Thelastbutnotleastpersonalitytype,conscientiousness,ischaracterizedbythetendencyto be devoted, respectful, and insistent (Costa & McCrae 1989, cited by Hart & Cooper, 2001). The workers having those personality traits can be expected to be more passionate and engagedinthejob,whichinturnmayimprovetheirwell-beinganddecreasestresslevel(Hart& Cooper,2001). Apart from individual characteristics and environmental factors, stress levels were proved to varyamongthedifferentdemographicgroups.Thus,womentendtosuffermorethanmennot only from general stress (Almedia & Kessler, 1998; Rosch, 2014), but also from the workrelated stress (Michael et al., 2009). Research by Burke et al. (2008) reported that female managersareexperiencingmorestressthanmaleonesduetothefamily-workconflict.Rosch (2014) explains this phenomenon by hormonal differences (women’s hormone level is less stablethanmen’s),orwomen’sgeneticpredispositionfordepression.Interestingly,thedifferences in stress can also be explained by the fact that women tend to consult a doctor more oftenthanmen,andthusaremorelikelytobediagnosed(Rosch,2014).Possiblythisisalso oneofthereasonswhyresearchdonebyO’NeillandDavis(2009;2011)inthehotelindustry hasnotshownanysignificantdifferencesinoccupationalstressamongmenandwomen. Some researchers have proved that marital status influences stress levels of the individuals. Thus, married employees tend to experience more stress than their unmarried colleagues (Kessler,1979;Vanagas,2004).Parveen(2009)hasinvestigatedthedifferencesofoccupationalstressbetweenmarriedandunmarriedwomenandhassimilarlysupportedthenotionthat married employees have experienced more stress than unmarried ones. These results might be explained by work-family pressures, obligations, and increased home stressors (Parveen, 2009;O’Neill&Davis,2009). Anotherpotentialfactorinfluencingthestresslevelsofindividualsishavingchildren.Asitwas alreadymentionedbefore,havingachilditselfisconsideredtobeastressor.Thus,thereisno surprisethatparentsaremoreexposedtothestressthannon-parents,especiallywhenthey areemployed(Lamanna&Riedmann,2012;Hobart,2015).However,thestudybyO’Neilland Davis(2009)hasnotfoundanysignificantdifferencesinstressexperiencedbytheemployees whohadordidnothavechildren. 22 MASTERTHESISTITLE Ageofindividualsisanotherfactorthatcaninfluencethelevelofstress.Researchonthestress levelsamongAmericanshasshown,thatindividualsbetween18and47yearsoldreporthigherstresslevelsthantheolderones(AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,2016a).Anotherresearchhasalsofoundthatyoungadults(25-35yearsold)andearlymiddleaged(36-45years old)wereexperiencingmorestressduetosuchjobstressorsasroleoverload,roleambiguity, andstrenuousworkingconditionscomparedtolatemiddleaged(46-60yearsold)employees (Chandraiah et al., 2003). These results might reflect the differences in perception of certain stressorsandthecopingmechanismsthatpeoplehaveatdifferentages.Thus,manystressors, such as marriage, divorce, having children, or changes at work are more relevant for the youngeradults,andtheeverydayhasslesthatinfluencethestresslevelareperceivedasless stressfulforolderpeople(Aldwinetal.,1996). Lastbutnotleast,theleveloftheeducationoftheemployeescanalsoinfluencetheoccupationalstressexperiencedbythem.Thus,researchhasshownthatbettereducatedpeopletend tobemoreexposedtostressatwork(Doughty,2013).Thereasonunderlyingthisphenomenon might be that individuals with higher qualifications and abilities have more demanding jobs and face more responsibilities (Doughty, 2013). However, the research among hospital nurseshasshowncontradictingresults,indicatingthatnurseswithsecondaryschooleducation werefeelingmorestressfulatworkthantheoneswithacollegedegree(Golubicetal.,2009). Thestudyonstressamongpoliceemployeeshasfoundthattherelationshipbetweeneducation and occupational stress is non-linear. The results indicated that the respondents with a high school diploma had the highest stress levels, whereas employees with master’s degree sufferedfromstressleastofall.Butatthesametimeofficerswithbachelor’sdegreewereless exposedtostresscomparedtocollegegraduates(Bartholome,2007). 2.2.1 EffectsofOccupationalStress Stressatworkcanhaveimpactsonbothindividualsandtheorganization.Individualssuffering fromworkstresscanhavevariousproblems,suchasinabilitytorelaxortoconcentrate,difficulties with thinking logically and making decisions, feeling distressed and irritable. One can also have troubles with sleeping, feeling tired, depressed, or anxious, or even have serious physicalproblems,suchasheartdiseases,disordersofthedigestivesystem,increasesinblood pressure,headaches,ormusculo-skeletaldisorders(Lekaetal.,2004).Inextremecases,when stressisleftuntreatedandisnotmanagedproperly,theconsequencesmaybeasseriousas psychiatricdisordersandpsychologicalproblems(Lekaetal.,2004).Whenworkersaresufferingfromstressandnotgettingenoughsupport,orsimplyarenotawareofthewaystomanagethestress,theymightalsogetengagedinunhealthyactivities,suchassmoking,consuming alcoholortakingdrugs(Lekaetal.,2004). Researchershavealsofoundthatstresscanbeoneofthemainfactorsinsuchaggressiveactionsassabotage,interpersonalaggression,hostility,andcomplaints(Luthans,2011).Moreo- 23 MASTERTHESISTITLE ver,theseactionsareprovedtobesignificantforpoorjobperformance,loweredself-esteem, resentmentofsupervision,inabilitytoconcentrateandmakedecisions,andjobdissatisfaction (Luthans,2011;O’Neill&Davis,2009).Alltheseconsequencesofstressarecostlyfortheemployerand,therefore,ofcourse,unfavourable. Othereffectsofoccupationalstressonthecompaniesaresometimesmoreapparent,forinstancethedamagedonetotheorganization’simagebothinternallyandexternally,andconsequently,increasedcomplaintsfromcustomersandclients.Unsafeworkingenvironmentand increasednumberofaccidentsatworkcanleadtodirectcostsfortheorganizationintermsof insurance and legal claims (Luthans, 2011; Leka et al., 2004). Last but not least, stress can heavilyincreasenotonlyemployees’absenteeism,butalsoboosttheturnoverrates(Lekaet al.,2004;O’Neill&Davis,2009). Accordingtoexistingliterature,therearefourwaysinwhichemployeescanreactonthework stressandjobdissatisfaction:exit,voice,loyalty,andneglect(Farrell,1983,citedbyHonetal., 2013). Workers can chose to leave the organization (exit), they can prefer to stay and to be activelyinvolvedinseekingforimprovementsandreducingthesourcesofstress(voice),some mightdecidetostayinthecompanyandacceptthesituationasitiswithoutanyattemptsto improve it (loyalty), or they can remain and passively demonstrate withdrawal behaviours (neglect).AccordingtoFarrell(1983,citedbyHon,2013),theexitadvoicereactionsareconstructivefortheorganization,whileloyaltyandneglectaredestructiveones. 2.2.2 ManagingOccupationalStress Managing stress at work is important due to the various consequences that were discussed above.Eventhoughmanyofthemaredealingwithindividuals,theyallmightresultinnegative counter-productive consequences for the organization (e.g. job dissatisfaction, absenteeism, increasedturnoverintention(Kimetal.,2009).CooperandPayne(1998,citedbyRoss,1997) insistthatpreventativemeasurestakenbythemanagementoftheorganizationcanmaximize the profit margins and ensure employees’ productivity and satisfaction. Therefore, organizationsshouldbeconcernedaboutandengagedintheactionsandmeasurestonotonlyprevent excessiveoccupationalstressamongtheemployees,butalsotobeabletoproperlymanageit inordertominimizethenegativeeffects. AccordingtotheWorldHealthOrganization(1986,citedbyLekaetal.,2004)healthisnotonly theabsenceofdisease,butastateofcompletephysical,mentalandsocialwell-being.Therefore,ahealthyworkingenvironmentdoesnotonlymeantheabsenceofharmfulconditions, butalsoactivelypromotinghealthyones(Lekaetal.,2004).Thiscouldincludesuchactionsas “continuousassessmentofriskstohealth,theprovisionofappropriateinformationandtrainingonhealthissuesandtheavailabilityofhealthpromotingorganizationalsupportpractices andstructures”(Lekaetal.,2004). 24 MASTERTHESISTITLE Inordertominimizetheoccupationalstress,employeesshouldhavetheopportunitytocontrol their work, be engaged, and receive enough support from the colleagues and the management (WHO, 2016). Research conducted by Hon et al. (2013) states that feedback from supervisorscanencourageemployees’creativityandthushelpthemtoperceivestressasrather challenge-related and positive. Ross (1997) has found that clear and autonomous work role, improved communication among the employees and with the management, and more attentionfromthemanagementtotheneedsoftheworkersandtheirfamiliescancontribute totheeffectivestressavoidanceorminimization. 2.2.3 OccupationalStressintheHospitalityIndustry The occupational stress in “low risk industries” that are employing emotional and aesthetic labour(Hannifetal.,2006)hasalreadybeendiscussedinseveralresearchpapers.Eventhough hospitalityindustrybelongstothose“lesshazardous”industries,thereareseveralimportant characteristicsthatmakehotelbusinessenvironmentratherstressfulfortheemployees.First ofall,manyhotelworkershavetoconstantlybeinadirectcontactwithcustomers,providing servicesinafriendly,positive,andempatheticway(Lo&Lamm,2005).Moreover,employees in many customer-oriented industries are often more exposed to the work stress due to the conflicting demands from the company, the supervisors, and the clients (Ruyter et al., 2001, cited by O’Neill & Davis, 2009). Also the working conditions in hospitality industry are often characterisedbylowwages,irregularworkinghours,highworkdemandsandintensiveinteractionswiththeclients(Lo&Lamm,2005). Some authors argue that hotel work environment is especially stressful due to the dichotomous nature of the hotel industry, meaning that the emphasis put on fluctuating financial profits and tight margins are going along with the necessity to deliver quality service (Lo & Lamm,2005).Variousstudieshavealsoprovedoccupationalstresstohavenegativeinfluence onprovidingqualitycustomerserviceduetotheincreasedexhaustionoftheworkers(Varca, 1999;O’Neill&Davis,2009). Studies about the work-related stress in hospitality industry have found the correlation between stress and the physiological symptoms the employees are facing, such as headaches, fatigue,indigestion,ulcers,bloodpressure,heartattacks,andstrokes(Kroneetal.,1989).Theseconsequencesmightdecreasetheefficiencyofemployeesandincreasehealthexpenditures fortheemployer(O’Neill&Davis,2009). O’NeillandDavis(2011)intheirresearchaimedtounderstandthenatureandquantityofhospitality employee stress. The authors identified two most common stressors – interpersonal tensions and overloads, and came to a conclusion that hotel managers are feeling the most stressors.Theyalsostatedthatjobstressandhealthproblemshavepositivecorrelation. 