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MBA 9:
RESEARCH & QUANTITATIVE
METHODS
Genius is one percent inspiration, ninety-nine percent perspiration
~Thomas Edison.
SUGGESTED ACADEMIC RESOURCES/LITERATURE:
• Saunders, M.N.K., Lewis, P., and Thornhill, A. (2012). Research Method for
Business Students. (6th Edition). Harlow, UK: Financial Times Prentice Hall.
• Bryman, A. and Bell, E. (2015). Business Research Methods (4th Edition).
Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
• Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and
Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative research (3rd Edition). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
• Creswell, J.W. (2008). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed
Methods Approaches (2nd Edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
• Crotty, M. (1998). The Foundations of Social Research: Meaning and
Perspective in the Research Process. London: Sage Publications.
• Greener, S. and Martelli, J. (2015). An Introduction to Business Research
Methods
(2nd
Edition).
Available
online
from:
http://bookboon.com/en/introduction-to-research-methods-ebook
COURSE CONTENT
 Introduction to Research Steps, Research ideas and Topics
 Research Philosophy & Approach: Inductive & Deductive Research Literature
Review
 Research Design, Research Strategies and Sampling
 Data Collection
 Data Analysis
 Research Methodology
CHAPTER ONE:
RESEARCH STEPS, RESEARCH IDEAS & TOPICS
• Scientific research is essentially a systematic, rigorous process of
collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data in order to understand a
phenomenon (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). It commits to a systematic way
of thinking, an allegiance to a way of building knowledge and explaining
the world through testing and factual observation.
What is meant by “Business Research”?
• Business research, which forms part of social science research, is
essentially academic research on topics relating to questions that are
relevant to the field of business and management and have a social
orientation. This includes research in areas such as organisational
behaviour, marketing, accounting, HRM, and strategy, which draw on
the social sciences for conceptual and theoretical aspiration.
Social Sciences:
Social World
. Business
Research
Physical world
Natural science
World
Business Research is situated within the social research domain
• Business/management research is primarily concerned with making
contributions to both management practice and academic knowledge,
including knowledge of humans, culture, society, business etc., and the use
of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications.
• It is a research conducted for the illumination of issues that arise in the
context of academic thinking in the area of business and management.
• At the essential core of management is decision-making. Managers make
decision about practical issues. The quality of management is reflected in
the quality of the decision making. Research findings are of vital
importance in the managerial decision process. Managers can draw upon
research outputs to make effective decisions. Research serves as a
technology to drive business and management decision.
• E.g. A growing area of business/management is data-driven decision
making, which is primarily research-driven.
• Academic research is situated within certain scientific conventions.
• The research process is systematic in that defining the objective,
managing the data, and communicating the findings occur within
established frameworks and in accordance with existing scientific
guidelines. The frameworks and guidelines provide researchers with
an indication of what to include in the research, how to perform the
research, and what types of inferences are probable based on the
data collected.
• For the social scientist, the approach should be objective, causal,
cumulative, and progressive, emphasizing reliability and external
validity and separating the scientist from the observed (positivist). It
aims at precise, unambiguous empirical knowledge using strict logic
(Mitroff & Kilmann, 1978:34).
• Many of our assumptions about how the world works are wrong.
• Remember: All intuitions/epiphanies are at best hypotheses; they
have to be tested.
• The Cartesian philosophical point here is that “we ought to consider
as false all that is doubtful”. If any idea is doubtful, it is presumed to
be false, and if it is to be accepted as true we ought first to prove it
(i.e., we will doubt until we have proven it). We ought not to make
use of doubt in the conduct of personal life or in business life.
• We may even doubt “sensible” things (rationalism vs. empiricism
(materially sensible)). The acceptability of a “Novum Organum” or
new method must be rigorously tested.
• “Out with the old, in with the new,” should only be accepted if the
“new” has been proven and found to be true.
• For a research scientist, research is a mind-set; but for most
people, it begins as a process of replacing one set of received
beliefs with another; thus , research skills should be studied;
• Research is largely a problem-solving activity. Successful
researchers are those who possess the knowledge and skills
that enable them to overcome the problems inherent in the
process of research;
• The researcher should approach every research undertaking
with, in the words of Edwin Hubble, “a healthy skepticism,
suspended judgement, and disciplined imagination,” not only
about other people’s ideas but also about his/her own. The
researcher must have an experimental mind, not a litigious
one.
Why do Business Research?
• Business research is NOT about finding any great truths about the big
wide world. It is not as ambitious as research in physical science
(Basic research). There are no governing theories to be discovered in
business research!!!
