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12 Kingdoms and Trading States of Africa 750 b.c.–a.d. 1586 Chapter Preview 1 Early Civilizations of Africa 2 Kingdoms of West Africa 3 Trade Routes of East Africa 4 Many Peoples, Many Traditions Chapter Review and Assessment Geography and Climates of Africa Africa's many climate zones and landforms have encouraged the development of a wide variety of cultures. CHAPTER EVENTS GLOBAL EVENTS SECTION 1 Reading Focus How did geography affect cultural development and the migration of peoples? Early Civilizations of Africa Vocabulary savanna desertification outpost Taking Notes this concept web. As you read the section, complete the circles with important facts to remember about Print out What were the achievements of the kingdom of Nubia? How did outside influences lead to change in North Africa? desertification. Add as many circles as you need. Africa's geographic features had a major impact on the development of societies. Setting the Scene As the sun rose above the east bank of the Nile, workers hurried to the construction site. They had only a few hours to work in comfort before the sun turned the desert into a furnace. Still, as long as King Taharqa (tuh hahr kuh) was determined to turn the old mud-brick temple into a magnificent monument, their work would continue. An ancient inscription explains how the monument was “built of good white sandstone, excellent, hard, … the house being of gold, the columns of gold, the inlays thereof being of silver.” About 680 b.c., Taharqa commanded the Nile Valley from Nubia to the Mediterranean. By that time, Nubia was already 3,000 years old. Along with Egypt, it stood as one of the world's early civilizations. The Geography of Africa After Asia, Africa is the second largest continent, covering one fifth of all the Earth's land surface. Its geography is immensely varied. However, certain geographic features, such as distinct climate zones, have had a major impact on its development. Many outsiders, misled by movies, imagine Africa as a continent covered with thick jungles. In fact, tropical rain forests cover less than five percent of the land, mostly along the Equator. Thick trees and roots make this region unsuitable for farming. Climate Zones Africa's largest and most populated climate zone is the savanna, or grassy plain, which stretches north and south of the forest zone. Although the savanna has good soil, irregular patterns of rainfall sometimes cause long, deadly droughts. In parts of the savanna, the tsetse fly infects people and cattle with sleeping sickness. But in other parts, cattle herding is a common occupation. The savanna belts trail off into increasingly dry steppe zones and then into two major deserts. The blistering Sahara in the north is the world's largest desert. Although the Sahara did become a highway for migration and trade, its size and harsh terrain limited movement. The Kalahari and Namib in the south are smaller but equally forbidding. Finally, along the Mediterranean coast of North Africa and at the tip of southern Africa lie areas of fertile farmland. These varied regions also The Tsetse Fly The tsetse fly carries one of Africa's most troublesome diseases—sleeping sickness. Flies pass on the deadly disease by biting humans and large animals. Some people have abandoned their villages in heavily infested areas. In other regions, people have stopped raising offer a variety of mineral resources, such as salt, gold, iron, copper, diamonds, and oil, all of which have spurred trade. Movement In addition to deserts and rain forests, other geographic features have acted as barriers to easy movement of people and goods. Africa has an enormous coastline, but few good natural harbors. In addition, much of the interior is a high plateau. As rivers approach the coast, they cascade through a series of rapids and cataracts that hinder travel between the coast and the interior. Despite geographic barriers, people did migrate within Africa and to neighboring lands. The Great Rift Valley of East Africa served as one interior corridor. Many rivers were navigable in the interior of the continent. The Red Sea and Indian Ocean linked East Africa to the Middle East and other Asian lands, while North Africa was a part of the Mediterranean world. Mineral resources spurred trade among various African regions. Salt, gold, iron, and copper were particularly valuable to early trade. In later centuries, diamonds and oil would also gain importance. horses and cattle because of the pests. Many tourists arrange their trips to avoid the tsetse fly. How can Africans overcome this menace? Tsetse flies are attracted to moving vehicles, dark colors, and perfume and aftershave. Using this knowledge, scientists have built traps. A dark blue cloth, treated to smell like ox breath—irresistible to the tsetse fly—acts as a lure. The cloth is also treated with insecticide, to kill the flies. Resources Theme: Economics and TechnologyHow might African economies be affected by eliminating the tsetse fly? Migration of Peoples Archaeologists have uncovered evidence that the Great Rift Valley of East Africa was the home of the earliest people. Gradually, their descendants spread to almost every corner of the Earth. In Africa, as elsewhere, Paleolithic people developed skills as hunters and food gatherers. By 5500 b.c., Neolithic farmers had learned to cultivate the Nile Valley and to domesticate animals. As farming spread across North Africa, Neolithic villages even appeared in the Sahara, which was then a well-watered zone. Ancient rock paintings show a Sahara full of forests and rivers. The Changing Sahara About 2500 b.c., a climate change slowly dried out the Sahara. As the land became parched, the desert spread. This process of desertification has continued to the present, devouring thousands