25 MASTERTHESISTITLE A study by Brymer et al. (1991) has investigated the perceived stress level of the hospitality managers by asking them to estimate their stress level on the scale from 1 (very low) to 10 (very high). The average response was 7.55, which demonstrated a relatively high level of stressamongthemanagers(Brymeretal.,1991).Hannifetal.(2006)intheirarticle“Occupational Stress In The Service Sector: A New Dimension” have studied how service sector employees perceive stress and manage it. They came to a conclusion that although employees perceivetheirstresslevelaslowtomoderate,absenteeismandstaffturnoverratesarehigh andincrease.Anbazhaganetal.(2013)intheirresearchpaperhaveusedOccupationalStress Index in order to measure occupational stress of hotel employees in Puducherry. The study showed that 93.33% of the employees are suffering from stress and moderate level of job stressisprevailingintheindustry.Karatepeetal.(2014)haveevidencedthatchallengestressorscanhavepositiveinfluenceonthejobsatisfactionandjoboutcomesinthehotelindustry aswell.Theauthorscametoaconclusionthatchallengestressorsleadtoworkengagement thatinturnenhancesjobperformance(Karatepeetal.,2014). 2.3 Jobsatisfaction Jobsatisfactionisoneoftheimportanttopicstostudywhenitcomestohumanresources.The fact that in hotel business employees are constantly interacting directly with customers only proveshowessentialitistoknowwhichfactorscaninfluencejobsatisfactionandwhatconsequencestheremightbe. It is believed that the concept of job satisfaction was first introduced by Landsberger (1958, cited by Khuong & Tien, 2013). Although he did not mention job satisfaction as such, Landsbergerintroducedthebasisforthisterm.HisHawthorneeffectindicatedthatemployeesare workingnotonlybecausetheyarepaidforthat.Furtheron,theconceptwasthoroughlyinvestigatedandthejobsatisfactionideaemerged.Themostcommondefinitionofjobsatisfaction wasofferedbyLocke(1969,p.317),whodefinedjobsatisfactionas“thepleasurableemotionalstateresultingfromtheappraisalofone’sjobasachievingorfacilitatingones’jobvalues”. Manystudiesidentifyjobsatisfactionas“anaffectiveoremotionalresponsetothecomparisonbetweenactualanddesiredjobcharacteristics”(Edwards&Shipp,2007,p.220).Another definitionofferedbyBrief(1998,p.86)statesthatjobsatisfactionis“aninternalstatethatis expressedbyaffectivelyand/orcognitivelyevaluatinganexperiencedjobwithsomedegreeof favourordisfavour”.Thelatterdefinitiondenotesanimportantfactthatjobsatisfactionconsistoftwocomponents:anaffectivereaction(i.e.,whethertheemployeelikesordislikesthe job), and a cognitive appraisal (i.e., whether the job is valuable for the employee) (Locke, 1976). However, this dichotomous view on job satisfaction was found rather confusing and thus two solutions were offered. One way would be to define job satisfaction exclusively by cognitive component, that is as “a positive (or negative) evaluative judgement one makes 26 MASTERTHESISTITLE aboutone’sjoborjobsituation”(Weiss,2002,p.175).Theotheroptionwouldbetoconcentrateonaffectiveterms,andthustreatthecognitiveappraisalasaseparatefactor(Edwards& Shipp,2007). The antecedents of job satisfaction can be divided into two groups: the ones intrinsic to the jobenvironmentandrelatedtothejobitself,andtheonesarisingfromtheindividual’scharacteristicsandtraits(Spector,1997,citedbyAl-Ababneh&Lockwood,2010).Armstrong(2003) offered a more detailed classification and distinguished between extrinsic factors, intrinsic factors, social relationships at work, individual’s capabilities to do the job, and the quality of supervision. Thefactorsinfluencingthejobsatisfactioncanbesummarizedalongthefollowingdimensions: the work itself, pay, promotions, supervision, work group and working conditions (Luthans, 2011).Thus,theinterestingandchallengingcontentofwork,careerdevelopmentopportunities,andfamily-friendlyjobenvironmentcanpositivelyinfluencethejobsatisfaction.Fairand competitivewagesandsalariesarehighlycontributingtothejobsatisfactionofanemployee, alsobecausetheemployeesperceivepayasanindicatorofhowvaluabletheyarefortheorganization(Luthans,2011).Promotionopportunitieshavequitediverseoutcomesintermsof jobsatisfaction.Forinstance,employeespromotedonthebasisoftheirperformancearefeelingmoresatisfiedthantheonespromotedonthebasisofseniority.Supervisionaffectsthejob satisfactionintermsofpersonalinterestofsupervisorsintheemployee’slife,andtheopportunities for the employees to participate in the decisions that influence their jobs. Having a strong,friendly,effective,andcooperativeteamatworkcanpositivelyinfluencethejobsatisfactionoftheemployees.However,havinga“good”teamatworkisnotcrucialtobesatisfied. Butthenegativeinfluenceofbadrelationshipsinthegrouphasmuchmoresignificanceforthe lowerjobsatisfaction.Thesameprincipleappliestotheworkingconditions:iftheyaresuitable,theeffectonsatisfactionisnotsignificant,buthavingpoorworkingconditionscanheavily decreasejobsatisfaction(Luthans,2011).Researchhasfoundthatsuchindicatorsassalaries, relationshipswithcolleaguesandsupervisors,andworkitselfarethemostimportantforjob satisfaction (Gallardo et al., 2010). HR management practices, job design and characteristics canalsoinfluencejobsatisfactionofemployees(Kusluvanetal.,2010). Studyhasshownthathygienefactorsarethemostrelevantwhendefiningthejobsatisfaction levels in the hospitality industry due to lower expectations of the employees in this sector (Mullins,1998).Thesefactorsincludeworkingconditions,interpersonalrelations,supervision, job security, benefits, company policies and management, and salary (Herzberg et al., 1959, citedbyAl-Ababneh&Lockwood,2010).Themotivationalfactorsfromthetheoryintroduced by Herzberg et al. (1959, cited by Al-Ababneh & Lockwood, 2010), namely recognition, advancement,achievement,autonomy,workitselfandresponsibility,werefoundtohavesignificantly less impact on job satisfaction in tourism industry. Accordingly, several studies have already evidenced that, for instance, sales managers facing high job demands, work-family 27 MASTERTHESISTITLE conflict,andhavinglowjobcontroltendtohavelowerjobandlifesatisfaction(Chiangetal., 2010;Zhaoetal.,2011). Clearly,jobsatisfactionisanimportantaspectinthelivesofemployeesandenhancingitcan bringbenefitsforthecompanyaswell.Forinstance,jobsatisfactioncanmoderatelyincrease job performance. Of course, job satisfaction alone will not make the employees stay in the company and remain loyal, but it can definitely help to avoid extremely high turnover rates anddecreaseabsenteeism.Moreover,increasingjobsatisfactionoftheemployeescanreduce occupationalstress(Luthans,2011).Thus,employersshouldratherbeinterestedinhowthey can improve job satisfaction among their employees. For instance, having fair salaries and wages, benefits, and offering promotion opportunities have proved to be important factors enhancingjobsatisfaction(Luthans,2011).AccordingtoLametal.(2001),oneofthewaysto increase job satisfaction among employees can be organizing training workshops and development plans, especially for new employees. Making jobs more fun can also decrease the chancesthatemployeesfeeldissatisfiedwiththeirjob(Luthans,2011). Differencesinjobsatisfactionaccordingtoseveraldemographiccharacteristicswereofinterestforseveralresearchers.Forinstance,studiesonthedifferencesduetothegenderofthe respondents have yielded controversial results. Thus, many researchers have not found the differencestobesignificantbetweenmenandwomen(Burkeetal.,2008;Civilidag&Sargin, 2013;Civilidag,2014).However,therewassomeevidencethatwomenreportedoverallhigher jobsatisfactionthanmen(Al-Ababneh&Lockwood,2010). SanerandEyüpoğlu(2013)intheirresearchonjobsatisfactionamongacademicshavefound thatmarriedrespondentsindicatehighersatisfactionthanunmarriedones.However,Azimet al.(2013)havenotfoundanysignificantdifferencesinjobsatisfactionduetothemaritalstatus. Ageprovedtohavesignificantinfluenceonthejobsatisfactioninsomeresearchpapers.Thus, middle-aged employees (36-45 years old) reported more job satisfaction than the younger adults (Chandraiah et al., 2003; Al-Ababneh & Lockwood, 2010). The lowest job satisfaction levelswerereportedbytheemployeesunder25yearsold(Al-Ababneh&Lockwood,2010). Intermsofeducation,aresearchbyAl-AbabnehandLockwood(2010)hasfoundthatemployees holding a degree are significantly more satisfied with their job then the ones without a degree.However,therehavebeenresearchers,whofoundeducationtoeitherhavenegative influence on the job satisfaction (Rogers, 1991, cited by Bilgic, 1998), or no significant influenceatall(Bilgic,1998). Studiesoneffectsofparenthoodonjobsatisfactionofemployeesdidnotcometoacommon conclusion.Someresearchershavefoundthathavingchildrendoesnotaffectjobsatisfaction 28 MASTERTHESISTITLE (Forgionne&Peeters,1982,citedbyBilgic,1998),whileothershaveconcludedthatnumberof childrennegativelyinfluencesjobsatisfaction(Bilgic,1998). Ithasalreadybeenmentionedbefore,thatjobsatisfactioncanbeinfluencedbytheoccupationalstress.Theinterrelationsbetweenthesetwoimportantaspectsofworkhavebeenofa great interest of many scientists. Thus, it has been found that stress at work has strong and negative correlation with job satisfaction in different industries (Richardson & Burke, 1991; Cavanaughetal.,2000;Rizwanetal.,2014;Xiangetal.,2014).Researchconductedinthehospitality sector has found such stressors as interpersonal tensions and role ambiguity to have significantnegativecorrelationwithjobsatisfaction(Yang,2010). 