• Business research may be motivated by developments and changes in
organisations and societies, e.g., concerns about rising levels of
executive pay or a desire to improve the environmental sustainability
of business using social science ideas.
• The rationale for doing business research is multifaceted, and
includes the following:
In the course of reading the literature on a particular topic or when
reflecting on what is going on in modern organisations, questions
occur to academics that they need to find solutions to;
There exists a gap in the literature, or an inconsistency between a
number of studies, or an unresolved issue in the literature. In this
light, business research often seeks to repair a neglect in the
discipline of business or management;
A societal development that provides a point of departure for the
development of a research question (e.g., a disruptive impact of new
a technology on business and society); and
An aspect of business and management that is believed to be
inadequately understood or that our understanding of what goes on
in organisations is to some extent unresolved.
The Research Continuum
Basic
• The purpose is to gain
understanding of the
world
• Explanatory in focus
• Need not be actionable
Applied
• Answers specific question
of practical importance
• Builds on basic research
• Leads to direct, applicable
findings
• Business/management is
APPLIED RESEARCH
Why Study Business Research Methods?
• Understanding research methods as they are applied in management and
organisational contexts is central to understanding how business problems
are framed and resolved. An education in research methods is important in
ensuring that the correct procedures are followed when one conducts an
academic research.
• Secondly, it fosters an appreciation of the choices available to the
researchers.
• Thirdly, from the point of view of consumer of published research, a good
grounding in research methods and knowledge of the potential pitfalls
provides an invaluable critical edge when reading a research paper.
• Finally, an understanding of research methods will enable you to satisfy
your curiosity about topics that interest you by undertaking your own
research project, either for a dissertation or perhaps in a work-related
context.
Importance of Research Training
Training in research methods (TRM) sensitizes one to the choices that
are available to business and management researchers;
Training in research methods provides you with an awareness of the
‘dos’ and ‘don’ts’ when employing a particular approach to collecting
and analyzing data;
Training in research methods provides insights into the overall
research process, providing a general vantage point for understanding
how research is done. It illuminates the various stages of research, so
that you can plan your research and think about such issues as how
your research methods will connect with your research questions;
The skills that TRM impacts are transferable to research in other
spheres (firms, public-sector organisations, etc.)
Examples of Business Research
• Market research
• Policy research
• Evaluations
• Investment analysis
• Budget Cycle preparation research
• Negotiations
• Entrepreneurship
• Economics (e.g., Determinants of FDI Flows into Renewable Energy
PPPs in South Africa; Managerial Foundations of a Financial Bubble,
etc. ).
• Applied mathematics in business- or management-related problems
THE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
Topic: A clearly stated research problem (Note: Topic IS NOT same as Title);
Literature review (What has already done?, what has not yet been done?);
Design the study & develop your method;
- Research Design (Sampling, Qualitative or Quantitative)
- Research Methodology (Statistical Issues, Data collection instruments)
Data collection & Collation (this is the FIELD WORK);
Data Analysis and Interpretation of findings (Methods, QN/QL Analysis,
Interpret data in relation to hypothesis.);
Conclusions drawn from the research and recommendations;
Report on study & Dissemination of findings.
THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
General Problem to be investigated;
State purpose of the study;
Develop a conceptual/theoretical framework for the study;
Formulate general & specific research questions
Select a qualitative research design;
Select a sampling strategy;
Trustworthiness of the study;
Decide on data collection methods & data collection tools;
Data Analysis
Interpretation & discussion of findings;
Report on study & Dissemination of findings.
Generating a Research Idea & Topic
Looking at Subjects/Modules/Courses already completed;
Looking at recommendations made by past projects you were
involved in;
Begin with a broad area of keen interest (e.g. Marketing): Do
preliminary literature searches: Narrow down to a Topic of Interest
(e.g. Advertising): Is there a researchable unresolved issue in
adverting you are keen to look into?: Review the literature specifically
on that issue to determine what has been done, etc.;
Critically observe your work place (what are the unresolved issues);
Discussions with others(tutors, lecturers, peers);
Media;
Greener and Martelli (2015: 15 – 16) suggested that the following steps
be considered in order to arrive at a good research topic:
Narrow down the study topic to one which we are both interested in
and have the time to investigate thoroughly. Remember Goldilocks, it
should be just right!
Choose a topic context where we can get access to practitioners if
possible; either a direct connection with an organisation or
professional body, or a context which is well documented in the
literature;
Identify relevant theory or domain of knowledge around the
question for reading and background understanding;
Pay attention to current issues being addressed in the literature.