of acres of cropland and pastureland each year. Desertification has also encouraged migration, as people are forced to seek new areas to maintain their ways of life. Over thousands of years, migrations contributed to the rich diversity of peoples and cultures. Scholars have traced these migrations by studying language patterns. They have learned that West African farmers and herders migrated to the south and east between about b.c. 500 and a.d. 1500. Like the Indo-European peoples of Europe and Asia, these West African peoples spoke a variety of languages that derived from a common root language. We call this root language Bantu. The Bantu Migrations As people migrated across Africa, they adapted to its many climates and developed a diversity of cultures. While some were nomadic cattle herders, others cultivated grain or root crops. In several regions, farming people built great empires. The Nile Kingdom of Nubia While Egyptian civilization was developing, another African civilization took shape on a wide band of fertile land among the cataracts of the upper Nile. The ancient kingdom of Nubia, also called Kush, was located in present-day Sudan. From time to time, ambitious Egyptian pharaohs subdued Nubia, but the Nubians always regained their independence. As a result of conquest and trade, Nubian rulers adapted many Egyptian traditions. They modeled palaces and pyramids on Egyptian styles. About 750 b.c., the Nubian king Piankhi (pee ahng kee) conquered Egypt. For a century, Nubian kings ruled Egypt. But their armies could not match the iron weapons of the invading Assyrians. The Nubians retreated south from Egypt. Conquest and trade provided Nubia with opportunities to learn about Egyptian culture. Many traditions and beliefs were adapted to become part of Nubian civilization. By 500 b.c., Nubian rulers moved their capital to Meroë (mehr uh wee). Meroë commanded both the north-south Nile route and the east-west route from the Red Sea into the savanna and North Africa. Along this wide trade network, Nubia sent gold, ivory, animal skins, perfumes, and slaves to the Mediterranean world and the Middle East. The Furnaces of Meroë Equally important, Meroë was rich in iron ore. Its furnaces, fueled by large quantities of timber, produced iron. Today, giant heaps of iron waste remain as evidence of ancient Meroë's industry. Although Nubia absorbed much from Egypt, it later followed an independent course. Nubians worshiped their own gods including Apedemak, a lion-headed warrior god. At Meroë, artistic styles reflected a greater sense of freedom than did Egyptian styles. Nubians also created their own system of writing, using an alphabet instead of hieroglyphics. Unfortunately, the Nubian alphabet has yet to be deciphered. Splendor and Decline After the joint reign of King Natakamani and Queen Amanitere in the first century a.d., Nubia's golden age dimmed. Finally, about a.d. 350, armies from the kingdom of Axum on the Red Sea overwhelmed Nubia. King Ezana of Axum boasted, “I burnt their towns, both those built of brick and those built of reeds, and my army carried off their food and copper and iron … and destroyed the statues in their temples.” As you will read later, Axum would make its own mark on this region beyond the Nile. North Africa Early African civilizations had strong ties to the Mediterranean world. At the opposite end of the Mediterranean from Nubia and Axum, Carthage rose as a great North African power. Like Nubia, its wealth came from trade. Founded by Phoenician traders, Carthage came to dominate trade in the western Mediterranean and North Africa. Between 800 b.c. and 146 b.c., it forged an empire that stretched from the Maghreb (present-day Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco) to southern Spain and Sicily. Carthage also established outposts, or distant military stations, in England and France. As Rome expanded, territorial and trade rivalries erupted between the two powers, resulting in the Punic Wars. Despite the efforts of Hannibal, Rome eventually crushed Carthage. Trade, however, continued. The Romans built roads, dams, aqueducts, and cities across North Africa. They developed its farmlands and imported lions and other fierce animals to do battle with gladiators. North Africa also provided soldiers for the Roman army. One of them, Septimius Severus, later became emperor of Rome. Roman Rule Under Roman rule, Christianity spread to the cities of North Africa. St. Augustine, the most influential Christian thinker of the late Roman empire, was born in present-day Algeria. From a.d. 395 to a.d. 430, Augustine was bishop of Hippo, a city near the ruins of ancient Carthage. By a.d. 200, camels had been brought to North Africa from Asia. These hardy “ships of the desert” revolutionized trade across the Sahara. Camels could carry loads of up to 500 pounds and could plod 20 or 30 miles a day, often without water. Although daring traders had earlier made the difficult desert crossing in horse-drawn chariots, camel caravans created new trade networks. Camels and Trade Spread of Islam Further changes came in the 600s, when Arab armies carried Islam into North Africa. At first, the Arabs occupied the cities and battled the Berbers in the desert. Later, Berbers and Arabs joined forces to conquer Spain. Islam replaced Christianity as the dominant religion of North Africa, and Arabic replaced Latin as its language. North Africa benefited from the blossoming of Muslim civilization. Cities like Cairo, Fez, and Marrakesh were famed for their mosques and libraries. Linked into a global trade network, North African ports did a busy trade in grain, wine, fruit, ivory, and gold. Along with their goods, Muslim traders from North Africa carried Islam into West Africa. SECTION 2 Kingdoms of West Africa Reading Focus Vocabulary Why were gold and salt important