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Adline Rahmoune Amsco Chapter 25: Diplomacy and World War II, 1929‐1945 FOREIGN POLICY: THE FICTION OF ISOLATION (pg. 482‐483) Disarmament and Peace ● Republican Presidents of the 1920s promoted peace and disarmament ● The W
ashington Conference (1921) w
as the most successful disarmament conference ○ Sec. of State C
harles Evans hoped to stabilize navies & resolve conflicts in the Pacific ○ Three agreements to relieve tensions resulted from the conference: ■ Five‐Power Treaty ● Na᠀�ons with the largest navies agreed on ra᠀�os to limit them ● Limits were placed on Bri᠀�sh & U.S. possessions in the Pacific except Japan ■ Four‐Power Treaty ● The U.S, France, Britain, & Japan agreed to respect Pacific territories ■ Nine‐Power Treaty ● All 9 na᠀�ons at the Washington Conference would respect the Open Door Policy and China was guaranteed territorial integrity ● Kellogg‐Briand Pact (1938) ○ Almost all countries of the world signed it, agreeing not to use aggressive force ○ It was ineffec᠀�ve because it allowed wars for defense & no ac᠀�on against violators Business and Diplomacy (pg. 483) ● La᠀�n America ○ Mexico’s Constitution 1917 → the gov owned Mexico’s mineral & oil resources ■ U.S. investors in Mexico feared their property would be taken away ■ In 1927, a resolu᠀�on was nego᠀�ated ○ In other La᠀�n American countries, U.S. military was reduced but economic impact increased ● In the Middle East, the U.S. seeked rich oil reserves and won oil‐drilling rights ● The F ordney‐McCumber Tariff (1922) ○ Increased du᠀�es on foreign manufactured goods by 25% ○ Although it protected U.S. businesses, the tariff slowed down European recovery from the war because it made it harder to pay war debt to the U.S. ■ In response, the European na᠀�ons imposed tariffs on American imports War Debts and Reparations ● Harding & Coolidge ordered France & GB to pay war debts, but they objected bc of high U.S. tariffs ● The D
awes Plan (1924) was a plan to stabilize the German economy ○ The U.S. would loan money to Germany to help Germany pay repara᠀�ons to the Allies ○ The plan helped ease financial problems un᠀�l the stock market crash in 1929 (it collapsed) INTRO (pg. 518) ● President Roosevelt wanted peace but it did not hold up for long ○ Japan was threatening China, the Nazi Party came to power in Germany, the U.S. s᠀�ll suffered the depression and most Americans were isola᠀�onist HERBERT HOOVER’S FOREIGN POLICY (pg. 518‐520) ● Hoover (and most Americans) believed in i solationism ( the U.S. should not enter commitments) Japanese Aggression in Manchuria (pg. 519) ● In the early 1930s, Japan threatened peace by disobeying the Open Door Policy & League of Na᠀�ons ○ Sept. 1931: Japanese troops arrived in M
anchuria , renamed it M
anchukuo , and established a puppet govt there (a govt set up and controlled by outside forces) ■ The League of Na᠀�ons condemned Japan and Japan le袈 the League for good (inability to maintain peace) ● The U.S. responded to Japan’s viola᠀�on with the S timson Doctrine in 1932 ( pg. 520) ○ The U.S. would not recognize regimes est. by force, like Manchukuo (but it was ineffec᠀�ve) In L atin America , Hoover pursued friendly rela᠀�ons ● He arranged for U.S. troops to leave Nicaragua in 1933 & the removal of U.S. troops in Hai᠀� by 1934 FRANKLIN ROOSEVELT’S POLICIES, 1939‐1938 (pg. 520‐525) ● FDR also tried to improve U.S. rela᠀�ons with La᠀�n America in a Good Neighbor Policy The G
ood Neighbor Policy w
as t owards other Western Hemisphere na᠀�ons (1933) ● Pan‐American Conferences ○ Uruguay, 1933: U.S. promised not to intervene in internal affairs of a L. American country ○ Argentina, 1936: The U.S. would try to solve future disputes and FDR warned European powers (like Germany) from interfering aggressively in the West (pg. 521) ● In 1934, the P