2.4 Employeeloyalty Employeeloyaltycanbedefinedasa“psychologicalattachmentorcommitmenttotheorganization” (Wan, 2012, p. 2). It arises form the increased job satisfaction and further develops intothesenseofcommitmentandemotionalattitudetowardsthecompany.Aloyalemployee ismorelikelytoworkefficientlytowardstheorganizationalgoalsanddemonstrateproductivityandcustomerorientation(Wan,2012). However,themoderndefinitionofemployeeloyaltyisrathercomplexandhassteppedaway from the traditional understating of loyalty as a “lifetime relationship with a particular employer”(Wan,2012,p.3).Nowadays,alongertenurewithanemployerdoesnotnecessarily meanemployeeloyalty.Forinstance,manyemployeesclaimthattheyarestayingatcurrent jobbecausetheyfeelobligedtostay(34%),theybelieveitwouldbedifficulttoleave(41%),or becausetheyareafraidofnotbeingabletofindanotherjob(27%)(Wan,2012).Thenumbers indicatethatasignificantnumberofemployeesarestayingwiththeircurrentemployerrather outofnecessitythanloyalty. Thelatestinvestigationsonemployeeloyaltyaroundtheworldshowcontradictingresultson thelevelsofemployeeloyalty.Ontheonehand,theinternationalsurveyonemployeeloyalty conductedbyManpowerGroup(2002)confirmsthattheemployeeloyaltyisgrowingallover the world, although it varies across geographical locations and demographic groups. For instance, the highest loyalty levels were observed in Mexico, the Netherlands and the United States,whereasthelowestloyaltylevelswerereportedinJapanandItaly.Intermsofdemographiccharacteristics,ithasbeenfoundthatwomen(76%)aremoreloyaltowardtheiremployer than men (68%) (ManpowerGroup, 2002). On the other hand, research conducted by NextGenerationConsulting,Inc.(2002,citedbyWan,2012)suggeststhatjobrotationshave alreadybecomeanormandbytheageof32employeeshavehadontheaverageninejobs. 29 MASTERTHESISTITLE ThereportofWalkerEmployeeRelationsBenchmark1999(Wan,2012)hasidentifiedthat33% of employees are not committed to the company and are planning to leave within the next twoyears.Themainreasonsfordecreasedloyaltyandintentionstoleavetheorganizationare “lackofmeaning,lackofefficacy,lackofvalues,lackofpersonalgrowthandlackofcommunity”(Wan,2012,p.4). Employeeloyaltyisanimportantfactorfortheorganizations,especiallyintheserviceindustry. Therehasbeenscientificevidencethatemployeeloyaltypositivelyinfluencescustomerloyalty,whichinturnincreasesrevenuesforthecompany(Ruccietal.,1998,citedbyWan,2012). The service-profit chain concept, developed by Heskett et al. (1994), found the relationship betweensuchfactorsasprofitability,customerloyalty,andemployeesatisfaction,loyalty,and productivity.AsitcanbeseeninFigure3,inordertohavesatisfied,andthusloyal,customers, thevalueoftheserviceprovidedshouldbemeaningful.Thiscanbeachievedwiththehelpof thesatisfiedandthusproductiveandloyalemployees.Thisconceptonceagaindemonstrates thatsatisfactionoftheemployeesisdirectlyandstronglycorrelatedwiththeirloyalty(Heskett etal.,1994). FIGURE3THELINKSINTHESERVICE-PROFITCHAIN(HESKETTETAL.,1994) Therehavebeenmanystudiesontheantecedentsoftheemployeeloyaltyandorganizational commitment. Of course, monetary rewards, sufficient and fair wages, and benefits are influencingloyaltyoftheemployees.Butithasbeenprovedthatthereareother,non-monetary, factors that are more critical and should not be underestimated. For instance, work-family balanceandmanagementacknowledgingthesignificanceofpersonalandfamilylifearesome 30 MASTERTHESISTITLE oftheessentialfactorscontributingtoemployeeloyalty(Wan,2012).Onthecontrary,workfamilyconflictisarecognizedproblemthathasbeenoftenprovedtohavehighimpactonemployee turnover, poor morale, decreased performance and commitment (Zhao et al., 2011). Research conducted by Karatepe and Uludag (2008) similarly confirms the fact that frontline hotel employees’ tendency to leave the job is significantly and positively correlated with the conflictsrelatedtoworkandfamilyimbalance. Another important factor influencing employee loyalty mentioned in many studies is performanceappraisalandfeedback(Jawahar,2006;Wan,2012).Notonlyfair,objective,andclear evaluationofemployee’sperformancecaninfluencetheloyalty(Wan,2012),butitalsoplaysa significantroleintherelationshipbetweenemployeeloyaltyandsatisfaction(Jawahar,2006). Furthermore, relationships with supervisors and managers are of importance for employee loyalty.Qualityofsupportandsupervision,strongleadership,effectivemanagement,appreciation and positive attitude from the supervisors lead to higher levels of employee loyalty (Locke,1976;ManpowerGroup,2002;Wan,2012).Amongotherdriversforemployeeloyalty aretheopportunitiesforpersonalgrowth,appropriateskillstraining,theorganizationsatisfying the needs of the customers or the society (Wan, 2012), good teamwork, trustworthy brand,varietyandpersonalinterestinthejob(ManpowerGroup,2002). Servicesectoremployeesreported‘openandhonestcommunication’asoneofthemostimportantfactorsfortheirloyalty(ManpowerGroup2002).OtherreasonsforhigherstaffturnoveridentifiedbythehotelemployeesinthestudyconductedbyFallonandRutherford(2010, p.454)are:“treatmentbysuperiors,amountofworkhours,jobpressure,scheduling,training, fringebenefitpackages,betteropportunitieselsewhere,andphysicaldemandofthejob”. Admittedly, there have not been many studies that explored the influence of demographical groups on the employee loyalty. However, several studies have included this aspect in the framework. Thus, as it was already mentioned above, women tend to show more loyalty towardsthejobthanmen(ManpowerGroup,2002;Sheikhy&Khademi,2015).Studyconducted bySheikhyandKhademi(2015)hasnotfoundanysignificantdifferencesintheloyaltyofthe employeesduetotheireducation. Another study has indicated that employees in the age from 55 to 64 are staying with their current employer for much longer period of time (median of 9.3 years) compared to the youngerworkersintheagefrom25to34(medianof2.9years)(Taylor,2006).However,longer tenure does not necessarily equal to higher employee loyalty. As it was discussed before, theremightbeotherfactorsthatcancauselongertenure. Theeffectsofhavingchildrenontheloyaltyofanemployeearenotsufficientlystudied.The researchbySibbaldetal.(2003)hasindicatedthatemployeeswithchildrenunder18yearsold 31 MASTERTHESISTITLE were less likely to leave the company. This might be explained by the bigger amount of responsibilitiesthatparentshave,however,doesnotnecessarilymeanthattheloyaltyishigh. Morerecentstudieshavealsoshownthatorganizationalloyaltyhasverystrongnegativecorrelation with turnover intentions (Wright & Kehoe, 2009; Bhatnagar, 2012; Mohsin et al., 2015),meaningthatengagedandloyalworkersaremorelikelytobesatisfiedwiththeirjob and therefore less exposed to the problem of absenteeism and turnover. Thus, it is of importanceandinteresttohaveacloserlookattheturnoverissues. Staffturnoverhasbeenatopicofinterestformanyresearchersinrecentyears.Employeesin theserviceindustryareessentialforthesuccessofthecompanyastheyaredirectlyinvolved inservicedeliveryprocessandcanaffectcustomersatisfaction.However,staffturnover,especiallyinthehospitalityindustryhasbecomeexceptionallyhighinthelastdecades(Yang,2010) andisoftenaround200%to300%peryear(Demiretal.,2007,p.477).Theseaspectsmakeit ofahighinterestandimportancetoinvestigatethereasonsunderlyingthephenomena. Turnoverintentionisa“consciousanddeliberatewilfulnesstoleavetheorganization”(Tett& Meyer,1993,p.262)anditrepresentstheindividual’sownsubjectivepossibilityorprobability to leave the job in the nearest future (Halawi, 2014). Mobley et al. (1979, cited by Halawi, 2014) distinguished four cognitive stages of turnover intention: (1) Thinking of quitting; (2) Planningtostayorleave;(3)Searchingforalternativecareer;(4)Adesiretoleavecurrentcareer. Porter and Steers (1973) introduced one of the first models investigating the antecedents of turnover.Theyhavegroupedthefactorsaffectingtheturnoverasfollows:organization-wide, immediateworkenvironment,jobcontent,andpersonalfactors.Organization-widefactorsare payandpromotion,jobsecurity,andorganizationalsize.Whiletheimpactofthefirsttwofactorsontheturnoverisratherclearandisrepresentedbynegativecorrelation,thethirdone, organizational size, did not show significant impact on staff turnover, however, absenteeism was considerably higher in larger companies (Porter & Steers, 1973). Immediate work environmentfactorsincludesupervisorystyle,workunitsize,andthenatureofpeergroupinteraction.Jobcontentfactorsarerepresentedbythegeneralnatureofwork,jobstressandrepetitiveness, job autonomy and responsibility, and role ambiguity and conflict. The evidence showed that turnover has positive correlation with such factors as job dissatisfaction, job stress and repetitiveness, perceived lack of job autonomy or responsibility (Porter & Steers, 1973,Ahmadetal.,2012).Roleambiguityandroleconflictcaninfluenceturnoverintwoways: first,theclarityofthejobrequirementscanhelptohirepeoplewhoareappropriateforthe jobandareawareoftheexpectationandtherewardsinthefirstplace,andsecondly,precise roleperceptionscanhelptoadjusttheexpectationsofexistingemployeestorealisticlevels.In bothcases,theexpectationsoftheemployeesaremorelikelytobemetandthereforetheir satisfaction is expected to be higher and decrease the turnover intentions (Porter & Steers, 32 MASTERTHESISTITLE 1973). Last but not least, personal factors that can affect staff turnover include age, tenure with the organization, similarity of job and vocational interest, personality traits, and family considerations. While age and the time spent in the organization are negatively correlated