Could they be relevant to the research problem of interest.
Write and re-write the question or working title, checking
thoroughly the implications of each phrase or word to check
assumptions and ensure we really mean what we write. This is often
best done with other people to help us check assumptions and see
the topic more clearly;
Use the published literature and discussion with others to help us
narrow down firmly to an angle or gap in the business literature,
which will be worthwhile to explore;
Identity the possible outcomes from this research topic, both
theoretical and practical. If they are not clear, can we refine the topic
so that they become clear?
Note: This stage of the research process may take time so start
thinking about your topic now!
CHAPTER TWO:
RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY AND APPROACH DEDUCTIVE & INDUCTIVE RESEARCH LITERATURE
REVIEW
RESEARCH PHILOSOPHIES AND APPROACHES
• Every researcher, to some extent, grapples with fundamental
philosophical issues around the research process; thus, the
researcher should have a clear understanding of the philosophical
nuances that inform the research design, including the assumptions
and their practical consequences on the findings, in order to make the
research process tangible.
• To ensure the conceptual understanding and the research results
follow established research practice, examining the philosophical
approach behind the research paradigm is a necessity. The research
philosophies (paradigms) influence the choice of research
methodology. Crotty (1998:3) defines the theoretical perspective of
the research design framework as “the philosophical stance informing
the methodology.”
• Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2012:128) represents the research
process in the form of an onion (See Figure 2.1, below). Based on this
representation, research philosophies and research approaches
constitute the outermost layers of the research ‘onion.’
• A research philosophy (paradigm) refers to a set of beliefs or
assumptions that guide researchers (Creswell, 2008a). The research
philosophy portrays the researcher’s assumptions about the way
he/she views the world. Ultimately, the research strategy and the
methods the researcher chooses as part of that strategy is situated
within a particular philosophical disposition.
• Every research is framed within a particular research philosophy. The
choice of a research philosophy implies that the researcher has
committed to embracing the strengths and weaknesses inherent in
that philosophy, and the type answers he/she can draw from it.
• Johnson and Clark (2006) alluded to the importance of the
researcher’s awareness of the philosophical commitment he/she
makes through the choice of a research strategy. This is important
because the researcher’s philosophical assumptions will have a
significant impact not only the type of information collected but also
the means used to collect the data (i.e., what is done but how the
researcher understand what is it that he/she is investigating).
• The research question will lean itself towards a particular philosophy
which would yield the most suitable answers.
The Research Process Framework
• Research paradigms and the research process framework can be
classified according to their ontological, epistemological and
methodological elements. These constitutes the research design
elements.
• According to Crotty (1998: 10), Ontology is “the study of being.”
(Lincoln and Guba, 1998:200) defined it as “the nature of reality”.
Ontology answers the question: What Constitutes Reality and How
Can We Understand Existence? it deals with assumptions about the
nature of reality and informs the researcher’s understanding of “what
is” and the structure of that reality. The ontological notion of realism,
postulates that realities exist outside of the mind.
• Epistemology is about “how we know what we know” (Crotty, 1998:8)
or “the nature of the relationship between the knower or would-be
knower and what can be known” (Guba and Lincoln, 1998:201).
Epistemology grapples with the question of what is (or should be)
regarded as acceptable knowledge in a discipline and tries to answer
the question: What Constitutes Valid Knowledge and How Can We
Obtain It?
• Epistemology is concerned with providing a philosophical grounding
for deciding what kinds of knowledge are possible and how we ensure
it is adequate and legitimate. It is essentially, concerned with the
nature of knowledge, how knowledge comes about, what constitutes
acceptable knowledge in a given field of study, and the search for
empirical verification. All research have epistemological standpoints.
A particularly central issue in this context is the question of whether
or not the social world can and should be studied according to the
same principles, procedures and ethos as the natural world.
• Epistemology considers the relationship of the researcher to the research.
There are two main ontological perspectives: objectivism and subjectivism
(Perry, 1998).
• Objectivism: ontological position that asserts that social entities exist in a
reality external to, and independent of, social actors concerned with their
existence. The researcher is independent of the data gathering and the
knowledge gained is objective and real. There epistemological notion of
objectivism asserts that meaning exists in objects independent of any
consciousness (e.g., classical physics).
• On the other hand, subjectivism contends that the researcher is part of the
observed phenomenon (e.g., quantum mechanics, Heisenberg principle of
uncertainty).
• The structure of ontological reality links to epistemology, which is the way
of understanding reality. An ontological stance implies a particular
epistemological stance and vice versa.