in early Africa? How did the rulers of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai build strong kingdoms? How did other West African kingdoms develop? surplus commodity mansa oba Taking Notes and complete the timeline below. As you read, add entries for the establishment of kingdoms mentioned in this section. One has been included as an example. Print out Between about a.d. 800 and a.d. 1600, several powerful kingdoms won control of the Sahara trade and built prosperous cities in West Africa. Setting the Scene In the early 1500s, the scholar Hassan ibn Muhammad—known in the West as Leo Africanus—described the commercial wealth and bustling markets of the West African city of Timbuktu: “Here are many shops of … merchants, and especially such as weave linen and cotton cloth. And here do the Barbary (North African) merchants bring the cloth of Europe. All the women of this region, except maidservants, go with their faces covered and sell all the necessary foods.” —Hassan ibn Muhammad, quoted in Ancient African Kingdoms (Shinnie) Timbuktu stood at one end of a trade network that reached north to Cairo and then across the Mediterranean Sea to Italy. Between about 800 and 1600, several powerful kingdoms in turn won control of the prosperous Sahara trade. Among the richest of these West African states were Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. Trading Gold and Salt As the Sahara dried out, you will recall, some Neolithic people migrated southward into the savanna. There, farmers grew beans, melons, and cereal grains. By a.d. 100, settled farming villages were expanding, especially along the Senegal and Niger rivers and around Lake Chad. Villagers traded any surplus, or excess, food they produced. Gradually, a trade network linked the savanna to forest lands in the south and then funneled goods across the Sahara to civilizations along the Mediterranean and in the Middle East. Two products, gold and salt, dominated the Sahara trade. Gold was plentiful in present-day Ghana, Nigeria, and Senegal. Men dug the gold-bearing soil from pits. Women then washed the soil to extract the gold dust. The precious metal was stuffed into hollow feather quills for safe travel to the markets of North Africa and Europe. The Salt Trade The camel changed the Saharan salt trade. For centuries, trade was limited because the horses that transported the salt were not suited to desert travel. However, about a.d. 300, the Berbers, an Arabic people of North Africa, began using camels to carry their goods. When the caravans reached Ghana, merchants would pay one pound of gold dust for one pound of salt. The As farming and trade prospered, cities developed on the northern edges of the savanna. Strong monarchs salt trade began to thrive. In return, West Africans received an equally important commodity, or valuable product, salt. People need salt in their diet to prevent dehydration, especially in hot, tropical areas. The Sahara had an abundance of salt. At Taghaza, in the central Sahara, people even built homes of salt blocks. But in the savanna, several hundred miles south, salt was scarce. A block of salt was easily worth its weight in gold. gained control of the most profitable trade routes and Gold Wealth of Ghana By a.d. 800, the rulers of the Soninke people had united many farming villages to create the kingdom of Ghana.* Ghana was located in the broad “V” made by the Niger and Senegal rivers. From there, the king controlled gold-salt trade routes across West Africa. The two streams of trade met in the marketplaces of Ghana, where the king collected tolls on all goods entering or leaving his land. So great was the flow of gold that Arab writers called Ghana “land of gold.” Capital and King The capital of Ghana was Kumbi Saleh, made up of two separate, walled towns, some six miles apart. The first town was dominated by the royal palace, surrounded by a complex of domed buildings. Here, in a court noted for its wealth and splendor, the king of Ghana presided over elaborate ceremonies. To the people, he was a semidivine figure who dispensed justice and kept order. Now, more than 1,000 years later, the salt trade still exists. As late as 1975, workers in Taghaza (now called Taoudenni) were living in salt huts and mining several thousand tons of salt per year. Small caravans of camels carrying salt still arrive in Timbuktu today. Theme: Continuity and Change Why are camels still used in the salt trade in today's technological age? In the second town of Kumbi Saleh, prosperous Muslim merchants from north of the Sahara lived in luxurious stone buildings. Lured by the gold wealth of Ghana, these merchants helped make Kumbi Saleh a bustling center of trade. Influence of Islam Muslim merchants, settled in their own communities throughout the kingdom, brought their Islamic faith to Ghana. Islam spread slowly at first. The king employed Muslims as counselors and officials, gradually absorbing Muslim military technology and ideas about government. Muslims also introduced their written language, coinage, business methods, and styles of architecture. In time, a few city dwellers adopted Islam, but most of the Soninke people continued to follow their own traditional beliefs. About 1050, the Almoravids (al mor uh veedz), pious Muslims of North Africa, launched a campaign to spread their form of Islam. They eventually overwhelmed Ghana, but were unable to maintain control over such a distant land. In time, Ghana was swallowed up by a rising new power, the West African kingdom of Mali. *Ghana, meaning ruler, was the name used for the kingdom by Arab traders. The modern nation of Ghana is not located on the site of the ancient kingdom, but lies several hundred miles to the south. built powerful kingdoms. The Kingdom of Mali Amid the turmoil of Ghana's collapse, the Mandinka people on the upper Niger suffered a bitter defeat by a rival leader. Their king and all but one of his sons were executed. According to tradition, the survivor was Sundiata. By 1235, he had crushed his enemies, won control of the gold trade routes, and founded the empire of Mali. Mali is an Arab version of the Mandinka word meaning “where the king dwells.” The mansas, or kings, expanded their influence over both the gold-mining regions to the south and the salt supplies of Taghaza. Where caravan routes crossed, towns like Timbuktu mushroomed into great trading cities. Sundiata (?)