withtheturnover,similaritybetweentheactualjobandthevocationalinterestshasapositive relationshipwithemployee’swithdrawalintentions.Accordingtotheresearch,moreextreme personalitytraitscanleadtoincreasedturnover.Marriageandfamilyconcernseffectonturnoverdifferbygender.Thus,womentendtowithdrawduetofamilycircumstances,whilemen donotshowanytendencyduetothisfactor(Porter&Steers,1973). Thereisageneralnotionthatthelongeraworkerstaysintheorganization,themorevaluable heorshebecomes(Iqbaletal.,2015).However,therearecertainresearcherswhopointout thedichotomousunderstandingoftheturnoverprocessassuch.Wood(1992,p.95)mentions thattherearetwoopinionsaboutthelabourturnover:“Thefirstseeslabourturnoverasproblematicfortheindustry,thesecondregardshighturnoverasanunavoidableandevennecessaryanddesirablefeatureofhotelsandcatering”.Manley(1996)discussesbothviewsonthe turnoverproblemandstressestheneedforbetterresearchandunderstandingofthetopicin ordertobeabletomanagetheturnoverissueappropriately. Oneofthemainargumentsfortheturnoverhavingpositiveeffectsisthevalueofmobilityfor thestaff(Bowey,1976,citedbyDeery&Shaw,1997).Riley(1980)supportstheideathathigher turnover facilitates the development of skills among the employees. However, it is important to understand that these arguments are coming from the employee’s point of view ratherthanmanagement’sororganisation’s.Sullivan(2009)converselyarguesthatthereare positiveeffectsofturnoverontheorganizationaswell.Hedistinguishesbetweenthreetypes ofstaffturnoverintheorganizations:desirable,neutral,andundesirable.Desirableturnoveris referredtolosingtheemployeeswithpoorperformance,irrelevantskills,ortendencytocreateproblems.Neutralturnovermightimplysomereplacementcostsbutisstillconsideredto beacceptable.Examplesofneutralturnoverwouldbeemployeesleavingthepositionthatis notdifficulttofillagain,theoneswhowerehiredforshort-terminthefirstplace,orworkers quitting the job due to illness or other unpredictable causes. The worst type of turnover for thecompanyis,ofcourse,criticalorundesirableturnover.Thisturnoverincludestopemployees,whoarecriticalforperformingcertaintasks,providingveryspecificknowledgeorexperience,leadingormanagingtheteam.Ifanemployeehasbeenanessentialpartofthesuccessionplanorifheorsheleftthejobtogotothedirectcompetitor,theconsequencesforthe organizationcanbesevere(Sullivan,2009). Among other potential negative consequences for the organization caused by high turnover rates are decreased quality of services and goods, high replacement and recruitment costs, andreducedproductivityandprofitability(Johnson,1981,citedbyDeery&Shaw,1997;Manley,1996).Anothereffectofturnoverthatisparticularlyrelevantforthehotelindustryisthat 33 MASTERTHESISTITLE loyalguestsarenotrecognizedbythenewstaff,andtheriskoftheguestsfollowingfavorite stafftootherhotels(Manley,1996). Previousresearchhasalsofoundevidencethatjobstresshasnegativecorrelationwithorganizational commitment (Garg & Dhar, 2014). Although more decent research on the interrelationsbetweenoccupationalstressandemployeeloyaltyislacking,thereissufficientevidence thatemployeesexperiencingmorestressarealsomorelikelytoleavetheorganization(House &Rizzo,1972;Cavanaughetal.,2000;Bhattietal.,2010). Itcanbeconcludedfromtheabovethatmostoftheantecedentsareusuallyundercontrolof the management, meaning that once the drivers for employee loyalty are understood, the appropriatestrategiescanhelptoincreaseloyaltyanddecreasetheturnoverintheorganization.Wan(2012)hasgivenadecentoverviewofthepossiblemeasuresthatcanimprovethe loyalty of the employees. For example, creating dialogue with employees, listening to their needs,providingconstructivefeedback,advocatingforthem,andhavingthebroaderperspectiveoftheirliveswillhelptoovercomecommunicationandwork-lifebalanceissues.Establishinggoodworkingconditions,ensuringacompetitivesalary,providingpropertraining,empoweringandengagingemployeeswillcertainlyenhancetheirloyaltytothecompany(Wan,2012). Nevertheless, the strategies should be chosen purposefully and must address clearly defined problemsandobjectives. 2.5 Chainvsindependenthotels Inordertobeabletoanswertheresearchquestionofthecurrentpaper,itisalsonecessaryto giveanoverviewofwhatismeantbytheindependentandchainhotelsandwhatarethedifferencesbetweenthem.Thedistinctionbetweenchainandindependenthotelisbasedonthe principleofownershipandaffiliation.Thus,independenthotelismanagedindividuallyandhas no affiliation with other properties (Kasavana & Brooks, 2005, cited by Kapiki, 2013). Chain hotelisonebelongingtoagroupofhotelswithasharedcommonbrandandacertaindegree ofcommonmanagement(Becerraetal.,2016).Chainaffiliationoptionsincludemanagement contracts,franchises,andreferralgroups(Kasavana&Brooks,2005,citedbyKapiki,2013). Belongingtoahotelchaincanhavecertainbenefitsforthehotel.Firstofall,positiveeffectsof belonging to the hotel chain are reflected in the financial performances and higher competitivenessinthemarket(Becerraetal.,2016).Researchhasshownthatchainhotelshavelower failureratesthrougheconomiesofscaleandtransferofknowledgewithinthechain(Ingram& Baum,1997,citedbyBecerraetal.,2016). However, belonging to a chain can be very costly for a company, e.g. costs of maintaining a franchise represent 6-8% or more of the revenue (Kapiki, 2013). Besides, some studies have 34 MASTERTHESISTITLE not indicated significant differences in revenue or performance between independent and chainhotels(Becerraetal.,2016).Moreover,astudyconductedbyO’NeillandCarlbäck(2011) hasstatedthatwhilechainhotelshavehigheroccupancyrates,independentpropertiesbenefitfromhigheraveragedailyratesandrevenuesperavailableroom.Aresearchconductedby Kapiki(2013)hasconcludedthat,forinstance,theindependenthotelsinGreeceperformconsiderablybetterthanthechainones.So,forcertaintypesofhotels,dependingontheirmarket positioning and segmentation, it is more advantageous to operate independently (Raleigh, 1999,citedbyKapiki,2013). Mostofthestudiesconductedtocomparethechainandindependenthotelswerefocusingon their performance, revenues, or competition (Kapiki, 2013; Becerra et al., 2016). However, littleresearchhasbeendonetoevaluateandcomparetwotypesofhotelsintermsofrather humanrecoursesandorganizationalbehaviourissues,suchasoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyalty.Althoughthesetopicsarewellcoveredbythestudieswithrespect tothehospitalityindustryasawhole,thereisacertainlackofcomparativeresearchdonein thisarea.LoandLam(2005)intheirstudyinvestigatedtheoccupationalstressformtheemploymentrelationsperspectiveanddidthisbycomparinganindividualandachainhotel.The results of the perceived occupational stress by the employees were quite similar, with chain hotelemployeesfacingslightlyhigherlevelsofstress(Lo&Lamm,2005).However,itcannot be reliably concluded that the differences between the two hotels are caused by the differenceintheownership.Consequently,furtherresearchonthisparticulartopicisneeded. 35 MASTERTHESISTITLE 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter describes the methodology that has been used for testing the hypotheses presentedintheintroduction.Theaimofthispaperistoanalysethedifferencesbetweenchain andindependenthotelsintheoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyalty.The investigationofthesefactorsfromdifferentpointsofviewisalsooneoftheobjectivesofthis research. The study addresses the correlations between occupational stress, job satisfaction and employee loyalty in both hotels. Further, all variables are also tested on the significant differences based on various demographic characteristics. Last but not least, the significant differences between the hotels are tested. Following sections give a more detailed overview onthemethodologyusedinthisresearch. 3.2 Selectionofmethodology Duetotheexploratorynatureofthecurrentresearch,aquantitativecomparativecasestudy method is selected. Case study is a detailed analysis of specific social settings or its certain aspects(Black&Champion,1976,citedbyPizam,1994).Yin(2009)statesthatcasestudyisan empiricalmethod,whichthoroughlyanalysesacontemporaryphenomenonwithinitsreal-life context. Case study methodology is widely used in tourism and hospitality related research (Beeton,2005).Takingintoconsiderationthecomplexityofthisfield,itisimpossibletohave one appropriate methodology for the research; therefore, the combinations of methods and differentalternativesaresoughtfor. Casestudymethodischosenforthecurrentresearchduetoseveralreasons.Oneofthemain advantagesofthecasestudymethodologyisthatitallowsflexibilityinusingdifferentkindsof data-collection(Black&Champion,1976,citedbyPizam,1994).Moreover,casestudymethodologyallowsnotonlytoperformanexploratorypartoftheinvestigation,butalsotoinclude interpretation,reasoningandlogic,andthushelptogetplace-specificconceptualvisionsthat canbefurthertestedforwiderapplicabilityeitherbydoingadditionalcasestudiesorbyapplyingothertypesofmethodology(Beeton,2005).Inotherwords,casestudiescanhelptocollect background information and to generate further hypotheses (Pizam, 1994). The comparative natureofthecurrentcasestudymethod,therefore,givesanopportunityforeducinganddefiningnewdimensionsanddissimilaritiesintheinvestigatedtopic. As mentioned before, case study approaches are widely used in the tourism and hospitality research. Veal (1992) distinguishes between different types of case studies performed in the tourism sector. For instance, case studies can consist of single individuals (e.g. Rapoport & 36 MASTERTHESISTITLE Rapoport, 1975), whole countries (e.g. Williams & Shaw, 1988), or companies and organizations(e.g.Harris&Leiper,1995).Luetal.(2013)haveconductedacasestudyresearchonthe businesshotelchains.LoandLamm(2005)intheirresearchonoccupationalstressinthehospitalityindustryhavechosenacomparativecasestudyanalysis,alsocomparingtwotypesof hotels:chainandindividuallyowned. 