latt Amendment was nullified but the U.S. s᠀�ll kept its naval base at Guantanamo Bay ● In 1938, Mex. took oil owned by U.S. corps but FDR encouraged them to nego᠀�ate & not intervene Economic Diplomacy ● London Economic Conference (1933) ○ The U.S. par᠀�cipated in the League of Na᠀�ons but in a conference to stabilize currencies, FDR withdrew his support, fearing it would hurt recovery plans ● In 1933, FDR granted recogni᠀�on to the S oviet Union to increase U.S. trade & boost the economy ● As an economic measure, Congress passed the T ydings‐McDuffie Act (1934) ○ Independence of the Philippines by 1946, removal of the U.S. military from the islands ● Reciprocal Trade Agreements ○ FDR favored low tariffs to increase interna᠀�onal trade ○ In 1934, Congress enacted a plan that allowed the president to reduce U.S. tariffs up to 50% for na᠀�ons that also reduced tariffs for U.S. imports Events Abroad: Fascism and Aggressive Militarism ● Economic hardships → military dictatorships in Italy (1920s) Japan & Germany (1930s) ● In 1940, Japan, Italy, & Germany signed a treaty of alliance that formed the A
xis Powers (pg. 522) ● Fascism : idea that people should glorify their na᠀�on & race through an aggressive show of force ● In 1922, B
enito Mussolini led I taly’s Fascist Party (kinda like the Nazis), a柠�rac᠀�ng unhappy war veterans, na᠀�onalists, and those afraid of rising communism ● The Nazi Party led by A
dolf Hitler arose in 1920 in reac᠀�on to the economic condi᠀�ons a袈er the war & resentment over the Treaty of Versailles ○ Hitler was An᠀�‐Semi᠀�c and used Fascist ideology to increase popularity As economic condi᠀�ons worsened, na᠀�onalists & militarists in Japan persuaded the emperor to invade China & Southeast Asia for access to basic raw materials American Isolationists ( mostly in the Midwest & Republicans) wanted to ensure that the U.S. would never be drawn into a foreign war again ● The Nye Committee (a commi柠�ee led by ND Senator Gerald Nye) believed that U.S. entry into WW1 was a big mistake & they influenced isola᠀�onist legisla᠀�on ● Neutrality Acts ○ In 1938, a majority of Congress was isola᠀�onist so it adopted neutrality acts to ensure that the U.S. would stay neutral if war broke out: (pg. 523) ■ 1935: allowed the president to prohibit all armed shipments & forbid U.S. ci᠀�zens to travel on the ships of warring na᠀�ons ■ 1936: forbade the extension of loans & credits to warring na᠀�ons ■ 1937: forbade shipment of arms to opposing sides in the Spanish Civil War ● Spanish Civil War (broke out in 1936) ○ Between Fascist forces (General Francisco F ranco ) & the forces of R
epublicanism ( Loyalists) ○ FDR & most Americans were on the Loyalists side, but couldn’t intervene bc of the Neutrality Acts ○ In 1939, Franco’s Fascists won and established a military dictatorship ● America First Committee : formed by isola᠀�onists in 1940 in response to FDR’s pro‐Bri᠀�sh policies ○ Speakers like C
harles Lindbergh traveled the country warning against war involvement Prelude to War ● 1935‐1938: aggression by Fascist dictatorships worried Bri᠀�sh & French democra᠀�c governments ○ To avoid conflict with Germany, the democracies adopted the policy of a ppeasement (pacifying countries by giving in to their demands) and the U.S. went along ● Appeasement: the democracies were very unprepared to challenge Fascist aggression ○ Ethiopia, 1935 ■ Mussolini ordered Italian troops to invade Ethiopia ■ The League of Na᠀�ons and U.S. objected but did nothing to stop him ■ A袈er a year of figh᠀�ng, Mussolini conquered Ethiopia ○ Rhineland ( west Germany) , 1936 ■ Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles when he ordered German troops to the Rhineland, which was supposed to be permanently demilitarized ○ China, 1937 (pg. 524) ■ In 1937, war broke out between Japan & China (Japan invaded China) ■ Panay ( U.S. gunboat) in China was bombed & sunk by Japanese planes, but the U.S. gov accepted their apology ○ Sudetenland ( Czechoslovakia) , 1938 ■ Hitler insisted that Germany had a right to take over the Sudetenland, where most people spoke German ■ To keep the peace, FDR encouraged Bri᠀�sh prime minister C
hamberlain and French president D
aladier to meet with Hitler & Mussolini in Munich ● At the conference (Sept. 1938), Bri᠀�sh & French leaders allowed Hitler take the Sudetenland ●