–1255 During the early 1200s, a tyrant named Sumanguru ruled in western Africa. According to legend, Sumanguru feared a royal Mandinka family. He killed 11 brothers in the family. But he spared the life of one brother, The greatest emperor of Mali was Mansa Musa (mahn sah moo sah), who came to the throne in about 1312. He expanded Mali's borders westward to the Atlantic Ocean and pushed northward to conquer many cities. During Mansa Musa's 25year reign, he worked to ensure peace and order in his empire. “There is complete and general safety throughout the land,” commented Ibn Battuta when he visited Mali. “The traveler here has no more reason to fear thieves than the man who stays at home.” Sundiata, who appeared to be sickly and already near death. Sundiata survived and recruited an army. In 1235, Sundiata defeated Sumanguru and quickly persuaded other Mandinka chiefs to surrender to his rule. Mansa Musa converted to Islam and based his system of justice on the Quran. At the same time, he did not adopt all customs associated with some nearby Muslim History tells us that over the societies. For example, women in Mali wore no veils and were not secluded within next two decades, Sundiata expanded his power. He the home. In 1324, Mansa Musa fulfilled one of the Five Pillars of Islam by making the hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca. Through his pilgrimage, Mansa Musa showed his devotion to Islam. He also forged new diplomatic and economic ties with other Muslim states. The movement of wealth, people, and ideas increased Mali's renown. By the 1400s, Timbuktu had become a leading center of learning. The city drew some of the best scholars from all over the Muslim world. founded the empire of Mali, which lasted for 200 years. Sundiata became a great hero, and West Africans have told stories about his exploits for hundreds of years. Theme: Impact of the IndividualWhy did West Africans tell stories about Sundiata long after his death? A New Empire in Songhai In the 1400s, disputes over succession weakened Mali. Subject peoples broke away, and the empire shriveled. By 1450, the wealthy trading city of Gao (gow) had emerged as the capital of a new West African kingdom, Songhai (sawng hī). Songhai grew up on the bend of the Niger River in presentday Niger and Burkina Faso. Between 1464 and 1492, the soldier-king Sonni Ali used his powerful army to forge the largest state that had ever existed in West Africa. Sonni Ali brought trade routes and wealthy cities like Timbuktu under his control. Unlike the rulers of Mali, he did not adopt the practices of Islam. Instead, he followed traditional religious beliefs. Two Great Leaders Soon after Sonni Ali's death, though, the emperor Askia Muhammad set up a Muslim dynasty. He further expanded the territory of Songhai and improved the government. Askia Muhammad set up a bureaucracy with separate departments for farming, the army, and the treasury. Like Mansa Musa, Askia Muhammad made a pilgrimage to Mecca that led to increased ties with the Muslim world. Scholars and poets from Muslim lands flocked to his court at Gao. In towns and cities across Songhai, Askia Muhammad built mosques and opened schools for the study of the Quran. Invaders From the North Songhai prospered until about 1586, when disputes over succession led to civil war. Soon after, the ruler of Morocco sent his armies south to seize the West African gold mines. The invaders used gunpowder weapons to defeat the disunited forces of Songhai. Like the Almoravids in Ghana, however, the Moroccans were not able to rule an empire across the Sahara. With the downfall of Songhai, this part of West Africa splintered into many small kingdoms. Other Kingdoms of West Africa In the period from 500 to 1500, other kingdoms flourished in various parts of West Africa. The fertile northern lands of modern-day Nigeria were home to the Hausa people, who had probably migrated there when the Sahara dried out. They were successful at both farming and trading. By the 1300s, the Hausa had built a number of clay-walled cities. While these city-states remained independent of one another, in time they expanded into thriving commercial centers. In the cities, cotton weavers and dyers, leatherworkers, and other artisans produced goods for sale. Merchants traded with Arab and Berber caravans from north of the Sahara. Hausa goods were sold as far away as North Africa and southern Europe. Walled City-States of the Hausa Kano was the most prosperous Hausa city-state. Its walls, 14 miles in circumference, protected a population of more than 30,000. Kano's greatest king, Muhammad Rumfa, was a Muslim, as were many merchants and officials. The Hausa developed a written language based on Arabic. Many Hausa rulers were women, such as Amina of the city-state of Zaria. In the 1500s, she conquered Kano and expanded the boundary of Zaria as far as the Niger River. Under Amina, the Hausa came to dominate many Saharan trade routes. South of the savanna, Benin (beh nin) rose in the rain forests of the Guinea coast. The forest peoples carved out farming villages and traded pepper, ivory, and, later, slaves to their neighbors in the savanna. The Forest Kingdom of Benin The rulers of Benin organized their kingdom in the 1300s, probably building