3.3 Researchinstrument Aquantitativeresearchmethodisusedforprimarydatacollectioninthisresearch.Apaperand-pencilself-administeredquestionnaire(Appendix1)techniqueischosenduetothenature oftheresearchandthemeasurementscaleschosen.Inordertoensureanonymityandeliminateinterviewerbias,standardizedquestionsaredesigned. Thequestionnaireisdividedinto4sections.Thefirstone,BackgroundInformationpartisdesignedinordertocollectdemographiccharacteristics,suchasgender,age,maritalstatus,education, number of children at home (if any), as well as the position of an employee in the hotel. The other three parts include questions from the scales that were chosen to measure threevariablesanalyzedinthecurrentstudy,namelyoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,and employeeloyalty.Themeasurementscalesarediscussedinthefollowingsections. 3.3.1 Occupationalstress Occupational stress is determined using the Generic Job Stress Questionnaire - GJSQ (NIOSH GenericJobStressQuestionnaire,n.d),whichwasdevelopedwithinTheNationalInstitutefor OccupationalSafetyandHealth(NIOSH)andbasedonframeworksproposedbyCaplanetal. (1975),CooperandMarshall(1976),andHouse(1974)(RationaleforNIOSHGenericJobStress Questionnaire,n.d.).Thequestionnaireisadaptedtothecurrentresearchgoalsandinterests. The Questionnaire thoroughly covers various aspects of job, from which the following parts have been used: Conflict At Work; Job Requirements; Mental Demands; Workload and Responsibility;YourJob;YourJobFuture(NIOSHGenericJobStressQuestionnaire,n.d). ThefollowingeightoccupationalstressorsaremeasuredbymeansofadaptedNIOSHGeneric JobStressQuestionnaire(n.d.):roleconflict(Cronbach’sα=0.82),roleambiguity(Cronbach’s α=0.74;),intragroupconflict(Cronbach’sα=0.86),intergroupconflict(Cronbach’sα=0.85), job future ambiguity (Cronbach’s α =0.65), workload (Cronbach’s α =0.85), responsibility for people(Cronbach’sα=0.62),andmentaldemands(Cronbach’sα=0.75).Asgenerallyacceptedlevelofthereliabilityofmeasurementscales,representedbyCronbach’sα,variesbetween 0.70 and 0.95(Tavakol&Dennick,2011), itcanbethattheallbutonejobstressorfulfilthe criteria.Intermsofvalidity,thescalesincludedintheNIOSHGJSQwerealreadychosenwith theconditionofacceptablereliabilityandvalidity.Moreover,theNIOSHGJSQitselfwastested andprovedtobereliableandvalid(Kazronianetal.,2013). 37 MASTERTHESISTITLE Allquestionsaremeasuredonthebasisof5-pointLikertscaletoguaranteeconsistentresults. Thequestionsaredesignedinsuchaway,thatafterreversingnecessaryitems,theaverageof allitemswascomputedinordertopresenttheoverallstresslevelscoreforanindividual.The higherthescore,thehigheristhestresslevel,withaminimumof1andamaximumof5. 3.3.2 Jobsatisfaction In order to measure the job satisfaction, the questions covering this topic from the abovementionedNIOSHGenericStressQuestionnaire(n.d.)areadapted.ThemeasuresweredevelopedbyCaplanetal.(1975)withCronbach’sα=0.83,whichrepresentstheacceptablelevelof reliability (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011). Again, after reversing the scores, the average score is computed,withthefollowingmeaning:thehigherthescoreis,thehigherthejobsatisfaction is,withaminimumof1andamaximumof3. 3.3.3 Employeeloyalty EmployeeloyaltyisanalysedusingtheAntecedentsofEmployeeLoyaltyScale,developedby ChenandWallace(2011)forinvestigatingthefactorsinfluencingemployeeloyalty.Thisscale consistsof21itemsin5variousfactors,whicharemeasuredona5-pointLikertscale.The5 factors represented are as follows: Commitment to Managers and Company (Cronbach’s α = 0.74), Job Conditions (Cronbach’s α = 0.73), Personal Benefits (Cronbach’s α = 0.70), Service ElementandLocation(Cronbach’sα=0.69),andCareerandStatus(Cronbach’sα=0.78)(Chen &Wallace,2011).Again,thismeasurementscalefactorscanbeconsideredreliable,withonly onealphaslightlylowerthan0.70(Tavakol&Dennick,2011). 3.4 Selectionofstudysite Theempiricaldatawascollectedinthelatespring,simultaneouslyinbothhotelsinorderto avoidpotentialbiasduetothedifferentoccupancy.Moreover,sincethehighseasonfortourismwasalreadystarting,bothhotelshaveindicatedgoodoccupancyrates,whichmeansthat theemployeeswerealreadyexposedtomoredemandingjobconditions.Thequestionnaires weredistributedamongtheemployeesfromcertaindepartments(Housekeeping,FrontOffice, Food&Beverage,Reservations,andSalesdepartments)intwohotels,whichagreedtoparticipateintheresearch.ThehotelsarebothsituatedinonecitycenterinRussia, belongtothe samehotelcategory(fourstars),however,therearecertaindifferencesintheorganizational profile of the two hotels. Table 3 gives an overview of the important details about the two hotelsinvolvedinthecurrentstudy.HotelAisindependentlyownedandoperated,whileHotelBbelongstotheinternationalhotelchain.AsitcanbeseenfromTable3,thehotelshave notabledifferenceinthenumberofrooms.However,theroomstoemployeeratiosarevery similar,whichgivessomecomparisonbase. 38 MASTERTHESISTITLE HotelA HotelB Typeofbusiness Independenthotel Chainhotel Ageofbusiness 10years 2years Numberofrooms 245 120 Numberofemployees Total: 203 Total: 102 Housekeeping 37 Housekeeping 20 FrontOffice: 20 FrontOffice: 11 Food&Bever- 74 Food&Bever- 47 age: Rooms to age: Reservations: 7 Reservations: 3 Sales: 4 Sales: 4 employee 1.21 1.17 ratio Restaurant/Bar +/+ +/+ Meetingfacilities + + TABLE3CHARACTERISTICSOFTHECASESTUDYHOTELS 3.5 Dataanalysis Thecurrentstudyrepresentsacorrelationalresearchmethod–thevariablesaremeasuredin ordertoidentifypotentialrelationshipsbetweenthem.SPSSsoftware,version21isusedfor identification of correlations. First, the datasets are examined using the histogram and the Kolmogorov-Smirnovtestinordertoevaluatethedistributiononnormality.Ifthenormaldistribution is proved, the t-test is used to measure the two parametric independent groups. However, if the normal distribution is violated, Mann-Whitney U-Test is chosen for the nonparametric independent groups comparison. If the comparison is done between more than twoindependentgroups,thenparametricANOVAtestornon-parametricKruskal-WallisH-test isused.Finally,theresultswiththerespecttothesignificanceandthedirectionofthecorrelationsareanalysed. 39 MASTERTHESISTITLE 4 RESULTS Theempiricalresultsofthepresentstudyarepresentedinthissection.First,thegeneraldescriptionofthesampleisgiven,includingresponserateanddemographiccharacteristics(Appendix2).Further,theanalysisofthehypothesesisdemonstratedanddiscussed.ThecorrelationsanddescriptivestatisticsarecarriedoutusingtheSPSSsoftware,version21. 4.1 Descriptionofthesample Asitwasalreadymentionedbefore,thecurrentstudyisfocusedonvariousanalysesofoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltyamongemployeesfromtwohotelsand fromfollowingdepartments:housekeeping,frontoffice,foodandbeverage,reservations,and sales. In Hotel A the total of 142 questionnaires were distributed, and 97 of those were returned completed, resulting in a response rate of 68.3%. In Hotel B, 85 questionnaires were distributed,and61ofthosewerecompletedandreturned,givingaresponserateof71.8%. AsitcanbeseenfromtheFigure4,femaleemployeesrepresentthemajorityofthesamplein both hotels, although the proportions are similar across the two hotels. Thus, Hotel A has 70.1%ofwomenand29.9%ofmen,comparedto67.2%womenand32.8%meninHotelB. FIGURE4GENDEROFRESPONDENTSINTHECASEHOTELS In terms of age, as it can be seen from the Figure 5, the majority of respondents from both hotels are between 25 and 34 years old. However, Hotel A has a slightly bigger share of re- 40 MASTERTHESISTITLE spondents at this age. The other age groups are more equally distributed in Hotel B than in HotelA. FIGURE5AGEOFRESPONDENTSINTHECASEHOTELS Intermsofeducation,asitcanbeseenfromFigure6,theeducationlevelvariesconsiderably betweenthetwohotels.WhileinHotelAthemajorityofrespondentsfinishedhighschool,in HotelBslightlymoreemployeesfromthesamplegraduatedfromcollege. FIGURE6EMPLOYEES'EDUCATIONINTHECASEHOTELS Intermsofmaritalstatus,therearesomenoteworthydifferencesobservedbetweenthehotelsaswell.ItcanbeseeninFigure7,thatwhileHotelAhasthebiggestproportionofsingle employees (40.21%), most of the respondents from Hotel B are married (47.54%). A higher 41 MASTERTHESISTITLE proportionofyoungerrespondentsinHotelAmightexplainsuchadifference:87.62%ofemployeesareunder34yearsold,comparedto65.57%intheHotelB. FIGURE7EMPLOYEES'MARITALSTATUSINTHECASEHOTELS Figure 8 demonstrates the percentages of employees in each hotel with respect to their parenthoodstatus.Thus,itcanbeseenthatthemajorityoftheemployeesinHotelA(59.79%) doesnothavechildren,whilethemajorityofrespondentsinHotelB(57.38%)hasatleastone childathome. FIGURE8PARENTHOODSTATUSESOFEMPLOYEESINTHECASEHOTELS 42 MASTERTHESISTITLE 4.2 Testingthehypotheses Thissectionrepresentstheanalysisofthehypothesesthatwereproposedintheintroduction. First,thecorrelationsbetweenoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltyare analysedineachcasehotel.Then,thesamefactorsareexaminedintermsofdifferencesdue tothedemographicgroupsineachofthehotels.Finally,thedifferencesinoccupationalstress, jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltybetweenthetwocasestudyhotelsareinvestigated. 