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K.T.KHADER
CODE-SWITCHING ( CS )
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CODE-SWITCHING ( CS )
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The result of language contact in
bilingual communities is that people
may shift in their speech from one
language to another . This is codeswitching ,a rather common
phenomenon in the speech of bilingual
and multilingual individuals . Briefly
speaking , CS refers to the use of
more than one language by
participants in the execution of a
speech event or speech act .
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Consider the following from a conversation
between two Arab bilingual women may
exemplify one type of code-switching . Notice the
alternation between English and Arabic which
occurs between sentences , or within the same
sentence :
- Hello Noor . How are you ? Shuu Akhbaarik ?
- Al hamdu lillaah , fine . Thank you . wein kunti
mbaarih ?
- Went to the movies with Huda . reitik kunti
ma9aana .kan l-filim fantastic
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Crystal (1987) suggests that code,
or language, switching occurs when
an individual who is bilingual
alternates between two languages
during his/her speech with another
bilingual person. A person who is
bilingual may be said to be one who
is able to communicate, to varying
extents, in a second language.
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This includes those who make irregular
use of a second language, are able to use
a second language but have not for some
time (dormant bilingualism) or those who
have considerable skill in a second
language (Crystal, 1987). This type of
alteration, or code switching, between
languages occurs commonly amongst
bilinguals and may take a number of
different forms, including alteration of
sentences, phrases from both languages
succeeding each other and switching in a
long narrative.
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As a result, the speaker may be
triggered into speaking in the other
language for a while. This type of code
switching tends to occur when the
speaker is upset, tired or distracted in
some manner. Secondly, switching
commonly occurs when an individual
wishes to express solidarity with a
particular social group. Rapport is
established between the speaker and
the listener when the listener
responds with a similar switch.
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This type of switching may also be
used to exclude others from a
conversation who do not speak the
second language. An example of
such a situation may be two people
in an elevator in a language other
than English.
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Others in the elevator who do not
speak the same language would be
excluded from the conversation and
a degree of comfort would exist
amongst the speakers in the
knowledge that not all those
present in the elevator are listening
to their conversation.
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The final reason for the switching
behavior presented by Crystal (1987)
is the alteration that occurs when the
speaker wishes to convey his/her
attitude to the listener. Where
monolingual speakers can
communicate these attitudes by
means of variation in the level of
formality in their speech, bilingual
speakers can convey the same by
code switching.
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Crystal (1987) suggests that where
two bilingual speakers are
accustom to conversing in a
particular language, switching to
the other is bound to create a
special effect. These notions
suggest that code switching may be
used as a socio-linguistic tool by
bilingual speakers.
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From the above discussion, it may
be concluded that code switching is
not a language interference on the
basis that it supplements speech.
Where it is used due to an inability
of expression, code switching
provides a continuity in speech
rather than presenting an
interference in language.
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The socio-linguistic benefits have
also been identified as a means of
communicating solidarity, or
affiliation to a particular social
group, whereby code switching
should be viewed from the
perspective of providing a linguistic
advantage rather than an
obstruction to communication.
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Further, code switching allows a
speaker to convey attitude and other
emotives using a method available to
those who are bilingual and again
serves to advantage the speaker,
much like bolding or underlining in a
text document to emphasise points.
Utilising the second language, then,
allows speakers to increase the
impact of their speech and use it in an
effective manner.
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WHY DO PEOPLE CODE-SWITCH?
The topic,
 the solidarity with the listener,
 the social setting,
 all these have been suggested as
factors that motivate people in codeswitch. The motivation may not be
conscious.
 In some extreme cases, people may
not even be aware they have codeswitched.
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KINDS OF CODE-SWITCHING
SITUATIONAL occurs when the
speaker changes the language
because of the change in the
situation.
 One language is used in one situation
(for example during a breakfast with
the family members) the other in a
different one (e.g. in government
offices)
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METAPHORICAL
occurs when a change of the topic
of the discourse requires a change
in the language used.
 Thus, a language used in a situation
which is different from the one it is
usually used in, because the topic
of the conversation is one that is
associated with the situation it is
usually used in.
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CS can be within two unrelated ( or related )
languages ( Arabic ---- English ) or two varieties
of the same language ( Standard Arabic--Spoken Arabic ) .
Code switching may be viewed as an extension
to language for bilingual speakers rather than an
interference and from other perspectives it may
be viewed as interference, depending on the
situation and context in which it occurs .
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This conclusion is drawn from the
notions that switching occurs when
a speaker: needs to compensate for
some difficulty, express solidarity,
convey an attitude or show social
respect (Crystal, 1987; Berthold,
Mangubhai and Bartorowicz, 1997).
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The switching also occurs within
postulated universal constraints
such that it may be integrated into
conversations in a particular
manner (Poplack, 1980; Cook, 1991).
On this basis, given that it occurs
within a particular pattern, potential
for code switching to interfere into a
language exists.
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Code-switching is the practice of
moving between variations of
languages in different contexts.
Everyone who speaks has learned
to code-switch depending on the
situation and setting. In an
educational context, code-switching
is defined as the practice of
switching between a primary and a
secondary language or discourse .
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CODE MIXING
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The change of codes within a simple
utterance without any associated topic
change.
occurs when you incorporate small units
(words or short phrases) from one
language to another one. It is often
unintentional and is often in word level.
the language codes are used
intrasententially
in code mixing there is a base code that is
used and has its own function and
autonomy, whereas the other codes
involved are not more than pieces without
having function or autonomy as a code.
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Refers to linguistic behaviour of a bilingual
speaker who imports words or phrases from
one of his/her languages into the other one.