on the achievements of earlier forest cultures. An oba, or king, was both a political and a religious leader. Still, much power was spread among other figures, including the queen mother and a council of hereditary chiefs. A three-mile-long wall surrounded the capital, Benin City. Its broad avenues were dotted with tidy homes and a great palace. The palace, in particular, was decorated with elaborate brass plaques and sculptures. According to tradition, artisans from Ife (ee fay), an earlier forest society, had taught the people of Benin how to cast bronze and brass. Benin sculptors developed their own unique style for representing the human face and form. Their works depicted warriors armed for battle, queen mothers with upswept hairstyles, and the oba himself. Looking Ahead Later Benin bronzeworks showed helmeted and bearded Portuguese merchants. These newcomers began to arrive in growing numbers in the 1500s. At first, Benin benefited from the new trade with European countries. However, increasing contacts with Europe opened the door to a booming slave trade that would have far-reaching consequences for all of West Africa. SECTION 3 Trade Routes of East Africa Reading Focus How did religion influence the development of Axum and Ethiopia? What effects did trade have on city-states in East Africa? What have archaeologists discovered about Great Zimbabwe? Taking Notes this table. As you read, fill in the columns with trade goods from Africa, Asia, and Europe and the Mediterranean that passed through the markets of Axum and the East African coast. Print out Religion and trade played an important role in Ethiopia and East African city-states. Setting the Scene According to Ethiopian tradition, the first emperor of Ethiopia was the son of the Israelite king Solomon and Makeda, the queen of Sheba. An ancient chronicle described how Makeda decided to journey to Jerusalem after hearing of Solomon's wisdom. “Learning is better than treasures of silver and gold,” she said. The queen spent six months at Solomon's court, gathering knowledge to bring back to her people. According to the chronicle, when Makeda was about to return to Sheba, Solomon gave her a ring and a blessing: “May the peace of God be with thee. While I was sleeping … I had a vision. The sun which before my eyes was shining upon Israel, moved away. It went and soared above Ethiopia. It remained there. Who knows but that thy country may be blessed because of thee? Above all keep the truth which I have brought thee. Worship God.” —The Glory of Kings The kingdom of Ethiopia was proud of its ancient Jewish roots and Christian traditions of Byzantine origin. In later centuries, other areas in Africa were joining the Islamic world. Ethiopia, however, remained mainly Christian and established the Coptic church. Axum and Its Successors About a.d. 350, as you will recall, King Ezana of Axum conquered and absorbed the ancient Nile kingdom of Nubia. Located to the southeast of Nubia, Axum extended from the mountains of present-day Ethiopia to the sun-bleached shores of the Red Sea. The peoples of Axum were descended from African farmers and from traders who brought Jewish religious traditions through Arabia. This merging of cultures introduced another religion to Axum. It also gave rise to a unique written and spoken language, Geez. The kingdom of Axum profited from the strategic location of its two main cities, the port of Adulis on the Red Sea and the upland capital city of Axum. From about 200 b.c. to a.d. 400, Axum commanded a triangular trade network that connected Africa to India by way of the Arabian Sea and to the Mediterranean world. A Trade Network From the interior of Africa, traders brought ivory, animal hides, rhinoceros horns, and gold to the markets of Axum. Goods from farther south along the African coast came to the harbor of Adulis. There, too, markets offered iron, spices, precious stones, and cotton cloth from India and other lands beyond the Indian Ocean. Ships bore these goods up the Red Sea, where they collected linen cloth, brass, copper, iron tools, wine, and olive oil from Europe and countries along the Mediterranean. In these great centers of international trade, Greek, Egyptian, Arab, and Jewish merchants mingled with traders from Africa, India, and other regions. As elsewhere, ideas spread along with goods. In the 300s, Axum's great king, Ezana, converted to Christianity. As the new religion took hold among the people, Christian churches replaced older temples. The Spread of Christianity At first, Christianity strengthened the ties between Axum, North Africa, and the Mediterranean world. Axum's other African neighbors, however, were not Christian. In the 600s, Islam began spreading across Africa. Many African rulers embraced this new faith, creating strong cultural ties across much of the continent. Axum was now isolated from its own trade network—by distance from Europe and by religion from many former trading partners. Civil war and economic decline combined to weaken Axum, and the kingdom slowly declined. Though Axum's political and economic power faded, its cultural and religious influence did not vanish. This legacy survived among the peoples of the interior uplands, in what today is Ethiopia. Protected by rugged mountains, descendants of the Axumites were able to maintain their independence for centuries. Their success was due in part to the unifying power of their Coptic Christian faith, which gave them a unique sense of identity and helped establish a culture distinct from that of neighboring peoples. Ethiopia, a Christian Outpost During the reign of King Lalibela in the early 1200s, Christian monks built a number of remarkable churches. They were carved into the solid rock of the mountains. According to Ethiopian chronicles, the builders had divine help: “Angels joined the workers, the