4.2.1 Correlationsbetweenoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyalty Interestingly,theresultsofcorrelationanalysisbetweenthetreevariableswereslightlydifferentforthetwohotels.Table4representstheresultsofthecorrelationsamongthevariablesin Hotel A, whereas Table 5 – in Hotel B. Findings rejected H1 in both hotels, suggesting that there is a significant negative correlation between occupational stress and job satisfaction among employees. Thus, the higher occupational stress level is, the lower job satisfaction amongemployees.However,onehastoadmitthatthestrengthofcorrelationinbothhotelsis rather weak (Hotel A: correlation coefficient = -0.303; p = 0.003 < 0.01; Hotel B: correlation coefficient=-0.263,p=0.041<0.05).Thisfindingsupportstheliteratureonthepreviousresearchpapersthatoccupationalstressnegativelyinfluencesthejobsatisfaction(Richardson& Burke,1991;Cavanaughetal.,2000;Rizwanetal.,2014). TABLE4CORRELATIONSBETWEENOCCUPATIONALSTRESS,JOBSATISFACTION,ANDEMPLOYEELOYALTYINHOTELA 43 MASTERTHESISTITLE TABLE5CORRELATIONSBETWEENOCCUPATIONALSTRESS,JOBSATISFACTION,ANDEMPLOYEELOYALTYINHOTELB H2couldonlyberejectedbytheresultsformHotelA,wherestresslevelhasratherweak,but significant negative correlation with employee loyalty (correlation coefficient = -0.240; p = 0.018<0.05),meaningthatthemorestressisexperiencedbyanemployee,thelowerhisor herloyaltytotheorganizationis.TheresultsonthishypothesisinHotelBarenotsignificant(p =0.147>0.05).Thus,H2forHotelBissupported. Employeeloyaltyandjobsatisfactionvariableshaveshownsignificantcorrelationonlyinthe Hotel B, with a moderate positive relationship (correlation coefficient = 0.550; p = 0.000 < 0.01).H3isthereforerejected,whichmeansthatthemoresatisfiedtheemployeesinHotelB are,themoreloyaltheyfeeltowardstheirjob.However,H3forHotelAhastobesupported, asthecorrelationisnotsignificant(p=0.089>0.05). 4.2.2 Moderatingroleofgender AfterrunningKolmogorov-Smirnovtestandobservingthehistograms,itcanbeconcludedthat thegroupsarenotnormallydistributed;therefore,Mann-WhitneyU-testischosen.Aftertesting all the variables with respect to the gender no significant difference was found between menandwomenintermsofoccupationalstressandjobsatisfactioninbothhotels(Appendix 3). Thus, H4a and H4b are supported. However, H4c in Hotel A was rejected, meaning that therearesignificantdifferences(p=0.000<0.05)betweenmenandwomenintermsoftheir employee loyalty in the independent hotel. As can be seen from the Table 6, mean rank is higherformalerespondents(67.10),whichmeansthatmaleemployeesinHotelAtendtobe moreloyalthanfemale(41.28)employees. 44 MASTERTHESISTITLE TABLE6DIFFERENCESINOCCUPATIONALSTRESS,JOBSATISFACTION,ANDEMPLOYEELOYALTYBETWEENMENANDWOMENIN HOTELA 4.2.3 Moderatingroleofmaritalstatus Normal distribution is proved to be not possible according to histograms and KolmogorovSmirnov tests, thus, Kruskal-Wallis H-test for non-parametric independent groups is chosen. There is no evidence of significant differences in occupational stress, job satisfaction, or employeeloyaltyduetomaritalstatusinbothhotels(Appendix3).Therefore,allthreehypotheses,H5a,H5b,andH5caresupported. 4.2.4 Moderatingroleofage Kolmogorov-Smirnovtestsandhistogramsshowthatthegroupsarenotnormallydistributed. Therefore, Kruskal-Wallis H-test for non-parametric groups is chosen. Kruskal-Wallis test has shownsignificantdifferencesduetotheageofrespondentsinoccupationalstressinHotelA (Table7).However,inordertofindoutwhichagegroupssignificantlydifferfromeachother, post-hoc test is done: pairwise Mann-Whitney tests with Bonferroni correction (0.05/6=0.00833)forall6pairs.AsallMann-Whitneytestswerenotsignificant(p>0.00833), itcanbeconcluded,thatnosignificantdifferencesexistacrosstheagegroups.Thus,H6afor thebothhotelsissupported. 45 MASTERTHESISTITLE TABLE 7 DIFFERENCES IN OCCUPATIONAL STRESS, JOB SATISFACTION, AND EMPLOYEE LOYALTY DUE TO THE AGE IN HOTEL A (KRUSKAL-WALLISTEST) EmployeeloyaltyinHotelBsignificantlydiffersdependentontheageofrespondent(p=0.007 <0.05)accordingtotheKruskal-Wallistest(Table8).Nevertheless,post-hoctestisneeded,so pairwise Mann-Whitney tests with Bonferroni correction (0.05/6=0.00833) for all 6 pairs are run.Allthesetestsarenotsignificant(p>0.00833),thusitcanbeconcluded,thatnosignificantdifferencesinemployeeloyaltyexistduetotheageinHotelB.Thus,H6cforbothhotels issupportedaswell. Jobsatisfactiondoesnotdifferwithrespecttotheageofrespondentsinbothhotels(Table7; Table8).Therefore,H6bissupportedforbothhotels. 46 MASTERTHESISTITLE TABLE 8 DIFFERENCES IN OCCUPATIONAL STRESS, JOB SATISFACTION, AND EMPLOYEE LOYALTY DUE TO THE AGE IN HOTEL B (KRUSKAL-WALLISTEST) 4.2.5 Moderatingroleofeducation Groupssplitbyhighestlevelofeducationareprovedtonotbenormallydistributed,thusKruskal-Wallistestischosentoanalyzethemoderatingroleofeducationinoccupationalstress,job satisfaction, and employee loyalty. The results for Hotel A are not significant (Appendix 3). ThusH7a,H7b,andH7caresupportedfortheindependenthotel. However,Kruskal-WallistesthasshownsignificantresultsforallthreevariablesinHotelB(p< 0.05), as it can be seen in Table 9. Yet, the post-hoc test is still needed. Pairwise MannWhitney tests with Bonferroni correction (0.05/10=0.005) are run to verify the differences betweenall5groups. 47 MASTERTHESISTITLE TABLE 9 DIFFERENCES IN OCCUPATIONAL STRESS, JOB SATISFACTION, AND EMPLOYEE LOYALTY DUE TO THE EDUCATION IN HOTELB(KRUSKAL-WALLISTEST) Theresultsindicatethatcertainsignificantdifferencesbetweengroupshavebeenfound.Thus, highschoolgraduates(meanrank=15.62)areexperiencingmoreworkrelatedstressthanemployeeswithabachelor’sdegree(meanrank=4.60).AsitcanbeseeninTable10,thisrelationshipissignificant(p=0.004<0.005). TABLE10OCCUPATIONALSTRESSDIFFERENCESBETWEENHIGHSCHOOLANDBACHELORGRADUATESINHOTELB RespondentswithBachelor’sdegreearealsosignificantlymoreloyalandmoresatisfiedwith theirjobthantheCollegegraduates.Table11illustratesthedifferencesinloyalty(p=0.001< 0.005),whereasTable12demonstratesthedissimilaritiesinjobsatisfaction(p=0.004<0.005). 48 MASTERTHESISTITLE Thedifferencesacrossothergroupshavenotbeenprovedsignificant.Thus,H7a,H7b,andH7c canbepartiallyrejectedfortheHotelB. TABLE11EMPLOYEELOYALTYDIFFERENCESBETWEENCOLLEGEANDBACHELORGRADUATESINHOTELB TABLE12JOBSATISFACTIONDIFFERENCESBETWEENCOLLEGEANDBACHELORGRADUATESINHOTELB 4.2.6 Moderatingroleofparenthood Normal distribution in the groups is proved to be not possible according to histograms and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests, thus, Mann-Whitney U-test for non-parametric independent groupsischosen.Thedifferencesinthethreevariablesduetotheparenthoodstatusforboth casestudyhotelshavebeenfoundnotsignificant(Appendix3).Therefore,theH8a,H8b,and H8caresupported. 4.2.7 Differencesinoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltybetweenindependentandchainhotels Inordertohaveanoverviewonthegeneralresultsfrombothhotels,descriptivestatisticsare used.Thus,Table13describeswhatarethemean,medians,maximumandminimumvaluesof 49 MASTERTHESISTITLE respective variables are. When looking at the descriptive data, it is necessary to remember that stress and loyalty were measured on the 5-point Likert scale, therefore, 5 would be the maximumofstressaswellasofloyalty.Whereas,themaximumvalueforjobsatisfactionis3. TABLE 13 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS, JOB SATISFACTION, AND EMPLOYEE LOYALTY IN CASE STUDY HOTELS First,thetwohotelsweretestedonnormaldistributionwiththehelpofhistogramsandKolmogorov-Smirnov tests. Occupational stress and employee loyalty variables seem to be both normally distributed in two hotels according to the histograms (Appendix 3). However, job satisfactionseemstobenotnormallydistributed.Inordertocheckthevisualperception,Kolmogorov-Smirnovtestsarerun.TheresultsarerepresentedinTable14.Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests do not show any violations of the normal distribution (Occupational stress: p=0.420 > 0.05,p=0.158>0.05;Employeeloyalty:p=0.843>0.05;p=0.894>0.05).Thus,t-testforcomparingparametricindependentgroupsischosenforthesevariables.Sincenormalityassumption is significantly violated for job satisfaction (p=0.024 < 0.05, p=0.033 < 0.05), MannWhitneyU-testisused. 50 MASTERTHESISTITLE TABLE 14 KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV TEST RESULTS FOR OCCUPATIONAL STRESS, JOB SATISFACTION, AND EMPLOYEE LOYALTY ACROSSTWOCASESTUDYHOTELS Table 15 represents the results of Mann-Whitney Test on differences in job satisfaction betweenhotels.Itcanbeseen,thattheoutcomeisnotstatisticallysignificant(p=0.291>0.05), meaning that there are no significant differences between job satisfaction reported by the employees.Thus,H10issupported TABLE15MANN-WHITNEYTESTRESULTSONDIFFERENCESINJOBSATISFACITONBETWEENCASESTUDYHOTELS 51 MASTERTHESISTITLE However,theT-Testsfortheothertwovariableshaveshownsignificantresults.Table16indicates that according to the means, occupational stress level among employees in Hotel A is significantlyhigherthaninHotelB(p=0.000<0.05).Therefore,H9isrejected. TABLE16T-TESTRESULTSONDIFFERENCESINOCCUPATIONALSTRESSBETWEENCASESTUDYHOTELS AscanbeseeninTable17,theextentofemployees’loyaltysignificantlydiffersacrossthetwo hotels (p=0.000 < 0.05). More precisely, according to the means, employees in Hotel B are moreloyalthaninHotelA.Thus,H11isrejected. TABLE17T-TESTRESULTSONDIFFERENCESINEMPLOYEELOYALTYBETWEENCASESTUDYHOTELS 4.3 Conclusion Thischapterpresentedthemainresultsofthecurrentresearch.Thehypothesesformulatedto addresstheresearchquestionsweretestedandtherelationshipswerepointedout.Table18 givesanoverviewoftheresultsonhypotheses,whethertheyhavebeenrejectedorsupported forbothcasestudyhotels.Discussionoftheresultsandtheconclusionsarepresentedinthe nextchapter. 52 MASTERTHESISTITLE HotelA HotelB Supported Rejected Supported Rejected H1 X X H2 X X H3 X X H4a X X H4b X X H4c X X H5a X X H5b X X H5c X X H6a X X H6b X X H6c X X H7a X X H7b X X H7c X X H8a X X H8b X X H8c X X H9 Rejected H10 Supported H11 Rejected TABLE18RESULTSOFHYPOTESESTESTING 53 MASTERTHESISTITLE 5 DISCUSSIONANDCONCLUSION This chapter is focused on the discussion of the empirical results of current study. Thus, researchquestionsthatwereposedintheintroductionareaddressedonceagaintosummarize theresultsanddrawconclusions.Further,limitationstothisstudy,potentialfurtherresearch andoverallconclusionarepresented. 5.1 Interpretationofresults This section discusses the empirical research results of the current study. This is done by groupingtheoutcomesaccordingtotheresearchquestionsposedinthebeginningoftheresearch. Results on hypotheses testing are discussed in corresponding research question section. 