Numan and Carter define code mixing as, a
“phenomenon of switching from one language
to another in the same discourse.”
According to Berthold, Mangubhai and
Bartorowiez 1997, code mixing occurs when
speakers shift from one language to the other
in the midst of their conversation. Thus this
definition accommodates inter-sentential
switching and intra-sentential mixing both
under the term code switching.
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REASON OF CODE-MIXING
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A. Interjection
B. Quoting somebody else
C. Expressing group identity
D. Because of real lexical need
E. Talking about a particular topic
F. Repetition used for clarification
G. Being emphatic about something
H. To soften or strengthen request or command
I. Intention of clarifying the speech content for
interlocutor
J. To exclude other people when a comment is
intended for only a limited audience
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‫‪The following are potential‬‬
‫‪examples from Arabic :‬‬
‫‪phonemics‬ال ادري كيف أعرب مصطلح ‪‬‬
‫‪ ‬المهم ليس فهم المصطلح بل فهم ال ‪motives‬‬
‫‪ ‬خلينا نروح عل ‪post office‬‬
‫‪ ‬نسيت المفاتيح في ل ‪factory‬‬
‫‪ ‬بدنا كندش البيت‬
‫‪ ‬فلل السيارة‬
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History of Diglossia
The term diglossia was introduced into the English language
literature On sociolinguistic By Charles A. Ferguson (1959).
In order to describe the situation found in places like Greece , the
Arabic-speaking world In general ,German speaking Switzerland
and the island of Haiti –a list which can easily be extended (A .
Hudson 1994)
Charles A. Ferguson (1959) Diglossia is relatively stable language
. Language situation , in which in the addition of primary dialect .
Of the language there is a divergent highly codified superposed
variety which is learn largely by formal education and is used for
most written and formal spoken purpose .
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Diglossia is a linguistic situation where two va
rieties of the same language exist to fulfil
different social functions. Ferguson
(1959a: 336) defines diglossia as
A relatively stable language situation in which, in
addition to the primary dialects
of the language (which
may include a standard or regional standard),
there is a very divergent highly codified (often
grammatically more complex) superposed variety,
the vehicle of a large and respected body of written
literature, either of an earlier period or of another
speech community, which is learned largely by formal
education and is used for most
written and formal spoken purposes, but is
not used by any sector of the
community for ordinary conversation.
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Fishman(1980)
Diglossia is enduring societal arrangement , and
extending at least beyond
A three generation period such as two language each
have their secure phenomenologically legitimate and
widely implemented functions .
E.g. in Fishman’s usage even multilingual countries
such as Nigeria where English language is nation
wide prestige language which is learnt in school and
local language such as Hausa Yoruba are spoken
natively as described as being diglossic .
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Diglossia is a kind of situation where two
variation of language Happens in same time
Its not a dialect. If a language is dialect that
language will not be called diglossia .
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Variation of Diglossia
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FUNCTION OF DIGLOSSIA
Standard (High)
Non-Standard (Low)
Sermon
Instruction of servants
Speech of Parliament
Conversation with friends
University Lecture
Conversation in tea-stall
Newspapers Editorial
Conversation With Children
Serious work in literature
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Formal & Informal English
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Formal English is used in “serious” texts and
situations — for example, in official documents,
books, news reports, articles, business letters
or official speeches.
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Informal English is used in everyday
conversations and in personal letters.
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Methodology
1. Face to face discussion .
2.Collect Our data to speaking with them .
3.Analysis data from conversation .
4. Discussion with Salesman .
5.Discussion with student .
Prestige
Prestige Speakers consider High as the more
powerful to Low in a number of respects.
E.g. High variety is more beautiful, logical and
expressive than the Low variety.
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Acquisition
Low is usually used by adults while speaking to
children and children use it among each other.
The High variety is ‘taught’, whereas the L
variety is ‘learned’.
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Standardization
There are usually no comparable grammars,
dictionaries and standardized texts for the Low
variety, and any view of that variety is likely to
be highly pejorative in nature.
There is an established norm for
pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary which
allows variation only within certain limits.
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Grammar
The grammar of the Low variety is generally
simpler. For instance, fewer distinctions in the L
variety are marked by the use of grammatical
suffixed. There are also major differences in
the vocabulary of the two varieties.
E.g. Standard German has four cases in the
noun; Swiss German has only three cases in
the noun.
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Lexicon
Generally, most of the vocabulary between the
High and Low varieties is shared, with some
variations in form and with several differences
in use and meaning .
For the most part, the High variety will contain
technical terms and more ‘learned’
expressions.
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Phonology
The sound systems of High and Low constitute
a single phonological structure of which the
Low variety phonology is the basic system and
the divergent features of the High phonology
are either a subsystem or a Para system.
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Conclusion
Diglossia is one for the important thing to us . In
diglossia, no-one speaks the High variety as a
mother tongue, only the Low variety. In the
Standard-with-dialects situation, some speakers
speak High variety as a mother tongue, while
others speak Low varieties as a mother tongue
and acquire High as a second system.
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REFERENCES
Bernstein , B. ( 1964 ) . Elaborated and restricted codes .
In Gumperz and Hymes (ed.). The
Ethnography of Communication. Special
Issue of American Anthropologist .66 (6.2)
,1964 .
Ferguson ,C .(1959). Diglossia . Word . 15 :325-40
Fishman , J . (1971). Sociolinguistics .Rowley: Newbury House .
Holmes , J . (1992). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics .London :
Longman.
Wardhaugh ,R .(1992) . An Introduction to Sociolinguistics.(2nd
edition )Oxford :Blackwell.
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SALAMAT
 ILA AL LIQA’A FI NEXT CLASS
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K.T.KHADER
2015
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