• There are potentially many theoretical research perspectives that result
from particular epistemological and ontological stances.
• Methodology refers to the strategy to be used to answer the research
questions. How can the researcher go about obtaining knowledge about
what he wants to know?
• Methodology is often considered the core of research design (Note:
research design and research methods are NOT synonymous). Methodology
is the tool used to accomplish part of the study, specifically, how to obtain
and analyze data. It is subservient to choosing an important topic to study,
matching the research problem and the methodology, and knowing what
the results mean and how they can be applied. To do good research, the
methodology used should be appropriate for the problem addressed. This is
a necessary condition but not a sufficient one. An elegantly analyzed data
set that was composed of ambiguously measured data that addressed a
question of trivial importance is not likely to enter the annals of great
research.
• Crotty (1998) suggests that these three terms represents distinct
hierarchical levels of decision making within the research design process.
• A researcher initially adopts a particular stance towards the nature of
knowledge (for example, objectivism or subjectivism). This stance or
epistemology will underlie the entire research process and governs the
particular theoretical perspective selected (for example post-positivism or
interpretivism). The theoretical perspective will be implicit in research
questions and dictate the researcher’s choice of methodology (e.g.
grounded theory or ethnology). Finally, this methodology (plan of action)
will in turn inform the choice of research methods employed (e.g.
questionnaire or interviews).
Essentially there are TWO types of ONTOLOGIES:
Foundationalist, objectivist
ontology which adopts Positivist
epistemology;
Researcher is merely an observer of the
social phenomenon. S/he is external to
the system; an unbiased seeker of a
“truth” within this system. Reality being
independent of social actors is
measurable and quantifiable. The
“truth” can be measure objectively.
Anti-foundationalist, subjectivist
ontology with an Interpretivist
epistemology;
Researcher is an inseparable part of the
social world or phenomenon. S/he is an
actor within this “movie”; and cannot be
neutral or unbiased. No independent
“truth” exists. Researcher’s perception
and actions contaminates the system.
Interpret it the way you see it-subjectively.
RESEARCH PARADIGMS
POSITIVIST & POST POSITIVIST PARADIGMS
Ontology:
Reality
exists,
is
independent and is discoverable;
use the best theory to discover it.
Epistemology:
Objectivity
is
achievable through neutrality on
researcher’s part.
Methodology:
Application
of
scientific method - QUANTITATIVE
SUBJECTIVIST PARADIGMS
Ontology:
Reality
is
socially
constructed; thus, multiple realities
exist based on how each researcher
constructs meaning and knowledge of
the reality he/she seeks to study.
Epistemology: the researcher and the
entity being research mutually influence
each other. Context is important.
Methodology: Application of scientific
method - QUALITATIVE
 For McAuley, Duberley and Johnson (2007:33), positivism is “… the
dominant philosophical stance in a great deal of organization theory
…,” and, as such, can be regarded as the default position for research
designed to influence and improve management practice. It is also
seen as “…pivotal to management …” (McAuley et al., 2007:26), since
it provides “truths” that can be used to control, with the authority to
do the controlling.
However, as Johnson, Buehring, Cassell & Symon (2006:153) put it “…
a subjective view of epistemology repudiates the possibility of a
neutral observational language: language does not allow access to, or
representation of, reality”. The search for an objective “truth” is not
part of the equation, so the quest is not to eliminate bias but to
acknowledge it.
Weaknesses of the 2 approaches:
POSITIVIST EPISTEMOLOGY
• Purports the possibility of objectivity;
• Objectivity is only possible when
“reality” is measured without
obstruction, influence and bias;
• Humans are neither completely
rational nor completely objective
INTERPRETIVIST EPISTEMOLOGY
• Validity and reliability are of
concern;
• Due to lack of claims of objectivity,
it is difficult to assess the validity of
findings;
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: RULE OF THUMB
In general, QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGIES should be considered when:
Existing theories tend to sway away fro surveys and experiments;
Conceptual frameworks and theories are not developed and sufficiently
defined to develop and test hypotheses;
Existing theory undergirding the research is scanty; thus, building
question will be a challenge. More importantly, qualitative research is
often used as a method of exploratory research as a basis for later
quantitative research hypotheses;
Need to learn about the deeper meaning, intimately bound up with
individual realities. Qualitative research is linked with the philosophical
and theoretical stance of social constructionism.
WHY QUALITATIVE?