quarry men, the stone cutters, and the laborers. The angels worked with them by day and by themselves at night. The men … doubted whether the angels were doing this work because they could not see them, but Lalibela knew, because the angels, who understood his virtue, did not hide from him.” —The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles Despite their isolation, Ethiopian Christians kept ties with the Holy Land. Some made pilgrimages to Jerusalem. Ethiopians also were in touch with Christian communities in Egypt. Still, Ethiopians saw their country as a Christian outpost. Over time, Ethiopian Christians absorbed many local customs. They adapted traditional East African drum music and dances that are still used in church services today. The kings of Ethiopia claimed descent from the Israelite king Solomon and the queen of Sheba. This belief was recorded in an ancient Ethiopian book called The Glory of Kings and reinforced by observing Jewish holidays and dietary laws. One group of Ethiopians practiced Judaism rather than Christianity. These Ethiopian Jews, known as the Falasha, survived in the mountains of Ethiopia until recent years, when they were evacuated to Israel during a famine. East African City-States While Axum declined, a string of commercial cities—including Kilwa, Mogadishu, Mombasa, and Sofala—gradually rose along the East African coast. Since ancient times, Phoenician, Greek, Roman, and Indian traders had visited this coast. Under the protection of local African rulers, Arab and Persian merchants set up Muslim communities beginning in the a.d. 600s. Later, Bantu-speaking peoples migrated into the region and adopted Islam. Port cities, as well as offshore islands like Lamu and Zanzibar, were ideally located for trade with Asia. As a result, Asian traders and immigrants from as far away as Indonesia soon added to the rich cultural mix. Early mariners learned that the annual monsoon winds could carry sailing ships northeast to India in summer and back to Africa in winter. On the East African coast, rulers saw the advantages of trade. They welcomed ships from Arabia, Persia, and China. Traders acquired ivory, leopard skins, iron, copper, and gold from the interior of Africa, as well as from coastal regions. From India, Southeast Asia, and China came cotton cloth, silk, spices, porcelain, glassware, and swords. A thriving slave trade also developed, sending captured people from the African interior to the Middle East and beyond. Growing Trade Trade helped local rulers build strong city-states. A Muslim visitor described Kilwa as “one of the most beautiful and well-constructed towns in the world.” Its royal palace stands on cliffs that today overlook the modern city. The complex of courtyards and large rooms runs for two acres. Built of coral and cut stone, the structure is evidence of the city's splendor. International trade created a rich and varied mix of cultures in the East African city-states. Bantu-speaking Africans, Arabs, and other Middle Easterners mingled in the streets with people from Southeast Asia, India, and China. With the spread of Islam, Middle Eastern influences grew stronger. Marriages between African women and nonAfrican Muslim men furthered the spread of Muslim culture. An African wife's traditional property rights allowed her husband to settle and own land, creating opportunities for these non-African men. Their children often gained positions of leadership. A Blend of Cultures Both private houses and palaces show strong Arab and Middle Eastern influences in the East African cities. Additionally, the blend of cultures gave rise to a new language. Known as Swahili, it fused many Arabic words onto a Bantu base and was written in Arabic script. Great Zimbabwe To the south and inland from the coastal city-states, massive stone ruins sprawl across rocky hilltops near the great bend in the Limpopo River. The looming walls, great palace, and cone-shaped towers testify that these structures were part of the powerful and prosperous capital of a great inland empire. Today, these impressive ruins are known as Great Zimbabwe, which means “great stone buildings.” Europeans who came upon these ruins in the 1800s thought they were the work of the ancient Phoenicians. In fact, the builders were a succession of Bantu-speaking peoples who settled in the region between 900 and 1500. The newcomers brought improved farming skills, iron, and mining methods. On the relatively fertile land, they produced enough food to support a growing population. Economy and Government We know little about how this civilization developed. Early settlers raised cattle. They built stone enclosures to protect their livestock. In time, they improved their building methods and erected large walls and palaces. The capital probably reached its height about 1300. By then, it had tapped nearby gold resources and created profitable commercial links with coastal cities like Sofala. Archaeologists have found beads from India and porcelain from China, showing that Great Zimbabwe was part of a trade network that reached across the Indian Ocean. Besides controlling trade, Zimbabwe was a center for manufacturing. Artisans turned gold and copper into beautiful jewelry and made iron tools for everyday use. Weaving cotton into cloth seems to have been an important craft. Very little is known about the government in Great Zimbabwe. Some scholars have suggested, however, that the ruler was a god-king who presided over a large court. He may have shared authority with a powerful queen mother as well as nine queens, each of whom had her own court. Below the king, a central bureaucracy may have ruled an inner ring of provinces, while appointed governors had authority in more distant villages. By 1500, Zimbabwe was in decline. Some scholars suggest that overfarming had exhausted