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Introduction to Probability
Assigning Probabilities and Probability Relationships
Chapter 4
BA 201
Slide 1
ASSIGNING PROBABILITIES
Slide 2
Assigning Probabilities
 Basic Requirements for Assigning Probabilities
1. The probability assigned to each experimental
outcome must be between 0 and 1, inclusively.
0 < P(Ei) < 1 for all i
where:
Ei is the ith experimental outcome and
P(Ei) is its probability
Slide 3
Assigning Probabilities
 Basic Requirements for Assigning Probabilities
2. The sum of the probabilities for all experimental
outcomes must equal 1.
P(E1) + P(E2) + . . . + P(En) = 1
where:
n is the number of experimental outcomes
Slide 4
Assigning Probabilities
Classical Method
Assigning probabilities based on the assumption
of equally likely outcomes
Relative Frequency Method
Assigning probabilities based on experimentation
or historical data
Subjective Method
Assigning probabilities based on judgment
Slide 5
Classical Method
 Example: Rolling a Die
If an experiment has n possible outcomes, the
classical method would assign a probability of 1/n
to each outcome.
Experiment: Rolling a die
Sample Space: S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Probabilities:
Each sample point has a
1/6 chance of occurring
1/6+1/6+1/6+1/6+1/6+1/6 = 1
Slide 6
Relative Frequency Method
Lucas Tool Rental
Lucas Tool Rental would like to assign probabilities
to the number of car polishers it rents each day.
Office records show the following frequencies of daily
rentals for the last 40 days.
Number of
Polishers Rented
0
1
2
3
4
Number
of Days
4
6
18
10
2
Slide 7
Relative Frequency Method
 Example: Lucas Tool Rental
Each probability assignment is given by dividing
the frequency (number of days) by the total frequency
(total number of days).
Number of
Polishers Rented
0
1
2
3
4
Number
of Days
4
6
18
10
2
40
Probability
0.10
0.15
0.45
4/40
0.25
0.05
1.00
Slide 8
Subjective Method
 When economic conditions and a company’s
circumstances change rapidly it might be
inappropriate to assign probabilities based solely on
historical data.
 We can use any data available as well as our
experience and intuition, but ultimately a probability
value should express our degree of belief that the
experimental outcome will occur.
 The best probability estimates often are obtained by
combining the estimates from the classical or relative
frequency approach with the subjective estimate.
Slide 9
Subjective Method
 Example: Bradley Investments
An analyst made the following probability estimates.
Exper. Outcome Net Gain or Loss Probability
(10, 8)
0.20
$18,000 Gain
(10, -2)
0.08
$8,000 Gain
(5, 8)
0.16
$13,000 Gain
(5, -2)
0.26
$3,000 Gain
(0, 8)
0.10
$8,000 Gain
(0, -2)
0.12
$2,000 Loss
(-20, 8)
0.02
$12,000 Loss
(-20, -2)
0.06
$22,000 Loss
Slide 10
Events and Their Probabilities
An event is a collection of sample points.
The probability of any event is equal to the sum of
the probabilities of the sample points in the event.
If we can identify all the sample points of an
experiment and assign a probability to each, we
can compute the probability of an event.
Slide 11
Events and Their Probabilities
Bradley Investments
Event M = Markley Oil Profitable
M = {(10, 8), (10, -2), (5, 8), (5, -2)}
P(M) = P(10, 8) + P(10, -2) + P(5, 8) + P(5, -2)
= 0.20 + 0.08 + 0.16 + 0.26
= 0.70
Slide 12
Events and Their Probabilities
 Example: Bradley Investments
Event C = Collins Mining Profitable
C = {(10, 8), (5, 8), (0, 8), (-20, 8)}
P(C) = P(10, 8) + P(5, 8) + P(0, 8) + P(-20, 8)
= 0.20 + 0.16 + 0.10 + 0.02
= 0.48
Slide 13
PROBABILITY
RELATIONSHIPS
Slide 14
Some Basic Relationships of Probability
There are some basic probability relationships that
can be used to compute the probability of an event
without knowledge of all the sample point probabilities.
