Download The study of Biology in the Greek universities

The study of Biology in the Greek
universities
by Costas D. Kastritsis, Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki
1.
Introduction
Along with Informatics, Biology with its recent advances, is considered as
the forefront of scientific investigation and is expected to contribute to
the solution of such problems as the degradation of the environment, the
exhaustion of energy resources, the increase in the need for food, the
elimination of disease, the control of population growth, the conservation
of wild species, and many others. The explosive developments in these
areas of research, also require the formation of a much needed code of ethics, the universal application of which must be considered imperative.
Greece, as many other countries of the European Union, is attempting to
keep up with the developments in the various Biological fields and gradually, is striving toward providing its students with the training necessary
for making contributions toward the solution of problems such as the
ones listed above. As the economy of the country develops, and co-operation with the European partners increases through joint Research and
Educational programmes, it is expected that the training of Biologists,
which is now considered to be at a satisfactory level, will reach the level
of excellence required to confront the ever increasing challenges.
2.
Systems of organisation
The Greek system of education, beyond a one or two year optional preschool, provides for nine years of obligatory training, i.e. six years of Primary School (Demotiko), and three years of Gymnasium. Three additional years of training are provided in the Lyceum, and these are required
before a student attempts to follow studies in the 3-year, Higher Technological Educational Institutions, or, the 4 to 6 years (according to discipline) Institutions of Highest Education. To enter Higher or Highest stud-
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ies, the candidates must participate in the competitive Panhellenic examinations, which are carried out each year, early in the summer. During
their last year in the Lyceum the students choose one of four cycles of specialisation which allow them to participate in the Panhellenic examinations for specific areas of study. Generally speaking, all students are
examined in four subjects which for the Sciences and the Technological
fields are Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Composition of Ideas,
while for the Humanities they are History, Latin, Ancient Greek and
Composition of Ideas. Students in the Social Sciences and Economics are
examined in Sociology and Special Mathematics, instead of Ancient
Greek and Latin. Finally, students in the Foreign Philology Schools take a
fifth exam in the language they are interested in, while students in the
Fine Arts are examined on their skills.
Students interested in Biology can enter the School via the first (Sciences
and Technology) or the second (Medical Sciences)cycle. In all cases there
is a predetermined number of places for entrance candidates available for
each School. This number is determined each year from non-binding recommendations by the Technological Institutions and the Universities to
the Ministry of Education, a practice which has often burdened the
Schools with excessive numbers of students entering with the related
immediate or future consequences.
As in the case of determining the numbers of students entering, the Ministry of Education retains much control over many of the University
activities, by controlling the budget for every function of University
teaching (number of posts, money for equipment, money for routine dayto-day functionning of the Schools etc.). The Universities have retained
independence on all educational matters (programmes of studies, level of
teaching) and, practically on all matters dealing with research. In fact,
research matters are handled by a specially elected Research Committee
in each University, which is governed by an independent set of bylaws.
All University education (including textbooks and health care) is provided to the students free of charge, by the Government.
3.
Studies in biology
The route that leads a young student to a University degree and possibly
further research in Biology goes through the following steps: all Greek citizens, during their compulsory education (six years of primary school plus
three years Gymnasium), study introductory subjects in Zoology, Botany,
General Biology and Anthropology. The students who choose to continue
their education (three years lyceum), are taught in their second year of
studies General Biology including Cell Biology, Reproduction, Evolution,
Ecology and Taxonomy for one and a half hours per week. During their
third year of voluntary studies, students who have already chosen path
The Study of Biology in the Greek universities
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towards Biological Sciences, that is Biology, Medicine, Vet. Medicine,
Pharmacy, and who comprise about 10% of all students who receive voluntary education, are taught the subject of Biology, that includes additional knowledge in Cytology, Genetics, Microbiology, Evolution, Ecology and Anthropology. However, only 2 out of 100 students receiving
voluntary education, succeed in their introductory exams to the Universities and continue studying Biology, Medicine or Pharmacy. Roughly an
equal number follow the applied fields of Agriculture, Forestry, Veterinary Medicine and studies in various Biology-related, technologically
oriented, three-year higher education Schools.