5.1.1 RQ 1: What are the relationships between occupational stress, job satisfaction,andemployeeloyaltyinchainhotelandindependenthotel? The research question was addressed by the hypotheses 1, 2, and 3. Hypothesis 1 has been rejected,meaningthatbothcasehotelspresentedweak,butsignificantnegativecorrelations between the two variables. This outcome has supported the existing literature stating that thereisanegativerelationshipbetweenoccupationalstressandjobsatisfaction(Richardson& Burke, 1991; Cavanaugh et al., 2000; Rizwan et al., 2014). Indeed, negative consequences of hindrance-related occupational stress on the employee’s physiological and psychological healthcannotbeunderestimated(Cavanaughetal.,2000;Luthans,2011).Jobsatisfaction,in turn, is a “pleasurable emotional state” (Locke, 1969, p. 317). Thus, it is not surprising that these two variables are negatively correlated. It is hard to imagine that an employee who is exposedtostrongorcontinuousstresscanfeelsatisfactionwithhisorherwork. Hypotheses2and3havebeenrejectedbasedontheresultsfromonlyoneofthetwohotels. Thus,therelationshipbetweenoccupationalstressandemployeeloyaltyinHotelAwassignificantlynegative.Thereislackofresearchsupportingorcontradictingthisoutcome,however, the evidence shows that stressed employees have stronger intention to leave the company (Cavanaughetal.,2000;Bhattietal.,2010). Hypothesis3,statingthatthereisnosignificantcorrelationbetweenemployeeloyaltyandjob satisfaction,hasbeenrejectedinthecaseofHotelB.Thus,itcanbeconcludedthatmoresatisfiedemployeesinHotelBtendtobemoreloyal.Thisfindingsupportstheexistingliterature that claims that job satisfaction and employee loyalty have a positive relationship (LaLopa, 1997;Abdullahetal.,2009).Moreover,itisarguedthatemployeeloyaltyactuallyarisesfrom theincreasedsatisfaction(Wan,2012).Thefactthathypotheses2and3wereonlyrejectedby 54 MASTERTHESISTITLE oneofthehotelsmightbeattributedtothelimitationsofthestudy,i.e.rathersmallsample size. 5.1.2 RQ 2: Which demographic characteristics play moderating roles in occupational stress, job satisfaction, and employee loyalty in chain hotel and independenthotel? Asitcanbeseenfromtheliteraturereview,researchershavenotreachedaconsensusonhow occupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltydifferamongdifferentdemographic groups.Therefore,itwasalsointerestingtoexaminethemoderatingrolesofthesegroupson chainandindependenthotels. Moderatingroleofgenderhasbeenfoundtobenotsignificantforalmostallvariablesinboth hotels,meaningthattherewasnosignificantdifferenceinoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction, oremployeeloyaltybetweenmenandwomen.Theonlyexceptionwastheloyaltyofmenin Hotel A, which was significantly higher than the one of women. However, this result contradicts previous research conducted by ManpowerGroup (2002). Nonetheless, it has to be admittedthattheproportionofmaleandfemalerespondentsinthesampleswasnotequal,with muchhigherrepresentationoffemaleemployees.Thisfactmighthavebeenapredetermining factorfortheoutcome. Maritalstatuswasfoundtohavenosignificantmoderatingeffectacrossalltestedvariablesin bothhotels.Theseresultsarequitecontradictingtosomeofthepreviousstudies.Thus,there is evidence that married employees are experiencing more stress (Kessler, 1979), but at the sametimearemoresatisfiedthanunmarriedworkers(SanerandEyüpoğlu,2013).Thisisrather surprising and unexpected fact, since work stress and job satisfaction have been often proved to have a negative correlation (Richardson & Burke, 1991; Cavanaugh et al., 2000; Rizwan et al., 2014). However, there have been research papers that have not detected any relationshipbetweenjobsatisfactionandmaritalstatus. Moderating role of age has found little significant support in the current research. Thus, age was found to be significant moderator for occupational stress in the independent hotel, and for employee loyalty in the chain hotel. However, tests have shown no significant results in terms of the detectable differences across the age groups. Most probably, this phenomenon canbeexplainedbyarathersmallsamplesize,whichwashighlyunderrepresentedbycertain agegroups. Educationwasdeterminedasafactorwithsignificantinfluenceonallthreevariables,butonly inthechainhotel,andonlyacrosscertaingroups.Thus,employeeswithabachelor’sdegree weresignificantlymoresatisfiedwithandloyaltotheirjob.Thisfactcontradictssomestudies that have proven education to not have any influence on both employee loyalty (Sheikhy & 55 MASTERTHESISTITLE Khademi, 2015) and job satisfaction (Bilgic, 1998). At the same time, these finding are supported by the study conducted by Al-Ababneh and Lockwood (2010), who also stated that moreeducatedemployeesareusuallymoresatisfiedwiththeirjobs.Anotherfindinginterms ofeducationisthatemployeeswhofinishedhighschoolwereexperiencingmoreoccupational stressthanoneswithabachelor’sdegree.Eventhoughliteraturesuggeststhatmoreeducated employees are exposed to more stress than least educated, it has been noted that this relationship is not linear. Thus, in order to make valid conclusions, is necessary to have a more representativesamplewithratherequallydistributededucationlevelsamongrespondents. Previousresearchonhowparentsdifferformnon-parentsintermsoftheirexposuretowork stress,jobsatisfaction,andloyalty,wasquitecontradicting.Whileresearchershavenotcome to a consensus on this topic, current study has not identified any significant influence of parenthoodonthesevariables. Toconclude,ithastobeadmittedthatcurrentresearchhasnotfoundsomestrongandsignificant evidence about certain demographic groups and their moderating roles in employees’ occupational stress, job satisfaction, and loyalty. The differences between the two types of hotelhavealsonotbeenapparent,whichcouldalsobecausedbyquiteasmallsamplesize. However,sincepreviousresearchonthesetopicswasnotconsistentandsometimespresentedabsolutelycontradictoryresults,itisofinteresttocontinueresearchinthisareainorderto getabetterunderstandingandamorecompletepictureofthesceneryofwork-relatedstress, satisfaction,andloyalty. 5.1.3 RQ 3: Are there any differences in occupational stress, job satisfaction, and employeeloyaltybetweenchainandindependenthotels? Differences between chain and independent hotels have always been a topic of interest not onlyforresearchers,butalso,andmaybeevenmore,forthepractitioners.Intherecentyears, theincreasedcompetitiononthemarketmakesitevenmorecrucialtoknowhowtogainthe competitiveadvantage.Certainly,bothchainaffiliatedandindependenthotelshavetheiradvantagesanddisadvantages.Chainhotelscanbenefitfromthesharedknowledgeandexpertise,financialstability,andmarketingactivities(Ingram&Baum,1997,citedbyBecerraetal., 2016; Becerra et al., 2016). However, it is a well-known fact that people are the most importantassetintheserviceindustry.Thus,understandingthenatureofsuchimportantfactors as occupational stress, job satisfaction, and employee loyalty can help not only in properly managinghumanresources,butalsoinmakingtheworkplaceattractiveforthepotentialtalents.Moreover,understandingsomedifferencesbetweenthechainandindependenthotelsin termsofwhatdotheyofferasaworkplaceandwhateffects,ifany,mighttherebeonyouas anemployee. 56 MASTERTHESISTITLE TheresultsofthisstudyrejectHypothesis9andsuggestthatthereisasignificantdifferencein occupationalstresslevelandemployees’loyaltybetweentheindependentandthechainhotel.Theoutcomeofthestatisticalresearchshowsthatemployeesintheindependenthotelare significantlymorestressedthantheonesinthechainhotel.Thiscouldbeexplainedbyvariety offactors.Forinstance,hotelchainsusuallyhavequitestrictandwell-definedorganizational structure, with clear roles across all departments. Moreover, working in a relatively recently openedhotelmightinducemorechallenge-relatedstressorswithpositiveeffects(Cavanaugh etal.,2000)fortheemployees,whilemanagementmightbemoreattentiveandresponsiveto thenewideas,suggestions,andtheoverallsatisfactionoftheiremployees.Ontheotherhand, independenthotelmighthaveamorehierarchicalorganizationalstructure,especiallyconsideringthatitisonthemarketforalready10yearsandtheorganizationalculturemightbefairly outdated.Themanagement’svisionandevaluationofcertainaspectsofworkcanbeaffected bytheacquiredhabitofseeingtheminthesamelightforalongertime.Thiscanresultinvicious circle of getting used to the existing problem, not undertaking actions to solve it, thus experiencemorestress,andgetintoneworthesameissuesagain. Hypothesis 11 has been rejected as well, meaning that the difference in employee loyalty in twohotelsweresignificant.Thesecouldalsobeexplainedbyavarietyoffactors.Bothmonetaryandnon-monetaryrewardshavebeenprovedtohaveinfluenceontheemployeeloyalty (Wan,2012),thusemployeesinthechainhotelmightbeinamoreadvantageouspositionin theseterms.Forinstance,someemployeesmightvaluenotonlythefeelingofbelongingtoa world-knownbrandgroup,butalsothebenefitsofferedtotheemployeesbythehotelchain, forinstance,specialoffers,orparticularroomratesforemployees,familiesandfriends. Lastbutnotleast,therewasnosignificantdifferencefoundinthejobsatisfactionoftheemployeesformthetwohotels.However,onehastoadmit,thatmeanvalueofjobsatisfaction levelinthechainhotelisslightlyhigherthanintheindependentone.Sinceallthreevariables provedtohavesignificantcorrelationsatleastinoneofthehotels,andsincethevaluesofjob satisfactionaresomewhathigherinthechainhotel,itcanbeassumedthatthesmallsample sizehasplayedacrucialroleinsupportingtheHypothesis10. 5.2 Limitationsandfutureresearch The proper understanding of the dimensions of occupational stress and its correlation with other important workplace related employee’s characteristics is of utmost significance as it allowstoimproveandoptimisehumanresourcesmanagement,decreasestaffturnover,and increase job satisfaction. However, it is crucial to remember that some particular kinds of stresscanalsohavepositiveeffectsleadingtoincreasedproductivityofworkersandultimately tohigherjobsatisfaction(Cavanaughetal.,2000;Colquittetal.,2010). 