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Chapter 5 frontispiece.
A dust plume from an
intense dust storm over
the Sahara
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global
Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University
Press. Photograph by Jacques Descloitres, NASA
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Figure 5.1. The spring Sun in the Arctic
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming
and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Photograph by
Rear Admiral H.D. Nygren, NOAA
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Figure 5.2. Variations in total annual and solstice
insolations with latitude
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and
Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Hartmann, 1994
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Figure 5.3. The flow of energy from the Sun to Earth and
between the surface and the atmosphere
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and
Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Hartmann, 1994
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Figure 5.3. The flow of energy from the Sun to Earth and
between the surface and the atmosphere
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and
Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Hartmann, 1994
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Surface
Table 5.1. Albedo of
various surfaces
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of
Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia
University Press. Source: Hartmann, 1994
Typical Albedo (%)
Deep water, low wind, low latitude
7
Deep water, high wind, high latitude
12
Moist dark soil
10
Moist gray soil
15
Dry soil, desert
30
Wet sand
25
Dry light sand
35
Asphalt pavement
7
Concrete pavement
20
Short green vegetation
17
Dry vegetation
25
Coniferous forest
12
Deciduous forest
17
Forest with snow cover
25
Sea ice, no snow cover
30
Old, melting snow
50
Dry, cold snow
70
Fresh, dry snow
80
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Figure 5.4. Changes in
global mean radiative
forcings, 1750-2005
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our
Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Forster et al., 2007
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Figure 5.5. Contributions of different greenhouse gases
to radiative forcing
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our
Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Data from Forster et al., 2007
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Figure 5.6. Spectral
characteristics of the
Sun and Earth’s
atmosphere
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our
Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Rohde, Global Warming Art
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Figure 5.7. Scanning electron microscope images of
various aerosols
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our
Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Photographs by V. Martins, NASA
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Figure 5.8. Global distribution of aerosols, 2006
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our
Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Reto Stöckli, NASA
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Table 5.2. Model estimates of the direct effects of
aerosols on radiative forcing
Radiative forcing
Aerosol
(watts per square meter)
Sulfate (sulfuric acid via sulfur dioxide from fossil-fuel burning)
-0.4 ± 0.20
Organic carbon (from fossil-fuel and biomass burning)
-0.05 ± 0.05
Black carbon (from incomplete fossil-fuel combustion)
+0.20 ± 0.15
Smoke (compounds from forest fires)
+0.03 ± 0.12
Nitrates (ammonium, from ammonia and NOx emissions)
-0.10 ± 0.10
Anthropogenic dust (agriculture, cement production, drying soils)
-0.1 ± 0.20
All aerosols combined, direct effects
-0.50 ± 0.40
Increase in cloud albedo due to aerosols
-0.3 to -1.8
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and
Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Forster et al., 2007
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Figure 5.9.
Stratospheric aerosol
before and on several
occasions after the
eruption of Mount
Pinatubo, June 15,
1991
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming
and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: NASA
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Figure 5.10. Sunspots
observed during a
cycle of high sunspot
activity, March 30, 2001
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our
Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: SOHO/MDI Consortium