3.1 University Teaching
Universities in Greece are structured in Faculties, consisting of two or
more Schools, each of which, in turn, may comprise one or more Departments . All Schools awarding a diploma in Biology in Greece belong to the
Faculty of Sciences in all four Universities that award such degrees in the
country. In the two oldest Universities, The National Kapodistrian University of Athens, and the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, the
Schools of Biology originated some twenty years ago from the abolition of
the School of Natural Sciences existing until that time, and its replacement by the Schools of Biology and of Geology.
On the other hand, the younger Universities of Patras and Crete offered
diplomas in Biology from their founding. Diplomas in Applied Biological
Sciences (Medicine, Dentistry, Agriculture, Forestry, Veterinary Medicine)
are offered in several Greek Universities, but these fall outside the scope of
this report, and will not be dealt with except when necessary. Applied Biology -related diplomas (Ichthyology, Allied Medical Professions) are also
offered by some of the three-year Technological Institutions.
3.1.1.
Basic studies
An undergraduate student of Biology, has to attend the core courses of
basic studies, which generally include, with small variations, Introductory Biology, Chemistry, Mathematics, Botany, Zoology, Physics, Biochemistry, Biostatistics, Cell and Molecular Biology, Genetics, Plant Physiology, General Microbiology, Animal Physiology, Ecology, Developmental
Biology, Systematic Botany, Systematic Zoology, Evolution and a foreign
language (English, French, German or Italian).
Moreover, a student may choose a number of optional courses. Such
courses may deal with Computers and Programming, Climatology,
Anthropology, Food Chemistry, Histology, Analytical Chemistry, Phycology, Comparative Anatomy and Evolution of the chordate structure,
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Clinical Chemistry, Immunology, Oceanography, Environmental Physiology, Special Topics in various Plant and Animal fields, Human Genetics, Comparative Animal Physiology, Applied Ecology, Microbial Biotechnology, Aquaculture, Animal Ethology, Marine Biology, Ecosystem
Conservation and Management, Applied Botany, Mechanisms of Differentiation, Zoogeography, Phytosociology, Phytogeography, Limnology,
Icthyology, Flora and Vegetation of Greece , research for a Diploma Thesis, and other subjects which each University may choose to offer,
depending on the specialisation of its faculty.
All Schools of Universities follow a credit unit system and the students
have to collect the number of credits required by each School. For example, in the School of Biology of the University of Thessaloniki, the number of required credits is 145, which corresponds to the obligatory courses
plus 14 optional courses or 11 optional courses and a Diploma Thesis.
One credit unit is given for one hour of lectures or one hour of seminars
per week, for twelve weeks (one semester) of teaching; two or three hours
per week of practical work, for twelve weeks, also receive one unit of
credit. For example, a course including two hours of lectures, one hour of
seminars and three hours of practical work per week for twelve weeks,
awards four units of credit. The general idea behind the structure of the
basic studies programmes is that the experimental work is of prime
importance. Thus, almost all courses include lectures and practicals or
seminars. Lectures are given 2 or 3 times a week and usually there is a two
to three hour practical for each course every week. The duration of the
basic studies is 8 semesters or 4 years. Examinations are held at the end of
each semester, for each course, while in most practicals, written assignments have to be given in by the students by the end of the relevant
semester. Make-up examinations can be taken in September.
Community exchange and co-operation programmes, mainly Erasmus,
greatly contributed to the advancement of intra-European co-operation
among Institutions, set up co-operation networks using high quality criteria and gave participants the opportunities to obtain complementary
courses during their undergraduate education in Biology. The participation of Greek Universities in Biology Erasmus programmes varies, and so
does the participation of the students. For example, the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki participates in the Erasmus Biology Network, the
Utrecht Network, the Tempus Biology and the Environmental Science
and Education Network. Undergraduates who have completed at least 2
academic years (4 semesters) of studies, can participate in one of the above mentioned networks, staying abroad for 3 to 12 months. Many Biology
students have benefited from these networks. Thus the students are given
the opportunity to study in a University of another country. Apart from
their ability to take complementary courses in these Universities, students can also perform part or the whole of their Diploma Thesis during
their stay abroad.