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U.S. response (pg. 525) ○ FDR recognized the dangers of Fascism but most Americans were isola᠀�onist ○ When Japan invaded China in 1937, FDR made his Q
uarantine Speech to isolate aggressors (most likely Italy, Germany, & Japan), but the public mostly rejected his idea Preparedness ○ FDR argued for neutrality & U.S. security by proposing an arms buildup ○ In late 1938, Congress went along by increasing military & naval budgets by 2/3 ■ Isola᠀�onists saw the increase in spending as a defense measure FROM NEUTRALITY TO WAR, 1939‐1941 (pg. 525‐529) ● In March 1939, Hitler sent troops to occupy Czechoslovakia, breaking the Munich agreement Outbreak of War in Europe ● Since appeasement had failed, Britain and France agreed to fight if Poland was a柠�acked ● In 1939, S talin & Hitler signed a nonaggression pact , shocking Britain and France ○ Stalin and Hitler agreed to divide Poland between them ● Invasion of Poland (beginning of WW2) ○ Sept. 1, 1939: Germany invaded Poland, so Britain & France declared war against Germany. Soon enough, they were at war with its Axis allies, Italy & Japan ● Blitzkrieg i s a type of warfare with sudden and overwhelming military a柠�acks ○ Poland fell to blitzkrieg first, and then Denmark, Norway, & France surrendered ○ By June 1940, the only ally le袈 free of German troops was Great Britain Changing U.S. Policy (pg. 526) ● FDR believed that Bri᠀�sh survival was essen᠀�al to U.S. security, so he started weakening the neutrality acts un᠀�l nothing was stopping him from aiding Britain (Bri᠀�sh aid was debated) ● Cash and carry (1939) ○ Allowed a na᠀�on at war to buy U.S. arms if it used its own ships & paid cash (strongly favored Britain) ● Selective Service Act 1940 (mandatory military service) ○ The Selective Training & Service Act o
f Sep. 1940 provided for the registra᠀�on of all American men between 21‐35 yrs and for the training of 1.2M troops in 1 yearr ○ Isola᠀�onists opposed this dra袈, but they were beginning to get outnumbered ● Destroyers‐for‐bases deal ○ In Sep. 1940, Britain was under constant a柠�ack by German bombing raids & subs ○ FDR arranged a trade to help Britain: it received 50 old (but s᠀�ll usable) U.S. destroyers in exchange for allowing the U.S. to build military bases on Bri᠀�sh islands in the Caribbean ■ This way, he was not angering isola᠀�onists by selling destroyers directly The Election of 1940 ● FDR ran for a 3rd term against W
endell Wilkie , and he won again (pg. 527) ○ Defense purchases → strong economic recovery ○ Since many feared war, they wanted to stay with the more experienced leader Arsenal of Democracy ● A袈er his reelec᠀�on, FDR believed that he should finally end U.S. neutrality & aid Britain ○ He told the American people in a 1940 fireside chat Four Freedoms ○ On Jan. 6, 1941, FDR delivered a speech that proposed lending money to Britain so it could buy U.S. war materials, and jus᠀�fied it bc it defended the 4 freedoms ○ The 4 freedoms: f reedom of speech, religion, want, and freedom from fear ● Lend‐Lease Act (signed into law in March 1
941 ) ○ FDR wanted to end cash & carry by le顠�ng Britain get all the U.S. arms it needed on credit ○ Isola᠀�onists in the America First Commi柠�ee strongly opposed the lend‐lease bill ● Atlantic Charter ○ FDR arranged a secret mee᠀�ng in August with W
inston Churchill on a ship in Canada ○ FDR & Churchill came up with a document (The Atlan᠀�c Charter) that stated what their peace objec᠀�ves would be once the war was over ■ They agreed on self‐determina᠀�on for all ppl, no territorial expansion, & free trade ● Shoot‐on‐sight ○ July 1941: FDR ordered the Navy to guide Bri᠀�sh ships carrying lend‐lease materials from the U.S. (to protect Britain from sub a柠�acks) ○ Sep. 4, 1941: the U
SS G
reer was a柠�acked by a German sub, so FDR ordered the Navy to a柠�ack all German ships in sight, beginning an undeclared naval war against Germany Disputes with Japan (pg. 528) ● 1940‐1941: U.S rela᠀�ons w/ Japan worsened bc of Japan’s invasion of China and its goal to control Southeast Asia ● Hitler’s success in Europe → opportunity for Japan to expand into the D