57 MASTERTHESISTITLE Yettherearesomelimitationstothestudythathavetobetakenintoaccountwhenevaluating theresultsoftheresearch,suchasrelativelysmallsample,localspecificsofthebusiness,personal characteristics of individuals that affect the results, and other types of potential bias. Certain demographic groups were underrepresented, resulting in less significant results and conclusions.Moreover,casestudymethodologychosenforthecurrentresearchimpliescertainlimitationsaswell.Sincetherehasbeenlackofscientificevidenceonthedifferencesbetweenchainandindependenthotelsintermsofworkstress,satisfaction,andemployeeloyalty, the generalizations should be done cautiously. Moreover, in order to make conclusions aboutthesedifferences,moreextensiveandspecificresearchinthisfieldisneeded. Humanresourcesareofagreatimportanceinhospitalitybusinessdeterminingthesustained interest of researchers in this topic. In order to be able to successfully manage human resourcesitisvitaltounderstandtheunderlyingcausesofsuchissuesasoccupationalstress,job satisfaction, or employee loyalty, and their intercorrelation. However, there are many more factors that might also have a significant influence, but could not be identified and analysed within this study. Further research on very specific stressors and the ways of stress releases couldnotonlybeofinterestfortheoreticalpurposes,butalsogeneratesomevaluablesuggestions.Moreover,itisalreadyknown,thattherevenuesandprofitabilityoftheserviceorganizationsarehighlydependentnotonlyonthesatisfiedcustomers,butalsoonthesatisfiedand loyal employees (Heskett et al., 1994). 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Zhao,X.R.,Qu,H.andGhiseli,R.(2011).Examiningtherelationshipofwork-familyconflictto jobandlifesatisfaction:Acaseofhotelsalesmanagers.InternationalJournalofHospitalityManagement,Vol.30,pp.46-54. 71 MASTERTHESISTITLE APPENDICES Appendix1:Questionnaire DearSir/Madam, Wewouldliketoknowaboutyourworkenvironmentandhowitaffectsyou.Thisinformation isnotavailableanywhereelse.Youranswersontheenclosedformsareneeded. PLEASEDONOTPUTYOURNAMEONANYOFTHEFORMSPROVIDED.Youranswersareto remainanonymous.Theinformation,whichyouprovidewillbecombinedwithotheranswers onlyinstatisticalsummaries. Thankyouforyourcooperationandsupport. I. BackgroundInformation 1. Whatisyourgender? a. Male b. Female 2. Howoldareyou? a. <18 b. 18-24 c. 25–34 d. 35–44 e. 45–54 f. 55–64 g. 65–74 h. >74 3. Whatisyourmaritalstatus? a. Married b. Inarelationship c. Single,nevermarried d. Single,divorced e. Single,widowed 4. Ifyouhavechildrenlivingathome,howmanyareineachofthefollowingage groups? a. Lessthan4yearsold__________ b. 4through12yearsold__________ c. 13through18yearsold__________ d. 19andolder__________ 72 MASTERTHESISTITLE 5. Whatisthehighestcompletedlevelofeducation? a. Secondaryschool b. Highschool c. College d. Bachelor’sdegree e. Master’sdegree f. Professionaldegree g. Doctoratedegree 6. WhatisyoucurrentJOBTITLE?____________________ II. Occupationalstress Conflictatwork Pleaseanswerthefollowingquestionsaboutyourworksituation Strongly ! disagree Strongly agree Question 1 2 3 4 5 1 Thereisharmonyinmydepartment 2 In our department, we have lots of bickering over who shoulddowhatjob 3 There is difference of opinion among the members of my department 4 Thereisdissensioninmydepartment 5 Themembersofmydepartmentaresupportiveofeachoth- er’sideas 6 Thereareclashesbetweensubgroupswithinmydepartment 73 MASTERTHESISTITLE 7 Thereisfriendlinessamongthemembersofmydepartment 8 Thereis“we”feelingamongmembersofmydepartment 9 There are disputes between my department and other de- 11 Otherdepartmentswithholdinformationfortheattainment 13 There is lack of mutual assistance between my department ! Veryoften partments 10 There is agreement between my department and other department ofourdepartmenttasks 12 Therelationshipbetweenmydepartmentandotherdepartments is harmonious in attaining the overall organizational goals andotherdepartments 14 There is cooperation between my departments and other departments 15 Therearepersonalityclashesbetweenmydepartmentsand otherdepartments 16 Otherdepartmentscreateproblemsformygroup Jobrequirements Nowwewouldlikeyoutoindicatehowoftencertainthingshappenatyourjob. Rarely Question 1 2 3 4 5 1 Howoftendoesyourjobrequireyoutoworkveryfast? 74 MASTERTHESISTITLE 2 Howoftendoesyourjobrequireyoutoworkveryhard? 3 How often does your job leave you with little time to get thingsdone? 4 Howoftenisthereagreatdealtobedone? 5 Howoftenisthereamarkedincreaseintheworkload 6 Howoftenisthereamarkedincreaseintheamountofcon- Howoftenisthereamarkedincreaseinhowfastyouhaveto centrationrequiredonyourjob? 7 think? 8 Howoftendoesyourjobletyouusetheskillsandknowledge youlearnedinschool? 9 Howoftenareyougivenachancetodothethingsyoudothe best? 10 Howoftencanyouusetheskillsfromyourpreviousexperi- enceandtraining? Mentaldemands Pleaseindicatethedegreetowhichyouagreeordisagreewiththefollowingstatementsabout yourjob. Strongly ! disagree Question Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 5 1 Myjobrequiresagreatdealofconcentration 2 Myjobrequiresmetoremembermanydifferentthings 3 Imustkeepmymindonmyworkatalltimes 4 Icantakeiteasyandstillgetmyworkdone 75 MASTERTHESISTITLE 5 Icanletmymindwanderandstilldothework Workloadandresponsibility Thenextfewitemsareconcernedwithvariousaspectsofyourworkactivities.Pleaseindicatehowmuchofeachaspectyouhaveonyourjob. Hardlyany ! Agreatdeal Question 1 Howmuchtimedoyouhavetothinkandcontemplate? 2 Howmuchworkloaddoyouhave? 3 Whatquantityofworkdoothersexpectyoutodo? 4 Howmuchtimedoyouhavetodoallyourwork? 5 Howmanyprojects,assignments,ortasksdoyouhave? 6 Howmanylullsbetweenheavyworkloadperiodsdoyou have? 7 How much responsibility do you have for the future of others? 8 Howmuchresponsibilitydoyouhaveforthejobsecurity ofothers? 9 How much responsibility do you have for the morale of others? 10 How much responsibility do you have for the welfare andlivesofothers? 76 MASTERTHESISTITLE Yourjob Howaccurateareeachofthefollowingstatementsindescribingyourjob? Very inaccu- ! Very rate rate accu- Question 1 2 3 4 5 1 IfeelcertainabouthowmuchauthorityIhave. 2 Thereareclear,plannedgoalsandobjectivesformyjob. 3 Ihavetodothingsthatshouldbedonedifferently. 4 IknowthatIhavedividedmytimeproperly. 5 IreceiveanassignmentwithoutthehelpIneedtocomplete it. 6 Iknowwhatmyresponsibilitiesare. 7 Ihavetobendorbreakaruleorpolicyinordertocarryout 11 Idothingsthatareapttobeacceptedbyonepersonandnot anassignment. 8 Iworkwithtwoormoregroupswhooperatequitedifferently. 9 Iknowexactlywhatisexpectedofme. 10 Ireceiveincompatiblerequestsfromtwoormorepeople. acceptedbyothers 12 I receive an assignment without adequate resources and materialstoexecuteit. 77 MASTERTHESISTITLE 13 Explanationisclearaboutwhathastobedoneonmyjob. 14 Iworkonunnecessarythings. Yourjobfuture Inthefuture,somejobswillbechangingwhileotherswillbestayingthesame.Hereare somequestions,whichdealwiththistopic. Somewhat ! Verycertain 2 3 4 5 uncertain Question 1 1 How certain are you about what your future career picture lookslike? 2 Howcertainareyouoftheopportunitiesforpromotionand advancementwhichwillexistinthenextfewyears? 3 Howcertainareyouaboutwhetheryourjobskillswillbeof useandvaluefiveyearsfromnow? 4 Howcertainareyouaboutwhatyourresponsibilitieswillbe sixmonthsfromnow? 5 Ifyoulostyourjob,howcertainareyouthatyoucouldsup- portyourself? III. Jobsatisfaction Wewouldliketoknowhowsatisfiedyouarewithyourjob. 1. Knowingwhatyouknownow,ifyouhadtodecidealloveragainwhetherto takethetypeofjobyounowhave,whatwouldyoudecide? a. Iwoulddecidewithouthesitationtotakethesamejob 78 MASTERTHESISTITLE b. Iwouldhavesomesecondthoughts c. IwoulddecidedefinitelyNOTtotakethistypeofjob 2. Ifyouwerefreerightnowtogointoanytypeofjobyouwanted,whatwould yourchoicebe? a. Iwouldtakethesamejob b. Iwouldtakehavedoubtstotakethesamejob c. Iwouldtakeadifferentjob 3. Ifafriendofyourstoldyouhe/shewasinterestedinworkinginajoblike yours,whatwouldyoutellhim/her? a. Iwouldstronglyrecommendit b. Iwouldhavedoubtsaboutrecommendingit c. Iwouldadviseagainstit 4. Allinall,howsatisfiedwouldyousayyouarewithyourjob? a. Iamverysatisfied b. Iamsomewhatsatisfied c. Iamnotatallsatisfied IV. Employeeloyalty Commitmenttomanagersandcompany Strongly ! disagree Strongly agree Question 1 2 3 4 5 1 Ienjoygoodcommunicationswithmymanagers 2 Irespectmyheadofdepartment 3 Ienjoygoodcommunicationswithmywork-mates 4 Iamproudofmycompany 5 Ithinkoftheworkplaceasmysecondhomeandwork-mates asmyfamily 79 MASTERTHESISTITLE Jobconditions Strongly ! disagree Strongly agree Question 1 2 3 4 5 1 Ireceivegoodtrainingwiththiscompany 2 Thereareopportunitiesforskills’developmentinmyjob 3 Theworkinghoursaresuitableforme 4 Thejobisvaried,eachdayisdifferent 5 Ihavejobsecurity ! Strongly Personalbenefits Strongly disagree agree Question 1 2 3 4 5 1 Thebenefitsofferedaregood 2 Thesalaryofferedisgood 3 Thematernity/paternitypackageisgood 4 Thejobisfun 80 MASTERTHESISTITLE Serviceelementandlocation Strongly ! disagree Strongly agree Question 1 2 3 4 5 1 Ilikeprovidinggoodservicetothecustomers 2 Ienjoymeetingcustomers 3 Igetpersonalsatisfactionformmyjob 4 Thelocationofmyworkplaceisconvenientforme ! Strongly Careerandstatus Strongly disagree agree Question 1 2 3 4 5 1 Myjobishighlyrespectedintheindustry 2 Myjobishighlyrespectedinthesociety 3 Ihaveacareerpathplannedforme/Ihavegoodpromotional prospects 81 MASTERTHESISTITLE Appendix2:DescriptiveStatistics 82 MASTERTHESISTITLE 83 MASTERTHESISTITLE Appendix3:Correlationsandstatisticaltests ModeratingroleofgenderinHotelB: ModeratingroleofmaritalstatusinHotelA: 84 MASTERTHESISTITLE ModeratingroleofmaritalstatusinHotelB: ModeratingroleofeducationinHotelA: 85 MASTERTHESISTITLE ModeratingroleofparenthoodinHotelA: ModeratingroleofparenthoodinHotelB: 86 MASTERTHESISTITLE HistogramsofHotelAandHotelB(Occupationalstress) HistogramsofHotelAandHotelB(Employeeloyalty) HistogramsofHotelAandHotelB(Jobsatisfaction) 87