The Study of Biology in the Greek universities
3.1.2.
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Post-graduate studies
In an effort to contribute to the advancement of the Biological Sciences and
their applications at a level higher than the one of basic studies, all the Universities offering a degree in Biology also offer programmes of post-graduate
studies leading to a post-graduate Diploma of Specialisation. More specifically the University of Athens offers post-graduate studies in Clinical Biochemistry, Biotechnology, Ecology, Biological Oceanography and Applications of Biology in Medicine. Post-graduate studies in the University of
Patras include Ecological Management and Environmental Technology,
Basic Biology, Marine Biology- Fisheries and Aquaculture, Applied Biology
and Biotechnology. The University of Thessaloniki offers post-graduate
diplomas of Specialisation in Biology with emphasis on Hydrobiology and
Aquaculture, Environmental Biology, Applied Genetics and Biotechnology.
Finally, the University of Crete in collaboration with The Institute of Marine Biology and the Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, offers
post-graduate studies in Plant Biology, Biotechnology and Applied Biology,
Marine Biology, Molecular Biology and Genetics, and Ecology.
The duration of the post-graduate studies ranges from a minimum of 4
semesters to a maximum of 6 semesters. The number of courses that a postgraduate student has to attend, in addition to a research thesis, ranges from
8 to 12, depending on the University. The selection of these courses is made
by the student in collaboration with the members of a three-membered
advisory committee, from the list of courses available in each programme.
These courses include lectures, seminars, practicals and demonstrations or
field work. Attending courses is obligatory and the evaluation of the student’s performance is conducted by the person or persons teaching the course. In the case of failure, the examination is repeated only once and only
after a positive decision has been reached by the General Assembly of the
relevant Department of Biology. In any other case, the student is deprived of
the post-graduate status. The prerequisites for a post-graduate student are
those defined by Greek Law and the relevant regulations for operating of the
post-graduate studies. Specifically, the general grade of the first degree of the
candidate is taken into account, as are three of his courses most relevant to
the selected field of study. Moreover, Greek students must have proven
knowledge of a foreign language, while foreign students must have competent knowledge of the Greek Language. Past performance on a Diploma
Thesis is also taken into account and all candidates are interviewed. Graduates of Schools other than Biology, may be required to take written examinations in specific undergraduate courses which are relevant to the selected field of post-graduate studies. The post-graduate students are under
Public Welfare protection and receive scholarships and loans as well as a
compensation for their participation in research projects of the Department.
Many of these research projects are presently funded by the E.U. Community
research programmes have been a great help to teams of young researchers
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from Greece as well as other countries which have thus been recruited to
take part in significant and selective projects. The Erasmus project encourages post-graduate students to work on part of their research in other Universities of the Community countries in the context of the European Biology Network. Moreover, the Environmental Science and Education Network
renders the students the possibility to acquire an additional European diploma provided that they have completed their studies on specific courses, a
number of bibliographic assignments and an original Diploma Thesis.
3.1.3.
Ph.D.
University doctoral programmes train future lecturers and researchers
and offer more specialised areas of study. Such education through
research is an essential source of scientific and professional creativity for
society as a whole.
The Universities that offer a doctoral Diploma are the same as those offering post-graduate studies, as mentioned before. A doctoral student has to
acquire a number of semester courses which are taught for 2 or 3 hours a
week, in addition to the research he/she is conducting. Depending on the
subject of the Ph.D. Thesis, selection of these courses is made by the candidate in collaboration with the members of the three-member Advisory
Committee, from the list of courses offered for post-graduate studies. In
case where the candidate has already successfully attended post-graduate
studies (3.1.2. above), on the supervisor’s recommendation courses already studied during the first semester and two more courses, to be defined,
will comprise the courses leading to a doctorate. The minimum duration
of post-graduate studies leading to a doctorate is 6 semesters.