the soil. In addition, civil war and dwindling trade probably contributed to the breakup of Zimbabwe. By then, Portuguese traders were pushing inland to find the source of gold that they were able to buy in cities along the coast. They failed to discover the gold mines, and their intrusion helped undermine later small states that formed in the region. Decline SECTION 4 Many Peoples, Many Traditions Reading Focus Vocabulary How did the interaction of people and the environment lead to diverse societies? How did government, family, and religion hold African societies together? How did artistic and literary traditions reflect the values of African societies? slash-and-burn agriculture nuclear family patrilineal matrilineal lineage griot Taking Notes As you read, prepare an outline of this section. Use Roman numerals to indicate the major headings of the section, capital letters for the subheadings, and numbers for the supporting details. Print out the sample to help get you started. The process of adapting to the land contributed to the development of many different cultures in Africa. Setting the Scene At harvest time, the Kikuyu (kee koo yoo) people of East Africa offered prayers of thanksgiving to their traditional gods. A modern writer recorded one ancient prayer: “Mwene-Nyaga, you who have brought us rain and have given us good harvest, let people eat grain of this harvest calmly and peacefully…. Guard us against illness of people or our herds and flocks so that we may enjoy this season's harvest in tranquility.” —Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya In West African mosques, Muslims recited a different prayer: “Praise be to God, Lord of the Universe, the Compassionate, the Merciful.” Differing religious traditions contributed to the diversity of the vast continent of Africa. At the same time, religious beliefs formed deep bonds that united individual societies. People and the Environment Over thousands of years, Bantu-speaking peoples migrated across Africa. With them, they carried farming skills and knowledge of ironworking to its many regions. Wherever these people settled, they adapted to local environments and absorbed ideas from the peoples they encountered. Trade or other contacts brought additional changes. As a result, the ways of life of African societies varied greatly from place to place. Hunting and Food Gathering Bantu migrations pushed many hunting and food-gathering peoples of Africa to fringe areas. The Khoisan people, for example, adapted to the harsh conditions of the Kalahari Desert by gathering roots and herbs and hunting small game. Because food was scarce, hunting-gathering people lived in small bands numbering only about 20 or 30. Their knowledge of the natural world, however, was unmatched by city dwellers or farming villagers. They could track animals across long distances and identify the food and healing properties of many different plants. In parts of the savanna free from the tsetse fly, some peoples raised herds of cattle. Because grazing areas were limited, these societies were often nomadic. To protect their herds against raiders, these peoples perfected skills in warfare. Herding and Fishing Along the coasts and rivers, fish was the basic food for some people. Most fishing peoples used nets. They traded any surplus fish for grain, animal skins, and other products made by people who lived inland. Some fishing areas had enough food resources to support large populations. Farming communities raised a variety of crops from grains to root crops like yams or tree crops like bananas. Most farming peoples practiced a method that is today called slash-and-burn agriculture. They cleared forest and brush land with iron axes and hoes, then burned the remains, using the ash for fertilizer. Because the land lost its fertility within a few years, villagers would move on to clear other land. Eventually, after giving the soil time to renew its fertility, they might return to the abandoned fields. Settled Farming Societies Sculpted panel of an African farming village Forms of Village Government Farming peoples generally lived in tightknit communities and helped one another in tasks such as clearing the land, planting, and harvesting. Both men and women planted, but they usually were responsible for different crops. Political patterns varied, depending in part on the size of the communities. However, village governments often had similar features. In these pre-urban societies, power was usually shared among a number of people rather than centralized in the hands of a single leader. In some villages, a chief had a good deal of authority, but in many others, elders made the major decisions. In some places, especially in parts of West Africa, women took the dominant role in the marketplace or acted as official peacemakers in the village. Sharing Power Villages often made decisions by a process known as consensus. In open discussions, people whose opinions were valued voiced their views before a general agreement was reached. The opinions of older women and men usually held the greatest weight. Villages within a large kingdom like that of Songhai had to obey decisions made at a distant court. These villagers had to pay taxes and provide soldiers to the central government. The Kingdom of Kongo The kingdom of Kongo, which flourished about 1500 in central Africa, illustrates one of the many forms of government organization in Africa. It consisted of many villages grouped into districts and provinces and governed by officials appointed by the king. Each village had its own chief, a man chosen on the basis of the descent of his mother's family. The king of Kongo might seem to have absolute power, but actually that power was limited. The king was chosen by a board of electors and had to govern according to traditional laws. Unlike rulers of