utch East Indies ● U.S. economic ac᠀�on ○ When Japan joined the Axis in Sep. 1940, FDR prohibited the export of steel & scrap iron to all countries except Britain & Western Hemisphere na᠀�ons (aimed towards Japan) ○ July 1941: Japan occupied the French Indochina, so FDR froze all Japanese credits in the U.S. & cut off Japanese access to vital materials (including U.S. oil) ● Japan needed oil to fuel its navy & air force so Japan tried to change the U.S. policy on oil ○ The U.S. insisted that Japan withdraw troops from China as well, but both sides refused Pearl Harbor ● Dec. 7, 1941: Japanese planes bombed every American ship on Pearl Harbor, killing 2,400 Americans, damaging warships and destroying planes (pg. 529) ● Dec. 8, 1941: Congress declared war on Japan, Germany & Italy declared war on the U.S. on Dec. 11 WORLD WAR II: THE HOME FRONT (pg. 529‐532) ● Hitler broke his nonaggression pact with Stalin when he ordered invasion of the Soviet Union, so the Soviet Union switched to the A
llied Powers (now Britain, France, and the Soviet Union) ● Churchill , F DR , & S talin ( t he Big 3) agreed to focus on war w/ Europe before shi袈ing to the Pacific Industrial Production ● The U.S. gov organized a bunch of special agencies to organize U.S. economic and military resources ● In Jan. 1942, the W
ar Production Board w
as established to manage war industries ● The O
ffice of War Mobilization set produc᠀�on priori᠀�es and controlled raw materials ● The government used a c ost‐plus system : it paid war contractors the costs of produc᠀�on and a certain percentage for profit ●
War᠀�me demands and government contracts → booming business in U.S. industries, unemployment disappeared ○ Tanks & fighter planes replaced cars in factories & produc᠀�on methods were very efficient ● The O
ffice of Price Administration regulated prices, wages, rents, & ra᠀�oned commodi᠀�es (pg. 530) ● Unions & corpora᠀�ons agreed that there would be no strikes during the war ○ The S mith‐Connally Anti‐Strike Act of 1943 allowed the gov to take over war‐related businesses that were threatened by strikes ● Financing the war ○ The government paid for the increase in spending by increasing the income tax (which most Americans were required to pay), and by selling war bonds The War’s Impact on Society ● Increase in factory jobs → millions le袈 rural areas for industrial jobs (esp. in CA) ● Many defense installa᠀�ons were in the South because of warm climate & low labor costs ● Millions of African Americans le袈 the South for jobs in the North/West or to serve in the army ○ Membership in the N
AACP i ncreased during the war ○ The Congress of Racial Equality was formed in 1942 for more militant African‐Americans ○ Smith v. Allwright (1944) : ruled uncons᠀�tu᠀�onal to deny A‐Americans membership in poli᠀�cal par᠀�es ● Many Mexican Americans worked in defense industries & others served in the army (pg. 531) ○ A 1942 agreement allowed Mexican farm workers to enter the U.S. during harvest season without formal immigra᠀�on procedures ○ Flow of Mexican immigrants to LA → r ace riots ● Na᠀�ve Americans served in the army or worked in defense industries ● Japanese Americans suffered more than any other ethnic group bc they were thought to be spies ○ In 1942, the U.S. gov ordered over 100k Japanese‐Americans on the West Coast to leave their homes for camps ○ In K
orematsu v. U.S. (1944) the Supreme Court upheld the U.S. government’s internment policy but in 1988, it was ruled an injus᠀�ce ● Over 200,000 women served in the military (but not in combat) ○ Since men were at war, they took empty jobs (almost 5M entered the workforce) ● Patrio᠀�c propaganda was set up by the gov to encourage conserva᠀�on and increase war produc᠀�on The Election of 1944 ● FDR ran for 4th term bc many felt there should be no change in leadership during war (pg. 532) ○ Vice President H
enry Wallace was replaced by H