Candidates for a doctorate in Biology must hold a degree in Biology or other related science. The selection of candidates is performed according to
the criteria used to select post-graduate students. A preliminary selection
is performed after the announcement of the topics and the doctoral openings. The announcement is determined by the School of Biology in accordance with suggestions of members of the teaching staff and following a
recommendation of the Post-Graduate Studies Committee. The final
selection and acceptance of a student for a Doctor’ s degree is made after
the decision of the General Assembly of the School of Biology, and provided that the candidate has acquired all the required credits in accordance
with the supervisor’s opinion. However, students that hold a degree in a
science other than Biology, can be considered for selection only after succeeding in written examinations on subjects to be defined for every field
of study.
The doctoral student’s performance is evaluated by the supervisor and the
Advisory Committee. The manner of presentation of the doctoral Thesis
is defined after a decision of the General Assembly of the School.
The Study of Biology in the Greek universities
241
In recent years, the Erasmus programmes have offered students the possibility of exchange experiences at the doctoral level. The participation of
students in the Erasmus programmes has been an enrichment, with a
broadening of personal horizons. The application of sophisticated
research methods in biological sciences has resulted in the emergence of a
number of European centres for biosciences (e.g. EMBO Lab, Biozentrum
and others), offering courses and training programmes for biology students, doctoral and post-doctoral fellows. Now, in the context of European Biology Networks, the need is recognised to establish more initiatives
for qualification courses in Biology, throughout European countries.
3.2. Professional Education
3.2.1. Job recruitment
There are a number of alternative employment routes for a graduate of
Biology to follow in Greece. Thus a biologist may be employed as a teacher at various levels of education, work as a researcher in Research Centres
or Institutes, follow the Health sector pursuing a job in state or private
centres (Cytology Units, Artificial Insemination Units, Units of Prenatal
Diagnosis of Inherited Diseases and Diagnostic Centres for Aids, forensic
medicine and many others).
Moreover, a biologist can be employed in Industry and especially in food
technology, pharmaceuticals or pesticides, or find an occupation in the
Aquacultural establishments in Greece. A number of graduates of Biology may find jobs in Ministries, Prefectures or the Greek Police, in agencies of environmental protection and management, environmental pollution control and biotechnology, or even in zoological and botanical
museums. Finally, the employment of Biologists in Institutes or Research
Centres of Community countries has been a possibility to be looked into
since 1992.
Although up to now, no systematic aid has been provided to the Biology
graduates to obtain jobs, efforts are now being made to create special offices in each School, which will attempt to offer job information to all University graduates.
3.2.2.
Continuous Education
The increasing demand for continuous adjustments to skills and attitudes
in a rapidly progressing science such as Biology, has made the concept of
continuing education one of the leading ideas in social change. It is a common belief that any continuing education system must be very open to
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adults, and particular effort should be placed on the effective matching of
initial and subsequent training. The continuing education of adults is
considered to be the responsibility of both professional circles and the
University. Thus, part of the academic staff of the Universities in Greece,
take part in the Open University Courses (for the general public), offering
lectures in various topics in Biology, contributing to the education of
adults. Moreover, seminars are held in the University, for graduates of
Biology and related Sciences, in an attempt to inform professionals of the
latest trends in their fields. Many of these seminars are performed in the
context of E.U. programmes.
It should also be noted that, although scarce, there is an increasing effort
on the part of private Greek Companies and Industries to offer their
employees continuous education projects in collaboration with European
Institutes and Research Centres. Such programmes are often funded by
the European Union Social Fund.
3.2.3.
Preparation of teachers
The Greek State, in an effort to update the knowledge of graduates who
are, or are going to be, employed as teachers in schools, offers then the
chance of a one year attendance in the Schools of Teachers of Secondary
Schools, which have recently been replaced by the Peripheral Educational
Centres. There are three programmes available in these centres. The first
commences in the autumn of each year and only teachers who have not
yet been assigned a post can participate. Completion of this programme
allows them to be appointed as substitute teachers. The other two programmes commence one in the winter and the other in the spring of each
year, and are addressing graduates who are currently teachers in Secondary Schools, with the purpose of offering them further education. All of
the above programmes are of three months duration.