West African states, who maintained strong standing armies, kings of Kongo could only call upon men to fight in times of need. Through local governors, the king collected taxes either in goods or in cowrie shells, a common African currency. Family Patterns In Africa, as elsewhere, the family was the basic unit of society. Patterns of family life varied greatly. In hunting-and-gathering societies, for example, the nuclear family was typical, with parents and children living and working together as a unit. In other African communities, people lived in joint families. Several generations shared the same complex of houses. Lines of Descent Family organization varied in other ways. Some families were patrilineal. In these families, important kinship ties and inheritance were passed through the father's side. Other families were matrilineal, with inheritance traced through the mother's side. In a patrilineal culture, a bride would move to her husband's village to become part of his family. In a matrilineal culture, the husband joined his wife's family. Matrilineal cultures also forged strong ties between brothers and sisters. Brothers were expected to protect their sisters, and sisters made their sons available to help their brothers whenever needed. Each family belonged to a lineage, or group of households who claimed a common ancestor. Several lineages formed a clan that traced its descent to an even more remote and often legendary ancestor. Belonging to a particular family, lineage, or clan gave people a sense of community. Wider Ties An individual's place in society was also determined by a system of age grades. An age grade included all girls or boys born in the same year. Each age grade had particular responsibilities and privileges. In the older age grades, children began to take part in village activities, which created social ties beyond the family. Religious Beliefs Across Africa, religious beliefs were varied and complex. Like Hindus or ancient Greeks and Romans, village Africans worshiped many gods and goddesses. They identified the forces of nature with divine spirits and tried to influence those forces through rituals and ceremonies. Many African peoples believed that a single, unknowable supreme being stood above all the other gods and goddesses. This supreme being was the creator and ruler of the universe and was helped by the lesser spirits, who were closer to the people. Like the Chinese, many African peoples believed that the spirits of their ancestors could help, warn, or punish their descendants on Earth. Just as Christians in medieval Europe called on the saints, people in Africa turned to the spirits of their departed ancestors. Christianity and Islam, as you have seen, influenced peoples in some parts of Africa. Converts often associated the God of Christians and Muslims with their traditional supreme being. In this way, Christianity and Islam absorbed many local practices and beliefs. Artistic and Literary Traditions In art and architecture, African traditions extend far back in time to the ancient rock paintings of the Sahara. The pyramids of Egypt and Nubia, the rock churches of Ethiopia, and the palace of Great Zimbabwe bear lasting witness to the creative power of these early civilizations. Sadly, many wooden buildings and works of art have not survived. Kente Cloth African artists created works in ivory, wood, and bronze. Sometimes, their work was decorative. Artisans wove and dyed cloth, inscribed jugs and bowls, and shaped bracelets and neck ornaments simply for beauty. Much art, though, served social and religious purposes. Arts Art strengthened bonds within the community and linked both the makers and the users of the work. Patterns used to decorate textiles, baskets, swords, and other objects had important meanings. Often, they identified an object as the work of a particular clan or the possession of royalty. In Africa, as elsewhere, much art was closely tied to religion. Statues and other objects were used in religious ceremonies. In many rituals, leaders wore impressively carved wooden masks decorated with cowrie shells or grass. Once the mask was in place, both the wearer and the viewers could feel the presence of the spiritual force it represented. Literature African societies preserved their histories and values through both oral and written literature. Ancient Egypt, Nubia, and Axum left written records of their past. Later, Arabic provided a common written language in parts of Africa influenced by Islam. African Muslim scholars gathered in cities like Timbuktu and Kilwa as well as in North African cities. Documents in Arabic offer invaluable evidence about law, religion, and history. Oral traditions date back many centuries. In West Africa, griots (gree ohs), or professional poets, recited ancient stories. They preserved both histories and traditional folk tales in the same way that the epics of Homer or Aryan India were passed orally from generation to generation. Histories praised the heroic deeds of famous ancestors or kings. Folk tales, which blended fanciful stories with humor and sophisticated word play, taught important moral lessons. Oral literature, like religion and art, thus encouraged a sense of community and common values. Centuries ago, the Asante people of Ghana developed a colorful, intricately designed cloth called kente. Once the apparel of Asante royalty, today kente designs represent the philosophy, moral values, and code of conduct in Ghanaian culture. Some designs symbolize good omens and spiritual rebirth, while others may represent family unity, cooperation, or sharing. In recent years, many Americans have begun wearing kente cloth as a celebration of their African heritage. Traditionally the garb of joyous occasions, imported kente is used in a wide variety of items, from shirts to neckties to backpacks.