enry Truman bc he was too radical ○ FDR won, but he was in such bad health, Truman would take over for most of it ● Republicans nominated T homas Dewey , the governor of NY WORLD WAR II: THE BATTLEFRONTS (pg. 532‐534) ● Figh᠀�ng during WW2 took place on 2 fronts, in the Pacific and in Europe Fighting Germany ● A Soviet victory at Stalingrad in Winter 1942 ended German advance ● By 1942, Britain & U.S. wanted to overcome German subs in the Atlan᠀�c & start bombing ci᠀�es ○ The B
attle of the Atlantic was the conflict between German subs, Britain + U.S. ●
In Nov. 1942, O
peration Torch was launched, a North African campaign led by U.S. & Britain ○ By 1943, they drove Germans out of North Africa & the Mediterranean ■ Next, the U.S. and Britain occupied Sicily in 1943 (pg. 533) ● From D
Day to victory in Europe ○ The Allies wanted to free France so on June 6, 1944 (D Day), Bri᠀�sh, Canadian, & U.S. forces a柠�acked the Normandy Coast (in France) led by G
eneral Eisenhower ○ Germany was losing momentum and launched a countera柠�ack in the Battle of Bulge ● Because of bombing raids, Germany lost its ability to fight ○ In 1945, Hitler commi柠�ed suicide the Nazis surrendered a week later ○ On their way through Germany, U.S. troops found the concentra᠀�on camps full of Jews Fighting Japan ● The U.S. did most of the figh᠀�ng in the Pacific (unlike in Europe) ● By early 1942, Japan had control over most of East Asia and Southeast Asia ● Turning point, 1942 ○ The Battle of the Coral Sea (May 7‐8): the U.S. stopped a Japanese invasion of Australia ○ The Battle of Midway (June 4‐7): U.S. forces destroyed 4 Japanese carriers and 300 planes ● Island‐hopping is a strategy in which naval commanders isolated Japanese islands with naval and air power, allowing Allied forces to get to Japan quickly (pg. 534) ● Major ba柠�les ○ Battle of Leyte Gulf (Oct. 1944): the Japanese navy was prac᠀�cally destroyed ○ The Japanese Navy used k amikaze p
ilots (aircra袈s loaded w explosives) ■ Battle of Okinawa (1945): kamikaze warfare was used, 100k Japanese died ● Atomic bombs ○ The secret M
anhattan Project began in 1942 & developed a deadly atomic bomb ○ President Harry Truman warned Japan to surrender (they didn’t) so on August 6, a bomb was dropped on H
iroshima a nd another on N
agasaki o
n August 9 ○ Japan surrendered a week a袈er the bombings WARTIME CONFERENCES (pg. 534‐535) ● During the war, the B
ig 3 had secretly arranged military strategies & peace terms ● Casablanca ( pg. 535) ○ In Jan. 1943, Roosevelt & Churchill agreed to invade Sicily for uncondi᠀�onal surrender (no guarantees given to the surrendering) from the Axis Powers ● In Nov. 1943, the Big 3 met in T eheran , Iran and agreed that the Bri᠀�sh & U.S. would free France while the Soviets would invade Germany & join the war against Japan ● In Feb. 1945, the Big 3 had a conference in Y
alta , in the Soviet Union. A袈er victory in Europe FDR, Churchill, and Stalin agreed that: ○ Germany would be divided into occupa᠀�on zones ○ There would be free elec᠀�ons in Eastern European countries ○ The Soviets would enter the war against Japan (they did so on Aug. 8, 1945) ○ The Soviets would control the Southern half of Sakhalin Island, the Kurile Islands in the Pacific, and they would have concessions in Manchuria ○ A new world peace organiza᠀�on (the United Na᠀�ons) would be formed ●
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On April 12, 1945, FDR died, shocking the na᠀�on → Harry Truman entered the presidency July 17‐August 2, 1945: T he Big Three (now Truman, Clement Attlee, and Stalin) met in P
otsdam, Germany a nd agreed to: ○ Warn Japan to surrender uncondi᠀�onally ○ Hold war‐crime trials of Nazi leaders THE WAR’S LEGACY (pg. 535‐536) Costs (pg. 536) ● About 300k Americans died, and 800k were wounded ● It cost over $320B ● Deficit / federal spending went up ● The na᠀�onal debt was $250B by the end of the war The United Nations ● Congress accepted the new peacemaking organiza᠀�on & it was put into effect right away ● In 1944, the Allied representa᠀�ves (including China) named it the U
nited Nations ● In 1945, a charter was dra袈ed and the Senate accepted U.S. involvement in the U.N. Expectations ● Ci᠀�es in the U.S. remained undamaged a袈er the war and by 1945, it was the most prosperous and powerful na᠀�on in the world