The problem of teacher preparation is now being confronted, and it is
anticipated that through funding from the E.U. (Social and Structural
Funds), extended programmes for such training will be made available for
University students planning to enter the teaching field.
3.2.4.
Role of National Scientific Societies
Professional Biological Societies such as the Greek Society of Biological
Sciences, the Greek Botanical Society, the Greek Zoological Society, the
Greek Society of Electron Microscopy and the Greek Biochemical Society
usually hold conferences once a year, in which researchers from Greece as
well as a few foreign countries participate. These meetings have been a
forum in which various research groups present the results of their work
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243
and establish better grounds of co-operation. Often during these meetings
the professional problems of biologists are examined and proposals are
made addressing the appropriate authorities to find solutions.
Beyond the above mentioned societies, a Panhellenic Biological Association also exists and deals mostly with professional problems of biologists
as a whole.
4.
New needs in studies of biology
Now, more than ever, the opportunity to advance biological sciences
appears great. The emergence of new ideas, techniques and skills may
lead to a more efficient utilisation of the productive capacity of the biosphere. The ability of technological societies to compete for world markets produces an urgent need for scientific literacy for industries and
businesses. The importance of a reorientation and reshaping of human
activities to consider biological principles was stressed in the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro (1992). The future of humankind and civilisation is
largely affected by problem areas like population growth, food and health
needs and the interaction of society and its environment. The ways to
understand and hopefully master these problems lie in the Biological Sciences and hence biologists will need to acquire efficient problem solving
capacities. It can therefore be concluded that the training of biologists
must ensure biological literacy in its broadest sense.
4.1.1.
From the point of view of changes of biological topics
The recent changes in biological sciences, brought about by the powerful
new technologies and instruments, including gene technology, production
of monoclonal antibodies, or even sequencing of macromolecules have
produced interactions that have shortened the time span between fundamental research and its applications. The multidisciplinary character of
biological sciences has become clearly evident, and has led to an increasing demand for an ability of biologists to be able to communicate with specialists from many other fields. It has become a common belief that adequate training as well as an increase in personal skills are imperative.
As structural biology is becoming more chemically and physically oriented, training requires an increasing focus on chemical and physical technologies. On the other hand evolution, systematics and population biology require approaches that include training in molecular biology,
computer science and mathematics. Thus, the need for educational developments including expansion towards these fields of biology and the
related sciences seems to be of essential importance.
These being universal necessities, they also apply to Greek Biologists.
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4.1.2.
Costas D. Kastritsis
From the point of view of new professional situations
From the point of view of professional situations the shortcomings vary
with the employment patterns. A biologist may be occupied in employment as diverse as teaching in secondary schools or research in industry
or institutions, or he might even have an advisory role in a variety of situations. Moreover, the increasing commercial development of biotechnology has opened many prospects for biologists in human health, animal
production and agriculture. Biologists, in order to fulfil their role successfully in such activities, need to be well trained and experienced in novel
technologies. On the other hand, adequately trained scientific and technical people are vital to any industrial development. Thus, biologists should
be creative, versatile, dynamic, innovative and able to communicate with
a number of other scientists.
The dynamics of diversification in the biosciences and the development
of the employment profile of biologists requires, not only a broad knowledge of the many areas of biology, but also knowledge of other scientific
disciplines, such as chemistry, physics and engineering. In many areas,
training requires an increasing focus on chemical and physical technologies. To maintain professional competence, the standards of training for
biologists must be continuously developed and the need for programmes
of in-service training is great in order to maintain excellence and a broad
knowledge for professional biologists. Finally, the establishment of a close relationship between biologists and the scientific community, businesses, industry and professional bodies is essential.
Greece has been slow in adjusting to all these needs and Universities and
Governments must be mobilised to narrow the gap.