Complement of an Event
Union of Two Events
Intersection of Two Events
Mutually Exclusive Events
Slide 15
Complement of an Event
The complement of event A is defined to be the event
consisting of all sample points that are not in A.
The complement of A is denoted by Ac.
Event A
Ac
Sample
Space S
Slide 16
Union of Two Events
The union of events A and B is the event containing
all sample points that are in A or B or both.
The union of events A and B is denoted by A B
Event A
Event B
Sample
Space S
Slide 17
Union of Two Events
 Example: Bradley Investments
Event M = Markley Oil Profitable
Event C = Collins Mining Profitable
M C = Markley Oil Profitable
or Collins Mining Profitable (or both)
M C = {(10, 8), (10, -2), (5, 8), (5, -2), (0, 8), (-20, 8)}
P(M C) = P(10, 8) + P(10, -2) + P(5, 8) + P(5, -2)
+ P(0, 8) + P(-20, 8)
= 0.20 + 0.08 + 0.16 + 0.26 + 0.10 + 0.02
= 0.82
Slide 18
Intersection of Two Events
The intersection of events A and B is the set of all
sample points that are in both A and B.
The intersection of events A and B is denoted by A 
Event A
Event B
Sample
Space S
Intersection of A and B
Slide 19
Intersection of Two Events
Bradley Investments
Event M = Markley Oil Profitable
Event C = Collins Mining Profitable
M C = Markley Oil Profitable
and Collins Mining Profitable
M C = {(10, 8), (5, 8)}
P(M C) = P(10, 8) + P(5, 8)
= 0.20 + 0.16
= 0.36
Slide 20
Mutually Exclusive Events
Two events are said to be mutually exclusive if the
events have no sample points in common.
Two events are mutually exclusive if, when one event
occurs, the other cannot occur.
Event A
Event B
Sample
Space S
Slide 21
Mutually Exclusive Events
If events A and B are mutually exclusive, P(A  B = 0.
The addition law for mutually exclusive events is:
P(A B) = P(A) + P(B)
Slide 22
PRACTICE
PROBABILITY
RELATIONSHIPS
Slide 23
Practice
Based on the Venn diagram, describe the following:
B
A
C
Slide 24
Practice
Out of forty students, 14 are taking English and 29 are taking
Chemistry. Five students are in both classes.
Draw a Venn Diagram depicting this relationship.
Slide 25
Practice
Students are either undergraduate students or graduate
students.
Draw a Venn Diagram depicting this relationship.
Slide 26
Scenario
A statistical experiment has the following outcomes, along
with their probabilities and the following events, with the
corresponding outcomes.
Outcomes
Outcome
Events
Probability
Event
Outcomes
O1
0.10
E1
O1, O3
O2
0.30
E2
O1, O4, O5, O6
O3
0.05
E3
O2
O4
0.15
E4
O7, O8
O5
0.20
E5
O4, O5, O7
O6
0.05
E6
O1, O7
O7
0.10
O8
0.05
Slide 27
Probabilities of Events
What is the probability of E1 [P(E1)]?
Slide 28
Probabilities of Events
What is the probability of E2 [P(E2)]?
Slide 29
Probabilities of Events
What is the probability of E3 [P(E3)]?
Slide 30
Probabilities of Events
What outcomes are in the complement of E2 [E2c]?
Slide 31
Probabilities of Events
What outcomes are in the union of E3 and E4? (E3 ⋃ E4)? What is
the probability of E3 ⋃ E4 [P(E3 ⋃ E4)]?
Slide 32
Probabilities of Events
What outcomes are in the intersection of E2 and E5 (E2 ⋂ E5)?
What is the probability of E2 ⋂ E5 [P(E2 ⋂ E5)]?
Slide 33
Probabilities of Events
Based on the available information, are E2 and E4 mutually
exclusive? What is the probability of E2 ⋂ E4 [P(E2 ⋂ E4)]? What is
the probability of E2 ⋃ E4 [P(E2 ⋃ E4)]?
Slide 34
Slide 35