Qualitative research attempts to understand human action and
behaviour from the perspective of the social actors themselves in effort
to describe and understand, rather than explain. In general, qualitative
research is the method used to study social action;
Qualitative research is characterised by:
 Naturalism: human Primarily concerned with understanding of human
behaviour, attitudes, actions in their natural settings (not laboratorybased) and the reasons that govern such behavior;
 Processual: studying social change over time, and as they occur;
Insider perspective: understanding the world through the eyes of the
researched (i.e., “emic” perspective);
Description & Understanding: describing social actors’ actions in
great detail, and thereafter attempting to understand them within
the social actors’ own beliefs, history, and context;
Context: understanding human action, beliefs, attitudes within the
context within which they would otherwise naturally occur;
Idiography: examines, and attempts to understand a phenomenon,
or event within the larger context within which it occurs;
Intersubjectivity: the dynamic interaction between the researcher
and the researched. The researcher must be able to suspend his/her
assumptions to create a credible account of observation.
WHY QUANTITATIVE?
Quantitative research attempts to ISOLATE and GENERALISE
phenomena to a hypothetical population;
Quantitative research is characterised by:
 Stimulating events in controlled environments;
 Isolating key variables that a particular phenomenon exists
(operationalisation), and
 Generalizing or drawing inferences regarding observations to the
broader population.
Generalisability studies variables or relationships between them
out of context within which they would naturally occur as variables
are controlled;
• Primarily concerned with a systematic empirical
investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena
and their relationships;
• It is about asking a narrow question and collecting
numerical data and analyzing such data using
statistical methods. The quantitative research designs may
be experimental, correlational, and survey (or
descriptive). Statistics derived from quantitative research can
be used to establish the existence of associative or causal
relationships between variables. Quantitative research is
linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance
of positivism.
LITERATURE REVIEW
It is difficult to overstate the importance of theory to the scientific
endeavor. Theory-building and theory-testing constitute an
important part of research (Colquitt and Zapata-Phelan, 2007).
Theory allows scientists to understand and predict outcomes of
interest, even if only probabilistically (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000).
Theory also allows scientists to describe and explain a process or
sequence of events (DiMaggio, 1995; Mohr, 1982).
Bacharach (1989) suggested that theory prevents scholars from
being dazzled by the complexity of the empirical world by providing
a linguistic tool for organizing it.
In Brief and Dukerich’s (1991) terms, theory acts as an educational
device that can raise consciousness about a specific set of concepts.
Finally, Kerlinger and Lee (2000: 11) went so far as to describe theory as
the basic aim of science.
DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE THEORY
Deductive theory is the most common of the relationship between
theory and research. The researcher, on the basis of what is known about
a domain and the theoretical considerations within it, deduces a
hypothesis (or hypotheses) that must be subjected to empirical scrutiny.
Embedded within the hypothesis will be concepts that need to be
translated into researchable entities. The researcher must skillfully
deduce a hypothesis and then translate it into operational terms. This
means there is a need to specify how data can be collected in relation to
the concepts that make up the hypothesis. Theory and the hypotheses
deduced come first and drive the process of gathering data
Theory → Observation/findings
• Inductive Theory: With an inductive stance, the theory is the
outcome of the research. The process of induction involves drawing
generalizable inferences out of observations:
Observation/findings → Theory
• According to Bryman & Bell (2015: 25), inductive researchers often
use a grounded theory approach to data analysis and theory
generation.
• In recent times, it has become popular, especially among qualitative
researchers, to approach their research as an abductive rather than
either a deductive or an inductive process (Bryman & Bell, 2015: 26).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
• Bryman, A. and Bell, E. (2015). Business Research Methods(4th
Edition). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
• Cassell, C., Buehring, A., Symon, G. and Johnson, P (2006) "Qualitative
methods in management research: an introduction to the themed
issue", Management Decision, 44(2): 161 – 166.
• Cole, C., Chase, S., Couch, O. and Clark, M. (2011). “Research
Methodologies and Professional Practice: Considerations and
Practicalities.” The Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods,
9(2): 141-151. Available online at www.ejbrm.com.
• Colquith, J.A. and Zapata-Phelan, C.P. (2007). “Trends in theory
building and theory testing: A 5-decade study of the academy of
management Journal.” Academy of Management Journal, 50(6):1281
– 1303.
• Johnson, P., Buehring, A., Cassell, C., & Symon, G. (2006). “Evaluating
Qualitative Management Research: Towards a Contingent
Criteriology.” International Journal of Management Review, 8(3): 131
– 156.
• Kerlinger, F.N. and Lee, H.B. (2000). Foundations of Behavioral
Research. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt College Publishers.