4.1.3.
From the point of view of the European structures
The responses of the member states of the E.U., on the role envisaged for
the Community in matters of higher education policy, vary. Greece has in
the past referred to the Community establishing a policy in higher education and influencing policy measures in member states. The need for better co-ordination at the E.U. level in respect of activities in higher education and research must be emphasised. A close collaboration between the
organised learned societies of biology and the organisations of professional biologists at a national and a European level is a prerequisite. Another
important point that should be considered is the position of research
within a highly diversified mass higher education system. Moreover, an
improvement in the co-ordination between community research programmes and national programmes in Biology is needed. The general aim
of all member states should be to foster unity in Biology in order to deal
with issues of common interest and public concern. Consensus is needed
The Study of Biology in the Greek universities
245
especially to set standards of competence and conduct among biologists
in different professional fields. The maintenance of a high professional
standard for biologists in each individual EU state, should be pursued.
Both national and international biological associations have a continuing
responsibility to question, amend and revise the goals of their profession.
The key issues here are scientific knowledge, business skills and professional commitments. In the European context a climate of trust is needed. The harmonisation of qualifications throughout Europe will be a time
consuming process and great help to this end will be provided by the continuation of exchange programmes. It should be our common purpose to
encourage biologists to use their abilities, knowledge and skill for the
advancement of human welfare and public education.
5.
Ways to satisfy these new needs
The overriding factor in satisfying the needs expressed above is programming. This process must cover all educational levels, but also society as a
whole. Steps must be taken through the use of media for mass communication to eliminate prejudice, update knowledge and increase awareness
of what is known, what can happen and how it can happen. Society must
learn what is available, what can become available and how to go about
getting it.
5.1. At the level of Universities
Due to the explosive development of the Applied Biology fields, research
funding has been directed, almost exclusively toward such programmes.
Although the necessity for these cannot be denied, it can also not be
denied that the study of basic biological phenomena is imperative. In
Greece, basic research funding has been limited and steps must be taken
to alleviate this problem. The E.U. funding agencies should take under
consideration this necessity more frequently.
As mentioned earlier in this report, the unprogrammed and unstudied
entrance into biological studies (and for that matter all studies), has created great numbers of unemployed or temporarily employed and, even worse, unemployable biologists. The solution to the problem is obvious: the
number of new students must be reduced, the high expectations of graduates must become more realistic and the University programmes must be
directed toward producing immediately employable graduates. Perhaps,
the Diplomas provided by each School should be in different directions,
allowing for specialisation even at the undergraduate level.
On the other hand, steps must be taken towards providing programmes
especially designed for teachers.
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Each University should consider how best to exploit its talents and its
facilities in order to provide services (and thus obtain funds) for the general community; the first steps in this direction are already being taken.
5.2. At the level of Government
The Government should take steps to ensure quality in the education
provided, it should create bodies for continuous assessment and it should
provide the funds for the performance of studies dealing with the needs of
the country for biologists. Further funding is required for basic and
applied research.
5.3. At the level of E.U. (in terms of co-operation)
Activities such as the one for which this report is being written, should
provide the bases for the evaluation of the work that has been done, the
planning of the work to be done and the exploitation of the potential of
the Union, through co-operation in all fields of training and research. Programmes such as the ECTS should be applied universally so that exchanges
can be facilitated, and advantage can be taken more easily of each University’s potential. The development of European post-graduate degrees at
the Master’s and Ph.D. levels, already being attempted at a small scale,
should have significant results and should contribute to the more universal recognition of the work being done in the Institutions of each member
state.
References
1.
2.
3.
Quality management and quality assurance in European higher education: methods
and mechanisms. (Commission of the European Communities, 1993)
The outlook for higher education in the European Community: Responses to the
Memorandum (Commission of the European Communities, 1993)
Revised Biology curricula at the Universities in Europe (ECBA Publication No 11.,
European Communities Biologists Association, 1993).
Acknowledgement
The help of Dr Maria Touraki in compiling this report is gratefully
acknowledged.